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with coordinating the links between all relevant stakeholders. Converging public action from micro-local to European level in a non-hierarchical way to combine self-government, subsidiarity and solidarity is a challenge in which nation al governments continue to play a crucial role. Management and financing Management models Diverse management models for basic public services are used in Europe. Each is shaped by history, national and regional evolution, sectoral characteristics, the impact of European policies, Europeanization and globalization, and new public management approaches. Historically, in most European countries, basic public services were defined, organized, provided and financed by local public authorities, even if some countries delegated the management of these services to autonomous or private actors at a very early stage (e.g.: water and transport in France). In Northern Europe, local authorities have significant jurisdiction and responsibilities in the fields of social and basic services. A particular public service management model used in Germany is the multi-service enterprise (Stadtwerke), which allows horizontal cross-subsidization between different local services (e.g. profits from electricity or water used to finance transport services). Central and Eastern Euro pean countries have been influenced by their transition to democracy and a market economy since 1990. Local governments are improving their institutional capacity to collaborate in the provision of local basic services with both the private and not-for-profit sectors. However, if ‘national models’ ever existed, it is clear that reforms in the field of basic public services over the past 25 years have
destabilized them and further complicated the situation. Hybridization is underway, meaning that paradigmatic models no longer exist and management models vary greatly among countries and sectors. Local public provision of services whether directly, in partnership with other public authorities, or through public undertakings, remains dominant. The development of public-public partnerships according to new public management approaches has been a particular growth area. In the field of water and sanitation, serv ices are managed by public authorities in almost all EU Member States. On average, private operators provide water and sanitation to just 26% and 23% of the European population, respectively. Only in two countries is more than half of the population is served by private enterprises: in France through delegated management, a legacy of the 19th century, and in England and Wales, where infrastructure and management were privatized in the 1980s. The European water market is thus highly fragmented, comprising tens of thousands of different operators. Traditionally, local public water enterprises were organized at the level of each local authority and were therefore small size providers, in contrast to other network services, such as electricity and telecommunications. Although regroupings have occurred, the public enterprises of this sector are not transnational companies. In some cases, such as in Paris and Bergkamen, local public authorities have decided to initiate re-municipal isation of some local services. In the field of solid waste management, service delivery models include direct public management and delegated man agement to mixed or private operators for some or all waste services. In France, Germany and the UK, public and private operators have a roughly equal role in municipal waste collection and processing.