classification of low-income economies as those with a gross national income (GNI) per capita of $1,045 or less in 2013; middle-income economies as those with a GNI per capita of more than $1,045 but less than $12,746; and high-income economies as those with a GNI per capita of $12,746 or more. See World Bank 2015a. 74. Ortiz and Cummins 2013; UN Women 2014b. 75. OHCHR and CESR 2013. 76. Kabeer 2013. 77. UN CEDAW 2013, para. 20. 78. de Mesquita et al. 2005. 79. Hassim 2014. 80. Byrnes and Freeman 2011; Lawyers Collective 2014. 81.
OHCHR and CESR 2013.
82. Lee 2007; Paidar 2001. 83. Kabeer 2013. 84. Ibid. 85. Sen 2004. 86. Kabeer 2013. 87. Khan and Petrasek 2014. 88. In the background paper prepared for this report, Sandra Fredman and Beth Goldblatt carried out extensive review of existing human rights treaties and current interpretations of international treaty obligations (see Annex 1 on scope and methodology of the review). The framework they developed also draws on also draws on Fredman 2002; Fredman 2011; Fredman and Goldblatt 2014. 89. The three core dimensions of this framework resonate with the framework proposed by Nancy Fraser on ‘redistribution, recognition, representation’. See Dahl et al. 2004. 90. UN Women calculations using data from ILO 2015c. 91.
UN Women 2012b; UN 2014b.
99. UIS 2015. The gender parity index is the ratio of the number of female students enrolled at primary, secondary or tertiary levels of education to the number of male students in each level. 100. UNESCO 2014a. 101. Ibid. 102. In the absence of comprehensive records of deaths and of causes of death, measuring maternal death accurately is difficult. While estimates are often used to fill the data gaps, these can vary widely depending on the data sources and modelling methodology used (see the commentary on gender statistics in the Annex). 103. Armenia, Cambodia, Colombia, Malawi (2000, 2010); Haiti, Peru (2000, 2012); Namibia (2000, 2013); Benin, Nepal, Uganda (2001, 2011); Zambia (2001, 2007); Dominican Republic (2002–2013); Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Ghana, Madagascar (2003, 2008); Burkina Faso (2003, 2010); Mozambique (2003, 2011); Nigeria, Philippines (2003, 2013); Cameroon (2004, 2011); Lesotho (2004, 2009); United Republic of Tanzania (2004, 2010); Guinea (2005, 2012); Rwanda, Senegal (2005, 2010). 104. UN 2014a. 105. There are only 25 countries with data disaggregated by both gender and wealth quintile that allow a comparison between the early 2000s (2000–2005) and the most recent year available (2007–2013).
132. Goetz and Musembi 2008. 133. Stiefel and Wolfe 1994. 134. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2008. 135. UN 2014a. 136. There are no comprehensive global figures available for women’s representation in local government. 137. Goetz 2009. 138. The ‘critical mass’ argument, based on evidence from Scandinavian countries, suggests that when women make up about 30 per cent or more of decision makers, this is likely to produce significant shifts in policy in favour of women’s rights (Dahlerup 1986). 139. UNRISD 2005. 140. Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004. 141. Agarwal 2010; this study shows that the range is wider than the magic one third having to be women and can lie anywhere between 25 and 33 per cent. 142. Everett 2008. 143. Goetz 2009.
107. UN Women 2014b.
146. Nijeholt et al. 1998; Htun and Weldon 2012.
108. Ibid.; Emmett 2009; ILO and Asian Development Bank 2011.
147. Goetz 2009.
109. Quisumbing et al. 2008; Hossain et al. 2013; UN Women 2014d.
149. Bhattacharjya et al. 2013.
110. UN Women 2014b and sources cited therein.
93. This methodology was first developed by ECLAC as the Poverty Femininity Index. See ECLAC 2004.
114. UN General Assembly 2006, para. 17c.
112. Elson 2014. 113. OHCHR and UN Habitat 2009. 115. OECD 2012a.
94. Research shows that female-headed households are not always the poorest: for example, households where an adult male has migrated and remits funds may be relatively better off. See Chant 1997 and Kabeer 1997.
116. Budig and Misra 2008; Razavi and Staab 2010; see also Chapter 2.
95. ECLAC 2013.
98. Cambodia, Colombia, Malawi (2000, 2010); Egypt (2000, 2008); Haiti (2000, 2012); Namibia (2000, 2013); Benin, Nepal, Uganda (2001, 2011); Mali (2001, 2012); Zambia (2001, 2007); Dominican Republic (2002–2013); Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar (2003, 2008); Burkina Faso (2003, 2010); Mozambique (2003, 2011); Cameroon (2004, 2011); Lesotho (2004, 2009); Guinea (2005, 2012); Rwanda, Senegal (2005, 2010).
131. Feminist analyses of agency emphasize the role of social structures in framing women’s possibilities for agency and the social (that is, collective) activities through which agency is exercised. This brings agency closer to notions of voice and participation (Madhok et al. 2013).
144. UNRISD 2005.
111. Ortiz and Cummins 2013; ILO 2014h.
97. There are only 23 countries with data disaggregated by both gender and wealth quintile that allow a comparison between the early 2000s (2000–2005) and the most recent year available (2007–2013).
130. Kabeer 1999.
106. Fukuda-Parr et al. 2013; Ortiz and Cummins 2013; UN Women 2014b.
92. The much cited ‘factoid’ that 70 per cent of the world’s poor are women is now widely regarded as improbable. See Marcoux 1998.
96. UN 2014b.
129. UN Economic and Social Council 2013b.
145. Ibid.
148. Blofield 2012. 150. Molyneux 1985. 151. Desmarais 2003; La Via Campesina 2014 152. Desmarais 2003. 153. Cornwall 2015.
CHAPTER 2 1.
ILO 2009.
2.
Kabeer 2012.
3.
UN General Assembly 1948, Article 23.
118. Esping-Andersen 2009.
4.
UN CESCR 2006.
119. UN Human Rights Council 2012b.
5.
UN CESCR 2006; UN General Assembly 1979, article 11. UN CEDAW 1989 also deals exclusively with equal pay.
6.
UN General Assembly 1966, article 7.
7.
Ibid., article 6; UN General Assembly 1979, article 11.
124. Calderón et al. 2011; Date-Bah 2003.
8.
UN General Assembly 1966, article 7.
125. UN Economic and Social Council 2012a.
9.
Ibid., article 8.
126. Martin et al. 2009; Amnesty International 2013; Di Silvio 2011; HRW 2008, HRW 2014; IRIN 2011; Mieses 2009; The Advocates for Human Rights 2011; The Government of South Africa 2014; UN Human Rights Council 2007; Vetten et al. 2008.
10.
Ibid., articles 9 and 10.
11.
UN Women 2011.
12.
Out of 140 countries with available data. World Bank 2015c.
13.
Out of 161 with available data. OECD 2015, see Annex 3.
14.
Out of 139 and 138 countries with available data respectively. World Bank 2015c.
117. Esping-Andersen 2009 refers to this as the ‘incomplete revolution’ of our time.
120. Phelan et al. 2008. 121. Rollins 1987; Staab and Maher 2006. 122. UN Human Rights Council 2012b. 123. WHO 2013; Devries et al. 2013.
127. Marcus 2009. 128. UN CEDAW 1992.
307