Rivera197 note that positive paternal and maternal involvement with their children cuts down on behavioural problems. There is evidence that children in intact families are less likely to abuse drugs or alcohol.198 Hoffmann and Johnson199 find the lowest level of drug abuse among children living with father and mother and the highest level among children living with only their father. They believe that this result is not adequately accounted for by solely economic factors or residential mobility. More recently Hoffmann reports on a longitudinal study that shows adolescents who reside in single parent or stepparent families to be at heightened risk of drug abuse and this is not adequately explained by where they live.200 Family structure can affect mental health. Amato201 notes that the extended absence of a parent during childhood mildly increases depression for the child in later years. This holds true whether the absence is caused by death, divorce or out-of-wedlock birth. It holds for Whites and African-Americans but not for Hispanics. Dawson202 finds that children in single parent or reconstituted families are more likely than others to have been treated for emotional problems in the year preceding the interview. Clark and Barber report that, contrary to earlier findings, their investigation shows that children’s self-esteem is not lower in reconstituted families than in intact families.203 What is crucial to the adolescent child’s self-esteem is the father’s or stepfather’s interest 197
Amato, Paul, & Fernando Rivera, “Parental involvement and children’s behavioural problems” Journal of Marriage and Family 61(1999) 375-84. 198 Flewelling, Robert, & Karl Bauman, “Family structure as a predictor of initial substance abuse and sexual intercourse in early adolescence” Journal of Marriage and Family 52(1990) 171-81; Bjarnason, Thoroddur, & others, “Familial and religious influences on adolescent alcohol use: a multi-level study of students in school” Social Forces 84(2005) 375-90 (Icelandic). 199 Hoffmann, John, & Robert Johnson, “A national portrait of family structure and adolescent drug use” Journal of Marriage and Family 60(1998) 633-45. 200 Hoffmann, John, “The community context of family structure and adolescent drug use” Journal of Marriage and Family 64(2002) 314-30. 201 Amato, Paul, “Parental absence during childhood and depression in later life” Sociological Quarterly 32(1991) 543-56. 202 Op. cit. 203 Clark, Jennifer, & Bonnie Barber, “Adolescents in postdivorce and always-married families: self-esteem and perception of father’s interest” Journal of Marriage and Family 56(1994) 608-14.
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