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cases where governance is centralized but local authorities benefit from a significant degree of autonomy that enables them to provide basic services.
provincial governments. In some countries, electricity is provided by public utilities but, increasingly, it is provided by private companies supplying energy to national grids.
Provision of water and sanitation usually involves collaborative efforts between var ious government agencies. Typically, central government agencies are charged with the management and protection of water resources, ensuring water quality, con structing infrastructure, and enforcing performance standards. Special Public Author ities (SPAs, also called government owned or controlled corporations, public utilities or parastatals) granted with autonomous powers to manage and deliver services in many provinces and large cities. In towns and small cities, many small providers deliver water, while public-private partnership (PPP) schemes are used in some metro politan areas.
In most Asia-Pacific countries, policies on solid waste management are promulgated by central or state/provincial governments, while the collection of solid waste is usually carried out at the city or municipal govern ment level, either by sanitation departments or private partners. There are some metropolitan governments where solid waste disposal is managed collaboratively between neighbouring cities and municipal ities. Local government services are often supplemented by community-based efforts in solid waste collection, sorting, recovery, recycling and composting.
In all Asia Pacific countries, sanitation standards are set by central government agencies. In big cities, sanitation is often combined with water provision and managed by autonomous Special Purpose Authorities (SPAs). In smaller cities where many people use pour/flush latrines, local governments usually rely on private companies to provide sanitation services. Roads in most Asia-Pacific countries are classified as national or local, and managed by the corresponding level of government. Transport systems range from privately owned vehicles (like cars and motorbikes) to light or heavy rail-based systems. Typically, central government agencies set transport policies and safety standards. A few metropolitan governments run bus net works and rail-based transit systems, but most bus companies are privately owned. The main form of energy used in Asia-Pacific is electricity. Policies for electricity provision are set by central governments or state/
Most Asia-Pacific countries have adopted slum improvement policies and programs. Many cities and municipalities have housing programmes but, in general, their efforts are hampered by a lack of funds, inappropriate or irrelevant planning and housing standards, a lack of serviced land, and legal and institutional constraints on the use of private property. Often, slum improvement is carried out by slum-dwellers themselves with the help of local or international agencies. With the increasing frequency and severity of disasters in many Asia-Pacific countries, most central governments have set up disaster preparedness programs. Local governments supplement these efforts with a special focus on community-based groups, especially those occupying dangerous areas. Often, civil society and community-based groups participate actively in disaster preparedness programs. Management and financing Management models Management models for basic services vary considerably across the region and gen