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CREDITS Editor-in-Chief Anouk Vleugels Executive Editor Mark Fonseca Rendeiro Editorial Marc Smeehuizen Carian Thus Magdalena Schwarz Design Michelle Halcomb Advertisement Send an e-mail to advertising @united-academics.org Questions and suggestions Send an e-mail to redactie @united-academics.org Address Warmoesstraat 149, 1012 JC Amsterdam Website www.united-academics.org
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EDITORIAL
Anyone who knows anything about the Republican Party’s quest for a presidential nominee in the US, probably noticed it is characterized by two things: stupidity and denial. For those who believe the two are synonyms for one another; think again. Although denialists do structurally dismiss scientific evidence, this does not mean they’re incapable of rational thinking altogether. In fact, denialism has penetrated every level of society. “I did not sexually harass anyone.” “I was not under the influence of alcohol or drugs while giving that speech.” When dealing with problems on a personal level, Republican candidates Herman Cain and Rick Perry have already proven they understand the power of denial. However, it is the rejection of scientifically proven facts by a growing group of American politicians– for example the existence of AIDS, climate change or evolution- that is far more disturbing. According to Shawn Lawrence Otto’s new book, less than 2% of members of Congress have a professional background in science, yet half the new members elected in 2010 deny that climate change is happening. What can we do about it? According to denialism expert Micheal Shermer, the best tool we have is science. However, we should focus less on what science does, and more on how science works. Teach people the ropes. Scientific evidence isn’t just there, it is the result of a process which includes double-blind tests, replication studies by independent labs and peer reviewed publications. Science education might not change the minds of fundamentalists and religious fanatics, but it will get the attention of more moderate disbelievers. So that hopefully in the future, we will just have stupidity to worry about. Anouk Vleugels, Editor-in-Chief 3
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WHEN YOUR NATION DOES NOT EXIST “I don’t see globalization as heralding the end of unrecognized statehood”
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WHY WE DENY
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The pschology of saying no
DENIED BUT NOT DISPROVEN
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SHARE YOUR SCIENCE
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Getting to know your DNA
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Kind of a morbid question, but apparently one that is on many people’s minds. Suicide by drowning is definitely not impossible, although it is not the easiest method. Due to the body's natural tendency to come up for air, drowning attempts are most likely to succeed in deep waters. Drowning occurs when water comes into contact with the larynx, also known as the voice box. This is followed by spasms of the larynx and the development of hypoxemia - decreased levels of oxygen in the bloodstream. Lack of oxygen causes the aerobic metabolism to stop, and the body becomes acidotic, which means the body's acidity level becomes extremely high. If this is not corrected quickly, the lack of oxygen in combination with too much acid may lead to problems with the heart and causes a lack of blood supply to the brain. According to the 2001 Australian study Characteristic Features of Suicidal Drownings: A 20-Year Study, there are more men than women who commit suicide by drowning. Women prefer to drown themselves in the ocean or bath, whereas males choose rivers, ditches, and lakes. Swimming pools are rarely used for this purpose. Alcohol use is also not unusual, and there is often a significant history of mental illness. The use of weights is uncommon, and back-up techniques, such as wrist cutting, are also rare. 7
WHEN YOUR NATIO OF ALL THE KINDS OF DENIAL IN THIS WORLD, ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS AND EXPENSIVE IS
THE DENIAL OF A NATION. THAT IS TO SAY, WHEN TERRITORIES CLAIM
INDEPENDENCE
AND
BREAK AWAY FROM AN EXISTING COUNTRY, IF NO COUNTRY WILL RECOGNIZE THEM, THEY FACE A DAUNTING LIST OF PROBLEMS.
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Being a new and small country in today’s complex world is difficult enough if you have recognition, but if your regional neighbors and the international community refuse to see you as a peer then good luck getting normal trade relations, defined borders, or even a visa to visit another country. In July 2011, the partially recognized nation of Kosovo sent border guards to take their posts in Northern Kosovo, a primarily Ethnic-Serb area. The guards were met with powerful resistance from Ethnic-Serbians who
do not recognize the Kosovar government which declared independence from Serbia in 2008. 1 police officer was killed, several others were wounded, and a border post was burned down during the course of several days of clashes. Last month the United Nations Cultural Organization (UNESCO) voted to formally recognize Palestine as a member state, thereby becoming one of the first institutions in the world to recognize the territory as an independent state. This decision was met with harsh criticism
ON DOES NOT EXIST from Israel and its ally the United States, who saw this move as an attempt to bypass peace negotiations and be recognized as a country. The United States then declared it would be cutting off all of its funding for UNESCO as a reaction to this move. That meant the organization would be short $60 million in funding this year and face further money problems in the future. If enough people say you don’t exist, it becomes very hard to fully exist, and sometimes even dangerous to try. Academic research on the topic of unrecog-
nized states has examined the symptoms that lead to this paralysis-like status. One of the major conclusions is as follows: being denied recognition is almost cause enough to destroy a state. - Almost. In reality, unrecognized or partially recognized states somehow manage to exist, albeit an extremely troubled existence. Smuggling, trafficking, lack of legitimate economic opportunities, and in some cases dangerous ethnic or political tension are among the problems that plague these nations. The list of names
is long, some dating back to the beginning of the 1900’s, as is the case of the Republic of China (Taiwan), recognized by 22 UN member states. Others are more recent, like Kosovo (2008)-recognized by 85 UN member states, or Abkhazia (1999)- recognized by 6 UN member states. It most cases, these regions have broken away from a country who continuously refuse to recognize their new sovereignty. They may also have a powerful patron state who officially support their claim of independence for political reasons, as is the case of South Ossetia and Abkhazia
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who are recognized as independent states and supported by Russia, who then stand in confrontation against Georgia the country both of these territories have broken away from which continues to refuse to recognize them. The political, economic, and military details are far more complex and the subject of ongoing debate, but for the moment the result are two unrecognized states suffering from the economic stagnation and related problems that come with this status. On top of all that, although being not recognized tends to mean some form of peaceful status, many regions are under the constant dark cloud that war could break out over territorial control. Ben Graham and Ben Horne of the University of California, San Diego, are two researchers who have been working on the topic of unrecognized states. In particular they have been looking into frameworks that show how conflicting actors can bring a stable-but-stagnant status to such states, as well as how the international community could intervene in a peaceful and productive manner to help a state improve beyond a precarious unrecognized existence. Their goal is to be able to analyze individual cases using a clear structure and method. Their findings could help answer the question of what can be done to solve the problem of states who are not acknowledged by the world. UA: You’ve pointed out that if the international community really wants to it can outweigh the power of the patron state that is committed to blocking recognition, generally speaking what are the tactics that would lead to this and is there an example where this occurred? “We argue that it is usually the international community that seeks to avoid recognition of an unrecognized state. For example, the international community prefers reunification in the cases of Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transdniestr, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Somaliland, and preferred that outcome (though not the brutal means of achieving it) in Tamil Eelam and Chechnya. The patron is generally committed to blocking reunification. 10
No recognition by any state Recognized by UN non-members only UN non-members recognized by at least UN member states, not recognized by at
To answer the question more directly, though, to date the international community hasn’t been a strong player in this role. The willingness of the international community to spend to achieve their desired outcome is consistently lower than the willingness of the patron -- knowing they will be outbid, they have no incentive to spend anything. We argue in particular that positive inducements for reunification from the international community could be very productive, but they must be willing to spend decisively enough to overcome the influence of the patron.” UA: Georgian people believe very strongly that an injustice has been carried out on them and on Abkhazia (even if not all Abkhazians agree), to some extent South Ossetia as well. In Serbia, Serbian-Kosovars insist they’ve been wronged while Albanian-Kosovars insist they’ve been wronged and there is evidence supporting all these claims and everyone spends a lot of time hating each other and supposedly wanting re-
as one in literature. How would you classify it? Can you foresee the unrecognized state of Kurdistan taking shape in the future? “Kurdistan is not usually classified as an unrecognized state because its leaders do not formally seek recognition. Certainly, independent statehood is the preferred outcome for most Kurds, but so far they have not made that leap. If the Kurdish government were to declare independence unilaterally, they would (most likely) not be recognized by most members the international community, not gain membership in the UN or other bodies, lose access to international aid and support, and face a likely military confrontation with Iraq. This outcome is currently less palatable to them than autonomy within an Iraqi state, and the international community, including the US, hope that this will always remain the case.” one UN member least one other state
venge. In terms of the patron countries and the deep scars and hatred that can exist towards those favoring statehood; is there a viable strategy to heal these wounds, to decrease the hostility? “The precise means for achieving this kind of reconciliation is not something our work is well suited to speak to. What we can show is only the means through which the strength of this animosity increases the willingness of residents of the unrecognized state to bear the crushing economic costs of persistent non-recognition. Our findings are not inconsistent with the belief that citizen-based peacebuilding and efforts of this nature could have a positive effect in easing resolution of these stalemates. However, it is hard to point to a historical case where these type of efforts have been particularly effective. UA: Kurdistan is not considered an unrecognized state, or at least I don’t hear it mentioned
UA: South Sudan declared independence and Sudan recognized them almost immediately. What are the important events or characteristics that made that happen so seemingly smoothly? “The key factor is that South Sudan won the right to a referendum on independence on the battlefield. The central government conceded to the plan for referendum and it was enshrined in the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement that ended the civil war. Most unrecognized states are not militarily strong enough to force this concession from the home state militarily, but are strong enough to secure and hold control over (most of) the territory they aspire to rule. What is reassuring about South Sudan, vis-a-vis the international community’s willingness to contribute resources to pushing these cases to peaceful resolution, is that the international community has invested significant resources in ensuring that the referendum was, in fact, carried out and honored. One of the means we suggest for the international community to resolve other conflicts -- enforcing autonomy rights for unrecognized states if they 11
BENJAMIN A.T. GRAHAM Benjamin A.T. Graham is a Ph.D. candidate in political science at the University of California, San Diego. His research focuses on the role of foreign investment in the stabilization and development of fragile states. He has traveled in South Ossetia and near border of Abkhazia, and has conducted research in affiliation with the Georgian Foundation for Strategic and International Studies.
BEN HORNE Ben Horne is a Ph.D. candidate in Economics at the University of California, San Diego. His research uses game theory to study international conflict, with a particular focus on the role of mediation. He has traveled in Transdniestr and Moldova, and conducted additional research on the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
agree to reunification -- requires a similar commitment. The success in South Sudan will make future commitments by the international community more credible. This is important because in past cases, such as in the long promised referendum in Western Sahara, the commitment by the international community has meant little.” UA: With all the communication tools and information at our disposal in 2011, is the way unrecognized states emerge and are treated also changing? It seems like even though we can easily communicate across borders and outside the control of government, just as many people are prepared to argue and fight (and in a few cases die!) over the idea that certain countries will exist or be recognized. “While information, goods, and services all move much more freely across borders now than they did several generations ago, people still care very much by whom they are governed. Variation between modes of national governance is dramatic, and ethnic identity remains very salient. Predictions of the end of the nation-state have been very much overblown, and I don’t see globalization as herald12
ing the end of unrecognized statehood or wars of secession more broadly.” It seems that even in our hyper-connected era filled with examples of international cooperation, there continue to be regions that toil as unrecognized states. Despite all the negative side effects that come with being a country only some nations recognize, groups of people around the world continue to choose this path. The nations they used to be a part of still wield power, either as supporters or, more frequently, as obstacles to recognition. In between these competing forces, there is the international community, which has the power to tip the scales and bring about a respected and lasting solution. Newly independent South Sudan supported by the UN may prove to be an example of this power. While it is not yet clear if the Republic of Kosovo with the involvement of the EU will ever reach the goal of full recognition. One thing that looking at partial states in the world today tells us for sure, being unrecognized by much of the world is a risky and troubled existence.
BY MARK FONSECA RENDEIRO
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WHY WE DENY
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FROM EVOLUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE TO THE HOLOCAUST, THERE ARE THOSE WHO DENY CLAIMS DESPITE OVERWHELMING EVIDENCE. WHAT DRIVES THESE PEOPLE? MICHAEL SHERMER’S NEW BOOK THE BELIEVING BRAIN DESCRIBESTHEMENTAL MECHANISMS THAT ARE AT WORK HERE AND PAINTS A PICTURE OF OUR ALARMINGLY PRIMITIVE REASONING CAPACITY.
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Not only crackpot conspiracy theorists or religious fanatics deny certain facts in a way that astonish the average person. Republican American presidential candidate Rick Perry, for instance, denied in interviews earlier this year that evolution and man-made global warming were convincingly demonstrated by science. What makes people believe such improbable things? Beliefs before explanations The American psychologist Michael Shermer has made it his life’s work figuring out how people come to believe things and where their reasoning process goes haywire. Founding publisher of Skeptic Magazine, editor of Skeptic. com and writer of eleven books on the subject, Shermer is the leading man of the skepticism community and a professional debunker. When the US media need a rational voice against pseudoscience, the paranormal or the supernatural, they call Shermer to have him explain that the latest alien abduction might also be attributed to hallucinations, sleep anomalies or hypnosis. His latest book, The Believing Brain, is a fascinating synthesis of 30 years of research on the subject. Shermer’s conclusion about 16
our belief-forming machinery is disturbing. Most beliefs are not formed by carefully evaluating the evidence in favour or against a particular claim but are snap decisions made for psychological, emotional and social reasons in the context of an environment created by family, friends, colleagues, culture and society at large. Only after the belief is formed, do people try to rationalize it and subconsciously seek out confirmatory evidence which, upon finding, reinforces the belief in a positive feedback loop. American physiologist Mark Hoofnagle, one of the originators of the concept of ‘denialism’ and blogger on denialist anti-science tactics, finds this a plausible process. He adds: “At the basis of almost all denialism is some ideology that overrides people’s rational mind. Most people are probably irrational about one thing or another. It’s not a liberal or conservative thing; all sides have something that is threatening to them.” Following this line of thought you can, for instance, imagine people so blinded by religious ideology that they take its scripture literally leading them to deny that the earth is round, that it’s older than 6,000 years or that evolution is true. 17
Seeking patterns and agents How did we end up with such a flawed belief system? Shermer argues that one ancient brain process at work here is our tendency to find patterns everywhere we look. This tendency has been useful from the early days in our ancestral environment (the African savannah) where, for instance, quickly establishing the pattern ‘rustle in the grass means dangerous predator’ could save your life. Of course, sometimes a pattern is false and the rustle in the grass is just the wind. However, Shermer makes the case that the costs of missing a pattern (missing the presence of a predator in this case) often greatly outweigh the costs of believing a false pattern (thinking it’s a predator while it’s only the wind). This, in turn, easily leads to false patterns. Another characteristic of our brain is that, once we have established a pattern, we tend to infuse it with meaning, intention and agency. So in the example above, when we are dealing with a predator, we correctly assume that we are dealing with an intentional agent instead of an inanimate force like the wind. Shermer suspects this tendency is related to the fact that people have a ‘theory of mind’, or the capacity to be aware of mental states like desires and intentions in both ourselves and others. Problems arise of course when we assume agency when there actually is none, for instance when dealing with the wind, thinking it is an angry higher power instead of plain physics. In fact, most patterns in the world lack agents and are governed by bottom-up causal laws and randomness and assuming agency in those cases have led to practices like shamanism, animism and magical thinking in the past and to religion, superstition and 18
New Age spiritualism today. Brain biases To make matters worse, once committed to a belief, it is extremely hard to change your mind. Shermer identified no less than 39 cognitive biases that make us stick to our guns (see” Bias Bonanza”, page 20). The most important of them all, he argues, is the confirmation bias which is our tendency to seek confirmatory evidence in support of our already existing beliefs and ignore or reinterpret disconfirming evidence. This effect has been found in many studies including one where participants had to assess somebody’s personality after reading a (fictive) profile of that person which consequently led their assessment to become strikingly similar to
reasoning but those associated with emotions and conflict resolution and once the participants had arrived at a conclusion that made them emotionally comfortable, the brain’s reward area became active. Shermer concludes that instead of rationally evaluating a candidate’s position on an issue, the participants had an emotional reaction to conflicting data and got neurochemically rewarded after rationalizing the conflicting data away.
the profile. In another study involving a murder trial, participants did not evaluate the evidence first as you might expect but quickly concocted a narrative in their mind about what happened and then riffled through the evidence and picked out what most closely fit the story. An especially revealing study was a neuroimaging experiment done by American psychologist Drew Westen during the 2004 American presidential election. Westen found that both republicans and democrats were much more critical of the candidate of the opposite party when confronted with contradictory statements made by both candidates. Strikingly, the brain areas most active in this process were not those involved with
The reluctance to change one’s mind could ultimately again be a legacy from our evolutionary past. Shermer argues that our tribal tendencies lead us to form coalitions with fellow like minded members of our group and to demonize others who hold differing beliefs. Possibly this effect supported group cohesion in the past and thereby promoted its survival. Furthermore, our faulty reasoning process could have to do with, what Shermer calls, folk numeracy, or our natural tendency to misperceive probabilities, to think anecdotally instead of statistically, and to focus on short-term trends and small-number runs (e.g. we notice a short stretch of cool days and ignore the long-term global warming trend). When roaming the African savannah in the past, this way of thinking probably was adequate for survival but in the modern world it can painfully fall short. Science as antidote You might wonder how we can avoid all of these irrational belief pitfalls. According to Shermer, the best tool we have is science. Before accepting a claim, the scientific process requires an impressive number of checks and balances like control groups, double-blind tests, replication studies by independent labs and peer reviewed publications. 19
In addition, science has a built in self-correcting mechanism where, eventually, after enough data comes in, the truth will come out. All the more worrisome then, that according to a 2002 survey by the National Science Foundation, 70 percent of Americans do not understand the scientific process (defined by them as grasping probability, the experimental method and hypothesis testing). To tackle this problem Shermer recommends better communication about science in the media and especially explaining how science works versus only explaining what science knows. Mark Hoofnagle adds that conspiracy theories are often an important element of denialism because, in order to deny well proven facts, you have to assume a huge number of people are lying. He writes that pointing out the absurdity of these theories can be a successful strategy as well in convincing some deniers they are wrong. Unfortunately, as we have seen, the majority of our deeply held beliefs have turned out immune to attack by direct educational tools, especially for those who are not ready to hear contradictory evidence. The pope won’t become an atheist anytime soon and conservatives suddenly turning into liberals or vice versa are rare. Shermer concludes belief change ultimately comes from a combination of personal psychological readiness and a deeper social and cultural shift in the underlying zeitgeist, which is affected in part by education but is more the product of harder-to-define political, economic, religious, and social changes. In other words, it can take a lifetime for someone to change their mind if they ever change at all.
BIAS BONANZA
MICHAEL SHERMER DESCRIBES OUR BRAINS TO CONSTRUCT FA CONFIRMATION BIAS HINDSIGHT BIAS
SELF-JUSTIFICATION BIAS ATTRIBUTION BIAS SUNK-COST BIAS
STATUS QUO BIAS BIAS BLIND SPOT
BY MARC SMEEHUIZEN 20
T S R
T K
T C C
T B
T I
T T
T O O
S AN IMPRESSIVE NUMBER OF COGNITIVE BIASES LEADING ALSE BELIEFS AND STICK TO THEM. HERE A SMALL SELECTION:
TENDENCY TO SEEK AND FIND CONFIRMATORY EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF ALREADY EXISTING BELIEFS AND IGNORE OR REINTERPRET DISCONFIRMING EVIDENCE
TENDENCY TO RECONSTRUCT THE PAST TO FIT WITH PRESENT KNOWLEDGE
TENDENCY TO RATIONALIZE DECISIONS AFTER THE FACT TO CONVINCEOURSELVESTHATWHAT WE DID WAS THE BEST THINGWE COULD HAVE DONE
TENDENCY TO ATTRIBUTE DIFFERENT CAUSES FOR OUR OWN BELIEFS AND ACTIONS THAN THAT OF OTHERS
TENDENCY TO BELIEVE IN SOMETHING BECAUSE OF THE INVESTMENT ALREADY MADE INTO THAT BELIEF
TENDENCY TO OPT FOR WHATEVER IT IS WE ARE USED TO, THAT IS, THE STATUS QUO.
TENDENCY TO RECOGNIZE THE POWER OF COGNITIVE BIASES IN OTHER PEOPLE BUT TO BE BLIND TO THEIR INFLUENCE UPON OUR OWN BELIEFS
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LOCH NESS MONSTER Reports about this Lake Monster, or Nessie, as ‘she’ is lovingly dubbed, have been around since 1933. Nessie allegedly lives in the Scottish lake Loch Ness and is proposed to be a plesiosaur, a prehistoric animal that spanned up to ten meters in length. Until now, her existence has not yet been proven. In 2003, a team working for the BBC set up a large-scale search for the monster, using 600 separate sonar beams and satellite navigation technology. “We went from shoreline to shoreline, top to bottom on this one, we have covered everything in this loch and we saw no signs of any large living animal in the loch,” said Ian Florence, one of the specialists. So how come Nessie is ‘seen’ by so many people? Most scientists believe this is caused by a combination of hoaxes (people creating fake images of Nessie) and wishful thinking: people seeing want they want to see.
DENIED BU
ALTHOUGH THEY KEEP SHOW
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GLOBSTERS Globsters, or blobs, are exactly what they sound like: big humps of slimy matter. There are numerous historical accounts of these unidentifiable, partially decomposed carcasses that wash up on beaches. Globsters are frequently alleged to be the remains of strange aquatic creatures, like sea serpents and the kraken. The gigantic octopus is another usual suspect. However, scientific research has dismissed this theory. After carefully examining the ‘Chilean Blob,’ that washed up in 2003, biologists found that the blob was the highly decomposed remains of a sperm whale. Furthermore, the Chilean blob’s DNA matched that of the other blobs exactly. “Once again, to our disappointment, we have not found any evidence that any of the blobs are the remains of unknown sea monsters,” leading researcher Skip Pierce told the audience while presenting his findings. Case closed.
UT NOT DISPROVEN
WING OP EVERYWHERE, WE CAN’T SEEM TO PROVE THEY EXIST.
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G-SPOT “G-spot does not exist.” “G-spot located, scientists say.” “Ladies, call of the search.” These are just a few recent headlines concerning the elusive erogenous spot. The G-spot, a little spot inside the vagina that allegedly causes women to experience intense orgasms and even ejaculation, has been under scrutiny for ages. Some scientists say that the G-Spot is an extension of the clitoris, while others claim it’s part of the ‘female prostate.’ A 2009 British study concluded that its existence is unproven and subjective. Still, many women believe themselves to have one. In the end women shouldn’t worry about it too much, sexual psychologists say. “Some women will have a certain area within the vagina which will be very sensitive, and some won’t — but they won’t necessarily be in the area called the G-Spot,” says expert Petra Boynton. “Telling women to find their G-spot is like saying there is one single, best way to have sex, which isn’t the right thing to do.”
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FISH FALLS In the summer of 2000, Ethiopian farmers couldn’t believe their eyes when fish started falling from the sky. A local newspaper reported: “The unusual rain of fish, which dropped in millions from the air - some dead and others still struggling created panic among the mostly religious farmers.” It sounds pretty unusual, but is in fact just one of countless case studies of fish, frogs, - even alligator -rain, that have been catalogued over the centuries. Because these incidents are rare and unpredictable, studying the phenomenon is practically impossible. However, weather experts believe that the freak showers are caused by specific weather conditions - powerful updrafts generated during thunderstorms which form mini-tornadoes, which can suck up and carry away debris in their path. If the storm brews out at sea, or crosses a river, the tornado can scoop up water and small fish swimming close to the surface. 25
SECRET TUNNELS
Hidden chambers, secret passages and underground tunnels: we can’t seem to get enough of them. Specifically in Europe, legends about ley tunnels – passages that link prominent places such as medieval castles and churches - are omnipresent. Unfortunately, most of these tunnels do not exist. Bruce Walker, an expert on Scottish vernicular architecture, has suggested these legends might have been created in relation to so-called icehouses, ‘chambers’ in which ice was stored until summer. Since their entrances are often found walls and open open fields people falsely expect them to be part of an underground tunnel. However, new passages are still being discovered: in 2003 a secret passageway was found in the French monastery Mont Sainte-Odile. The tunnel leads into the private library and was probably built so that senior monks could eavesdrop on the younger ones inside. 26
ALIENS “The U.S. government has no evidence that any life exists outside our planet, or that an extraterrestrial presence has contacted or engaged any member of the human race.” Last month, The White House published this response to two petitions asking the US government to formally acknowledge that aliens have visited Earth. Despite this denial of alien existence, stories about abductions and UFO’s keep popping up. And yes, many prominent scientists do consider extraterrestrial life –everything in the range from bacteria-like organisms to advanced human-like beings- to be plausible. When it comes to the question of why aliens would harm us, one theory is related to the human causes of global warming. According to a paper written by researchers with NASA, due to mankind’s polluting behaviour, aliens would fear that the human race could expand its civilisation and become destructive to the rest of the galaxy.
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MOVING ROCKS America’s Death Valley accommodates a strange phenomenon: in one of its playas (a dried mudflat) named “The Racetrack,” gigantic rocks seem to move all on their own. Seem to, because nobody has actually seen them doing it. The rocks tumble onto its south end from adjacent mountains, settle into position, and then move by themselves across the table-top terrain, leaving visible trails in the dried mud. The stones vary from pebble size to half-ton boulders. Their tracks vary in length, going every which way from zig-zags to loops. Some travel for hundreds of yards; some don’t move at all. Baffled geologists have spent years trying to solve the mystery. Some of them believe the phenomenon is caused by a coming together of specific weather conditions. According to a recent study, ‘ice cakes’ can form at night, providing the boulders with a platform to ‘slide on’ when it’s windy. We are not convinced.
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BIG FOOT Whether he’s named Big Foot, Yeti or Sasquatch; everybody has heard of the large, ape-like creature who’s gigantic footprints show up every now and then. Although the stories are frowned upon by most scientists, recently an international team of ‘yetiologists’ claimed there’s proof the legendary creature exists. During an expedition in Siberia, they found some hairs which allegedly were Big Foot’s. DNA research proved the hairs to be identical to ones that belonged to a Californian yeti, another from the Russian Urals and a third from the Leningrad region. “I state that the possibility the yeti exists exceeds 95 per cent, says Professor Valentin Sapunov, who discovered the hairs. “I had long ceased to doubt the Bigfoot is real – this is why I have been trying to collect as much information about him as possible for the last 20 years.”
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BERMUDA TRIANGLE Over the past 100 years, the Bermuda Triangle –a triangular area bound roughly by Florida, Bermuda and Puerto Rico - has seen what some say is a significant and inordinately high number of unexplained disappearances of planes, ships and people. Although the U.S. Coast Guard maintains that the area does not have an unusual number of incidents, the reported disappearances definitely speak to the imagination. Scientifically, a few theories have been proposed as an explanation – varying from methanereleasing underground volcanoes to compass problems because of local magnetic anomalies that would exist in the area. Weather has also been described as possibly playing a role in the legend which would account for destroying not only water vessels but also aircraft. Hurricanes are capable of producing the power needed to sink a ship and their sheer wind velocity could bring down a small aircraft. 30
ATLANTIS It’s Plato’s fault, really. 360 years B.C., the great thinker wrote about the beautiful, advanced city Atlantis, that ‘in a single day and night of misfortune, disappeared into the depths of the sea.’ According to Plato, the ancient capital of Atlantis consisted of concentric circles separated by canals and had a total diameter of 22,5 km. On the central island there were the sports grounds, the royal palace and a temple dedicated to the sea god Poseidon. Beautiful as it sounds, almost 2400 years later, we still haven’t found it. Or have we? In March, an American research team believed to have located the lost city in mud flats in southern Spain. According to head researcher Richard Freund, a tsunami was responsible for the destruction of Atlantis. Further excavations are planned at the site where he believes Atlantis is located, and at the mysterious ‘cities’ in central Spain 150 miles away, to more closely study geological formations and to date artifacts.
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GETTING TO KN It can be hard to get people interested in molecular biology. Some are putt off by horror scenarios that involve cloned armies and cross-bred creatures, while others are affected by the stereotype of the ‘boring’ scientist. In December 2010 the first DIY Biology laboratory in New York City called GenSpace opened its doors to public. Genspace offered me, a young biologist, the chance to do autonomous experiments and learn more about the challenge of bringing science to public. Shared space – shared science When I earned my Bachelor´s Degree in Molecular Biology I came to realize that I wanted to specialize in medicine and longed for an unconventional, new input. The idea of installing a Do-It-Yourself Laboratory where people could bring up their project ideas and carry out research under the professional supervision of molecular biologists caught my attention. So a few weeks later I found myself 32
on a plane, wondering if those two months ahead at Genspace could live up to my expectations. Besides a unique mix of motivated people from different backgrounds, the peculiar warehouse where GenSpace is housed also hosts a bunch of skilled, dedicated scientists. Besides the top floor where the lab is located, the other floors are also converted offices and studios where artists, writers, architects, musicians and designers work next to each other, often collaborating by sharing their creativity. Learning through teaching There are two main aspects that characterize the concept of GenSpace: For members it provides a place to study and investigate, for the general public it offers classes. Crash courses in biotechnology, molecular biology or synthetic biology can be attended by anyone who is interested and willing to learn more about basic techniques, how to conduct
IN “SHARE YOU SCIENCE”, WE PUBLISH YOUR RESEARCH. THIS MONTH:
NOW YOUR DNA experiments or the properties of DNA. This summer we had several classes and my job was to assist the teachers by showing the participants how to handle the equipment and understand what they were doing by pouring liquid A into tube B. There were high school students as well as a group of architects, a bunch of designers, programmers and IT specialists. For me it was a refreshing experience to see molecular biology and the lab routine through the eyes of somebody working at a lab bench for the first time. Explaining the basic steps of molecular biology to laymen can be challenging, but it does force you to express yourself in a different way and make facts as straightforward as possible. This is an important exercise for every scientist, because I believe it’s necessary to ‘translate’ observations and current findings in life sciences into readable material that is understandable for everybody who is affected by its possible impacts.
Investigating your own DNA Since I am a Master´s student of molecular medicine I am interested in pathology, especially in biomarkers, screening methods, conditions and diagnosis for a certain diseases. Further challenges in medicine would involve the development of treatment methods based on fundamental research, a field that I approached in my bachelor thesis by summarizing the intentions and achievements of vaccine development against malaria. So I finally decided to take a look at my own DNA and see if I could find out whether I have a high risk of getting a certain hereditary disease later on. This hereditary disease is called spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and it occurs in different forms (type 1-4), depending on the age of the patient. SMA is characterized as a neuromuscular defect where muscle activity is diminished due to vanishing motor neurons. I heard about some cases in my family where people probably suffered from the adult form but nowadays it 33
Photo: Glowing fluorescent E. coli samples at GenSpace
is hard to tell because some generations ago there was neither a reliable diagnosis, nor the possibility of DNA testing or standardized treatment. Today there are services that cover the testing of several genetic defects and screen for diseases, but the costs for an individual are still remarkably high. Using basic tools In the majority of cases SMA is caused by a mutation of the SMN1 gene on chromosome 5 (we have 22 autosomal chromosome pairs that are alike in all humans and two sex-determining chromosomes: x and x or x and y). There can be a deletion of an SMN1 gene copy or a mutation in the gene which you can observe by looking at the DNA sequence of the gene, especially in exons 7 and 8. DNA sequences consist of exons and introns; exons are parts that code for a function and are later on transcribed into protein and the regions in between – ‘non coding’ but in most cases having regulatory properties - are called introns. With enough data 34
and background info about where to search for this mutation, one can carry out a so called PCR-RFLP, which is a technique that combines two key tools frequently used in a biolab. PCR stands for ‘polymerase chain reaction’ and cyclically amplifies a piece of DNA until you obtain millions of copies. RFLP is the abbreviation for restriction fragment length polymorphism and it observes the differences between two probes. Another method to cut out determined pieces of DNA and to compare them is the use of restriction enzymes. Those enzymes are small biological machineries, each specialized in cutting the sequence of DNA always on the same combination of letters (there are four “letters” used in DNA: A, C, G, T). After cutting probe A and B you can load a gel where you visualize DNA and compare it to a reference. Unfortunately I was unable to finish my experiment at GenSpace last summer. During the last few days of my stay in New York, hurricane Irene hit, which delayed the supplies I was expecting.
Photo: first bacteria plates by synthetic biology class members
Therefore I was unable to carry out the last steps of my research. However, I will definitely finish my research as soon as I’m able to do so. Access to knowledge Although in college you learn how to conduct an experiment like I’ve done, you are hardly ever allowed to plan your own project and order the necessary material. At Genspace I could pitch my project and after my supervisors had agreed on it, I was offered an insight into the investigation routine by flipping through publications, ordering my material online and planning the experiment. And that’s what GenSpace is all about: Everybody should have access to science and their own biological data. I see a huge problem in the way scientific knowledge is often restricted to public access by demanding payment or signing up for a membership in order to read primary literature. Therefore I am glad that there is a growing network of scientists, e.g. the DIY bio movement, who share and provide their findings as an open source for everyone.
Photo: collaboration with architects where the model was “grown” by fungi
MAGDALENA SCHWARZ
• Born in Austria 1989 • Bachelor´s Degree in Molecular Biology (Graz University of Technology) • Thesis about Vaccination against Malaria • 2010: Studies in Molecular Biology at the University of Sevilla • Since October 2010: Bachelor International Development, University of Vienna • Since 2011: Master Molecular Biology (focus on Medicine), University of Vienna
More info: www.genspace.org 35
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REMARKABLERESEARCH PSYCHOLOGY BODY FOCUS: HOW REMOVING CLOTHES CHANGES THE WAY THE MIND IS PERCEIVED
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Taking off your clothes is an action with real consequences. According to new research, both men and women are perceived as less competent and more sensitive when wearing a revealing outfit. The research was performed by Kurt Gray, psychologist at the University of Maryland, along with colleagues from Yale and Northeastern University. What makes this research interesting is that unlike many previous studies, this one applies to both sexes and calls into question the role of objectification. The researchers argue that concentrating on someone’s physical characteristics doesn’t mean this person is perceived as a mindless object. According to Gray, there are two types of minds we attribute to another person. One is characterized by agency (self-control and action); the other by experience (emotion and sensation). In several experiments, participants were asked to look at revealing versus non-revealing pictures of men and women and evaluate the mental capacities of the target. Because of the distinction between agency and experience in the perception of the mind, results show that a focus on someone’s body reduces perceptions of agency and increases perceptions of experience. Is this good or bad? When it comes to sex, Gray is optimistic: “A focus on the body, and the increased perception of sensitivity and emotion it elicits might be good for lovers in the bedroom.” But, in work contexts, where action and self-control will be more appreciated than sensitivity, you would be better off covering yourself up. Showing “sensitive skin” can have negative effects on your career.
HEALTH OBESE MONKEYS LOSE WEIGHT AFTER TREATMENT WITH NEW DRUG
disease and death. For example, obesity is a major risk factor for developing cancer, roughly equivalent to smoking. Despite much research into the nonsurgical treatment of obesity, few drugs have been developed that result in weight reduction. However, researchers have now made progress in the search for a suitable drug. They discovered that obese monkeys lost weight after using the experimental drug Adipotide. Scientists at the University of Texas developed a drug that attacks the blood supply to white fat cells, the unhealthy type of fat that accumulates under the skin and around the abdomen. To investigate the effects of the drug they used monkeys that were already obese due to overeating and avoiding physical activity. Before and after a treatment of four weeks they measured weight, body mass index (BMI) and abdominal circumference (waistline). All three measures were reduced after the treatment period, while untreated control monkeys didn’t show a decrease in body fat levels.
In addition to the found effects of the drug, this study is important for other reasons. First, because of the absence of toxic side-effects, which were problematic for the use of earlier developed weightloss drugs. In the present study, the monkeys showed no significant behaviors that could indicate unpleasant effects of the drug. Another reason is the possible translation of a study of obesity in animals to the treatment of obesity in humans. Biological differences between rodents and primates makes it difficult to translate developed anti-obesity strategies in rodents into effective human treatments. Because of the use of monkeys, this study establishes All over the world people are suffering from obesity. Adipotide as a possible drug that can be useful in It’s becoming a global health problem, causing the treatment of obesity in humans. 37
ADDICTION SMART KIDS ARE MORE LIKELY TO USE DRUGS WHEN THEY GROW UP Will intelligent children become healthy adults? New research has found a link between a high IQ in young children and drug use in later life. One particularly remarkable detail: intelligent little girls are especially more likely to use illegal drugs as grownups. To be able to compare childhood intelligence to drug use later in life, the researchers used data from the British Cohort Study, an ongoing population based study which contains information on nearly 8000 participants. The IQ scores of the participants measured at the age of 5, were compared to self-reported information about their drug use at the age of 30, including cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, amphetamines and heroin. Results show that men with high IQ scores at the age of 5 were twice as likely to have used several illicit drugs like amphetamines and ecstasy, by the age of 30, than men with low IQ scores. When it came to cannabis and cocaine, women with high IQ scores as a child were even more than twice as much inclined to use these drugs 25 years later, than those with low IQ scores. The authors argue that it is still unclear why this link has been found. Are highly intelligent people easily bored, and more on the look out for new experiences? Strikingly, this study contradicts previous studies that suggest a link between high IQ scores during childhood and the development of a healthy way of life in adulthood. BY CARIAN THUS 38
CALL FOR ARTICLES BIOGRAPHIES & BOOK REVIEWS January 2012: ‘Integration, Assimilation and Cooperation’
UAJSS is a refereed online journal which publishes new research by postgraduate and post-doctoral academics. Deadline: 5th of January 2012 See our journal for submission guidelines Email: elke.weesjes@ unitedacademics.org
www.united-academics.org 39
BOOK & REVIEW Fool me twice: Fighting the assault on science in America
Shawn Lauwence Otto
Alarming scientific results are warning the world about the consequences of global warming. Although climate change has become a heated debate in the media ,it is not the important matter in policy that it should be. Solutions to the largest threat to the planet depend on scientific and technological development, but politics are failing to keep up with them. Why is there so little attention paid to important scientific discoveries and political decisions that can impact all of us?
The viral storm: The dawn of a new pandemic age
Nathan Wolfe
The scariest thrillers are those that could happen in real life. Thrillers that are not surreal tend to produce greater fear then the those that seem absurd and distant, although the events in both distant and realistic thrillers can be as frightening all the same. History teaches us of how in the past the world has been hit with pandemics like the Spanish flu, which took over 30 million lives. History also teaches us that there is reason for fearing this might happen all over again.
Fool me twice: Fighting the assault on science in America by Shawn Lawrence Otto analyses the devaluation of science in America at the very moment whenscience is needed more than ever. Using several different explanations, Otto shows how America changed into a nation that is suspicious of scientific achievement. Fueled partly by right-wing politicians and partly by a scientific community that has lost its connection with the general public, people suddenly believe that objective truth doesn’t exist. Shocking facts: less than 2 percent of members of Congress have a professional background in science, and half the new members elected in 2010 do not believe that climate change is happening. Otto argues that America can only remain a global leader when it stops attacking science. The enormous decisions of today will affect and possibly endanger generations in the future. It is vital to get this badly needed dialogue going.
In his new book, award-winning biologist Nathan Wolfe reveals the origins of some of the world’s most deadly viruses. Wolfe is the director of Global Viral Forecasting, described in the book as “a pandemic early warning system which monitors the spillover of novel infectious agents from animals into humans”. The prime focus of Wolfe’s book are the research missions he and his colleagues made in the jungles of Africa, looking for nasty viruses that can be transmitted from animals to humans and could, possibly, start a pandemic. He reveals the surprising origins of the most deadly diseases, like HIV, swine flu, and bird flu. Next he shows the developments in human evolution and culture that have made pandemics not only possible, but inevitable. Finally he examines how new technologies can be used in the most remote areas of the world and may act against potential threats.
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Thinking, Fast and Slow
Daniel Kahneman Why are we likely to opt for surgery if told that the ‘survival’ rate is 90%, rather than when we’re told the mortality rate is 10%? Behaviorists have been researching for years how people select, interpret, and use information to make judgments and decisions. In Thinking, Fast and Slow Daniel Kahneman explains how cognitive illusions blind us to reason.
Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman
Robert K. Massie
How did a German princess from a minor noble family become the empress of Russia and win the praise of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot and other giants of The Enlightenment? After the Pulitzer Prize winning Peter the Great (1981), Massie brings another Russian life into vivid perspective. In Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman, Robert Massie explains the extraordinary story of Catherine II who ruled Russia for 34 years.
Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his work in psychology that challenged the rational model of judgment and decision making. In Thinking, Fast and Slow he brought together his many years of research and thinking in one book. Kahneman explains the framework for how, or why, the mind reasons as it does using two systems. System 1 is our automatic pilot, which is fast, intuitive, and effortless. Used, for example, to size up a new situation very quickly, to figure out who is there, what is happening, and what might happen next. System 2 is our controlled thinking mind, thinking that is conscious, intentional and effortful. An important system that is able to avoid the kinds of biases that result from automatic thinking. Kahneman uses these systems to explain his experiments and findings that show the irrational, self-contradictory logics that underlie our choices.
As a teenager Catherine was sent off to Russia to become the bride of the childish tsar-to-be Peter. Unfortunately, it was an unhappy marriage. Her husband didn’t pay attention to her, and she was under constant pressure from the empress to produce a child. “To escape, she began to read the great philosophers of the French Enlightenment. And in that way, she developed a philosophy of rule,” Massie explains. When she became empress, she imported European culture into Russia, from philosophy to medicine, education, architecture, and art. Also interesting is the love life of Empress Catherine the Great, having various relationships with remarkably young men. Using Catherine’s own memoirs, Massie delivers an intimate portrait of a majestic monarch.
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