ENDNOTES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1.
UN Economic and Social Council 2015.
2.
UN Women calculations using data from ILO 2015c.
3.
Cichon 2014.
4.
UN DESA 2010.
5.
UNDP 2013b.
6.
WHO et al. 2014.
7.
UNICEF 2015.
8.
ILO 2012a.
9.
UN 2014a.
10. UN Women 2014b. 11.
Lagarde 2014.
12.
Kabeer and Natali 2013.
13.
UN CESCR 2005.
14.
ILO 2013b.
15.
The causality of these two developments may run either way. Indeed, family-friendly policies are often put in place in response to growing female labour force participation, but their existence may then make it possible for more women to join the labour force.
16.
ILO 2014h.
17.
ILO 2011c.
18.
ILO 2014f.
19.
Hollingshead 2010; Hutton 2012.
20. Mkandawire 2005; Korpi and Palme 1998. 21.
Htun and Weldon 2011, 2014, 2012.
CHAPTER 1
15.
Going beyond the 71 countries included in the Htun and Weldon data set, some 24 States continue to uphold reservations to article 16 of CEDAW on equality in marriage and family life, citing conflict with cultural norms or religious laws (Annex 6).
16.
Harrak 2009; Pittman and Naciri 2010; UN Human Rights Council 2012c.
17.
Htun and Weldon 2011.
18.
Htun and Weldon 2015. See also Htun and Weldon Forthcoming.
19.
UN Women 2011.
20. UN General Assembly 2012a. 21.
Hallward-Driemeier et al. 2013.
22. Htun and Weldon 2014. 23. In 1975, for example, 32 countries (out of 70) had laws against women doing night work and 28 had restrictions on women working in specific occupations; by 2005 this had declined to 21 and 23 countries, respectively. 24. See Chapter 2 for an elaboration of equal pay legislation and the distinction between a narrowly defined ‘equal pay for equal work’ provision as opposed to the more expansive ‘equal pay for work of equal value’, which is more effective in addressing gender-based pay gaps in the context of labour market segregation. 25. Htun and Weldon 2014. 26. Nevertheless, a number of low-income countries have been able to provide paid maternity leave for 12 weeks for the small proportion of women who work in the formal sector. 27. Seguino 2013b.
1.
World Bank 2015b.
28. Ibid.
2.
UN DESA 2013a.
29. Connell and Pearse 2014.
3.
UNDP 2013b.
30. Heilman et al. 2004.
4.
Fukuda-Parr et al. 2013; UN Women 2014b.
31.
5.
Lagarde 2014.
6.
FAO 2011.
7.
Seguino 2000.
8.
This approach follows the lines of Sen 1999.
9.
Khan and Petrasek 2014.
10. Fredman 2011; Fredman and Goldblatt 2014. 11.
Khan and Petrasek 2014.
12.
There are, however, a few exceptions. While women and men have the right to vote in Saudi Arabia, women are yet to vote in an election. Both women and men have limited voting rights in Brunei Darussalam. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE) there is limited suffrage as the Parliament is indirectly elected. In some countries women are unable to be head of State because of discriminatory rules of hereditary accession (IPU 2015).
13.
Htun and Weldon 2011.
14.
Ibid. Data for the Dominican Republic are available in the case of family law and included, which increases the sample size to 71 (rather than the 70 countries mentioned in the title of the paper).
Occupational segregation and its associated gender-based pay gaps are discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
32. Agarwal 1994. 33. Landesa 2013; Rao 2014. The Landesa study focuses on Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. A study focusing on Karnataka and Maharashtra, where the Act was amended a decade earlier, suggests that daughters have been increasingly able to inherit land as a result of legal reforms, even though the legal amendment did not fully eliminate gender inequality (Deininger et al. 2010). 34. Whitehead 2009. 35. UN Women 2011. 36. Dasgupta 2011. 37. Nasri and Tannous 2014. 38. Dahlerup 2005. 39. Seguino 2013b; Phillips 2004. 40. UN CESCR 2005, para. 7. 41.
Schöpp-Schilling 2003.
42. Otto 2014.
43. UN CEDAW 2004, para. 8. 44. UN CESCR 2005, para. 7. 45. UN CEDAW 2004, note 1. 46. Dairiam 2014. 47. WBG 2012; UN Women 2014b; UN CEDAW 2013, paras. 20–21. 48. UN Human Rights Council 2015. 49. Otto 2014. 50. UN CEDAW 2004. 51.
This section draws on Elson 2014.
52. Eide 1983, Eide 1984, Eide 1987. This approach was first presented in Eide et al. 1984: 154. These principles have since been used by the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its general comments on specific rights, including those to education, health, water, work and social security. 53. UN CESCR 2008. 54. UN CESCR 1995, para. 9; UN CESCR 1999a, para. 9. 55. UN Human Rights Council 2014. 56. UN CESCR 1990. 57. See UN CESCR 1999b; UN CESCR 1999c; and UN CESCR 2000, respectively. 58. UN CESCR 1991, para. 12; UN CESCR 1999b, para. 28; UN CESCR 2000, para. 18. 59. If such retrogressive measures are deliberate, then the State has to show that they have been ‘introduced after consideration of all alternatives and are fully justifiable by reference to the totality of rights provided for in the Covenant and in the context of the full use of the maximum of available resources’. UN CESCR 1990, para. 9; UN CESCR 1999c, para. 45; UN CESCR 2000, para. 32; UN CESCR 2003, para. 19. 60. Pillay 2012. 61.
UN General Assembly 1966, article 2(2); UN CESCR 1990, para. 1; UN CESCR 1999c, para. 43; UN CESCR 2000, para. 30; UN CESCR 2003, para. 17.
62. UN CESCR 2005, para. 37. See further UN CESCR 2000, para. 54; UN CESCR 2003, paras. 16(a) and 48. 63. OHCHR and CESR 2013. 64. Utting and Zammit 2006; Razavi et al. 2012. 65. Utting 2005; Razavi et al. 2012. 66. ILO 2011b. See also Newitt 2013; OHCHR and CESR 2013. 67. Newitt 2013. 68. Ibid. 69. Barrientos and Smith 2006; Barrientos 2008; Zammit 2008; Bain 2010; Newitt 2013. 70. OHCHR and CESR 2013. 71. Ibid. 72. UN Human Rights Council 2011a. 73. UN Women calculations using data from World Bank 2015d. Country income group classification is based on the World Bank