GORHAM SILVER
The Gorham Manufacturing Company 1850-1970
Table Of Contents
1
Designing Innovation: The Gorham Manufacturing Company 1850-1970
12 The History of Gorham and American Industry in the 19th and 20th Centuries 16
Gorham and Social and Cultural History in the 19th and 20th Centuries
20 Stylistic History of Gorham Silver in the 19th and 20th Centuries 25 Casting a New Mold: The American Silver Industry and Japanese Meiji Metalwork 1876-1893
Designing Innovation: The Gorham Manufacturing Company, 1850-1970
Commissioned to create everything from public presentation pieces to one-of-a-kind showstoppers for use in the private dining rooms of America, Gorham put uniquely American design and the aspirations of a youthful nation on the world stage. Designing Innovation: The Gorham Manufacturing Company 1850-1970 will cast new light on the golden era of this company, first established in 1831 in Providence, Rhode Island. Silver and mixedmetal wares produced from 1850 to 1970 will be considered within social, cultural, industrial, aesthetic, and technological contexts. The RISD Museum owns over 2,200 pieces of Gorham silver and metalwork, the largest collection of objects by the American silver maker in a public institution. Designing Innovation is the first multi-venue Gorham exhibition (it will also travel to the Dallas Museum of Art and the Cincinnati Art Museum), and the accompanying book, published by Rizzoli, is the first major comprehensive publication on Gorham since 1982.
The Gorham Manufacturing Company’s adept ability to couple art and industry was the foundation to their success in both the realm of stylistic and technological achievement and leadership in America and around the globe. The physical and intellectual organization of the exhibition and publication will look not only to the firm’s creative excellence through the decades, but also the technical and organizational systems that enabled the company to become the largest producer of silver in the world. The five sections of the exhibition and five essays of the publication will be organized with an overlay of the progressive steps of the creation of a piece of Gorham silver, as reflected in the philosophy and the physical layout of the company’s cutting-edge production facility. An 1892 promotional photo album entitled Views Exterior and Interior of the Works of the Gorham Manufacturing Company, Silversmiths, Providence, Rhode Island, pictured each phase of the design process in its corresponding department of the new plant, and will be used as an illustrative element of each section.
The History of Gorham and American Industry in the 19th and 20th Centuries Beginning with the company’s standing as the first American silver firm to introduce mechanization to silversmithing processes by way of the installation of a steam-powered drop-press in 1852 at their Steeple Street location in Providence, Gorham systematically designed their plant with maximum creativity, technology, collaboration and efficiency in mind. The drop-press saw sales soar from $ 30,000 in 1852 to nearly $ 1,000,000 in 1870; employees grew from 14 to 400. The need for larger facilities for the company was realized in the late 1880s and a 30-acre plot of land was purchased in the Elmwood neighborhood of South Providence. The scale, modernity, scope, self-sufficiency was a physical reflection of Gorham’s far-reaching goals, ambitions and aspirations, with unalloyed recognition and respect for their employees’ knowledge, capabilities and needs. Architectural plans were developed in tandem with the company’s input regarding the features and layout of the buildings. A company sales manual emphasizes “the value which the Company has always placed upon the services of those who have grown up with it, for without the practical knowledge which comes only from actual experience in the more subordinate positions, the President and his advisors who arranged these buildings could never have properly appreciated the needs of the men and the business.”
Construction of the Elmwood plant began in 1889, and in 1890 a cutting-edge facility opened. With its own water supply, power plant, railway spur and a campus of spacious, well-ventilated, well-lit, interconnected buildings, it supported each phase of production carried out by 2,800 workers at the company’s peak.
The production flow of the plant begins with the facilities to receive, process and prepare the raw materials and basic shapes of wares. This phase will connect with the first section of the exhibition and publication, which places the Gorham Manufacturing Company in the context of American silver production and industrial manufacturing, silver mining, and the economy. It will also address the company’s development and expansion, the construction of its 1890 manufacturing complex, its position within the New England and East Coast industrial environment and infrastructure, local/national/international collaborations, the development and incorporation of industrial technology, the establishment of Gorham’s photography studio, managerial and logistical operations of the company, the hiring of foreign artists and designers by Gorham, and the company’s culture, including workforce composition in relation to race, gender and socioeconomic class.
Gorham and Social and Cultural History in the 19th and 20th Centuries
After the bars of silver had been melted, the silver was rolled into sheets which would either be punched into blanks to be stamped with laboriously hand-cut steel dies for the myriad flatware patterns made by Gorham, or spun into hollowware forms with handtools on lathes. While mechanization was employed to the greatest efficiency, each piece of flatware and hollowware was also meticulously finished by hand. Every object was carefully formed to fit one’s hand, pumiced to remove all marks, and burnished to brilliance so as to be worthy of purchase by discerning customers.
This phase will pair with the second section of the publication and exhibition, which will focus on the company’s influence on and response to social and cultural histories. It will address the company’s production within the context of American and European social customs and etiquette, culinary and dining developments and trends, national accessibility to and knowledge of a wider range of foods, impact of agricultural other technological advancements, developments to transportation and increased accessibility of travel abroad, domestic history (with an emphasis on contemporary theory and the publication/dissemination thereof), gender roles and familial structures and customs, socioeconomic contexts, silver as associated with the institution of marriage, and the custom and protocol of presentation wares.
Stylistic History of Gorham Silver in the 19th and 20th Centuries
The silver wares were often embellished with ornamentation, which along with the form of each piece was part of the design process that began in the Design Department of the plant. This was also the location of Gorham’s Design Library, an extensive collection of design volumes and folios dating from the 15th century to the 20th century, and representing a global array of design and art. Valued at $10,000 in 1913, the design libraries at Gorham were fully equipped to provide designers with ample inspiration. John Gorham recognized the potential of foreign design sources and notes the purchase of books in his diaries during his trips to Europe in 1852 and 1860. Ultimately reaching a count of over 1700, an 1871 inventory of Gorham’s design room lists over two hundred volumes of mostly foreign titles, as well as a room filled with a multitude of plaster casts, medallions, works from Wedgwood, parian, majolica, plaques, statues, bronzes, electrotypes, and naturalistic elements such as shells. Gorham’s Design Library was given to the RISD Fleet Library in 2005, with nearly 1,000 volumes remaining.
This process accompanies the third section of the exhibition and essay which focuses on the company’s influence on and response to design and stylistic history. It will also address the development of company’s aesthetic and its design oeuvre, with an emphasis on contemporary theory and the publication/dissemination thereof, critical review in contemporary press, and impact upon and response to international influences. The section shall consider Gorham’s access to and use of design sources in print, museums, public display forums, private collections and design libraries of both objects and publications. It shall also address simultaneous production and balance of traditional and avant-garde wares, technology’s impact on style, and stylistic inspiration vs. indiscriminate appropriation.
Designing Gorham Silver in the 19th and 20th Centuries
The subject of style and ornamentation through the decades goes hand in hand with the design process and organization and management thereof, following the path of a conceptual idea in the designer’s mind to a fully-realized three dimensional object, with a paper trail of its manufacturing journey. Numbered with an object code, series of design drawings mapped out the development of a piece of Gorham silver, with noted changes, calculations, parts numbers, material identification and instructive notations. Ranging from improvised sketches to meticulously rendered presentation illustrations in watercolor, ink, pastel and gouache, thousands of extant design drawings reside at the John Hay Library at Brown University and in the collections of the RISD Museum. Often design prototypes were produced for testing and to determine the most efficient manufacturing process for the design. If equipment necessary to manufacture wares did not yet exist, it was conceived and produced in Gorham’s Experimental Machine Department. Numbered casting patterns made of bronze allowed for endless reproductions, as well as innumerable combinations of elements and parts. Wares were chased, engraved, etched, patinated, gilded, adorned with mixed metal appliques, burnished to shining brilliance or left with a shimmering hand-hammered finish. They could be embellished with ivory, mother of pearl, stones and gems, horn, enamel, exotic woods,
and crystal. Each material and the amount thereof, and each process and the amount of time taken were methodically recorded on a costing slip and in ledgers, tracking the processes, media, and hours of labor associated with it. This section of the exhibition and publication will address the many steps of Gorham’s design development, process and accounting thereof.
Marketing Gorham Silver to the World in the 19th and 20th Centuries
Finished Gorham silver wares entered the final phase of their manufacture tour by their conveyance to the casemaking department, an integral aspect of the company’s production, reflecting the pride and care that was taken with the presentation of its creations. Presentation cases and boxes were made on site in the carpentry and case departments, often custom fit with fabric interiors. Wares were photographed in the company’s Photography Department and Studio and then made their way to the showrooms of the Sales Department, which shared a building with the executive, administration and bookkeeping offices of the company.
Here, development and decisions of marketing, advertising and promotional initiatives were made, ranging from promotional advertising brochures and annual catalogues to participation in world’s fairs and national and international distribution systems and showrooms. Very few American firms participated in world’s fairs from 1851 to 1873; some had participated in national fairs, but the major debut of American silver firms at international expositions was the 1876 Centennial Exhibition held in Philadelphia, at which Gorham, Tiffany, and more than fifteen other significant firms displayed their finest. From this point forward, Gorham showed at multiple world’s fairs and other shows, amassing awards, accolades and clients.
This section will coordinate with the final section of the exhibition and publication, which will focus on the company’s involvement in, response to, and influence on marketing and sales practices and the development thereof circa 1850 to 1970. These issues will be considered within the contexts of contemporary critical comment, Gorham’s economic growth, and the manner in which the company’s character and culture was shaped and perceived. It will address the company’s participation in and leveraging of local, national, and international fairs and public display venues, the opening of showrooms for retail and wholesale business, the establishment of national distributor/retailer networks, and the development of its sales-force structure. The section will also address the company’s embrace of modern advertising in the form of promotional materials, print advertisements, catalogue production and disbursement, film, and catalogic and artistic photography.
Publication
Published by Rizzoli, the book accompanying this exhibition will present Gorham’s place within the rise of American industry and artistic heritage in five chapters, written by leading art historians and curators. Essays focus upon the company’s history and influence on the country’s manufacturing legacy; impact upon and response to social, cultural, culinary and agricultural aspects of the era; creation and adaption of myriad stylistic and aesthetic trajectories; transformative technological advances; and successful embrace of modern advertising, marketing and distribution that brought their design to the nation at large.
The Gorham Manufacturing Company indelibly impacted, responded to, and advanced the human desire for functional, innovative, well-designed, and artistic wares for serving, dining, socializing, celebrating, commemorating, and honoring. Supporting myriad activities in America and around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries, Gorham addressed the values and beliefs of its customers, its employees, and American industry through their embrace of technology, drive for innovation, and progressive philosophy of the industrial environment and the well-being of those who worked within it. The company’s physical plant inspired art and design by means of a library filled with volumes from around the globe and through the centuries devoted to aesthetics, architecture, archaeology, literature, religion, and history, as well as the
criticism, theory and methodology thereof. Publications were accompanied by artifacts, fragments, and art from wide ranging cultural and geographical origins. Designs that defied an available manufacturing process precipitated the invention of new equipment and engineering of advanced technique. Gorham’s participation and achievement at national and international events, including World’s Fairs, exposed the company to a diverse array of cultural histories, traditions, artistry and skills, while also bringing their accomplishments and ideas to bear on attendant audiences. \The manufactory was a model of industrial modernity and functioned self-reliantly, with a layout designed not only for logistical proficiency, but also in response to the employee’s solicited input. This type of reciprocity existed also between the company and its clients.
Casting a New Mold: The American Silver Industry and Japanese Meiji Metalwork 1876-1893
Propelled by economic voracity and a desire for political dominance and global power, the United States through the presence of Commodore Perry of the U.S. Navy and accompanying battle ships at Edo (Tokyo) Bay negotiated the Treaty of Kanagawa with the Japanese Tokugawa shogunate in 1854. The accord, which stipulated conditions related to diplomacy, trade, and naval concessions was looked upon by the American government as a strategic coup with little consideration for what the intersection of cultures might generate. Rather than risk war with a foreign power equipped with modern weaponry, Japan reluctantly relinquished its more than two-hundred-year old isolation policy. Unwittingly, both countries subsequently experienced a transformation not originally envisioned by either government: Japanese aesthetics would forever alter the course of American art and design and Western consumerism would swiftly advance the status of Japanese art and design on the global market. Whereas nearly all types of artistic media were affected by this cultural juxtaposition— from paintings and prints to ceramics and lacquerware—the medium of metalwork stands as a primary visual testament to the momentous dynamism engendered when American and Japanese aesthetics collided and coalesced to form a new transhemispheric design legacy. The flood of Japanese decorative arts that reached American shores after Perry compelled the opening of Japan initiated a mutually beneficial circuit of exchange that concomitantly enabled both countries to achieve international acclaim for their artistic merit in the field of metalwork. Whereas other media, such as ceramics, were impacted by this stylistic interchange, it is the medium of metalwork that experienced the greatest transformation. For Japanese smiths, the production of their wares fundamentally shifted from militaristic and religious needs to domestic and decorative purposes. For American smiths, the production of their wares underwent an unprecedented break from traditional Western aesthetics, made possible in large part by Japanese metallurgical technology. The momentous technical, stylistic and creative impact that Japanese metalwork had upon the American silver industry in the last quarter of the nineteenth century was equaled by the transformative impact that entry into the American market had upon Japanese metalwork, as Japan emerged from international isolation during the Meiji era (1868-1912). The introduction of Japanese
design amidst myriad Western revival movements allowed for the emergence of a complete break from the historicized European motifs, forms, and iconography to which American silver had been subserviently tied. Leading silver firms, such as the Gorham Manufacturing Company and Tiffany & Company, adopted and adapted Japanese aesthetics and techniques to create visually stunning works of silver mixed with other metals, which garnered worldwide recognition and praise not previously achieved. Drawing on the dual traditions of Buddhist bronze casting and Samurai sword making, late nineteenth-century Japanese metalsmiths created works for display at American world’s fairs that served to revitalize the Japanese metalworking industry, promote commercial export of Japanese metalwork and internationally showcase the metalworkers’ technical and artistic virtuosity and thus that of the nation’s artistic culture as a whole. This study directly identifies and links the ongoing circuits of exchange between Japan and America during the last quarter of the nineteenth century that profoundly affected the countries’ silver and metalwork aesthetics, techniques and critical reviews. Whereas American Aesthetic silver may be addressed within the Aesthetic Movement and American silver industry as a whole, as well as in the context of a stylistic movement within a specific manufactory’s milieu, further examination considers the causal means of interaction between Japanese and American metalworking firms and the aesthetic, political, and cultural effects thereof. Likewise, beyond the discussion of Meiji-period metalwork and its contribution to leveraging Japan’s status as an industrialized nation, a closer look advances the understanding of the manner in which Japanese and American silver firms ultimately facilitated the transformation of each other’s status in the world market. The first chapter situates the state and history of the American silver trade, specifically the Gorham Manufacturing Company and Tiffany & Company, and Japanese metalworking in the 1870s and progresses to discuss the conduits by which the Japanese aesthetic entered into the genre of American silver, including the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition, at which Japanese art made its American exposition debut; the establishment of Kiritsu Kōshō Kaisha, a semi-private export company established by the Meiji
government in Japan with offices in Europe and America; and the critical role of British designer Christopher Dresser (1834-1904), who collaborated extensively with Tiffany & Co. and the Japanese government to foster numerous important instances of artistic exchange and international dispersal. The display of Japanese wares at the Centennial Exhibition fueled the mania in the United States for Japanese design, which played a significant part in the development of the American Aesthetic Movement, spanning the 1870s to mid-1890s. The nineteenth century would bring great and unwelcome changes to Japanese metalsmiths in the form of the 1876 Haitōrei Edict, disallowing private citizens—including the samurai—to wear a katana, the sword that served as the samurai’s symbolic identity and as a mainstay of the Japanese metalwork industry. Buddhism also declined in favor during the Meiji era; thus commissions for large-scale, cast bronze temple objects dwindled. With the shogunate’s loss of power due to the Emperor’s restoration, the metalsmiths had lost their readymade clientele and were challenged to succeed on the open commercial market. America was still considered an ingénue on the world stage and desired to be recognized as a culturally established entity in the eyes of the world, especially those of Europe. While Japan, of course, was not a new country, its former self-imposed isolation and subsequent lack of technological progress situated the country as a newcomer regarding export and expositions. Before the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, the average American knew little of Japan or its art, thus providing the Meiji government a clean slate upon which to make an impression. America seized on the opportunity to impress firmly upon Europe that it had politically and artistically come of age. Japan proved a good, if unintentional, ally for the purpose. The second chapter examines Gorham’s and Tiffany’s absorption of the Japanese aesthetic through direct interpretations and hybridized stylizations that were often inspired by objects and volumes collected for the companies’ design libraries. Although Tiffany could be defined mainly as a retail-based business and Gorham was built from the ground up as a manufacturing venture, the two firms participated in a highly aggressive competition to dominate the American silver market. Both were driven to produce the most innovative and creative wares in order to feed the country’s voracious
Index 1
Lebolt & Co. Silver Workshop, American, 1910-1944, Water Pitcher, ca. 1910-1920 Silver, 17.3 x 21.6 cm (6 13/16 x 8 1/2 inches) Elizabeth T. and Dorothy N. Casey Fund 2015.111.25 2 Lebolt & Co. Silver Workshop, American, 1910-1944, Water Pitcher, ca. 1910-1920 Silver, 17.3 x 21.6 cm (6 13/16 x 8 1/2 inches), Elizabeth T. and Dorothy N. Casey Fund 2015.111.25 2 Erik Magnussen, designer, Danish, 1 884-1961, Gorham Manufacturing Company, manufacturer, American, 1831- Cubic Coffee Service, 1927, Silver with gilding and ivory, 24.1 x 54.6 x 34 cm (9 1/2 x 21 1/2 x 13 3/8 inches) (overall), The Gorham Collection. 3 Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.488 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831- Dressing Set, ca. 1890, S ilver The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.599
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Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, William Christmas Codman, designer, English, 1839-1921 Thomas H. Yates, metalworker 1885-1947 MartelĂŠ Sugar Bowl, 1930, Silver Height: 7.9 cm (3 1/8 inches), The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.181.4 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, Buttonhook Silver, Length: 20.5 cm (8 1/16 inches) The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.599.2 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, William Christmas Codman, designer, English, 1839-1921 Thomas H. Yates, metalworker, 1885-1947 MartelĂŠ Creamer, 1930, silver 13 x 11.4 x 6.3 cm (5 1/8 x 4 1/2 x 2 1/2 inches) The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.181.3
5 Lebolt & Co. Silver Workshop, American, 1910-1944, Water Pitcher, ca. 1910-1920 Silver, 17.3 x 21.6 cm (6 13/16 x 8 1/2 inches) Elizabeth T. and Dorothy N. Casey Fund 2015.111.25 6 Lebolt & Co. Silver Workshop, American, 1910-1944, Water Pitcher, ca. 1910-1920 Silver, 17.3 x 21.6 cm (6 13/16 x 8 1/2 inches), Elizabeth T. and Dorothy N. Casey Fund 2015.111.25 6 Erik Magnussen, designer, Danish, 1 884-1961, Gorham Manufacturing Company, manufacturer, American, 1831- Cubic Coffee Service, 1927, Silver with gilding and ivory, 24.1 x 54.6 x 34 cm (9 1/2 x 21 1/2 x 13 3/8 inches) (overall), The Gorham Collection. 7 Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.488 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831- Dressing Set, ca. 1890, S ilver The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.599 8 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, William Christmas Codman, designer, English, 1839-1921 Thomas H. Yates, metalworker 1885-1947 Martelé Sugar Bowl, 1930, Silver Height: 7.9 cm (3 1/8 inches), The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.181.4 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, Buttonhook Silver, Length: 20.5 cm (8 1/16 inches) 9 The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.599.2 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, William Christmas Codman, designer, English, 1839-1921 Thomas H. Yates, metalworker, 1885-1947 Martelé Creamer, 1930, silver 13 x 11.4 x 6.3 cm (5 1/8 x 4 1/2 x 2 1/2 inch-
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es) The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.181.3 Lebolt & Co. Silver Workshop, American, 1910-1944, Water Pitcher, ca. 1910-1920 Silver, 17.3 x 21.6 cm (6 13/16 x 8 1/2 inches), Elizabeth T. and Dorothy N. Casey Fund 2015.111.25 Erik Magnussen, designer, Danish, 1 884-1961, Gorham Manufacturing Company, manufacturer, American, 1831- Cubic Coffee Service, 1927, Silver with gilding and ivory, 24.1 x 54.6 x 34 cm (9 1/2 x 21 1/2 x 13 3/8 inches) (overall), The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.488 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831- Dressing Set, ca. 1890, S ilver The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.599 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, William Christmas Codman, designer, English, 1839-1921 Thomas H. Yates, metalworker 1885-1947 Martelé Sugar Bowl, 1930, Silver Height: 7.9 cm (3 1/8 inches), The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.181.4 Gorham Manufacturing Company American, 1831, Buttonhook Silver, Length: 20.5 cm (8 1/16 inches) The Gorham Collection. Gift of Textron Inc. 1991.126.599.2 Lebolt & Co. Silver Workshop, American, 1910-1944, Water Pitcher, ca. 1910-1920 Silver, 17.3 x 21.6 cm (6 13/16 x 8 1/2 inches), Elizabeth T. and Dorothy N. Casey Fund 2015.111.25 Erik Magnussen, designer, Danish, 1 884-1961, Gorham Manufacturing Company, manufacturer, American, 1831- Cubic