The weakness or underdevelopment of worker organizations can be detrimental to human development, impeding the functioning of labour and social institutions as a whole.14 There have been international efforts to support workers in addressing some of these challenges. For example, the International Trade Union Confederation and the International Domestic Workers Federation are working on uniting global workers.
Sustainable work To strengthen the link with human development, work has to be sustainable. Sustainable work is defined as work that promotes human development while reducing or eliminating negative externalities that can be experienced over different geographic and time scales. It is not only critical for sustaining the planet, but also for ensuring work for future generations. Sustainable work is not just about paid work (as argued in chapter 5); it also encompasses the often impactful efforts of caregivers, volunteers, artists, advocates and others, which have positive impacts on human development. Furthermore, sustainable work concentrates on activities that can achieve the dual mutual goal of high sustainability and high human development. To forge a stronger link with human development, sustainable work has to follow three pathways, as detailed in chapter 5: the termination and transformation of some existing forms of work, and the creation of new forms of work.
Societal value of work Work strengthens the work–human development link when it goes beyond individual benefits and contributes to shared social objectives. Work that boosts income and lowers poverty reduces inequality and can relieve social tension, while money earned from work can be taxed to generate resources for human development. Work that involves caring for older people or people with disabilities helps maintain their capabilities and strengthens social cohesion, while child care builds capacities for future generations. Workers also establish social and economic ties and build trust in others and in institutions, which also builds social cohesion.
Creative work is valuable to a society by contributing to its tradition, culture and heritage. Similarly, volunteering provides a means to build social relationships and networks outside paid employment and can contribute to the social good. One survey in Australia found that for 83 percent of volunteers, their contributions had increased their sense of belonging to their communities.15 Work thus has a value for society as a whole. Often individual and societal values of work converge, as environment-friendly work benefits not only workers, but also other people, including future generations. But sometimes they diverge—for example, the work of poachers generates income for individuals but is detrimental to society.
Work has a value for society as a whole
Discrimination and violence at work Sometimes, the value of work is diminished and its links with human development become weaker because of discrimination and violence at work. The most observable discrimination is along gender lines—in positions, pay and treatment (chapter 4). But discrimination also occurs on grounds of ethnicity, race, disability and sexual orientation. In the United States racial discrimination is the most frequently reported form of discrimination at work, accounting for 35 percent of charges presented to the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.16 In the United Kingdom 22 percent of poll respondents had witnessed racism in the workplace, and 34 percent of Black people and 29 percent of Asian people reported first-hand experience of racial or religious discrimination at work.17 In Hungary 64 percent of migrant respondents to a survey reported discrimination when looking for a job, and wages paid to Roma are lower than the Hungarian minimum wage.18 The consequences of discrimination in developed countries (where employment is predominantly formal) are lower labour force participation, higher unemployment and a considerable wage gap between marginalized groups and the rest of the population. Two layers of discrimination influence these gaps in outcome: uneven access to a good education and prejudice when accessing jobs and promotions in the workplace. Chapter 1 Work and human development—analytical links | 37