Contents
Our
journey begins in the massive, cosmopolitan city of Xi’an, considered the easternmost point of the Silk Road. At the peak period of trade along the route, during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), this bustling metropolis was home to nearly a million people, with another million living just outside its imposing walls. Imperial buildings, temples, and markets lined its streets, and the city buzzed with activity night and day. Foreign merchants, ambassadors, scholars, and musicians flocked to this urban center, stocking the markets with exotic goods. The streets resonated with the sound of many languages.
A Brief Historyofofa the Silk Capital Road History Great
6
To wander through Xi’an today is to tread over layers of buried history. It is no wonder that the Xi’an: City of Peace 48 area is a mecca for archaeologists. Would you believe that one of their finds dates back 500,000 years? In 1963, a specimen determined to be that old, dubbed the Lantian man (a speciman of the Turfan: Oasis in the Desert 94 wide-ranging hominid homo erectus), was discovered in Lantian County, just southeast of Xi’an. Evidence of a Neolithic Banpo village, a “mere” 6,500 years old, was discovered in 1954. Samarkand: City of Merchants 128 But the history of Xi’an as a cultural and political center really began in the eleventh century BCE with the founding of the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE). The capital of Zhou comprised Baghdad: City oftwinScholars 172 cities, located just southwest of today’s Xi’an, known jointly as Fenghao. the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), China was uniExtensions: Istanbul After and the Sea 204 fied for the first time under the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE),
Further Reading
and its capital was established at Xianyang, just northwest of contemporary Xi’an. China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE), ordered the construction of a massive terracotta army as part of his burial monument—and it is one of the great wonders of the ancient world that we can visit today, thanks to its discovery in 1974 by some local farmers (read more on page 62).
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Photo Credits About the Map
25 1
Index
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About the Contributors
259A thermal spring in Xi’an
Acknowledgements
260
Skull of the Lantian man
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T R AV ELI N G T H E S I LK R OA D
Silk Throughout History With time and patience the mulberry leaf becomes a silk gown. —Chinese proverb I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one’s decency, can be called clothes. —Seneca the Younger, Declamations, Vol. 1
even when and where, is a mystery. What is known from archeology is that the earliest incidence of a silk culture that can be definitively dated is from between 4000 and 3000 BCE in central China. This is based on the presence of silk cocoons associated with remains from
Silk is
an amazing substance. It is a light fabric, yet it is strong, diaphanous, and clingy. It is capable of keeping a body warm and cool while looking great at the same time. It is no wonder that silk remains a precious commodity arguably five millennia since it was first harvested. The first question that comes to mind: Who came up with the brilliant idea that the silk strands spun by the caterpillar of the silk moth could be separated and woven into luxurious cloth? There is a Chinese legend that Lei Zu, the wife of the Yellow Emperor, discovered silk almost five thousand years ago. The story goes that she was enjoying tea in the shade of a mulberry tree when a cocoon fell into her steaming cup. The cocoon began to unravel slowly, producing a silken thread. Amazed by its fine and unusual consistency, luminosity, and strength, she gathered more cocoons and freed the threads—enough to intertwine and produce threads that could be woven together. Undoubtedly this is apocryphal. How sericulture— the breeding of silkworms for their silk—was initiated, or
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T R AV ELI N G T H E S I LK R OA D
Silk thread
Textiles and Dyes Trade in silk fabric gave the Silk Road its name, so let’s pause for a moment to marvel at the tempting assortment of silks that could be found at Turfan’s markets: sheer chiffons, lustrous satins, and elegant damasks, to name a few. Most favored of all were the exquisite Chinese silks, which merchants traded across Asia from Korea to the Mediterranean basin. When we visited Xi’an, we learned the intriguing secrets of silk making. China was indeed the birthplace of silk—some ancient Greek and Roman scholars called China “Serica,” or “Land of Silk.” The many available varieties ranged from the simplest of weaves, intended for everyday use, to delicate, finely patterned cloth reserved for only the most important occasions. All of these could be found along the Silk Road, where they were traded by merchants who would bring them to countries throughout Asia and Europe.
KEEP THE CHANGE Because silk is so much lighter and easier to transport than bronze coins, it was often used by merchants as currency. Even the Chinese government often paid officials stationed in remote Silk Road outposts such as Turfan in bolts of silk.
Natural Hues In ancient times, the vibrant dyes used to color and decorate fabrics were made from substances found in nature. Even today, many textile makers prefer to use natural dyes made from plants (and sometimes animals) in much the same way they have been concocted for centuries. Since the plants and animals used to produce many of the most colorful and durable dyes live only in warmer climates, dyes from southern countries were usually traded to northern ones. There were several highly prized dyes: Indigo. Indigo dye, originally derived from tropical plants, was popular across Asia during Silk Road times, and today synthetic indigo dyes are used to color many fabrics, including the denim beloved throughout the world for blue jeans. In Tang China, indigo was used most often in cosmetics.
T U R FA N : OA S I S I N T H E D E S ER T
Indigo
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Jiaohe is one of the most well preserved examples of an ancient Chinese town.
A Uyghur painting from the eighth or ninth century
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The Turkic Uyghurs held sway in the region for much of the time until their kingdom was taken over by Genghis Khan (ca. 1162–1227) and incorporated into the Mongol Empire in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Mongol control of Turfan lasted until the late fourteenth century, when the area again fell under contention, and smaller, often competing, polities ruled the region for centuries. Perhaps due to the near constant flux of power in Turfan and the surrounding areas, ties with the powerful neighboring Chinese dynasties, such as the Ming (1384–1644) and Qing (1644–1912), were complex, which at times led to crossed swords and problems with trade. For instance, it is thought that the Mogul ruler Yunus Khan (1416–1487) came to power in Turfan in 1462 and unified Mogulistan—but he soon ran into difficulties with Ming China over trading terms. The Turfanians were eager to send lucrative “tribute missions” to China, but the Ming emperor felt that receiving and entertaining these missions involved more expense and trouble than they were worth. In 1465, he set up harsh restrictions, permitting only one mission into China every five years, with only ten members in any party. Frustrated, Yunus Khan declared war on China, but, not surprisingly, going up against the massive Chinese forces was doomed to failure.
T R AV ELI N G T H E S I LK R OA D
Subjects remonstrate before a Chinese emperor.
ON SALE
October 2011
ADVANCE READING COP Y • NOT FOR SALE Traveling the Silk Road takes readers on an expedition along Asia’s legendary trade routes. Spanning centuries of history, this engrossing book—created in conjunction with the world-famous American Museum of Natural History—explores major stops in China, Uzbekistan, Iraq, and beyond. Discover the incredible goods these places invented, from silk to paper, and how they traded these commodities along with language, religion, art, and culture in what can be seen as man’s first engagement in globalization. • Features and reviews in magazines and newspapers • Online coverage and blog outreach
• Cross promotion with the American Museum of Natural History Mark Norrell is curator and chair for the division of paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History. He earned his PhD from Yale University prior to coming to the museum. His recent books include Discovering Dinosaurs (1995), A Nest of Dinosaurs (2000), Unearthing the Dragon (2005), and the coffee table book The Dinosaur Hunters: The Extraordinary Story of the Men and Women Who Discovered Prehistoric Life, published with co-author Lowell Dingus in 2008. Dr. Norrell lives in New York City.
Denise Leidy is curator for the department of Asian Art at The Metropolitan Museum of Art. She received her Masters degree and PhD from Columbia University and has traveled widely on the Silk Road. She published The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its History and Meaning last year and has also written a new catalogue of the Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. She curated an exhibition on Khubilai Khan and the Mongols in China that opened in November 2010. Dr. Leidy lives in New York City.
Reviewers are reminded that changes may be made in this uncorrected proof before books are printed. If any material from the book is to be quoted in a review, the quotation should be checked against the final bound book. Dates, prices, and manufacturing details are subject to change or cancellation without notice. For more information, contact Anwesha Basu at (646) 688-2511 or abasu@sterlingpublishing.com History/Ancient October 2011 $40.00 ($48.00 Canada) Hardcover 10 x 9 • 288 pages Sterling • 978-1-4027-8137-7