CHAPTER 07 The ways in which ICT is used
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Communications applications Methods of communication include: •
Video conferencing
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Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) systems (e.g. Skype)
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Emails
Ways of communicating information: •
Multimedia presentations
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Printing flyers / posters
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Using websites
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Music production
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Cartoon animations
Multimedia presentations This involves combing different media such as animation, video, sound and / or music and then projecting this onto a large screen using a multimedia projector for a large audience. Advantages include: • The use of sound and animation / video effects •
Interactivity and hyperlinks can be built in
•
More likely to hold audience’s attention
Disadvantages include: • Need special equipment which may be expensive •
May need live / reliable internet connection to include video / audio
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Paper based presentations Advantages • Disabled people do not have to go to the venue to see the presentation •
Can be printed out in braille for blind / visually impaired
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Can be read at any time
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Recipient has a permanent copy that can be read at any time
Disadvantages • May be difficult to distribute hard copies •
No special effects (i.e. multimedia)
•
Printing costs may be expensive
Flyers / Posters Could be created as follows: 1. Word Processor or DTP application is opened 2. User creates frames, boxes and text boxes 3. Photos are taken with a digital camera 4. Images are uploaded from camera / downloaded from internet 5. Photos saved to a file 6. Photos are imported / copied and pasted to the flyer / poster 7. Photos are edited 8. Text is added and then formatted 9. File is saved and printed
Websites Can be used for advertising and communication Advantages: • Can add sound, video and animation •
Can use hyperlinks to other sites
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Can use hot spots
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Can include buttons for navigation
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Can use hit counters for visitor statistics
Disadvantages • Site be hacked and changed •
There is a need for an internet connection
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Not as portable as paper
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Time has to be spent maintaining 3|Page the site
Music Production •
Production of music and music scores can be done using software:
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Music samplers and mixers allow original studio tracks to be modified
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Electronic instruments can be played through electronic effects machines
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Synthesisers use simple wave forms to produce complex music creations
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Electronic organs can mimic other instruments
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Music scores can be generated automatically from the actual music using software
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Cartoon animations Animation can be produced using computer hardware and software. With 3D animation, objects are designed on a computer and a 3D skeleton produced. The parts of the skeleton are moved by the animator using key frames (which define the start and end points to give a smooth animation effect). The difference in appearance of the skeleton in these key frames is automatically calculated by the software and is known as tweening (or morphing). The final stage is to make a realistic image by a technique known as rendering.
Embedded web technology •
Uses the internet in real time to control or interact with a device in the home or a device which is part of an industrial application
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The device must contain a microprocessor the system to work
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The device can be controlled by an authorised user from a computer anywhere or from a web enabled tablet or smartphone.
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Examples in the home that can be controlled:
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o
DVD recorder
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Satellite receiver
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Central heating
o
Oven
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Washing machine
Examples in industry o
Scientific experiments
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Applications in space or under the sea
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Satellite and mobile network communications Mobile phone networks Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover large areas. The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network
Rather than circular the cells are often referred to as hexagonal.
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Mobile phone networks continued .. •
Each tower transmits within its own cell.
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If you are driving a car and get to the edge of the cell the mobile phone signal starts to weaken.
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This is recognised by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal in one of the adjacent cells
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For connections (calls and texts) to people in other countries, satellite technology is used.
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Other mobile devices such as laptops and tablets can now also connect to the mobile network to access the internet.
Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Systems •
Satellites surrounding the earth transmit signals to the surface
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Computers installed in the GPS device or mode of transport receive and interpret the signals
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Atomic cloks are used in the sateliites to ensure accurate timing and therefore position
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Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time.
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Computer in the GPS / mode of transport calculates its exact position based on the information from at least 3 satellites.
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In cars these details can be overlaid on a preloaded map
Advantages: • Driver doesn’t have to consult paper maps so it is safer
Disadvantages: • Maps need to be kept up to date in order to remain accurate
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Reduces driver error (identifies one way streets, road closures, etc.)
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Some systems will not provide live updates such as road closures, etc.
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Can warn about location of speed cameras (increases safety)
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Loss of satellite signals can cause problems
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Estimates time of arrival
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Can program fastest route, avoiding motorways, etc.
If an incorrect start or end point is keyed in then the system will give incorrect information.
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Additional information such as location of petrol stations, tourist
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Data Handling applications A number of applications make use of simple data handling techniques, such as: •
Surveys
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Tuck shop (school sweet shop) records
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Clubs and society records
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Record keeping (e.g. a book shop)
Surveys Advantages of online surveys: • No data preparation is needed as data is sent directly to a database •
Advantages of paper and online surveys (versus checking by hand) • Fast to get results •
Fewer errors
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Easier to do statistical analysis
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Less expensive to carry out as it
Tuck Shop Records Uses a spreadsheet to keep a record of prices, money spent and money received. Advantages: • Easier to vary parameters to see how to optimise profits or reduce losses •
Can be programmed to alert the user (using macros) to warn of any problems
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Club and society records Clubs and societies keep records about members covering such things as names, addresses, subscription payments and talks that have been made. These tend to be kept on a computer database rather than paper records. This data, which is of a personal nature, must obey the rules of the Data Protection Act 1998
8 Principles of the Data Protection Act 1998 1. Data must be fairly and lawfully processed 2. Data can only be processed for the stated purpose 3. Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive 4. Data must be accurate 5. Data must not be kept longer than is necessary 6. Data must be processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights 7. Data must be kept secure 8. Data must not be transferred to another country unless they too have adequate protection Failure to obey the rules may lead to fines or even imprisonment.
How to stop data being obtained unlawfully •
Don’t leave personal data lying around (e.g. on a desk) when not being used.
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Lock all filing cabinets when not in use (especially at the end of the day)
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Log off or lock computer when not being used (do not leave data on the screen)
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Do not give your password to anyone else
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Change passwords regularly and select ones which are difficult to crack
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Do not send sensitive information in an email.
Record Keeping Advantages of computer records versus paper records: • Less room used as no filing cabinets required
Disadvantages of computer records versus paper records: • Initial expense of buying hardware and software
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Quicker to search records using queries
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May save money as do not need to employ a filing clerk
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Fewer errors as no manual checking of files required
Take time and effort to transfer existing paper records onto the computer.
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Modelling applications A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the behaviour of the system. The model is computer generated and is based on mathematical calculations. The idea is to try and find out what mechanisms control how a system behaves and consequently predict the behaviour of the system in the future and also see if it possible to influence this future behaviour.
Why use simulations? • Less expensive than building the real thing (e.g. a bridge) •
Safer (e.g. than performing chemical experiments)
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Can try out different scenarios in advance
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May be impossible to try out in real life first (e.g. in outer space)
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Quicker than doing the real thing (e.g. modelling climate change)
Limitations of simulations? • They are only as good as the data supplied and the algorithm programmed so outcomes may not always be reliable •
Can be expensive to set up
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May need specialist software
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Due to the complex calculations, may need to purchase an expensive, powerful computer.
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Types of processing There are three basic types of processing: •
Batch processing
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Real time (transaction) or online processing
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Real time process control
Batch Processing •
A number of tasks (jobs) are collected together over a period of time
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These are then loaded onto the computer as a job queue
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Then processed all at once (i.e. as a batch)
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Once the processing is used, no human intervention is required
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Ideal when the processing doesn’t need to be done quickly or where responses are required immediately
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Often done when the computer system is less busy (e.g. overnight)
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Examples: o
Utility (gas, electric, water and telephone) bills
o
Payroll systems
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Processing bank cheques.
Real time (transaction) processing or online processing •
This is an example of online processing
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Examples: Booking theatre or flight tickets; use ATM to get money (i.e. files are updated in real time)
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The response to a query needs to be very fast in order to prevent ‘double booking’ o
Seats need to be marked as unavailable immediately as the booking is made
Real time process control •
Also an example of online processing, but very different to real time (transaction) processing
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Usually involves sensors and feedback loops (e.g. monitoring and control applications)
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Physical quantities (such as temperature) are continually monitored and the input processed sufficiently quickly to influence the input source.
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Control Applications Turtle graphics (LOGO) When answering a question on this in the exam, the commands are usually given for you; however, it is still wise to learn the following table: Command
Meaning
FORWARD x
Move x cm forward
BACKWARD x
Move x cm backward
LEFT d
Turn left through d degrees
RIGHT d
Turn right through d degrees
REPEAT n
Repeat the next set of instructions n times
ENDREPEAT
Finish the repeat loop
PENUP
Lift the pen up
PENDOWN
Lower the pen
Applications using sensors Monitoring an application • The computer reviews the data from the sensors •
Compares it to data stored in memory
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Updates its files
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May give a warning if values are outside parameters
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NO CHANGES TO THE PROCESS ARE MADE DURING MONITORING
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Monitoring examples o
Patient’s vital signs in a hospital
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Scientific experiment in a laboratory
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A burglar system
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Environmental monitoring (e.g. oxygen levels in a river)
Control applications • The computer reviews the data from the sensors 16 | P a g e
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Compares it to data stored in memory
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If values are outside of predefined parameters, ACTION IS TAKEN TO GET THE VALUES BACK WITHIN AN ACCEPTABLE RANGE
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For example by sending signals to devices controlling the process (e.g. motors, valves, etc.)
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Control examples: o
A chemical process
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A nuclear reactor
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A greenhouse environment
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A central heating system
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A set of traffic lights
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NOTE: Data received from sensors tends to be in analogue format so will need to be converted to digital using an ADC (Analogue to Digital Converter) Data sent out by a computer will be digital and will need to be converted to analogue using a DAC (Digital to Analogue Converter).
Monitoring example 1: Patient’s vital signs in a hospital •
Sensors read key vital signals (e.g. pulse / heart rate, temperature, blood pressure, respiration, etc.)
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Data from sensors is converted using ADC
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Data stored in the computer’s memory
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Computer compares the data with that stored in its memory
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Results are output on a screen in the form of graphs and / or digital readouts
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Alarm is activated if data outside acceptable parameters
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System continues to monitor the patient until the computer is turned off.
Monitoring example 2: measuring oxygen levels in a river (environmental monitoring) •
Sensors read data from the river (e.g. oxygen levels and acidity levels (using a pH sensor).
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Data from sensors is converted into digital using DAC
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Computer stores received data
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Oxygen and acidity levels are compared to stored data for acceptable parameters
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An alarm may be sounded or message displayed
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One of two things will now happen: o
Data is transferred to a memory stick, portable hard disk or optical disk and taken away for analysis later, or
o
The computer is connected to a the internet and transmits the data automatically to a monitoring station
Advantages of using computers and sensors for monitoring (compared to humans taking the readings): •
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Computer’s response time is time is much faster (very important in monitoring patients)
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Doctors, nurses, scientists, etc. can get on with other tasks whilst monitoring takes place
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Computers can monitor 24/7/365
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Readings tend to more accurate
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Readings can be taken more frequently (at shorter time intervals) if they are done by a computer and sensors
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May be safer if there are potential hazards (e.g. falling into a river when taking readings)
Control example 1: A greenhouse environment •
Several sensors could be used with each essentially operating in the same way (e.g. humidity, moisture, temperature, pH and light sensors)
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Each sensor sends a signal via an ADC to the computer
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The computer compares this input with a stored value and decides what action to be taken.
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If the value is too high, the computer sends a signal via a DAC to, for example, operate a motor to open windows, thus reducing humidity.
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If the value is too low, the computer will send a signal via a DAC to, for example valves to spray water into the air, thus increasing humidity.
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This system of feedback, comparison and action continues as long as the system is switched on.
Control example 2: Chemical process Note: A certain chemical process only works if temperature >70 and pH <3.5. Heaters are used to control temperature and valves are used to add acid when necessary. The following shows how the sensors and computer are used to control this process. •
Temperature and pH sensors read data from the chemical process
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Data is converted using a DAC
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Computer compares incoming data with ‘ideal’ data stored in memory
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o
If temperature too low / high, a signal is sent via a DAC to switch on / off the heaters
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If temperature is within an acceptable range, no action is taken
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If the pH is too high / low, a signal is sent via a DAC to open / close the valve
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If the pH is with an acceptable range, no action is taken
This continues as long as the computer system is activated.
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Advantages of using sensors and computer systems to control processes •
Computer will not forget to take readings
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Computer’s response time is time is much faster (very important in monitoring patients)
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Doctors, nurses, scientists, etc. can get on with other tasks whilst monitoring takes place
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Computers can monitor 24/7/365
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Readings tend to more accurate
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Readings can be taken more frequently (at shorter time intervals) if they are done by a computer and sensors
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May be safer if there are potential hazards (e.g. falling into a river when taking readings) or in the case of a chemical process can ensure that the conditions are controlled in a more accurate way
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If the process is dangerous it is better to control it from a distance!
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Robotics Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing, from heacy work right through to delicate operations (e.g. paint spraying of car bodies, welding car body parts, manufacturing microchips, manufacturing electrical goods, and automatic warehouses. Control of robots is either through embedded microprocessors or linked to a computer system. Programming of the robot to do a task is generally done in one of two ways: 1. Robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to carry out a series of tasks (e.g. spraying a car body with paint) 2. A human operator manually carries out a series of tasks and each task is done is relayed back to the robot (embedded processor) or controlling computer. The sequence of instructions is remembered so that the robot can automatically carry out each task identically each time (e.g. assembling parts in a television). Robots often use sensors so that they can gather important information about their surroundings. This enables them to not do ‘stupid things’ such as spraying when there is nothing in front of them to spray or when the paint has run out.
Advantages of using robots • Can work in environments that might be harmful to humans. •
Can work 24/7/365
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Less expensive in the long term (high initial cost but then no wages)
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Productivity is high (no holidays or sick days)
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Greater consistency (every product they produce is identical)
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Can do boring, repetitive tasks, allowing humans to do the more skilled tasks
Disadvantages of using robots • Robots find it difficult to do one-off tasks (e.g. specialist glassware for a chemical company) •
They replace skilled labour which leads to increased unemployment
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May lead to deskilling
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No need for a local labour force so manufacturing can be any way in the world, leading to local unemployment.
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Batch processing applications There are several applications that make use of batch processing; the most common ones being payroll, billing (electricity, gas, water and telephone) and cheque processing.
Payroll Run as batch processing as all the timesheets, etc. are gathered together before the payroll calculations are done in one go (often overnight when the computers are less busy). Since there is no need for any further input, nor is it urgent to get the output quickly (unlike in, for example, a ticket booking system), batch processing works efficiently. •
At the end of each week or month a payroll system will be used to calculate wages, print out pay slips and pay employees
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Inputs:
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o
Employee details from file (rate of pay, tax code, bank details)
o
Number of hours worked (possibly from a timesheet)
o
Any overtime worked
o
Holidays
Processing: o
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Calculation of gross pay, tax and National Insurance deductions, net pay
Outputs: o
Printed pay slips
o
Updated employee files
o
Transfer to BACS (Bankers Automate Clearing Service) if wages are paid directly into a bank account
Billing systems (electricity) Because companies send out their bill / invoices on a pre-determined date, all the information is gathered together and then processed in one go (batch). •
Inputs: o
Customer details (e.g. address)
o
Charge per kW (unit) of power 22 | P a g e
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o
Previous readings
o
New readings
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Bank account details if paying by direct debit
Processing: o
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Calculation of units of electricity used, cost, monthly payment made and outstanding amount owed
Outputs: o
Bill showing the details of amount paid (direct debit) or amount to pay
o
Updating customer files
Barcodes •
Allow quick identification of product details once the barcode has been scanned by a barcode reader.
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Used at EPOS / EFTPOS terminals which incorporates a barcode reader that
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o
scans the barcode
o
retrieves the price of product
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relays information back to the stock control system to update the files
See page 87 of textbook for how barcodes are validated using a check digit.
Automatic Stock control system The following description is a detailed account of how barcodes are used to control stock levels automatically in a supermarket. Other retailers use similar systems with only minor differences. •
Barcodes are attached to all items sold by the supermarket
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Each barcode is associated with a stock file which contains details such as prices, stock levels and product descriptions
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Customer goes to EPOS / EFTPOS terminal once they have completed their shopping
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Barcode on each item is scanned o
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If it can’t be scanned, the number is typed in manually
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The appropriate record is accessed
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The price and product description is sent back the EPOS / EFTPOS terminal
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The stock level for the product is found and reduced by one
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The new stock level is written back to the file
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If the stock level falls below or is equal to the re-order / minimum stock level then the computer will automatically order a batch of items from the supplier (using details in the supplier file)
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Once goods have been reordered a flag is placed next to the item to prevent it being reordered every time a new item is scanned before the new stock arrives.
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This process is repeated for every item in the customer’s trolley / basket
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The customer is then given an itemised bill showing a list (with prices) of everything they have bought (including the total amount to pay)
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Computer updates the files containing the daily takings
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If the customer has a loyalty card, the computer automatically updates their points total
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When the new stock arrives, the barcodes on the pallets will be used to update the stick file and any flags associated with these goods will be removed so that stock checks can start to be made again.
Note: Some supermarkets now allow customers to scan their own items at special checkouts. These basically work in the same way as the EPOS / EFTPOS terminals.
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Online booking systems These rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing double booking, which could happen if the system response time was slow. Booking systems are used for transport (flights, trains and buses), cinemas and theatres. The example below is for a theatre booking system and assumes that the user is already logged onto the theatre booking website: •
Customer clicks on the performance they wish to see
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They select the date and time for the performance
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They select the number of tickets that they require
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A seating plan of available seats is shown
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They choose the location of their seats
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The database searches to check the availability of the seats. If the seating plan is shown, this step is not required.
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If the seats are available, they are shown along with the total price
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If they customer is happy with this, they click on ‘confirm’
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The seats are now set to ‘temporarily unavailable’.
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If the customer is a returning visitor, their details may already be prefilled. If they are a new customer, then they will have to complete their personal details.
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They then select the payment method (debit / credit card)
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The seats are then booked in the customer’s name
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Final details are shown on screen along with a reference number to quote in case there is a query later on
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An email is sent to the customer that they can print out as proof of purchase (this may also, in some cases, act as a e-ticket)
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The database is then updated with the transaction.
Note: Booking cinema seats is very similar; however, booking flights is more complicated as there are more factors to choose from (airline, airport, etc.).
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Banking applications The use of computer technology has revolutionised how we do our banking transactions, for example: •
Internet banking
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Use of ATMs (Automated Teller Machines)
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Chip & PIN Technology
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) Can be used to withdraw cash (or carry out other banking activities such as changing PIN, checking a balance or ordering a statement) using a credit or debit card. The table below summarises this process. Sequence at ATM
What goes on behind the scenes
Customer puts card into ATM
Contact is made with ban’s computer
PIN is entered using the keyboard
PIN is checked to see if it is correct Card is checked to see if it is valid
A number of options are given •
Change PIN
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Top up mobile
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See balance
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Get money
The customer selects the cash option A number of cash amounts are shown The customer accepts one of the options or types in a different amount
Customer account is accessed to see if there are sufficient funds Also checked to see if customer is trying to withdraw more than their daily limit
The customer is asked if they want a receipt The card is returned
Transaction is OK
Money is dispensed
Customer’s account is updated
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Disadvantages of ATMs •
They are sometimes in places where theft can go unnoticed
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‘Fake’ ATMs can be set up to gather information about the card and retain the card
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Some banks charge customers for the use of ATMs
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Someone else could see the PIN being entered and could use this to commit fraud at a later date (shoulder surfing)
Chip and PIN Many credit cards are equipped with a Chip as well as a magnetic stripe. The chip contains key information such as the PIN. This system is designed to enhance security since it is better than relying only on a signature. When paying for items using a CHIP and PIN card a form of Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) takes place. In the example below, a customer is paying for a meal in a restaurant using a CHIP and PIN card. •
Waiter inserts card into the chip and PIN reader
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Restaurant’s bank contacts customer’s bank
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Card is checked to see if it is valid (i.e. not expired, stolen, etc.)
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If card has expired or has been stolen then the transaction is terminated
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The customer enters their PIN using a keypad
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The PIN is read from the CHIP and compared with the one just keyed in
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If they are the same the transaction can proceed. If they are different, the transaction is terminated (or the user may be asked to try again)
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A check is then made on whether the customer has enough funds in their account
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If there are enough funds, the transaction proceeds. If there aren’t enough funds, the transaction is terminated
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An authorisation code is sent to the restaurant 28 | P a g e
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The price of the meal is deducted from the customer’s account
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The same amount of money is credited to the restaurant’s account
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A receipt is printed as proof of purchase
Library systems Many library systems are computer controlled and involve the use of barcodes on the books being borrowed and on the borrower’s library card. The following describes a computerised library system based on barcodes: •
There are two tables in a relational database o
Book file (barcode, book title, Author, Date published, number of books, Date due back)
o
Borrower’s file (borrower’s number, borrower’s name, borrower’s details, barcode of book borrowed)
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When a borrower takes out a book, the book’s barcode is scanned. The books details are then found on the book file
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The borrower’s library card barcode is then scanned for the borrower’s unique number.
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•
The book file is linked to the borrower’s file and both files are updated to indicate which book has been borrowed and when it is due back
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On a daily basis the borrower’s file is interrogated (checked) by the computer to see which books are overdue for return: o
The computer reads a record from the book file.
o
It compares the date due back with the current date
o
If the date due back is less than or equal to the current date (i.e. before today’s date) ….
o
Using the barcode number of the book ….
o
The book file is linked to the borrower’s file ….
o
And the corresponding record is read from the borrower’s file.
o
The customer’s details are then found and a letter or email is automatically sent out.
o
The next record in the book file is then read ….
o
Until the whole file has been checked.
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Expert Systems These systems are designed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a particular field. Examples include: •
Diagnosing a person’s illness
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Diagnosing (fining faults) in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.)
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Prospecting for oil and minerals
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Tax and financial calculations
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Chess games
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Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds
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Road scheduling for delivery vehicles
User Interface User Interface User Interface User Interface A basic expert system is made up of a number of elements, as shown in the diagram below:
Definitions Knowledge base: “This is a database designed to allow the complex storage and retrieval requirements of a computerised knowledge-based management system.” Inference engine: “This is software that attempts to derive answers from the knowledge base using a form of reasoning. It is how expert systems appear to use human like reasoning when accessing information from the knowledge base in an effort to find a conclusion to a given problem. The inference engine is a type of reasoning engine.”
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Rules base: “This is made up of a series of ‘inference rules’ (e.g. IF the country is in South America AND the language used is Portuguese THEN the country must be Brazil). These inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions. They closely follow human-like reasoning.” Advantages of expert systems: • Provide consistent answers •
Never forget to answer a question
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Reduces time taken to solve a problem
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Less skilled workforce required which could save money.
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Allows access to expertise in areas of the world that normally
Disadvantages of expert systems: • Make lack common sense when making decisions •
Errors in the knowledge base leads to incorrect decisions
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Can be expensive to set up
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Lots of training required to make sure that it is being used correctly by the operators.
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How to set up an expert system •
Experts in the field are interviewed to find out what is needed in the expert system.
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Data is then collected from these experts
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A knowledge base is designed and then created
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The rules base is designed and then created
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An inference engine is designed and then created
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The user interface (input screen and output format) is designed and then created
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The expert system is tested against known conditions and scenarios
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It is also checked to see it if meets the original specification (i.e. what it was designed to do)
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Experts are interviewed about how effective it is before the expert system goes out on general release.
Example of an expert system: oil prospecting •
An interactive user screen appears
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Questions are asked about geological profiles
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Answers to the questions and information about geological profiles are typed in
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Inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base
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The system: o
Suggests the probability of finding oil as an output
o
Indicates the probable depth of deposits
o
Makes predictions about geological deposits above the soil
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o
Produces contour maps showing the concentration of minerals, rocks, oil, etc.
Past Paper questions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The ways in which ICT is used
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