STEM Magazine 2020 Edition (UWCSEA East) by Aditya RAJ

2019 - 2020

STEM

MAGAZINE

WHAT LIES BEYOND US:

AST E R O I D M I N I N G ANVITA B.

SCIENCE

RESISTANT PATHOGENS RHEA T. PAGES 9-11

PAGES 16-17

TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING

MATHEMATICS

BLOCKCHAIN GENERATION

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

FUNDING PURE MATH

AARUSHI R. PAGES 18-21

VASU K. PAGES 30-32 FENG T. PAGES 33-35

Editor’s Note

Looking Forward

Dear Readers, In a time of increasing uncertainty within our everyday lives, the scientific lens forms a crucial part of how we view the world. As biologist Thomas H Huxley once said, ”The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the working of the human mind’.” Or put another way, science is the method for us to understand and express the world around us. The STEM Magazine is a celebration of the beauty of the scientific method, as our writers delve into the analysis of the global issues of our time, ranging from the electric vehicle revolution to the prospects of asteroid mining in the near future, as presented by the brightest minds of our community. We are excited to share with you the first ever UWCSEA East STEM Journal! I would like to join my fellow editors in thanking the members of the East STEM club for their invaluable contributions without which this journal could not have been possible. Their continued interest and commitment to scientific excellence is truly inspiring. We would also like to express our gratitude towards our teacher supervisor Mr. Matt York-smith without whom this magazine could not have been possible. We hope the first edition of the STEM Magazine inspires you to embark on your own journey of scientific exploration.

EDITORS-IN-CHIEF Aditya Raj, Vasu Kaker, Arnav Agarwal

SCIENCE

KOBOLD, the mischievous green goblin RUCHIKA MUKHERJEE now attends Columbia University

Cobalt is a hard, lustrous, silver-grey metal. Often formed as a by-product whilst mining nickel and copper, cobalt compounds are commonly used as a cathode in Li-ion batteries, magnets, cutting tools and for strengthening alloys used in jet engines.

Cobalt is mostly retrieved as a byproduct from copper and nickel production. Hence its pricing was initially dependent on the demand for these two primary metals. However, in recent times Cobalt has found a new use, as the consumption of Li-ion batteries continues to increase. After all, cobalt compounds are often incorporated in technological devices, be it in phones or even electric cars. About 22 pounds of cobalt are used in one electric car battery — more than 1,000 times the amount used in an

iPhone. Due to the soaring demand for this element, multinationals have been quick to optimise supply chains in order to maximise acquisition of this metal. Apple, Samsung, Honda, Berkshire Hathaway are among the few who are all party to the global race for the acquiring cobalt.

producer Glencore, to acquire 52,800 metric tons of cobalt hydroxide through 2020, about a third of Glencore’s output over the course of the deal. Hence, the market wars for cobalt has translated into a national level debate: should China exercise such rigorous control over an

Furthermore, four-fifths of cobalt sulfates and oxides used to make cathodes for lithium-ion batteries are refined in China. China has recently cemented its position in the world market for cobalt, when Gem, a Chinese supplier of battery chemicals, signed a 3-year contract with Swiss commodity

element that is required for production by manufacturers worldwide? After all, China could then manipulate prices, and raise them to maximise their profits, making them a natural monopoly. Some evidence of this may be seen in past cobalt prices, as it has more than tripled in the

last 18 months amid fears of a looming shortage, according to Bloomberg. This leaves other multinationals compromised, forced to seek cheaper alternatives. However, China’s move creates income for the people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but draining an impoverished country of natural resources is hardly sustainable. Some multinationals have stooped so low, as to utilise child labour in hazardous conditions in order to extract cobalt. Today, several children are involved in the task of mining Cobalt in DRC. Not only is this a violation of a battery of international labour and human rights law but it also causes several negative

repercussions on their health. Inhaling cobaltcontaminated air is hazardous as Cobalt can have a poisoning effect that causes heart problems, damaged vision, and even cancer. Although the creation of electric cars is a step towards a cleaner and greener question, we must stop to question at what cost? After all, the use of cobalt in the production process creates ethical concerns on multiple levels. Indeed, electric cars may reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. However, it is perhaps hypocritical to sacrifice sustainability, and pollute through the backdoor, whilst marketing a product as one that is directed towards addressing those very same causes. Exploiting local land and labour without offering the community any long term benefit is hardly a fair bargain. But is there an alternative? Discovering and utilising an alternative element would cost

multinationals millions and drive up costs of production. These would effectively be passed to consumers as higher prices. Would consumers choose a significantly more expensive electric car over one that causes more damage in a far off land? The rapid depletion of cobalt is in effect, creating a downward spiral, with no apparent way out of it. Even those wanting to forgo using it are unable to do so. Thus it is certainly quite ironic that Cobalt derives its name from ‘kobold’, a mischievous German goblin that lives underground. It has tormented several miners by appearing to be more expensive than it really is. Once again it is threatening to do the same, after all, as stated by the Economist magazine, “only a goblin would relish the conundrum” created in the world by the fluctuations of cobalt prices.

SCIENCE

Growing Burden of CRDs in India ARSH DUTT is a Grade 12 Student, Class of ‘21

Introduction Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRDs) are noncommunicable diseases that represent some of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality around the globe. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines CRDs as diseases of the airways and other structures of the lungs.

Chronic Pulmonary Obstructive Disease (COPD) and asthma are quantified as being the most prevalent CRDs worldwide, attributing to nearly 600 million cases worldwide in 2016while

COPD also caused 3.2 million deaths in 20152. Furthermore, upto 90% of the disease burden is located in middle and low income countries where the severity of air pollution and smoking rates are higher1. As COPD and Asthma are becoming frighteningly common between all age and socioeconomic groups, there

appears to be a developing consensus that they may pose a serious public health risk, especially in India. India itself accounts for over 18% of the world’s population, living in

varying geographical, cultural and economic landscapes. However, even with significant advances in medical technology, the country’s increasing population along with its lax pollution and tobacco regulations are leading to an increased burden of COPD and asthma cases in India, as reinforced by extensive survey-based data. This article analyses the magnitude of the disease burden, current challenges to diagnosis and treatment, innovative solutions and a proposed strategy for healthcare organisations to tackle these problems in a cost-effective manner.

In 2016, Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRDs) were responsible for 10.9% of total deaths and 6.4% of total Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in India wherein the WHO

describes 1 DALY as a year of healthy life forfeited due to disease. Furthermore, India accounted for 32% of the total DALYs caused by CRDs worldwide in 2016. COPD cases accounted for 75.6% of the total Indian DALYs that year . Moreover, between 1990 and 2016, the prevalence of COPD has increased by approximately 29.2% . In fact in 1990 COPD was the 2nd largest cause of disease burden in India, giving rise to 8.7% of total deaths and 4.8% of total DALYs . Even though, COPD-case-fatality rate has dropped from 2.2% to 1.53% between 1990 and 2016, the number of COPD cases has increased by an astounding 27.2 million cases by 2016 . The northern states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Haryana had the highest COPD prevalence, while the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland had the lowest values . The proportion of deaths between males and females was very similar, 3

with 8.7% and 8.6% dying from COPD respectively . Additionally, out of the total DALYs caused by COPD in India during 2016, 53.7% were caused by air pollution, 25.4% were caused by tobacco use and 16.5% were caused by occupational hazards . The prevalence of asthma between 2016 and 1990 is negligibly similar; however, the number of reported asthma cases has increased by 15 million over the same timeframe . Compared to COPD, the morbidity and mortality of asthma are relatively low, accounting for only 1.9% of the total deaths and 1.3% of the total DALYs in 2016 . Meanwhile the case fatality-rate for asthma decreased by 45.9% between 1990 ans 2016 from 0.89% to 0.48% . Unlike COPD, the geographical prevalence of asthma in India was the highest in the north-eastern states of Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, with Haryana, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh having 3

relatively moderate values of prevalence. The lowest prevalence of asthma was found in the central states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh . A higher proportion of women died due to asthma as compared to men, with 1.6% of male deaths and 2.1% of female deaths . Risk factors include indoor air pollution (fuel used for cooking), outdoor air pollution, occupational hazards (vapours, irritants and fumes) and frequent lower respiratory 3

infections during childhood . 1

Challenges with Diagnosis/TreatmentÂ There are numerous challenges surrounding

the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of patients suffering from CRDs. As COPD’s early symptoms include coughing, wheezing and general respiratory distress, many confuse them with the symptoms of prolonged smoking, which ironically is also considered to be the strongest independent indicator of a patient’s likelihood of developing COPD. This has caused an increased number of COPD cases going unreported as it is nearly indistinguishable from symptoms of regular smoking. Furthermore, the chances of receiving an early diagnosis remain relatively low due to a lack of awareness among the populus, combined with the gradual development of symptoms, becoming visible only once the disease has progressed significantly. A spirometry test is required to differentiate COPD from other respiratory diseases because it’s considered to be a standardised and

reproducible way of measuring airflow limitation. Yet according to a study conducted by the National Chest Research Foundation in 2013 upto 70% of general physicians and 90% of general practitioners did not use spirometry to diagnose COPD or asthma.

programme in 2016, no significant efforts to manage or treat more patients in the public health system have been observed . However, in 2018, the Indian government launched the Ayushmaan Bharat program, with the aim of transforming 150,000 sub-centres and primary centres into health and wellness centres (HWCs) . Even though nearly 13 million people were successfully screened The National Programme for non-communicable for Prevention and Control diseases such as of Cancer, Diabetes, diabetes and cervical Cardiovascular Diseases cancer, COPD was still and Stroke’ (NPCDCS) was not a part of the launched in 2010 with the screening program objective of advocating despite causing more health promotion, early deaths that year than diagnosis and building diabetes, tuberculosis, upon India’s inadequate breast cancer and medical infrastructure. malaria combined . Despite COPD increasing from the 8th largest cause Patients who suffer of disease burden to being from persistent asthma must use inhaled the 2nd largest within 26 corticosteroids (ICSs) in years, it was not order to reduce mentioned at all in NPCDCS . Even after being eosinophilia-based airway inflammation , included in the NPCDCS 7

yet the effectiveness of ICSs is reduced in asthma patients who smoke. However, inflammation caused by COPD is largely unresponsive to ICSs, requiring a different apparatus called a Bronchodilator, which comes in many variations and should be used twice a day when experiencing strong COPD symptoms . When an asthma patient is incorrectly diagnosed with and treated for COPD, the patient’s condition could become significantly worse and lead to serious negative repercussions which may result in an increased risk of future exacerbations of their condition . Thus reemphasising the need to successfully screen patients.

in improving the manner in the diagnosis process for these diseases. An important factor to consider is comorbidity, making sure that COPD patients are screened for other conditions like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, sleep apnea and sarcopenia. Extensive clinical trials show that specific treatments for these other illnesses are associated with better COPD diagnosis outcomes. Furthermore, public awareness about the illnesses must be increased, as a greater public understanding about the symptoms will reduce the likelihood of patients receiving late or incorrect diagnosis.

and brief training for physicians is integral in improving the scale at which COPD and asthma patients are accurately diagnosed.

From a public perspective, one of the most cost-effective and potent treatments for COPD is to simply cease smoking, as it can drastically slow down the progression of the disease and result in reduced future morbidity and mortality . Furthermore, the use of biomass fuels such as wood and cow dung, that nearly 70% of Indian households depend on for cooking, must be reduced. Exposure to these pollutants can According to a recent significantly increase an study conducted in the Solutions for Diagnosis/ individual's chances of US, community physicians developing COPD or Treatment who underwent an Wide-spread diseases asthma, even if they do such as COPD and Asthma intensive 2-day training not consume tobacco. A course were able to use require efficient, costsolution for households spirometry in a safe effective and safe is to switch to cleaner manner producing solutions. As COPD is a fuels like LPG, as they group of diseases with few accurate and verifiable produce an efficacious treatments, we results . This reinforces exponentially smaller must look at specific ways the claim that affordable amount of harmful 6

pollutants. Improving ventilation can also help reduce the risk of pollutants building up in one's home. Another factor which is incredibly pertinent in India’s urban centers is air pollution, which attributes to nearly 53.7% of all DALYS caused by COPD. The Indian government must place stronger restrictions, along with higher taxes upon firms with large carbon and NO emissions, while also subsiding renewable energy sources. Despite not having many regulations, the Indian government has indeed begun championing renewables, as x

demonstrated by their accommodation of the largest solar plant in the world in Tamil Nadu. Conclusion Hence, it can be concluded that investing capital and human resources into combating the rise of noncommunicable diseases such as COPD is a quite logical and forwardthinking step for upcoming health care agencies to take. The data also indicates that the diagnosis of COPD should be strongly prioritised over the diagnosis of asthma in the Indian context, as the former causes more mortality

and morbidity than malaria, tuberculosis, diabetes and breast cancer combined. In conclusion, the lack of medical infrastructure around the diagnosis of one of India’s deadliest diseases has given healthcare organisations the opportunity to intervene and assist those suffering from the disease. They can do this by linking innovative diagnostic resources with the government’s abundant supply of treatments in order to effectively diagnose and treat the maximum number of COPD patients.

SCIENCE

Drug Resistant Pathogens: The Renewed Menace of Humanity’s Oldest Foe RHEA TANEJA now attends King’s College London

In an age, where scientific research and innovation continue to challenge the very premises of limitation, one has every right to assume that the human race is closer than ever to conquering every enigma of the natural world. The 21st century has seen the fear of rapid disease spread revived and suppressed in a cyclical fashion, due in large part to the introduction of biomedical technology and enhanced clinical awareness. However, what has been largely left neglected in the midst of the biotechnological revolution has been nature's capacity to fight back. Its ability to evolve, as it always has, and to produce a deadly technology of its own. Antibiotic resistance is an area of increasing concern, as deadly strains of bacteria have emerged with the capacity to resist the drugs that once so reliably eliminated them.

The roots of antibiotic resistance trace back to the drug’s very invention by Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming in 1928, who discovered the secret to our great defence against the wrath of infection in Penicillin. Having received the Nobel Prize for his discovery in 1945, Fleming warned of the potential repercussions of this seemingly unparalleled feat in an edition of the New York Times, stating:

potential development of resistance within colonies of bacteria. Following the premises of Darwin’s theory, bacteria can develop the genetic mutation for resistance which, thanks to strong selective pressure, would allow them to survive over those killed by the antibiotic. Bacteria have the capacity to not only pass this gene to offspring via asexual reproduction but also transfer plasmids (DNA molecules that replicate independently) to “There is the danger that other colonies of nonthe ignorant man may resistant bacteria. easily under-dose himself However, the power of and by exposing his healing presented by microbes to non-lethal antibiotics would prove too quantities of the drug great a gift to sacrifice. make them resistant.” Introduced in the midst of a global war, antibiotics Charles Darwin’s 1859 book proved effective in curing ‘On the Origin of Species’, a host of major diseases gave significant evidence such cholera and syphilis to the theory of natural when the human race selection, and provided a needed it the most, as scientific basis to the though justifying the lack

of precaution. But Fleming foresaw something that the world is just beginning to realise. In our attempt to protect society from the peril of diseases, we have unearthed a ‘superbug’ worse than anything that preceded it. In the mid-1940s, not long after the introduction of antibiotics into mainstream clinical practise, the first strains of penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus were uncovered. The discovery and subsequent production of methicillin in 1960 aimed to eliminate this problem, but the bacteria responded back, with the first strains of MRSA (methicillin-resistant S. aureus) emerging soon after, in 1962. By 2002, a shocking 60 percent of S. aureus cases in hospitals were resistant to methicillin. Bacteria have also demonstrated the capacity

threatening to reignite a struggle that has been largely suppressed. The main causes of antibiotic resistance, while enhanced by the mechanisms of nature, are correlated with our own misuse of the medicinal drugs. Incorrect prescription of antibiotics is a major issue. Overuse and underuse (patients not taking the drug for the entire length of their prescription) of antibiotics have both to develop enzymes that been linked to the break down and destroy development of the antibiotics altogether, resistance, as well as continuing to do so in spite inappropriate of the discovery of new prescription of antibiotics drugs that target them. In to treat infections not the present day, nearly 1 actually originating from million deaths can be bacteria. In agriculture, attributed to these antibiotics are often used superbugs, with strains of to promote growth in bacteria becoming livestock, subsequently resistant to as many as 26 increasing the yield and antibiotics. Mycobacterium quality of production. tuberculosis, the bacteria Within hospital settings, responsible for the often contagious tuberculosis, which for nature of these superbugs centuries has reduced has resulted in the mortality rates worldwide, passing of infection has also developed between patients, calling increasing resistance in into question the quality the past few decades,

of infection control in clinical settings, while also increasing the prevalence of these resistant superbugs. Today, humanity finds itself hurtling forward in its quest to address situations that threaten its dominant existence yet, nature continues to pose even greater challenges. A permanent solution for antibiotic resistance remains distant, while its dangers only continue to grow.Â Indeed, the production rate of antibiotics has slowed down concerningly, while

those being developed fare no better in combating the unnerving resilience of the superbugs. A range of solutions have been hypothesised to combat this issue, with medical studies suggesting a range of potential sources from probiotics to common weeds. However, for the time being, a large degree of responsibility for containing this issue rests on those within the clinical environment. The WHO have formulated a list of measures that can be taken to minimise the

spread of resistant bacteria, including: maintaining cleanliness, washing hands and instruments before and after patient interaction, prescribing and disposing of antibiotics according to WHO guidelines, advising patients on the importance of correct usage of antibiotics (which may involve references to the pandemic of antibiotic resistance) and informing them of the measures they can take in their daily lives to avoid infection, including safe sex, keeping vaccines up to date, etc. In a world where natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest obstacles often fade into the pages of history, combating antibiotic resistance continues to be a momentous one, but human innovation and curiosity suggest it need not be impossible.

SCIENCE

From Rocks to Riches: The Prospects of Asteroid Mining ANIVTA BHAGVATULA now attends Brown University

Near-Earth asteroids are a subclass of small bodies orbiting the Sun whose trajectories pass close to the Earth. A majority of these asteroids originate from the Main Asteroid Belt (See Figure 1) and are brought closer towards the Sun due to perturbations from the gravitational field of Jupiter or as a result of collisions with other asteroids. In the Main Asteroid Belt, there are three main types of asteroids: C-Type, S-Type, and M-Type. C-type asteroids are carbonaceous and their composition predominantly consists of clay and stony silicate.

S-Type asteroids have a siliceous composition and are made of nickel-iron. MType asteroids are metallic and also have a nickel-iron composition. These Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs) are so rich in minerals that they have a total mineral wealth of 100 billion dollars for every person on the planet. Additionally, many of these asteroids contain water locked under the clay deposits on their surfaces, which could also serve as a likely propellant for spacecraft. For these reasons, initiatives such as asteroid mining are starting to gain popularity amongst private corporations. Companies such as Planetary Resources, DSI, and smaller firms like Aten Engineering and TransAstra Corporation have pioneered the spacemining initiative over the

past ten years. However, we need to question whether the economic incentives of spacemining are outweighed by its implications on society. First off, we need to consider the limitations that cost and technological advancement pose. For instance, Planetary Resourcesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Asteroid Capture and Return mission currently costs 2.6 billion dollars. This is only one of many processes required within the field of spacemining, which is why we need to question whether such a hefty investment would be worthwhile. One could argue that resources on asteroids such as the abundance of Platinum and other minerals, will result in a profit for these missions. However, the limitations

of our space technology must also be considered. For years, the closest interaction that spacecraft had with asteroids were brief flybys. Only recently have we explored possibilities of landing on or capturing smaller NEAs. As this practice is relatively new, extensive funding will be required in the future in order to practice and perfect it. Another concern that arises with acquiring resources from space is its legal consequences. Space is a common heritage of mankind, leading to a lack of clarity within the ownership of space resources by individual firms or even countries. Currently, licenses to operate in space are

issued by national governments to both private and public corporations. These governments are also responsible for enforcing regulations, as a specialised international authority hasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t been established yet. This poses a potential problem in the future, as there is a surge in interest to practice space-mining. Questions arise about who will be responsible to restrict and regulate the actions of

private corporations in the future. This uncertainty poses political implications too, as tensions between world superpowers rise, making space the next geopolitical battleground. We could argue that as human settlers expand into space, we need to inevitably face the reality of capitalising on its resources too. However before doing so, we must take into consideration costs, technology, and legality. The stability of establishing human civilisation in space could depend entirely on it.

SCIENCE

Stephen Hawking and Space Exploration SHIVANI DAYAL now attends Yale-NUS College

Hawking’s Personal Life The legendary Stephen Hawking is often regarded as the greatest scientist of our time. In his lifetime he made significant contributions to the world of science. He devoted a significant portion of his life to find a “unified theory” of physics. In 1991, he explained the reasoning behind his belief that such a theory would exist. “But one can’t help asking the question: Why does the universe exist?” he remarked. “I don’t know an operational way to give the question or the answer if there is one, a meaning. But it bothers me.” He never managed to find or prove this theory but he wasn’t discouraged. His research on string theory and black holes has been considered extremely

influential and revolutionary. He even proved that black holes aren’t entirely black; they actually emit radiation (dubbed ‘Hawking Radiation’). Thus, black holes can evaporate if

they’re given enough time. His influences extended far beyond just the scientific community. He communicated a bulk of his ideas about cosmology through his widely-read book, “A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes”, published in 1988. More than 10 million copies of his first book have been purchased. This success was followed by a more

accessible sequel, “The Universe in a Nutshell”, which updated readers on concepts like the possibility of an eleven dimension universe. His books even inspired a documentary film by Errol Morris. The physicist is one of the most celebrated voices in the sciences despite his incapacitating neurological disorder. He was given 2 years to live in 1963 after being diagnosed with ALS. However, he chose to continue his work and was awarded the position of the Lucasian professor at Cambridge in 1979 — a position that has also been occupied by Isaac Newton. He was also awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Barack Obama in 2019, alongside many other

notable science and math prizes. The Scientific Issue with Perspectives As his book titles, as well as his discoveries regarding black holes and bets regarding Higgs Boson discoveries, might suggest, a majority of his work was focused on cosmology. A major reason for this was his belief that the Earth would become inhabitable soon, and thus we as the human race needed to find a new, habitable home. In 2016, he remarked that “Although the chance of a disaster to planet Earth in a given year may be quite low, it adds up over time, and becomes a near certainty in the next thousand or 10,000 years.” He also had a firm belief that humans would soon begin exploring and settling elsewhere, but significant scientific work needs to be done in order to reach places other than Earth that can sustain life.

Thus, the next few decades are critical for the survival of our species, which he outlined in the same interview, saying “We will not establish selfsustaining colonies in space for at least the next hundred years, so we have to be very careful in this period.” Hawking thus supported a project called the ‘Breakthrough Starshot Initiative’, focused on developing technology for interstellar travel.

driven by our curiosity about what the world is made of, and how it began. The structure of our galaxy and the elements present in the planets around us may contain clues regarding the ‘beginning’ of the universe – if there was one – and how this has impacted our present. The mere observation that the universe is expanding gave rise to the theory of the ‘Big Bang’ as the beginning of

This support is in line with his positive attitude towards space travel, and the belief that funding such research programs would undeniably lead to benefits for the human race. In his book ‘A Brief History of Time’, Hawking provides a summary of humanity’s progressing knowledge about space,

the universe, and remains the current scientific explanation for the creation of everything. Not only does it bring light to the past, but space exploration also acts as a key to the future. Our current use of technology in space

enables us to predict the weather, natural disasters, and possibly approaching asteroids. Therefore, this field unites us as a species. It drives innovation and cooperation between countries, as the events in space impact everyone. All while creating jobs and economic benefits.

However, Hawking’s beliefs and subsequent action may not have been the most popular choice. While his views represent the hope of tackling long-term, large-scale problems, not everyone was equally enthusiastic about space exploration. People are dying due to problems that already exist, and it can be argued that it is far more critical to fund projects focused on finding solutions to

these present issues. Wealth disparity, corruption, lack of education, lack of sanitation, women’s rights and protection, and limited access to healthcare are all problems that we face currently. The large sums of money derived from citizens’ taxes worldwide and donations from wealthy individuals used for space research, if instead redirected to solving these issues, may prove far more effective and have a positive impact in the nearer future. The existence of another habitable planet isn’t a guarantee, and this excessive spending could ultimately prove to be a waste. Furthermore, the exploration may have a very damaging impact on Earth and the immediate area surrounding us. We are unaware of the impacts we are having on the environment in space by deploying machines and rockets into other planets’

atmospheres. By introducing chemicals and elements that may be foreign to other planets, we are beginning a chain of events with an unpredictable end result. While also polluting space with ‘space junk’, another action that has several unforeseeable consequences, one of which might just include the reduced success of future space missions. Drawbacks of space exploration spill into politics and the environment as well. The applications of space technology could fuel unhealthy, strained relations between countries, while satellites are used for hostile spying as a part of possible war tactics. This can particularly be evidenced by the increasing militarisation of space in some aspects by a few countries. Lastly, Earth itself is a resource that may not have fully been explored. Like Stanislaw Lem in

‘Solaris’ said, “Man has gone out to explore other worlds and other civilisations without having explored his own labyrinth of dark passages and secret chambers, and without finding what lies behind doorways that he himself has sealed.” Further Reading

Apart from his significant contributions to the scientific world, he made a

sizeable impact on pop culture. Eddie Redmayne won an Oscar for his portrayal of Hawking in the movie ‘The Theory of Everything’, which outlined Hawking’s scientific contributions and his personal life. In particular, this movie focused on his relationship with his first wife, Jane Wilde, and the odds they endured. The movie further traces his agonising struggle against amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as “ALS” or Lou Gehrig’s disease. He’s also appeared on several popular television series such as The Simpsons, and Star Trek. Also, Hawking met the character Sheldon in an episode of ‘Big Bang

Theory’, and he was a guest on the Last Week Tonight Show, for a hilarious – but also slightly awkward – interview. It’s interviews like the one above that showcase his fun-loving personality and ability to share his theories without a hint of condescendence. Michio Kaku, a professor of theoretical physics at the City University of New York, praised this quality in an interview. “Not since Albert Einstein has a scientist so captured the public imagination and endeared himself to tens of millions of people around the world,” he commented in an interview. He met several influential personalities, including President Obama, Queen Elizabeth, Nelson Mandela, and both Benedict Cumberbatch and Eddie Redmayne who have portrayed him onscreen.

TECHNOLOGY

The Blockchain Generation: Can Blockchain Technology Terminate Some of the World’s Most Pressing Issues? AARUSHI RATH now attends London School of Economics (LSE)

Blockchain technology has digitised the world of currency and capital to a great extent, further questioning the dilemmas of digital finance and its implications on society and politics. As an extremely debated and controversial matter, individuals and financial institutions often inquire into the potential repercussions of Blockchain and how it may overwhelm the commercial markets. It may also be argued that the way in which society chooses to use blockchain can determine our global potential to alleviate some

of the world’s most pertinent issues. Moreover, if we use blockchain as a source of innovation, such as ExsulCoins and Havven, then perhaps our world can reach new heights, bringing us one step closer to the pinnacle of success. If we use the one principal function of blockchain, we can find solutions to several matters through creativity and flair. Although problems with blockchain do exist, we must also consider its advantages. In the age of technology, with the development of algorithmic projects and artificial intelligence, it’s important that we truly fathom the footprint Blockchain technology can have on our planet. Blockchains are digital and public ledgers where all

cryptocurrency transactions are documented publicly, it utilises the distributed ledger technology (DLT). ‘Blocks’ within a blockchain store information, and when it is at its maximum capacity, a new block gets added to the chain. This occurs in chronological order. Cryptography is used in blockchain technology to prevent the corruption of information and surrounding networks, decreasing the chances of any digital scam to be circulated in the nodes. This revolutionary and pioneering advancement was initially constructed as an accounting system for the cryptocurrency, Bitcoin. It confronted several challenges that

came as a result of virtual currency, one being their anarchic nature and volatility. By acting as a central authority, Blockchain allows for transactions to be verified and creates a permanent record, which can be accessed by users of the currency. This heightens the credibility of several cryptocurrencies, as it increases security within transactions. Additionally, it decreases the difficulty for people to liquefy their digital currency into other ones. Blockchain creates more order within the cryptocurrency movement, increasing the activity of digital investment and exchange while simultaneously alleviating the many loopholes in digital currency.

In the 21st century, innovative minds are

utilising blockchain in different circumstances. ExsulCoin, an especially futuristic cryptocurrency, is a platform for blockchain technology to be used to assist in the protection of refugees in the wake of the refugee crisis. Through unconventional practices of blockchain technology, ExsulCoins are just one of the remarkable measures to alleviate some of societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most horrifying predicaments. It plans to achieve their aims of increasing security of refugees through a fivepart solution. Firstly, the ExsulCoin wallet allows for refugeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal information (e.g. health records, refugee status confirmation and identity verification) to be stored through blockchain. Refugees can gain access to this information by a fingerprint scan. This increases the availability of personal information to refugees since all personal information is encrypted into the blockchain. What is especially remarkable about this concept is that

several refugees can have access to them through one device, yet it is still secured through their individual biometric data. The second part entails the ExsulCoin platform. It allows refugees to input requests, which are then transferred to donors, who offer assistance by funding them using ExsulCoins. Individuals can also earn ExsulCoins by completing tasks (i.e. assisting to provide clean drinking water). The third component of the solution is the education application. It uses ExsulCoins to pay people to learn. Your grades are fractions of ExsulCoins, and putting more commitment in your work allows you to earn ExsulCoins faster. Part four of the solution allows refugees to look for work opportunities (nanowork) using the platform. They are short one-time tasks (an average of five minutes) that users complete in order to earn ExsulCoins. Nanoworkers are

matched to users based on their success in the education app. The prices of tasks are determined by artificial intelligence, creating the market for both nanoworkers and platform users. The last aspect of the solution is the reputation system, which entails a rating of the workers determined by the users they interact with. With skill assessments and transaction history, credit scores are created for the workers, increasing the chances of refugees to integrate better into society financially. As exemplified through ExsulCoins, blockchain technology creates conditions for refugees to prosper economically and benefit from inclusion in society. It diminishes the isolation and lack of assistance refugees face every day, giving them the scope to thrive by skilling and operating in a meritocracy, through fair and achievable means. This could potentially lead to the termination of the

refugee crisis, and a promising future for many innocent civilians. What is distinctly remarkable about EsxulCoins is that rather than just providing assistance, they empower refugees to paint an ameliorated future for themselves. Economists question the inner workings of price stability which often ignites several ideas and solutions. However, inflation doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t only occur in our physical economy, rather in the digital economy we create today as well. Even so, small start-ups that are blockchain based are showing greater promise in the initiative of price stability in comparison to several government bodies, questioning the implications we can potentially create in the future. Havven is a startup with the aim to diminish volatility in the cryptocurrency markets. Their dual token system and transaction fees are creating asset-backed coins, to prevent rapid

inflation of digital currencies, all being secured through blockchain. At a glance, it may not appear to have great ability or flair, but it truly is exemplary, creating avenues of possible alleviations of hyperinflation, which is a pertinent concern in many countries. Governments and international organisations, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, can use certain elements from Havven that are applicable in the physical economy to bring about more price stability in international markets. We often blame several economic problems on international organisations and Governments, but blockchain is one of the several advancements that allow us to change our future for the better, giving us the power to stimulate sustainable and beneficial change.

However, there is a tendency to neglect the harmful implications that come as a result of blockchain technology and focus only on its merits. Although some believe it provides us with solutions to the world’s incessant problems, they often never consider the fact that it may just add a layer of further convolutions.

order, which perhaps only the youth and the relatively well off may be able to keep up with, further widening the socio-economic disparity within communities. Blockchain also creates several ethical conundrums, as some believe we’re progressing far beyond our potential, entirely disregarding our

Blockchain can be used to digitise government models, which has previously caused increased discourse between communities. It creates avenues for further democracy while arguably giving excess liberty to society. Moreover, the world of cryptocurrencies and blockchain brings a whole new lexicon and method of

humanity and morals.

nothing before, evidently being used through several means and platforms for a range of purposes. Through this, it’s urgent we identify those functions and apply it to address pertinent matters our world faces today. The late Stephen Hawking once said “things cannot make themselves impossible”, it’s essential we acknowledge the threatening nature of our world’s plights and recognise the heights blockchain technology can take us, to carve a better and enhanced future for Earth.

Although the cryptocurrency development has incited several controversies, the dilemma always reverts back to society, whether we use advancements in technology for amelioration or not. Blockchain’s single function has brought about innovation like

TECHNOLOGY SCIENCE

Secrets through Plain Sight Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange JINGYING WANG now attends Yale University

Visit bit.do/secretsthroughplainsight to watch Jingyingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s video

TECHNOLOGY

Brief on FinTech’s Takeover SHAYONA BASU now attends University of Chicago

Visit bit.do/fintechtakeover to view Shayona’s Presentation

TECHNOLOGY

Forensic Technology: A New Generation of Science RHEA TANEJA now attends King’s College London

With the earliest documentation by the Chinese in the 1st century CE, medicinal application as a means for criminal justice has a long history. However, the field of forensic science has undergone significant changes in the past few decades. With the modern day capacity to magnify DNA fragments to identify their source, isolate samples of a particular drug based on its chemical composition, trap and analyse compounds from arson residue; the sense of security forensic science has brought to objective science is undoubtable.

decide a verdict? More importantly, how can we conclusively determine evidence to be scientifically definite? After all, such is the nature of forensic science that it builds upon the simplest of

biological relationships, so much so that the most microscopic sample of epithelial tissue could be enough to change someone’s life forever. It’s easy to forget that for the large part, this is a science that concerns humans. All Yet despite the extent of of the meticulous technology available today, processes of laboratory the process of analysing evidence in relation to crime investigation suddenly become all the more is a tedious one, and is crucial, just how the rarely entirely conclusive. So, where does one draw the connections made line between an assumption between scientific and sociological hypothesis and a conclusion? How much evidence is enough to

become equally controversial. DNA evidence has become a momentous subject matter in modern forensic science. The discovery of PCR, or Polymerase Chain Reaction technology by molecular biologist Karis Mullis has provided DNA analysis with an important platform into respectability when it comes to criminal justice. The science behind PCR encapsulates the extent of the capacity of modern day technology, allowing a small sample of STRs, or repeating sequences on DNA to be amplified into millions of copies, allowing its source to be successfully identified. The enzyme DNA Polymerase interprets and produces copies of a nucleic acid sequence, doubling the sample every few minutes to produce enough DNA for analysis.

This technology has seen perhaps its most notable influence on the field of forensic science, with the identification of delocalised skin, hair, blood and urine samples among others leading investigators straight to a scientifically translated list of suspects.

So what could possibly be wrong with such a miraculously coherent form of technology? For one - DNA is everywhere. A sample of DNA can be identified without actually answering any questions given the arbitrary nature of our actions and whereabouts; just as simply brushing past someone and depositing epithelials does not make one culpable for their murder, a DNA sample can easily be a false trail or circumstantial finding. As

was the case in the fateful trial of O.J. Simpson, DNA evidence successfully placed him in the house Nicole Simpson, but was not enough to isolate him as the murderer. Another matter brought up by the trial was that of DNA handling and associated human error which can’t be eliminated by PCR. Studies have shown humans share approximately 99.9% of their DNA, with just 0.1% resulting in genetic variation. So competency and accuracy in handling DNA samples is absolutely crucial in maintaining the validity of what can often be a minuscule sample in the first place. It’s important to consider that the polymerase enzyme is subject to error, and the greater a sample of DNA is amplified, the greater the degree of error. This, combined with the likelihood of contamination at some point in the lifespan of a potentially incredibly small concentration has led to high degrees of uncertainty in indefinitely

determining the source of a DNA sample. Instead, we must associate the potential source of the sample with a probability in numerical terms, contradicting the very precedents of what can be proven ‘beyond reasonable doubt’. Not all evidence presents itself in the form of human residue. The mass spectrometer is also an incredibly useful tool to forensic investigators, and in many ways doesn’t present the same complications associated with DNA evidence and technology. The mass spectrometer can be used to identify specific chemical compounds, which in certain combinations can lead to the crucial detection of materials that when considered circumstantially by investigators could be the difference in a new or established development. The molecules in the sample are ionized and deflected in a magnetic field in

accordance to their weight, determining the compound on the basis of the specific elements within it and their relative masses. Trace evidence including inks, paints and dyes can be identified using the mass spectrometer. This can be particularly useful with samples of writing, being a scientific extension of the visual observations made by handwriting experts. Drug crimes, including intake of illegal substances are also an important responsibility of forensic investigators, and the mass spectrometer can also be used to identify the presence of specific drugs. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry can be used to detect volatile substances, such as steroids. Perhaps the only major weakness of mass spectrometry is the fact that the sample is destroyed in the process, which can be problematic when only small samples are involved. Additionally, the main role of mass

spectrometry is to identify the mass-charge ratio of the substances involved, which could be the same for multiple chemical compounds. Furthermore, with more complex structures and without a source for comparison, the technology is not advanced enough yet to provide conclusive evidence, although further modifications are being actively made by scientists. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy follows similar principles to mass spectrometry, instead firing x-rays at a sample to detect the elements involved, but in a non destructive manner. The xrays cause the displacement of inner orbital electrons, and the energy required to replace them varies from element to element. This technology can be used in similar application to mass spectrometry, although is specifically used in the identification of soils and rocks, as well as gunshot residue. More advanced

applications of this technology are still being investigated, but its true potential, just like mass spectrometry, lies in the extent to which the most basic physical and chemical processes are being utilised in the field of forensic science to seek answers to the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest, and darkest questions. In many ways, it can be said that the forensic sciences serve as the conjunction between natural scientific phenomena and the enigma that is human behaviour. A field that is not without its internal problems and the complexities of our natural world that must still be overcome, the innovation of the modern day suggests that solutions are not far away; solutions that can bring us closer to ensuring safety and justice for all.

ENGINEERING

Green Buildings YANRUI CHEN now attends University of Birmingham

What is a green building? Most people may have encountered this term before but not really understood what it meant. Well, a green building is any regular building with environmentallyconscious construction and operation. In reality, achieving that requires a multitude of measures like saving water, lands, energy, materials and improving environmental conservation per household to a large extent.

With the ever-looming shortage of resources and the seriousness of climate change, more countries

are realising that developing green buildings is indeed the need of the hour. But to do so one must consider several goals that target both the indoor and outdoor environments. Due to the greenhouse effect caused by carbon dioxide, reducing energy use becomes an urgent and important target. In some rural and even urban areas in the winter, people burn coal to provide heat, due to its low costs and convenience. However, the consequence of millions of people doing so are huge and serious, carbon dioxide emissions, from coal burning, damaging the environment. For instance, buildings in the USA are responsible for 38% of all carbon dioxide emissions. Furthermore, according to the U.S. Green Building Council

(USGBC), buildings account for around 41% of the world’s energy consumption. Lighting, heating and cooling systems all contribute to energy use. Part of the reasons for having a high proportion is due to a large amount of electricity that the buildings tend to use. In the United States, buildings are responsible for 73% of the country’s electricity consumption. This makes a strong case for using renewable energy like solar, wind and hydropower to alleviate the overall emissions from our energy use. Besides energy efficiency, water conservation is another goal. Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building.

Buildings are responsible for not just a large percentage of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water use, but also a large percentage of water waste, with buildings, accounting for over 13.6% of all potable water use, roughly 15 trillion gallons of water per year. Materials saving is also one of the goals of sustainable buildings. According to the USGBC, 40% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s raw materials are used in the construction of buildings. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products, foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects. For sitting and structural design efficiency, the goal is to minimise the total environmental impact associated with all lifecycle stages of the building project in designing sustainable buildings. Although it is hard to accomplish, architectures can still use

envelope enclosure to protect buildings or plane design and overall layout with the corresponding climate to a certain extent.

However, the impacts on the indoor environment are an equally important area of concern. Thermal problem is the first issue. Although the temperature in a room affects the efficiency of people, current research finds that continual use of air conditioners causes huge energy consumption. In addition to ensuring the overall thermal balance of the body, green buildings also pay attention to applying natural forms of energy. Therefore, green buildings are concerned about finding the balance

between convenience and energy consumption. Green buildings also use more sunlight as a part of

the indoor environment to reduce electricity use. Green acoustic environments are designed to minimise noise sources as designers usually design to control the outdoor noise level. Air quality is the third goal of green buildings, as they attempt to minimise indoor air pollutants. While, ensuring that occupants are satisfied with the indoor air quality index.Â The benefits of green buildings are significant and governments emphasise the

importance of green buildings, as many programs have been created to encourage construction of green buildings like the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). As of August of 2015, over 13.8 billion square feet of building

space had been certified by LEED while only 2% of nonresidential buildings were green in 2005. However, some misunderstandings continue to exist as many think that the cost of developing green buildings

is far too high a price to pay. However, challenges in constructing green buildings still exist. For instance, every country plans to develop green buildings in the following years. But, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s difficult to change existing buildings.

In China, there are over 400 billion meters cubed of existing buildings without the standards of green building. If the government wanted to change these buildings into green buildings, they would need plenty of

funding and advanced technology. In northern China, especially in winter, the independent control of the heating system can reduce energy consumption by up to 30% and is extremely crucial to develop sustainable development. Scientists are still finding better materials to construct green buildings. Materials scientists and architects have developed bricks which contain bacteria to capture carbon dioxide. They have created buildings with cooling systems powered by wind or sun. These achievements are useful at saving costs and promoting sustainable development. Moreover, the development of green buildings increases environmental awareness as they become more prominent worldwide.Â

ENGINEERING

The Coming Electric Vehicle Transformation VASU KAKER is a Grade 12 student, Class of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;21

Nearly 92% of Asiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population - approximately 4 billion people - are exposed to levels of air pollution which pose significant health risks. Densely populated cities like New Delhi, Beijing, and Jakarta experience the brunt of this environmental issue with air pollution levels up to 10 times the World Health Organization guidelines. In a bid to tackle the problem, cities are encouraging the use of cleaner, zeroemission electric vehicles (EVs) powered by renewable energy, hoping that such technology will soon supplant the almost 40 million gas-powered automobiles purchased annually across Asia. Even though such vehicles have a long way to go, they have, indeed, found some success. In 2018, approximately 1.1 million electric vehicles

were sold in China alone, accounting for more than 55% of global sales. The single most important element of the electric vehicle is the battery. Though the invention of the electric vehicle dates back to the early 1800s, the technology was not commercialised for another two centuries due to the low energy density of the batteries needed to power them. Instead, they were abandoned in favour of gasoline-powered automobiles developed by Karl Benz and subsequently Henry Ford. It was only after the development of the Lithium-Ion Battery chemistry in the 1970s - an innovation that offered an energy density of more than six times that of its predecessor, the Lead Acid battery - that electric vehicle production returned into the realm of possibility.Â

Lithium-ion batteries release energy by the oxidation of lithium metal into lithium ions, which, having lost one of their electrons, are then shuttled to the cathode the negative electrode - of the battery. While charging, the process is reversed - lithium ions which accumulated in the cathode of the battery are then reduced and transported back to the anode, where they precipitate into their pure metallic phase. Lithium is the lightest of all metals on the periodic table and delivers a high voltage of 3.7 Volts (lead-acid delivers 1.2 volts) when oxidised and coupled with a suitable cathode, allowing such batteries to truly pack in a punch. A vast majority of commercialised lithiumion batteries utilise a cathode derived from cobalt. The cathode is

normally the limiting factor of the batteries performance and energy density; cobalt-based cathodes, however, have enabled batteries to store some of the highest energy densities witnessed. Most LithiumIon cells deliver up to 250 Watt-hours of energy per kilogram of battery, which is a far cry from the 40-50 Watt-hours of energy delivered per kilogram of the Lead Acid batteries. Moreover, in the charging process, lithium ions that were coordinated to metal particles in the cathode are rapidly removed. Unlike other potential contenders for the cathode, such as Manganese, Vanadium, Molybdenum, Iron, and Nickel based materials, Cobalt in its oxide form, Cobalt (IV) Oxide, has a crystal structure which remains virtually immobile as the lithium ions are inserted and removed. This enables ultradurability, whereby the battery can be charged and discharged hundreds,

sometimes thousands, of times before it must be replaced. Although these Lithium-Ion batteries can indisputably be dubbed the “king” of energy storage technologies out there, their over-reliance on cobalt may very well also be their biggest pitfall. Cobalt is an expensive metal, costing

warlords. This renders global cobalt supply highly unstable leading to extreme price volatility, with prices subject to changes on the order of over 30% per month. To meet global demand, Congo mines often resort to utilising child labour, with an estimated 40,000 children extracting cobalt.

anywhere between $41,000 to $86,000 per tonne. Moreover, 70% of the world’s cobalt supply originates from the Democratic Republic of Congo, an impoverished African nation well endowed in natural resources. The majority of the nation’s supply comes from small scale artisanal cobalt mines, controlled by

These mines are one of the many reasons behind the extremely low literacy rates and development indicators of the country. Meanwhile, the abysmal working conditions and lack of protective equipment in such mines have forced workers to mine barehanded and without masks. The dust in

mines and the toxicity of cobalt, alongside other elements encountered, can also cause systemic poisoning and respiratory tract problems to miners.

Fortunately, alternatives to cobalt do exist and are slowly being commercialised. Many automakers are switching their battery cathodes to a nickel, manganese and cobalt (NCM) concoction to reduce their reliance on the precarious and costly cobalt. Initially, NCM cathodes were developed such that the metals existed in a 1:1:1 ratio. However, as time progressed, the percentage of cobalt

utilised has been reduced. Last year, the chemical/materials innovation wing of the Korean conglomerate LG, announced that it would be introducing a groundbreaking 8:1:1 ratio of the three metals in its vehicles. Other materials like Lithium Manganese Oxide cathodes used in the Nissan Leaf or the Lithium Iron Phosphate cathodes utilised by Chinese electric bus manufacturer BYD are also potential candidates, especially due to the substantially lower cost of Iron and Manganese. Nevertheless, their durability and energy

density cannot compare to batteries with cobaltbased cathodes. By offering subsidies, phasing out gasoline vehicles, and encouraging the switch to electric vehicle production, leaders of Asian countries are making a bold stand in the hope of alleviating air pollution and climate change. With a switch to cobalt-free cathodes, which could result from further investment into the R&D for lithium-ion batteries, a more sustainable future could become a possibility for these Asian megacities. Â

MATHEMATICS

Should Governments fund Pure Mathematics? FENG TIAN now attends Oxford University

It can be tempting to jump to the conclusion that further peer-reviewed research should be conducted into pure mathematics - especially given that pure maths is a beautiful, complex and mind-blowing discipline that helps us better understand the world, trains our problem solving and analytical skills, all while enhancing our ability to interpret abstract ideas. However, it is important to recognize that its importance is often questioned, especially by those who don’t understand its true potential. Therefore, this report will be discussing the diverse opinions that exist on the issue and try to understand how they may translate into concrete perspectives. Funding pure maths, some may argue, has too high of an opportunity cost, when

the public revenue - no matter how small- could be used to finance much more important projects that can possibly make a huge difference elsewhere. This could include providing shelter, food, clean water to people living under poverty and to ultimately increasing people’s living standards. Does pure maths research really have a tangible enough benefit to justify funding it when nearly 12% of our world’s population is currently starving or undernourished and don't even have their basic needs being met? This argument at first is reasonable, there’s nothing more important than people’s lives, their basic needs should always come first. However, we cannot give up everything in order to do so, the governments should do what they can to help

people in vulnerable situations, but even then money cannot change their situations overnight. Meanwhile, what we still need is development. When countries develop, their whole population benefits from it, including those people who live under poverty, albeit to different extent and pure maths can help nations to develop better and faster in multiple ways. It’s necessary to understand that firstly, pure maths research tends to have only long term impacts, therefore its benefits may not be very obvious to societies. For example, the global positioning system (GPS), that is the very foundation of multiple billion dollar enterprises today, is based on the mathematics first investigated 200 years ago by the German mathematician Bernhard

Riemann. It takes time, but many would argue that it is indeed worth the wait. Most importantly, pure maths provides a way for us to understand more complicated ideas. It helps shape how we perceive the world, it brings us to further evolution of humans, therefore having an incalculable value to us. It can also be used as the basic tool for solving real-world problems and supporting innovations in other fields. For example, at first, G. H. Hardy’s number theory appeared to be a noble piece of work yet ultimately useless. However, years later, it turned out to have important applications in cryptography, which benefits both the military and the economy of countries. Also, the understanding of “imaginary numbers” may not be necessary at the first glance, however, it supports the design of modern technology, economic and financial models, robotics, and many more. Lots of

important innovations and investigations, whether it’s science, technology, engineering or for that matter any other field, rely on pure maths that have been studied at some point

First of all, compared to applied maths, results in pure maths research are much slower to get. Pure maths doesn’t have obvious short term benefits to the general

in the past (to an extent). Therefore pure maths is a really powerful tool to promote development in countries.

public. Applied maths may help us download a video faster, it may improve MRI equipment for doctors and may have other direct impacts on the societies and our living standards that pure maths doesn’t have. But since pure maths only acts as a powerful tool which supports innovations in other fields,, why don’t the governments just spend the money straight into engineering or medical

But since researchers cannot be sure of whether or when they will be able to discover something useful or new, even when enough funding is provided, why not use those funds for other fields where new breakthroughs are being achieved constantly?

research instead of spending on pure maths?

productivity of applied maths research. “Pure

that was an innovation in the technological field,

This argument, compared to the first one, can also be easily argued against, since it is highly likely that the governments were already funding research in those areas (since fields such as medicine directly affect our living standards thus the governments and societies care more about them). In fact, pure maths research actually supports and increases the

maths as a tool for innovation” means that pure maths provides a knowledge base to studies in other areas, without the knowledge, no matter how much you wish to innovate in other fields, it simply may not work. For example, without the discovery, understanding and application of prime numbers, cyber safety may still be a problem now –

however it is heavily dependent on pure maths, even if you spend all the funding on technological research, no one would know that prime numbers can be used – unless that person is really good at pure maths to begin with.