PJT Issue 46 by SPATS

The Pacific

THEOLOGY

ISSN 1027-037X:Series II No. 46, 2011

The Pacific Journal of Theology Journal of the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS) Editor for this Issue Rev. Rusiate Tuidrakulu, General Secretary, SPATS, Suva, Fiji Editorial Board Tessa Mackenzie (Chair), Anglican Diocese of Polynesia Rev. Rusiate Tuidrakulu, General Secretary, SPATS Dr. Kafoa Solomone, Pacific Theological College Aisake Casimira, Pacific Conference of Churches Barbara Hau’ofa, University of the South Pacific Titilia Vakadewavosa, Weavers Desk, SPATS Rev. Dr. Donal McIlraith, Pacific Regional Seminary Graphic Design and Typesetting Kalesi Daunabuna, SPATS Administrative Assistant Cover Design Adrienne Morley, Digital Design, Christchurch, New Zealand Copyright ©

South Pacific Association of Theological Schools 2011 Second issue, 2011. Except where otherwise stated, the writers of articles alone are responsible for the opinions expressed. No articles in this issue may be reproduced in whole or in part without permission.

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Contents Editorial 1 Rev. Rusiate Tuidrakulu Hermeneutics is Body, Mind and Heart Dancing the Haka Rev. Dr. Tevita Tonga Mohenoa Puloka

Hermeneutics of Ecology and its Relationship to the Identity of the Oikos in Oceania 19 Rev. Dr. Cliff Bird The Challenge and Contribution of Postcolonial Theory to Theological Hermeneutics in Oceania 34 Rev. Dr. Mosese Mailo The Challenge and Contribution of Gender to Theological Hermeneutics in Oceania 55 Rev. Dr. ‘Asinate Samate Ecumenism and its Hermeneutical Experience in Oceania 95 Rev. Dr. Fele Nokise Apology & Reprint (of Dr. H. Szesnat’s Endnotes for his article titled “A Church-State Covenant on the Environment” published in PJT Issue 44 of 2010) 128 Book Launch/Review - The Pacific Islands – At the beginning of the 21st Century, Religion, Culture and Society 135

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The South Pacific Association of Theological Schools is deeply grateful to: The World Council of Churches – ETE (Geneva); Evangelisches Missionswerk (Germany); Missio (Germany); One World Mission (Bavaria); The United Methodist Church (USA); The Fellowship of the Least Coin (Geneva); The Methodist Church in Great Britain (UK); Women Inter-Church of Canada (Canada); and Uniting Church in Canada (Canada) for their grants to the Pacific Journal of Theology and/or the general funds of SPATS that make the publication of this Journal possible.

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Editorial

Rev. Rusiate Tuidrakulu

Rethinking the Journey and Course of Hermeneutics in the Pacific region is the main focus of this issue. The first four articles are papers from a regional Hermeneutics workshop held at Namoli village, Lautoka, Fiji in March 2011. Scholars from the three regional ecumenical organizations: the Pacific Conference of Churches (PCC), Pacific Theological College (PTC/GPP) and the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS), articulate the Christian hermeneutical legacy of the Pacific people, their identity, and understanding of pertinent issues today.

Rev. Rusiate Tuidrakulu is an ordained Minister of the Methodist Church in Fiji and is currently General Secretary of the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS).

Dr. Tevita Mohenoa Puloka begins by saying learning is an experience of life situations in cultural settings, and makes the resemblance that hermeneutics is body, mind and heart dancing the Tongan haka (dance). He asserts Biblical hermeneutics is crucial in the reading and understanding of local context, in particular with expressions of poetry.

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Dr. Cliff Bird’s paper on “ecological hermeneutics” articulates the embedding and interconnectedness of communal identity within the wider land/air/sea space or the oikos in Oceania. He identifies six principles with his argument that the landscape, seascape and airspace of Oceania are texts from which ecological hermeneutics is built. Moreover, Dr. Mosese Mailo writes on the challenges and contribution of post-colonial reading to theological hermeneutics. Analyzing the postcolonial theory, he further states that post-colonial reading from the Pacific lens can be an option in the pursuit of Oceania theological hermeneutics. Likewise, from a Pacific women’s lens, Dr. Asinate Samate writes on challenges and contribution of gender in its theological meaning. addressing ‘power’ with gender issues, Asinate’s Tongan model communal leadership “fofola-fale-kae-fai-e alera” (spread the mat and let clan talk) is an interpretation of an open-inclusive space of household.

the In of the

Dr Fele Nokise’s paper further develops ecumenism and its hermeneutical experience in Oceania. Fele explores a balanced paper in three parts; an analysis of ecumenical involvement in the Pacific in the last forty years, established a hermeneutical theory and the process of rethinking Oceanic hermeneutic for a guide to the future. The author asserts the importance of spirituality and suggests spirituality willing to confront the real world will affirm our basis of ecumenical experience identified in the church catholicity and unity transformation. Finally a book review of a recent publication launched by the Institute of Research and Social Analysis of the Pacific Theological College. It summarizes challenging stories threaded with environmental, economic and social justice themes for Christians in the context of denominational fragmentation. All in all, this issue highlights the importance of sound hermeneutics for contextual grounding in the life-giving themes of our diverse communities. Rethinking theological hermeneutics is the birthing point of genuine explorations of biblical texts and one’s own personal texts, with ones identity as a starting point. This is an unfinished task that the Pacific

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Churches need to endeavour as part of the Namoli Framework that the Journal will present partly in the coming issues.

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The following consecutive pages contain edited extracts from the Keynote Address and Presented Papers, delivered to the joint consultation on Rethinking the journey and course of hermeneutics in Oceania, held at Namoli Village, Lautoka, Fiji in March, 2011.

Hermeneutics is Body, Mind and Heart, Dancing the Haka

Rev. Dr. TTM Puloka Rev. Dr. Puloka is an ordained minister of the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga. He was principal of the Sia’atoutai Theological College for few years and President of the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS) at the same time. Dr. Puloka is currently the Director for Continuing Theological Education for Clergy and Stewards of the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga.

Hermeneutics is physical, mental and spiritual movement. To ‘do’ hermeneutics is to make or cause the whole self—that is, the body, mind and heart—to move; and that movement usually and or characteristically achieves balanced coordination of these elements. Such coordination is learning, that is the basic tool of hermeneutics. Learning hermeneutics is body, mind and heart dancing the haka. To keep us all tuned in to the music, sensitised, and appropriately massaged, the body, the mind and the heart should be keyed in to the suggested destination of our gathering here in these next few days:

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Hermeneutics: Interpretation of realities in the light of the Bible

We believe that in order to revisit old and formulate new theological platforms, we recognise the importance of biblical and social hermeneutics. In this regard developing a Pacific approach on biblical and social hermeneutics is essential. This is because biblical hermeneutics is crucial to the reading and understanding of our context. In the same regard social hermeneutics is essential to how we do theological reflections on the issues in our context. (1). Throughout Polynesia, dance (incorporating as well music and poetry) has been an integral part of culture, society and history. I would like to use the analogy of dance movement to introduce a proposed particular way of doing hermeneutics in Oceania. In my Polynesian (Tongan) culture, a dance type performed by an individual, tau‘olunga (which means ‘joy reaching skyward’), is an expression of the whole self (mind, body and heart) having gone through a thorough coordination of choreographed movements, the successful result of which is poto (that is, wisdom). It is therefore understood in my culture that the ultimate purpose of learning (ako) is poto (wisdom), the balanced or effective coordination of body, mind and heart. Haka or dance is choreographed movements of the whole self. Dancing, as in tau’olunga, is the making and offering of life situations, of both joy and sorrow, to the highest reaches of earthly dwelling. From a very young age a child is taught specifics of dance (haka) according to his or her kainga (relations or kinship groups) in Tongan society. Tau‘olunga and haka are conceived not as physical or mental or spiritual, but as a coordination of all these dimensions. Though a choreographed movement is expressed physically in body movements, the actual doing of haka as specific body movement is completed in a successful state only when balanced coordination is effected in body, mind and heart movements. Haka is learnt in early childhood and the child thus formed grows into the rest of his or her lifetime with the experience of haka/dance shaped and

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seasoned accordingly. Haka or dance is fundamentally an experience of the self moving through the many and various stages of life. Here the journey is a process—an open-ended experience of the dancer’s passage through life, or of the individual’s experience on the way through life. Haka is learning the lessons or fundamentals of life according to the ways of the people. It is culture lived in the experience of a balanced coordination of body, mind and heart. In the act of haka, the body moves in a disciplined manner ‘according to a previous agreement’ with the mental and emotional desired goals of the mind and the soul. A faulty move by one affects the others, and a good move by one increases the opportunity of achieving the desired goals of the haka. The most important goal of haka is learning to dance your way through life even with sorrows transformed into joy, just as in tau-e-langi, one’s experience in life has ‘reached the sky’, the full depth and height of human dwelling. In similar fashion, biblical hermeneutics is the assuring of the best possible route into and through life situations with the guidance of the Bible. In charting this new course of hermeneutics for Oceania, one needs a theoretical basis of learning as a way of laying the foundation.

Learning as experience My introductory comments make it clear that learning is an experience of life situations in a particular cultural setting. From childhood, our parents and elders in our kainga (in Tongan culture, particular kinship groupings according to blood relations and functions) teach us, preparing us for and introducing us into our culture. In this learning setting the teaching elders start with the ‘conditioning of the body for the learning mode’. The body is properly set in the most comforting situation that is conducive for learning. A mother or an uncle or one of the fathers would bathe the body of the young child and massage him or her with coconut oil or some such ointment in preparation for some very significant learning experience. This often happens with young girls going through rites of puberty, or young boys going through the ceremony of initiation into manhood. Through this significant cultural learning a person is ritually and properly admitted to a certain class with specific functions and roles in the society. Such highly significant learning is the union of all three important

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components of the self and unto the society. Here is the meeting ground of the body, the mind and the heart. [A brief survey of four schools of philosophical and psychological thought—pragmatism, empiricism, instrumentalist theory of knowledge and functionalism—largely through the prism of the thought of John Dewey, has led me to four primary concepts of learning as a theoretical basis for hermeneutics in Oceania. From pragmatism—a philosophy that Dewey espoused, I take the idea that the meaning of concepts is to be sought in their practical bearing, that the function of thought is to guide action, and that truth is pre-eminently to be tested by the practical consequences of belief. Dewey is also purely empiricist. ‘There is nothing real—whether being or relation between beings—that is not a direct matter of experience. There is no Unknowable or Absolute or around the finite world. No Absolute either.’ Pragmatism and empiricism provide the theoretical basis of a possible foundation for hermeneutics I am proposing for Oceania. One, I would argue, is a check point on the other and both are mutually coordinating the emergence of a new Pasifika Way of doing hermeneutics. For Dewey, an ‘instrumentalist’ theory of knowledge, in which ideas are seen to exist primarily as instruments for the solution of problems encountered in the environment, was also persuasive. Finally, Dewey considered the approach of thinkers like Charles Darwin and William James flawed because it ignored both the continuity of human behaviour and its significance in terms of adaptation. In contrast, functionalism as he developed it sought to consider the total organism as it functioned in the environment—an active perceiver rather than a passive receiver of stimuli. It is hardly surprising that Dewey rejected stimulus–response theory, the basis of behaviourism, which sees human behaviour as learnt responses to stimuli. This approach reduces the environment to a set of stimuli, denies

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active agency to either the environment or man and ignores the way man creates his reality. Dewey, on the contrary, sees human beings as decision makers who make decisions that decide their own fates. He also accepted the concept of ‘adaptation’, in particular, the human capacity to adapt to the surrounding environment. Dewey was an educational reformer and a pioneer in the field of educational psychology. Paralleling his philosophical and psychological theories, his concept of instrumentalism in education stressed learning by doing, as opposed to authoritarian teaching methods and rote learning. This will be seen to be a central pillar in my thought about the relationship between hermeneutics and the haka dance.]

How hermeneutics works in a Pasifika context

When learning takes place it is the starting point of a lifelong journey of the self in and through the myriads of experiences in which the body thinks and feels for itself in response to the promptings of the mind and the heart. In this, the self—as the coordinated whole whose components are the body, mind and heart—is the arbiter of its directions and destinations in life. Each of the components of the self is, therefore, an active and responsive integral element of the whole. Models of learning In a Tongan cultural setting, learning is the socialisation process by which a new member is incorporated into the integrated reality of the social, cultural, political and religious factors of a village or a larger community. Those factors are the meaning-making devices that eventually produce the end results of learning. All learning is culturally and socially conditioned. Learning therefore is the experiencing of the collective and responsive interaction amongst and between the body, mind and soul. The end result of learning is enhancement of life in the village, the most effective training and preparation for life in the larger world. Two examples are provided: the learning of haka (already mentioned) and the preparation and cooking of food. In the case of the second, a child is taught from an early age that food preparation is the sacred act of feeding and nourishing of the soul, which is housed in the body and the mind. Indeed, preparing food for royalty

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and the chiefs is so sacred that special words are used to represent a respectful movement of the body and the mind as they prepare and present food. Learning the rituals of food preparation includes the purification of the body, the calming of the mind and the call of the heart. All stages of the preparation of the earth oven (‘umu) and the food to go in it, the cooking of the food, the opening of the ‘umu and the presentation of the meal are carried out in this aura. Then the head of the family pronounces blessings on the food and feasting proceeds until everyone is nourished. How do dancing the haka or making the ‘umu illuminate the practice of Oceanian hermeneutics? I have already reiterated in my introductory remarks that hermeneutics in Oceania is an integrated movement of the body, mind and heart. The ultimate objective is the receiving of the meaning of Reality (and particular realities in particular cultural settings) from an interaction between Reality and the Holy Bible. In this approach to hermeneutics as meaning-making, the whole self is actively engaging in the production, from the gathering of the ‘data’ through the processing to the end, as in the preparation of the haka and the ‘umu. In the haka, as the body is properly massaged with its choreographed movements while the mind is sensitised and the soul is beckoned with light and exuberant joy, the dancer breaks through into a dialogical interpenetration with the audience; the result is tau-e-langi (joy reaching the heavens). In a similar manner, when the food is cooked in the ‘umu, its delicious and pleasing tastes do spill out aplenty and with robust fragrance. Such are the workings of a ‘Hermeneutica Pasifika’: all the integrated components of the self—body, mind and heart—enter into choreographed dance movements; each according to its assigned role, and all together achieve the desired goal. In the case of biblical hermeneutics, that goal is a good and effective interpretation of the context according to the text. The end result is contextualisation. At the moment when the dancers have reached the climax of the haka, they have also mysteriously reached the heavens, tau-e-langi. This is the

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mana of the Tongan faiva, or the haka, that divine power that unites the dancer, the audience, and the ‘Eiki-‘Otua (the Lord God), the Creator, Ruler and Saviour of the universe. Just as numbers of people are involved in the making and dancing of the haka, or the making of the ‘umu, so is the making and presenting of the Oceanian hermeneutics. The Bible is the major reference point with which every situation or context must reckon for continuity and validity.

Factors in a proposed Oceanian hermeneutics One gospel, many cultures The fundamental truth of Christianity (and for that matter, all reality) is that God became human in the person of Jesus of Nazareth, though the divinity is not fully exhausted by that incarnation. Here is the conceptual reality: God, the divinity, is the Creator of the heavens and the earth and all the fullness thereof, the one by whom all things are made and without whom nothing comes into being. In our biblical history, the Old and New Testaments are the principal source of our faith, from which we have assimilated our knowledge and understanding of the basic biblical teaching that our Creator God is also our Saviour God. This is of course the Christevent through which the God who necessarily exists is therefore necessarily the Saviour God, who in Jesus the Christ is our Lord and Saviour. As our biblical history testifies, this historical person, Jesus of Nazareth—of whom the Holy Scripture speaks as Servant, Messiah, Lord, Word—is truly the saving work of God on our behalf. Therefore the story of and about Jesus is the good news of our own redemption; the Good News to us is the story of how God in Jesus Christ saves us from everlasting death unto everlasting life. This is truly the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Jesus is the Gospel. But while there is only One Gospel, there are Many Cultures. My main concern is for us to share and learn from each other what it means to believe and practise the Gospel of Jesus Christ in the multicultural contexts of our contemporary world. The gospel of Jesus Christ is God’s gift to all people of the world. Thus it is most just and important that the one gospel must be presented and understood in ways that make sense to the receiving communities. The particularity of the

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gospel and the universality of its message are the precursors that lead to relevant and necessary methodology for the relationship between the One Gospel and Many Cultures. Etymology: The word gospel is derived from the Old English, god-spell (rarely, godspel), meaning ‘good news’ or ‘glad tidings’i. Originally, the gospel was the good news of redemption through the propitiatory offering of Jesus Christ for the sins of mankind, the central Christian message. The gospel preached by the apostles, including Paul and others who spread the gospel throughout the world of the first and second centuries AD, is in essence the same gospel that is still preached worldwide today. (In Tonga, it is the Ongoongo Lelei—literally, the Good News—that those late 18th century missionaries first brought and preached to our people.) But because culture is dynamic, cultures vary profoundly over time and space. This poses particular problems for transmitting the central message of a gospel as old as that of Jesus, because the ways people understand it and the meanings people take from it are so dependent on the cultural understanding they bring to it. A culture may be regarded as the accumulation through time of the thinking, ways and beliefs of a group of people who share a history, geographic residence and identity. At the level of society, culture is not static but actively moving according to the socio-political mobility of the people. At the individual level, culture arises from, modifies and is modified by life’s experiences, for culture is the medium in which humans live. Culture and communication are both processes. Communication (the process of sending and receiving information) is, like culture, a human necessity and always occurs at the human level, both intra-personally and interpersonally when human interaction is involved. Communication is not completely involuntary, and the message communicated—even though culturally conditioned—is not totally outside the control of the communicator: culture itself makes it possible for every human being to exert partial control over her or his culture and communication. Life, culture and communication are ongoing, changing, and evolving processes without precise beginnings or endings. For most of us, our selfconcept develops throughout our lives in the context of the cultural

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environment around us. Somehow, the total development of our own individual culture and of culture at the broadest human level has played an important part in leading us to our own self-identity. As individual human beings, we are constantly changing.ii So we humans constantly create and recreate our cultural traditions, norms and values and pass them on to others through the ongoing process of communication and social discourse. Culture is often defined as the traditions, customs, norms, values, beliefs and thought patterning that are passed down from generation to generation. Thus, although all humans are normally blessed with the same biological characteristics, our specific culture allows us partial determination of how we will use and value normal biological functions. Culture also teaches us how to manipulate our biological environment to become our cultural environment also, as we act creatively upon it. One gospel, diverse expressions As God’s people living in one world and anticipating the coming of the new, our commitment to the wholeness of our divinely created living environment presupposes the inevitability of One Gospel with Diverse Expressions. The gospel that is the good news of and about Jesus Christ is also God’s story about us and God. Looming large over the horizons of the Pacific Ocean is the vexing question of unity and diversity in the faith journey of the Pasifika peoples. Without further documentation of the oneness of the Gospel, let me state here that the primary premise for One Gospel is One God, one bearer of good news. The One Gospel substantiates Culture and it is Culture that shapes the One Gospel, such is the inevitable interpenetration between the Gospel and Culture.

Relating the Gospel to faka Pasifika: ‘contextualisation’ The primary premise for One Gospel is One God. This is necessarily followed by the second premise: Many different peoples and different cultures. Pasifika context Here is our reality in Pasifika (or Oceania). As Pacific Islanders we occupy almost one-third of the Earth’s surface, and yet our very small total population of 12–15 million people is sparsely and unevenly scattered

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throughout the vastness of the Pacific Ocean. The uniqueness of our situation, as the term ‘Oceania’ tends to imply, is as an ‘aqua continent’ (my term). This is a very large human habitat, segmented, separated and yet connected by ocean, which makes the creatures of the sea and its environment our immediate neighbours, and humans as truly our sisters and brothers. Oceania is simultaneously our home as well as our diaspora. Many and different ways of understanding the Gospel Inasmuch as cultures are different, so too are our ways of sharing and understanding the gospel. As good news, the ethos of the Gospel is transmission. Historically, we first received the gospel of Jesus Christ via European messengers about 200 years ago. They themselves had also received it from a chain of other messengers stretching back some 1,800 years, before they began bringing it to us. Among our Pacific Islands neighbours, almost everyone received or at least heard the gospel in her or his native tongue. And, as indicated above, we have more or less affirmed the oneness of the Gospel as we continue to witness to the mighty works of the one true living God in our lives. Sharing the Gospel across cultural borders Since the Gospel is contagious in that it tends to ‘get out’ as soon as it is passed from one person to another, we the recipients are therefore charged with finding an effective and responsible manner of sharing the Gospel across cultural borders. To be sure, the multiplicity of cultures demands at least equally multiple ways of communicating the gospel. Communication requires responsibility in sending and receiving. When the Gospel crosses from one culture to another, it is the same Gospel as always. However, the new receiving culture reaches out to welcome the Gospel in its proper cultural ways. Welcoming the Gospel is contextualisation. Likewise, when the Gospel is communicated across cultural borders, both senders and receivers must be prepared to send and receive the Gospel appropriately and in a most meaningful manner. Thus, Japanese speak of God as rice, while most Pasifika peoples would use the analogy of kava or niu (coconut) instead.

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Having postulated these nuances, the question for us now is: Can our Pasifika churches discover a framework or frameworks to facilitate mutual understanding and recognition of one faith across diverse cultures? The answer is an emphatic ‘yes’, otherwise our doing of the Gospel is but blowing in the wind. Again, the Gospel as the Christ-event being embodied in the life, work, death, resurrection and the immanent presence of Christ in the Holy Spirit, is the basis of God’s work in the Pacific. Our mission for God’s work today is to ‘open’ the Gospel so that it ‘speaks’ to every form of human habitation . For this, we now need a theological methodology, a task to which I now turn.

Contextualisation: a theological methodologys

Initially, the term ‘contextualisation’ refers to the activity that takes place whenever and wherever the Gospel is preached to people. Since people live in context(s), i.e. human situations, the Gospel (text) is therefore received or rejected—or at least heard—within a particular context. When the Gospel arrived in Pasifika it had already been through many major transformations. Based at first on oral narratives and then on written ones not necessarily in the language of the first narrators and ‘characters’ in the stories, then translated and transshipped across cultures, times and significant intellectual and spiritual movements, it arrived in Oceania in a form that would, no doubt, be scarcely recognisable to the original groups of Christians. As preached by its European bearers, it was delivered to our Oceanian ancestors in forms that were not necessarily appropriate to those preaching it, let alone those receiving it. But its essence as One Gospel was unmarred. Yet in Oceania it was like a young plant being transplanted from the nursery to its new home. At first, it started to grow rather quickly, after the initial shock. However, the robust growth dwindled, as growing plants do if they are root-bound inside the pot and unable to draw the necessary nutrients from the native soil. In this case, the young plant was the seminal Gospel wrapped in the transformations it had acquired during centuries of diffusion and translation; and the pot was the Victorian European culture of the messengers who transplanted their interpretations of the Gospel from England and the Continent to our Pasifika ancestors here in our ‘aqua continent’.

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Contextualisation as a theological methodology is the practice of interpreting the meaning of the contexts within the purview of the text, and vice versa. Since the text and context do belong, together, to the community, their relationship is integrally grounded on the fact of the One Gospel and Many Cultures. Contextualisation, therefore, is the inevitable interpenetration between the text on one hand, and the context on the other hand: the meaning of the Gospel is found in the interaction of the text and context. Similarly, the genuine meaning of the context is found in the active response of the text. In this particular approach to Pasifika hermeneutics, the two are inseparable since one is the completion of the other. Recently some of our laity, church leaders and theologians have been questioning the wisdom of uncritical acceptance of the missionary gospel, because of two important sign-events. One is the growing awareness of the extent to which the Gospel as it was passed to us is clothed in European and foreign clothing, with the result that the Gospel itself seems more oriented and accessible to Europeans than Pacific Islanders. The other significant sign-event is the increasing knowledge and freedom allowed about how one should understand the Gospel, and thereby responding to the challenges of Lex praescribit, Evangelium inscribit. Of course the Gospel itself and the message of the Gospel remain the same as good news for all people. However, as human beings we deem it proper to receive and understand significant sign-events in the most meaningful manner; that is, to hear and receive the Gospel within our comfort zone where comprehension is at its peak. Poetry as a metaphor in Oceanian hermeneutics Theology, (combining the Greek words for ‘god’ (theos) and ‘word’ or ‘reason’(logos) has been variously described by Protestant scholars as a human search for or rational discourse concerning God. The literature in antiquity alluded to it as the prince of all sciences, constructing— by means of reason—knowledge or wisdom as revealed by God, for the explication and defence of the faith. This enterprise has been among the leading forces in humanity’s search for life’s meaning. In the Christian biblical record, Jesus openly declared that he is the Way, the Truth and the Life.

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However, the general corpus of the Tongan theos-logos includes the sociopsychic force that I term nofo-‘a-kainga, all relatives living together in a form of communitarianism in the sense of an ideology emphasising the responsibility of the individual to the community and the social importance of the family unit (Concise OED). This force moulds and directs both the kainga units and the society. Behaviour is not only an environment-dependent pattern, but it is also firmly influenced by a sort of anima mundi, which Tongans called, ongo’i and laumalie. Although I have worked through the ideas with reference to Tongan terms, I will leave you to extend them to apply to all of Oceania, as I believe they do to some considerable extent though with local variations. I will refer to nofo-‘akainga as communitarian, that moulding and directive force which gives shape and substance to the ways in and through which most Pasifika peoples think and comprehend reality, or at least a perception of it. Thus, such an attempt to comprehend theos-logos can be reckoned as shaping and substantiating a Pasifika communitarian sense of ‘Otua (God), ‘o-tu‘a, the ultimate reality of the Great Beyond. In this approach one can appreciate the mutual sympathy and reciprocity revealed by a highly communitarian society, with its group feeling, which is the thinking spirit that leads and directs such social organisation. The brief description of the socio-psychic contexts has been an attempt to portray for us some common groundings for using poetry as a metaphor in an Oceanian hermeneutics. Our Pasifika peoples are talking, singing and dancing learners. Feeling gives meaning to thinking. Oceanians easily and freely express themselves with their feelings through their music and dance. In Pasifika we proclaim: ‘I feel therefore I am’.iii In Pasifika, or at least in Tonga, the I is only We, such is the nature and essence of a highly communitarian society. Poetry as lyrics, music and choreography Poetry has been described as pristine language of the heart imaging promptings of the soul. It is regarded by some as that poor evasive attempt to transform essence (the invisible reality) into existence (the visible reality). As such, poetry is fundamentally a metaphor. It stands for and on behalf of the other. It is the presentation of the unseen and the unpresentable in the form of the seen and the presentable. Poetry, thus, is the other use of language, sound and body movements, as in the haka.

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While it is often said that poetry is the language of the heart, a stern warning is called for against the destructive assumption that poetry is therefore a closed emotional circuit. This sort of false assumption arises from a misunderstanding created by Platonic dualism, which purports to define passion as the seat of feeling and emotion, wrongly assuming it as ‘fluidity’ that is a floating object without grounding. Rather, passio is essentially the very grounding of actus Deus. Poetry, therefore, is a metaphor in and out of the heart—the generative substance—and into the practicum of our daily mundane world. Within Pasifika cultures, poetry is a particular hermeneutics that lends meaning inside and outside of the Pasifika language meaning-based cultural contexts. Thus, in essence, is Tongan poetry—and I presume to extend the statement to Pasifika poetry in general—whose ethos is the fair coordination of body, mind and the heart in choreographing the unseen and the unpresentable onto the practicum of the seen and the presentable. Essential poetry is the birthing womb that generates pure knowledge and understanding, which then becomes the practical embodiment of the ideal. It is here suggested that the particular role of poetry in the interpretation of the context by the text, and vice versa, is that of the birthing masseuse (midwife) whose expertise assures the safe delivery of the newborn. Hermeneutics, as the birthing of the genuine meaning of the text and the context, is too complex a task for an individualistic effort. Instead, the community is called upon for a communitarian talanoa pea fetalanoa’aki (community talking and yarning to one another): the usual result is the making of poetry.sssssssiv The body, mind and heart are mutually interacting, thus producing interpretation of text and context. I leave my central proposition with you to stimulate your thinking and discussion. Metaphorically, Oceanian hermeneutics is Body, Mind and Heart Dancing the Haka.

Notes 1 This is a word-for-word translation of the Greek, meaning ‘good’ and ‘message’. The Greek word euangelion is also the source (via Latinised evangelium) of the terms ‘evangelist’ and ‘evangelism’ in English. The authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are thus known as the four evangelists.

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Heraclitus, a Greek philosopher of the 6th century BC, suggested that ‘you can’t step into the same river twice’, for since last you stepped in it, the river has changed. The only thing that does not change is change itself, because its nature is to change all the time. Such is the inevitability of change. 3 Of course, the 17th.century AD French philosopher, René Descartes, would not have agreed: he declared, Cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I am). 4 I have composed sung and choreographed poetry and musical presentations, examples of the practice of Oceanian hermeneutics in Pasifika through the poetic media of words, sung music and dance (haka). The Tongan and English texts of my poem ‘Sisu Tonga: The Immanent Transcendence’; and my Tongan passion play, ‘He ko e ha leva koa ha’o poa kapau na’e pekia ‘a Sisu ‘i Tonga? (What would you say if Jesus had died in Tonga?)’ are available from me on request. 2

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Hermeneutics of Ecology and its Relationship to the Identity of the Oikos in Oceania

Cliff Bird

General Introduction The topic before us is as interesting as it is complex. It is my hope that you will be able to make some sense out of what I have to say on the topic. This paper is divided into five short sections. In the first section I will briefly outline the current state of ecological hermeneutics as a field of scholarly work, and the challenge for Oceania. In the second section I will point out a primary and vital connection between ecology and oikos. In the third section I will make the argument that for us in Oceania the oikos consists of the land and the sea and the atmosphere above, and will also point out the primary characteristics of this oikos. I will attempt to tease out what I understand by hermeneutics of ecology in section four, and will then make a connection to the identity of the oikos in the concluding section.

Rev. Dr. Cliff Bird is an ordained minister of the United Church in Solomon Islands (USCI). He was educated in Solomon Islands and continued with tertiary education in Suva, Fiji i.e. at University of the South Pacific, (BA in Economics, History/Politics), at the Pacific Theological College (BD, MTh. with Distinction in Theology and Ethics) and the Charles Sturt University in Canberra, Australia (PhD). Currently a Lecturer in Theology and Ethics at the Pacific Theological College, Suva, Fiji.

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1. Ecological Hermeneutics: Scholarly Trends and Challenge for Oceania The article by Lynn White Jr in 1967 could perhaps be seen as one of the seminal works in the twentieth century, paving the way for scholarly discussions on the relationship between Christianity and the ecological crisis. In the article White asserts that the ecological crisis, especially in the (Western) Christian view of the world, has deep religious roots in the creation narratives and in the notion of humanity made in the image of God. This worldview, he argues, introduced a dualism between human beings and nature. This led to the notion that it was the will of God for human beings to exploit nature in the service of human interests, which, with the ever accelerating combination of science and technology, is now seemingly out of control. As such, ‘Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt’ (White 1967:5).1 Because the ecological crisis has religious roots, White argues further, the cure must also be religious, which he finds in the thoughts and theology of St Francis of Assisi.2 Many have responded to Lynn White’s article, both in support of and against his arguments (see for example, Derr [?1975]). Scholarly discussions on ecological hermeneutics have seen much progress since the appearance of White’s article. Let me highlight two such developments. The first one is ‘The Green Bible’, which ‘aims to equip and encourage people to see God’s vision for our planet and help them engage in the work of healing and sustaining the environment’. ‘The Green Bible’ features scholarly reflections on the importance of the environment from leading and well known authors and church leaders. It is also critical of some traditional (Western) Christian ecotheologies that are highly anthropocentric, such as, for example, the perspective of humanity as stewards of creation. In a recent publication, the authors point out the position of ‘The Green Bible’, which is that, the stewardship perspective is not contained in the Bible per se, such as in Genesis chapter 1; rather, it is an attempt or a work of interpretation, ‘not something in the Bible waiting to be discovered’ (Horrell et al., 2010:6). The second development is the ‘Earth Bible Project’, which has been concerned to read biblical texts ‘from the perspective of Earth’, that is, a reading of biblical texts in which Earth is the subject instead of just an object. The ‘Earth Bible’ initiative is critical of various ecotheologies claiming that the Bible is environmentally friendly; instead, it points out its

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deeply anthropocentric worldview. The ‘Earth Bible’ builds on six ecojustice principles, namely: o o o o o o

the principle of intrinsic worth the principle of interconnectedness the principle of voice the principle of purpose the principle of mutual custodianship the principle of resistance. (Habel & Trudinger, 2008:2):3

The firm position taken by the ‘Earth Bible’ is that ‘a radical ecological hermeneutic requires a radical reorientation of the biblical text . . . [it] . . . demands a radical change of posture in relation to Earth as a subject in the text’ (Habel & Trudinger 2008:3). In order to take these ecological principles further, the ‘Earth Bible’ advances the opinion that this ‘radical ecological approach to the text involves a basic hermeneutic of suspicion, identification, and retrieval’ (ibid.). I would say that for Oceania a major challenge is the heavy dependence on and primary use of texts, in this case biblical texts, by (Western) Christian theology in hermeneutics, even in ecological hermeneutics. Two observations can be made as a result of this, which must be of significant ecological concern. The first is that the anthropocentric worldview in biblical texts continues to be preached, taught and advanced by all churches in the Oceania region. The second is that biblical texts that contain ecological and/or environmental references are only very occasionally used in preaching and are interpreted very much from an anthropocentric perspective. These do not reflect the worldview in many oral cultures in Oceania, where there existed, and still exists to an appreciable extent, a sense and experience of mutuality and interconnectedness between human beings and non-human beings; where nature and culture are seen not as separate and unrelated realms of reality but as dovetailing elements. Thus Pio Manoa’s point can be appreciated when he says: ‘I believe that the script and print culture misunderstood the oral culture in a number of significant ways . . .’ (Manoa 2010). I advance the view that in the primarily oral cultures of Oceania, where daily life experience is based on the interrelatedness of the land, sea and atmosphere, ecological hermeneutics must give serious consideration to sources of a ‘non-textual’ nature. The transition from textual to non-

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textual source is not unknown and was first advanced by Paul Ricoeur, in particular to the unwritten source of activity, and the narrativity of such sources. Ricoeur ‘expands the concept of text by showing how meaningful human activity can be seen as a text, how such activity can have the same “readability characteristics” as a text’ (Tongeren 1994:57). A connection could be made here between Ricoeur’s expansion of what is textual with Schreiter’s method of constructing contextual theologies based on ‘culture texts’, which are sets of interlocking signs linked with actions and activities (Schreiter 1985:67ff.). [I will therefore add here that semiotics must be seen as an integral aspect of ecological hermeneutics in Oceania.] More specifically, Ricoeur’s ‘meaningful human activity’ and narrativity of nontextual sources, and Schreiter’s ‘culture texts’ such as different types of ‘communal celebrations’, ‘rites of passage’, ‘healing rituals’ and ‘art’ do complement each other. If the term ‘non-textual source’ were taken further, anything in the world could be read as a text; however, it must be borne in mind that not all texts are equally legible. The landscape and seascape in Oceania are not empty spaces; rather, they are simultaneously repositories and mediators of tradition and history that are impregnated with meaning and significance reaching back into both the mythic and the historical past. I hold to the position that a non-textual approach to ecological hermeneutics in Oceania should, therefore, advance the concept of the legibility of the landscape and seascape and the corresponding ‘airscape’, and the activities expended on them.4 This is the approach that I will take in this paper, hoping it will become clearer in the course of my presentation. Of course, we will need to be constantly conscious of the increasing difficulty in reading such non-textual sources because of the rapid multi-faceted changes that have a negative impact on their legibility.

2. Ecology and Oikos: making the vital connection The words ecology, economics and ecumenicity all have their roots in the word Oikos (de Gruchy n.d.; see also McFague 2008:48–59). However, because the focus of this paper is on ecology and how it relates to the Oikos, I will not go into economics and ecumenicity. The term ‘ecology’ consists of two Greek words, oikos-logos, where the first term, oikos, means ‘home’ or ‘household’ and the second term, logos, means ‘word’ but can also mean ‘study’. Putting together these two words, oikos-logos means the study of the home or household; it is the study of the way things relate to

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make the home or household work.5 McFague puts this even more simply when she says that ‘Ecology is, at its simplest, “words about home”: oikos (home) and logos (word)’ (McFague 2008:48). For most people the home metaphor is associated with a sense of belonging, sense of care and the feeling of being ‘at home’. Ecology is about planet Earth—‘its nature and rules, and hence where we fit into it’ (ibid.:49) not about how we can shape and pummel the Earth into our own liking. The metaphor of home brings to mind also ‘rules’ that are necessary for its functioning. McFague highlights three home rules that are just as relevant to a family home as to the Earth as a whole: ‘(1) Take only your share. (2) Clean up after yourself. (3) Keep the house in good repair for others’ (ibid.:51). When taken seriously, the home metaphor is filled with potential as well as practicalities that could transform how humanity lives, walks and works on the Earth.

3. Oikos in Oceania and Its Characteristics While the concept of oikos could well be used in an increasing scale of reference, that is, from a small locality to the entire Earth, my use of it here is within the context of Oceania as a whole. In this case the oikos consists of all the islands that dot the Ocean, and the reefs, lagoons and seas that surround the islands. In pan-Oceania parlance the land and sea, or vanua and moana, embody the terrestrial and marine/coastal ecosystems. This is rooted in the Oceania-wide understanding that ‘it [vanua or land] encompasses many things and includes earthly turf, flora and fauna of a given place, rivers and mountains, fishing ground . . . and more’ (Tuwere 2002:33). 6 and that ‘it [land] is a heavily loaded term and combines together economics, politics, history, sociology, ethnicity, tradition, identity and spirituality’ (Tuwere 2000). In other words, it is nature as we know it in context. Land and sea are the oikos of Oceania within which life and wellbeing of the majority of the people are shared, sustained and furthered. The fact of land as communal oikos for most people in Oceania is highlighted by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat:

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At the simplest level, land derives its centrality from its communal role as the source of livelihood and way of life through subsistence activities. Land provides family and communal living space. Land is a source of food, medicinal items, firewood, cooking utensils, building materials, clothing, tools, weapons and decorations. Even as traditional societies join the cash economy land continues to be used for these purposes, although in some cases goods may be sold or exchanged rather than used by the community. This traditional role of land is equivalent to it acting as a source of employment and resources and a store of wealth. (2001)7 Oikos in the context of Oceania is particular in three main ways, and for the purpose of ecological hermeneutics it is important that these are understood. The first particularity of Oceania is that it is a ‘sea of islands’ (to use the descriptive phrase as given prominence by Hau‘ofa 1993) or ‘tiny specks of land scattered across a vast ocean’ (Lobban & Schefter 1997:17). It is estimated that less than two per cent of the combined land–sea area is land. As such, it is the ‘island ecosystem’8 that predominates and this makes the islands vulnerable to climate change. This particularity insists that human beings are inextricably connected to the maritime ecosystem. The second particularity is the prevalence of the traditional or subsistence economy, which comprises both the land and coastal waters, reefs and fishing grounds. Fairbairn and Worrell (1996:77) point out that ‘(s)ubsistence production remains a major feature of the economic life of most Pacific islands’;9 it is resilient and has sustained ‘living standards when (as happens periodically) the monetary sector has contracted’ (ibid.).10 This particularity insists that people are connected to the terrestrial ecosystem. The third particularity is the communal sense attached to the land. Communities, not individuals, belong to the land and communities, not individuals, ‘own’ the land together. This particularity insists that people are connected to one another. These particularities—interconnectedness to the sea, the land and one another, and included in all this oikos is the atmosphere—are vital for an ecological hermeneutic in Oceania. This captures the spirit of what Solomone (2005) says:

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We are more aware than those in bigger countries of what nature means to us. It is our source of livelihood and as well it is our death. The land, sea, and air are those vital elements to which we belong intimately as people, as a community and as a country . . . Land and sea and air are intimately connected as one whole. Without one or the other there is no life. Without one or the other we the little peoples of Oceania will vanish from the face of the earth . . .

4. Oceanian Ecological Hermeneutics: land-sea-air-scape as texts Let me now share with you what I understand and advance as ecological hermeneutics both in and for Oceania. If hermeneutics is the art or science of interpreting texts as well as non-texts in search of meaning, then ecological hermeneutics in Oceania traditionally and historically has been, and continues to be, connected to and based upon the land, sea and air and the interactions between human beings and these components of their oikos. For Oceanians, the landscape, seascape, ‘airscape’ and human activities are, indeed always have been, texts to be read and interpreted. They are filled with narratives and meanings that are ‘open’ to one who seeks to understand and who is at the same time open to meanings that such texts evoke. Encompassing all of this is the worldview in which the divine is present and involved in and through the rhythms and workings of the oikos; thus, such reading leads to interpretations that are, more often than otherwise, religiously-oriented. Morality and spirituality are, therefore, also intimately connected to the way people interact in and with the components of their oikos, or with nature. From times past up to the present, people of Oceania have read the landscape and seascape and atmosphere. Saying the obvious, those who till the land for a living know the best times of the year to plant and/or harvest certain types of root crops, fruit trees and so on; and those who fish for a living know the spawning periods of different species of fish, and the appropriate times to collect different types of shellfish. These rhythms and processes of the land and the sea are connected to the rhythms of atmosphere through the different moon phases, which are also linked with movement of currents and tide, and different fish species in a

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yearly cycle. The ability to read the landscape and seascape and the rhythms and cycles in which they move is vital. These rhythms are inclusive of the wet and dry seasons and associated winds. On this basis, it can be said that ecological hermeneutics in Oceania derives from and builds on the interconnectedness between the people and their oikos. In Oceania, the landscape and the seascape are inscribed with narratives and stories. Mountains, valleys, caves, forest and bush areas, sacred spots, rivers, reefs and islets, these are not just empty spaces but are places in which stories are embedded; they are not vacuums waiting to be filled with some matter or substance but are storied repositories. Reading the landsea-scape as text means that we read these places that are filled with meanings in order for interpretation to come about. The landscape and seascape contain narratives and stories of death and life, hatred and love, enmity and friendship, warfare and peace, sorrow and joy, greed and generosity, plenty and want, deception and sincerity, and despair and hope. Traditionally, peoples of Oceania read terrestrial and maritime ‘signs’ and ‘signs’ from the ‘airscape’, either on their own or in association with other ‘signs’, for the pursuit of meaningful and ‘good’ life. In my culture we have the concept of tiro (literally ‘read’) or ome (literally ‘see’ or ‘discern’). This concept is applied to the weather (reading the sky to determine what the weather is likely to be); the land, which is inclusive of such features as the earthly turf, flora, fauna and rivers (for instance reading the forest to see if it is suitable for certain human activities such as cultivating a food garden); and the sea (for instance reading the sea to see if it will be rough or otherwise). Tiro or ome are applied also to specific activities, and the following two examples connected to reading (from) the sea illustrate this: first, tiro vovoto vonu means to read a turtle’s egg in order to know when and where the turtle will next go up the beach to lay eggs; tiro qae means to read the reef flat in order to track and catch an octopus. From this it could be said that ecological hermeneutics in Oceania is rooted not only in the reader’s desire to read and interpret the textuality of the land-sea-air-scape, but more-so on its legibility or readability. Looking at the foregoing from another angle, the land-sea-airscape speaks with a voice that calls for attentive listening and active hearing. Place-names are an integral part of the voice of the land and sea, and these place-names are filled with place-meanings. What does the name of a mountain, a sacred spot, a cave or a rock say to a keen and attentive listener? The name of the third highest mountain on the island of Vangunu where I come from in the Western Province of Solomon Islands

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is Bareke. This place name is the name of the tribe of which I am a part; it is the name of my mother tongue (Bareke language); it is the original home of my maternal ancestors; and according to tradition it is the site of the throne or seat of the human–divine figure to whom the Bareke people trace their origin. The voice of this mountain is still being heard today. Communal celebrations through feasting, dancing, singing and chanting are also an integral part of the voice of the land. So too are times of mourning and loss. In my traditional culture, major celebrations such as weddings or occasions of barter are made to coincide with major harvest times on the land and low tides and fish spawning seasons in the sea. The land-sea-airscape speaks with one voice. From this it could be said that an important aspect of ecological hermeneutics in Oceania is the voice of the land-sea-air-scape. Listening to and hearing this voice is a challenge that grows with the passing of time and changes in lifestyle. In Oceania, the identity of a person is formed not in isolation or apart from community, but in association with and involvement in it, as well as in interacting with his/her environment. Likewise, community identity and formation is also partly the outcome of its interaction with its environment. Thus the human community not only is connected within itself but is also intimately interconnected to the totality of the land-seaair-scape community. Communal celebrations through feasting, dancing, singing and chanting, and even mourning are an integral part of reaffirming communal identity. Moreover, these communal celebratory activities when read as texts and heard as voices reveal the reality that community, communal identity and relationships transcend human relationships and include relationships with the land-sea-air-scape. It could be argued therefore, that human identity in much of present-day Oceania is inconceivable apart from its intimate interconnectedness with the landscape, seascape and ‘airscape’. From this it could be said that an important aspect of ecological hermeneutics in Oceania is the embeddedness and interconnectedness of communal identity within the wider land-sea-air-scape or the oikos in Oceania. All of the foregoing discussion highlights a crucial element: the centrality and paramountcy of care as an integral part of Oceania ecological hermeneutics. As Solomone rightly says, ‘Care for creation, nurture it for if it becomes less than healthy, we are the first ones to sink with it. Other landed peoples can move elsewhere, we cannot. Other landed people may find means of surviving on sea, we have not found a

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technology or the skill to cope with such a possibility’ (Solomone 2005). More and more, people’s livelihood is threatened thanks to the increasing illegibility of the land-sea-air-scape, due chiefly to climate change and global warming-and the sea-level rise thus induced, the difficulty-ofpredicting weather and the increasingly chaotic weather patterns, and the woes and ills of global capitalism, especially through the indiscriminate exploitation of terrestrial and maritime resources, and through its heavy and runaway industrialisation of Earth. Conclusion In conclusion, let me highlight the main points of this paper. First, I make the clarification that ecology is the English transliteration of oikos-logos, (eco-logy) which is rooted in the Greek concept of oikos meaning ‘home’ or ‘household’. Ecology therefore means words about home, and rules—house rules—that are meant to make the home work. I point out that when taken seriously, this concept of home has the potential and practicality to transform how we live in our part of the Earth. Second, in the case of Oceania oikos is inclusive of the landscape, seascape and ‘airscape’ in which human beings also have their place as members and participants in the rhythms and processes of the home. Ecology is, therefore, about the land and sea and air and the ‘house rules’ that must be observed to make this home (continue to) work. The livelihood of people in Oceania is intimately interconnected to the oikos. I argue that the characteristic of the oikos in Oceania is particularistic, in three ways: a) it is a ‘sea of islands’, or as some call it, the ‘liquid continent’ where less than 2 per cent is land. Sea-level rise induced by climate change accompanying global warming poses life and death scenarios for most island communities b) by far still the greater majority of each country’s total population continues to live in the subsistence or traditional sector, which comprise both the land and the sea, especially the coastal reefs, lagoons and fishing grounds. Rapid penetration and ‘consumerisation’ of the rural populations by globalising

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economic forces are a real threat to the resilience of this heartbeat of Oceanian life and livelihood c) not less than 90% of the total land area of each country is under customary tenure and land is held by communities not individuals. The push in various countries toward privatisation of customary land for purposes of attracting foreign investments for economiccommercial development drives a wedge into the heart of communal ‘ownership’ of the land. All these particularities are important bases for ecological hermeneutics in Oceania. Third, hermeneutics traditionally has to do with interpretation of written texts in the search for meaning; in the case of Oceania, however, where culture is still primarily oral, hermeneutics has to deal with texts other than those written. The theoretical framework for this approach has been established by Paul Ricoeur in the following ways: a) expansion of the concept of text to include meaningful human activities, since these can have the same ‘readability characteristics’ as a written text b) recognition of the concept of narrativity of unwritten texts. Taking these two perspectives together with Schreiter’s insightful discussion (1985) on ‘culture texts’, I argue in this paper that the landscape, seascape and ‘airscape’ of Oceania are texts from which ecological hermeneutics derive and upon which this hermeneutics is built. Lastly but not least, and taking all the above points into consideration, I identify in this paper the following principles of ecological hermeneutics that recognise, uphold and advance the identity of the oikos in Oceania.

Principle

of interconnectedness. Ecological hermeneutics in Oceania derives from and builds on the interconnectedness between the people and their oikos, and between all members of the oikos.

Principle of readability. Ecological hermeneutics in Oceania is rooted not only in the reader’s desire to read

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and interpret the textuality of the land-sea-air-scape but more so in its legibility or readability.

Principle of celebration and sharing.

Ecological hermeneutics in Oceania sustains and builds community and communal identity and vitality through appropriate human activities. Principle of voice. Ecological hermeneutics in Oceania cares to hear the voice of the land-sea-air-scape, including its mournful voice because of human-induced pain.

Principle of identity. Ecological hermeneutics in Oceania reflects and propagates the embeddedness and interconnectedness of communal identity within the wider land-sea-air-scape or the oikos in Oceania. Principle of care. The centrality and paramountcy of care is an

integral part of Oceanian ecological hermeneutics.

All six principles are, in one way or another, connected to the primacy of life in Oceania, where human life is not only connected to but also dependent upon non-human life. From a Christian perspective all life finds its fullness and fulfilment both in the land-sea-air-scape concreteness and in the ‘meta-life’ of Jesus the Son of God.

______________ Notes 1 The version of the paper referenced in this paper is available online at http://www.uvm.edu/~gflomenh/ENV-NGO-PA395/articles/Lynn-White.pdf. 2 See, for instance, St Francis of Assisi’s ‘Canticle of Brother Sun and Sister Moon’ at http://www.yenra.com/catholic/prayers/francisofassisi.html. 3 In ‘Earth Bible’ usage, ‘Earth’ refers to ‘the total ecosystem that is the web of life—the domain of nature with which we are familiar, of which we are an integral part, and in which we face the future’ (Habel & Trudinger 2008:3). As will be clear in section four of this paper, there are resonances between these principles and what I will present as principles of ecological hermeneutics in Oceania.

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4 The concept of the legibility of the landscape has been discussed in some latest academic research and publication. See, for instance, Drenthen, Keulartz & Proctor (2009). 5 In his own words, de Gruchy says (n.d.:2): ‘Our English word economy is made up of two Greek words, oikos – nomos, meaning the rules of the home or the rule of the household . . . Our English word ecology is made up of the Greek words, oikos – logos, meaning the study of the home or household, the study of the way things relate and are integrated to make the home work’. 6 The term vanua is Fijian but the concept of land and its significance are transpacific as evidenced in the similarity of the various words used for land throughout the region: vanua in Fiji, fenua in Maohi, fanua in Samoa, fonua in Tonga, whenua in Maori, hanua, pangua and auhenua in parts of Melanesia, etc. 7 It is to be noted that terms such as ‘source of employment’, ‘resources’ and ‘store of wealth’ used by the Forum Secretariat are neither neutral nor value-free but are the economisation of land, which reflect the ways in which land is becoming commoditised. 8 http://www.sprep.org/programme/island_eco.htm. Cited 01/12/2009. One of the two programmes run by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, SPREP, is ‘Island Ecosystems’. 9 Fairbairn and Worrell point out that ‘In Kiribati, Vanuatu and Western Samoa, as much as 60–80 per cent of the total population is involved in a major way in subsistence activities’ (1996:77). This also holds true for most other PICs and could still be as high as 85 per cent as in the case of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. The only other region that is similar to Oceania in this regard is the Caribbean but as also pointed out by Fairbairn and Worrell, ‘… in the Caribbean, except for a few isolated areas, it [subsistence production] has virtually disappeared under the onslaught of the modern commercial economy’ (ibid.). 10 Fairbairn and Worrell cited the case of Samoa as an example from the late 1980s. The case of Solomon Islands during the period of ethnic tension, 2000– 2003, is a recent example that shows the resilience of the subsistence economy in supporting the livelihood and welfare of people when the cash economy contracted.

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References de Gruchy, John, n.d. ‘Oikos, God and the olive agenda: theological reflections on economics and environment’. See http://www.sacc.org.za/news07/oikos.html. Derr, Thomas Sieger, [?1975] ‘Lynn White and his Magical Essay – Religion’s Responsibility for the Ecological Crisis: An Argument Run Amok’, at http://worldview.carnegiecouncil.org/archive/worldview/1975/01/2463.html/_r es/id=sa_File1/v18_i001_a013.pdf. Drenthen, Martin, Keulartz, Jozef & Proctor, James (eds), 2009, New Visions of Nature: Complexity and Authenticity, Springer, London. Fairbairn, Te‘o I.J. & Worrell, DeLisle, 1996, South Pacific and Caribbean island economies: a comparative study, A study conducted by the Foundation for Development Cooperation for the South Pacific Islands Secretariat, Brisbane. Francis of Assisi, ‘Canticle of Brother Sun and Sister Moon’, at http://www.yenra.com/catholic/prayers/francisofassisi.html. ‘Green Bible’, http://crosslight.org.au/2010/03/10/the-green-bible/. Habel, Norman & Trudinger, Peter (eds) 2008, Exploring Ecological Hermeneutics, (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA. Hau‘ofa, Epeli, 1993, ‘Our Sea of Islands’, in A New Oceania: rediscovering our sea of islands, eds Eric EWaddell, Vijay Naidu & Epeli Hau‘ofa, SSED, University of the South Pacific, Suva, pp. 2–16; reprinted in Contemporary Pacific, 6(1) (1994):148–161. Horrell, David G, Hunt, Cherryl, Southgate, Christopher & Stavrakopoulou, Francesca, 2010, Ecological Hermeneutics: Biblical, Historical and Theological Perspectives, T&T Clark International, New York, p. 6. Lobban, Christopher S. & Schefter, Maria, 1997, Tropical Pacific Islands Environment, University of Guam Press, Mangilao. McFague, Sallie, 2008, A New Climate for Theology: God, the World, and Global Warming, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. Manoa, Pio, 2010, ‘Redeeming hinterland’, Pacific Journal of Theology II:43:65–86.

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Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, 2001, ‘Forum Eyes Only: Land Issues in the Pacific’, Suva, May 2001. Schreiter, Robert J, 1985, Constructing Local Theologies, Orbis Books, Maryknoll. Solomone, Kafoa, 2005, ‘Some Issues on Practical Theology in Our Sea of Islands, Oceania’, Australian EJournal of Theology 5 (August 2005). See http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/ejournal/aejt_5/practheol_solomo ne.htm. Tongeren, Paul van, 1994, ‘The relation of narrativity and hermeneutics to an adequate practical ethic’, Ethical Perspectives I(2); cited at http://www.kuleuven.be/ep/viewpic.php?LAN=E&TABLE=EP&ID=809. Tuwere, Ilaitia Sevati, 2000, ‘Indigenous People’s Struggle for Land and Identity: An Account from Fiji’. Indigenous People’s Struggle for Land and Identity in the Pacific: A Joint Seminar of the World Council of Churches Indigenous People’s Programme, the Pacific Desk of the World Council of Churches, and the Pacific Conference of Churches, Fiji, September 2000. Tuwere, Ilaitia Sevati, 2002, Vanua: Towards a Fijian Theology of Place, Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva. White, Lynn, 1967, ‘The historical roots of our ecologic crisis’, Science 155(3767):1203–1207. Also available online at http://www.uvm.edu/~gflomenh/ENV-NGO-PA395/articles/Lynn-White.pdf.

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The Challenge and Contribution of Postcolonial Theory to Theological Hermeneutics in Oceania

Mosese Mailo Rev. Dr. Mosese Mailo is an ordained minister of the Methodist Church in Samoa. He holds a PhD in New Testament from Birmingham University, England; and lectures in New Testament studies at the Piula Theological College. He also specializes in sociolinguistic studies of the Bible.

Extra theories (whether from philosophical or literary disciplines) have always been used to shed light on the Bible and its interpretation. The most recent to be called into service is postcolonial theory.1 Initially, it (postcolonial theory) was largely focused on ways in which literary productions of the former colonies were produced, marketed and mediated in Europe and America.

Postcolonial theory initially emerged as an arm of literary studies focusing on Commonwealth Literature. For a helpful explanation, see John McLeod, Beginning Postcolonialism Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2000

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Now, it finds itself useful in a variety of fields and disciplines, which acknowledge the reality and severity of the colonial project on every part of life of the Third World. In biblical studies, a number of scholars use conjectures of postcolonial theory to re-read the Bible and its interpretations.2 This paper is a brief analysis of that enterprise. First, a brief account of the concerns and magnitude of the theory is in place. Second, while its application to biblical studies is diverse according to different contexts, this paper concentrates on its basic principles. Finally, a proposal is in order for where I believe the postcolonial option could be most resourceful in our venture for Oceania theological hermeneutics.

1. Postcolonial theory In one of the Oxford publications on Postcolonialism3 or postcolonial theory, the writer begins with the following thought provoking questions. Do you feel that your own people and country are somehow always positioned outside the mainstream? Have you ever felt that the moment you said the word ‘I’, that ‘I’ was someone else, not you? That in some obscure way, you were not the subject of your own sentence? Do you feel that whenever you speak, you have already in some sense been spoken for? Or that when you hear others speaking, that you are only ever going to be the object of their speech? Do you sense that those speaking (on your behalf) would never think of trying to find out how things seem to you, from where you are? That you live in a world of others, a world that exists for others?

See the survey by R. S. Sugirtharajah, “Postcolonial Biblical Interpretation” in R. S. Sugirtharajah (Ed.), Voices from the margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World. Revised and Expanded Third Edition. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2006; 71-77

Robert C. Young, Postcolonialism: a very short introduction Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, 1 3

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On purpose, I select this opening to settle our knowledge of postcolonial theory on a more engaging platform. Our home, Oceania, has a history of (quasi?) colonialism and we are challenged to look from the other side of the picture, experiencing how differently things look when you live in Honiara, Nadroga, Apia or Noumea, rather than New York, Paris, Berlin or London, and understanding why. Postcolonial theory assumes that such politics of ‘difference’ is a corollary of ‘imperialism,’ the historical process which fixed relationships of domination and subordination; relationships that delineates our current world. From a victim’s perspective, Dube defines imperialism as, . . . an ideology of expansion that takes diverse forms and methods at different time, seeking to impose its languages, its trade, its religions, its democracy, its images, its economic systems and its political rule on foreign nations and lands. The victims of imperialism become the colonized . . . whose lands, minds, cultures, economies and political institutions have been taken possession of and rearranged according to the interests and values of the imperializing powers.4 In literary studies, the question that pops up was, ‘How can we find a way to talk about this; to address the reality and severity of imperialism and colonialism?’ The literature on postcolonial theory is huge, and a detailed analysis is impractical in this paper. Nevertheless, a brief overview shows that the success of Edward Said’s Orientalism5 sensitized a new generation of critics involved in a major departure from the humanist approaches.6 Edward Said explored the Musa W. Dube, “Reading for decolonization (John 4. 1-42),” in R. S. Sugirtharajah (Ed.), Voices from the margin 2006; 297 5 Edward Said, Orientalism 2nd Edition, London: Penguin, 1995. Focusing particularly on the representations of Egypt and the Middle East in a variety of Western written materials, Said became one of the masterminds of this new way of thinking. 6 This cannot disregard the original contribution of pioneers like Frantz Fanon, who in the 1950s produced Black skin, white masks, a book that explains the consequences of identity formation for the colonized subject who is forced into the internalization of the self as an other. In the 1960s, he also published The wretched of the earth a book that exposed the mechanics of colonialism and its effect 4

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extent to which colonialism fabricated a way of seeing the world, an order of things that was learned to be true and proper. Based on the political philosophies of Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault, Said examines how the Western knowledge about the ‘other’ was produced in a variety of canonical English literature. Such knowledge, which was taken as scientific truths, was used to legitimize the Western colonial project. Power and domination was armored by the production of knowledge about the exotic African, Oceania, Asian, etc., who were always portrayed in degenerating images. In the 1980s, commonwealth literary critics produced three forms of textual analysis. The first group, following Said, began to re-read canonical literature to detect any form of perpetual authorization or questioning of the colonial themes, ideas and assumptions.7 A second group of critics, influenced by the post-structuralist thoughts of Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan began to scrutinize colonial representations of the colonized subjects in other texts like travel writings, colonial administrative documents, painting, art, and of course missionary writings; not just canonical literature. While the first group focused on how the West produced knowledge about the other, the second group of critics set out to ask, “. . . was it possible to read these texts against the grain and discover in them moments when the colonized subject resisted being represented with recourse to colonial values?”8 Two leading and most controversial critics, Homi K. Bhabha and Gayatri C. Spivak pursued this trend in two different ways. Bhabha argues that the ambivalence of the colonized subject became a direct threat to the authority of the colonizers through the effects of mimicry. Spivak explored the problem of whether or not it was possible to recover the voices of those who had been made subjects of colonial representations, particularly women, and read them as potentially disruptive and subversive. Since the 1980s, Said, Bhabha and Spivak have opened a variety of theoretical concerns central to postcolonialism.

on those it enslaved. But in terms of turning such ideas into theory, Said’s work laid the basic foundations for literary critics. 7 For example of these canonical literature are the famous and popular English novels Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad (1899), Mansfield Park by Jane Austen (1814), Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte (1847) and many others. 8 John McLeod 2000, 24

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But an important book appeared in 1989 titled The Empire writes back . . . 9 This is the third group of critics, who noted (in study of commonwealth literature) the importance of how writers from countries with a history of colonialism have expressed their own sense of identity. How? By using untranslatable words, signs and structures derived from ‘other’ languages, and incorporating many different creolized versions of English into their texts instead of following the standardized “English” syntax.10 Their local concerns were primary to their meanings; not of minor value. At the risk of oversimplification, I wish to end our synopsis of postcolonial theory at this point. It is not immune to terminological problems and hypothetical contradictions just like any other theory. But let’s wrap up by briefing what postcolonial theory offers. 1. Postcolonial theory offers a way to talk about The reality of inequality in the world today, which “. . . falls across the broad division between people of the west and those of the non-west.”11 Such division was a construction of European imperialism, when nine-tenths of the entire land surface of the globe was controlled by European or European-derived, powers. 2. Postcolonial theory offers a way to talk about The reality that colonization was legitimized by representing non-Western people as the savage, childlike, or feminine, inept and incompetent to think for and looking after themselves. They therefore required the paternal rule of the west for their own good. Such ethnological/anthropological representations were actually based on the concept of ‘race.’ 12 White culture was regarded as superior with the best ideas for legitimate government, religion (theology), science, and economics, etc.

9 Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin, The Empire writes back : theory and practice in postcolonial literatures, Routledge, 1989 10 John McLeod 2000, 26 11 Robert C. Young 2003, 2 12 This is evident in the experiences of people like Frantz Fanon, Black Skins, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam, Markmann: Pluto, 1952

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3. Postcolonial theory offers a way to talk about The reality that colonization was also about “getting colonized people to accept their inferior ranking in the colonial order of things—a process we can call ‘colonizing the mind’.”13 It successfully operated by the internalization of Western values and assumptions as regards the way they perceive the world.14 One scholar further states, “If the internalization of colonial sets of values was to a degree . . . an effective way of disempowering people, it was also the source of trauma for colonized peoples who were taught to look negatively upon their people, their culture, and themselves.”15 4. Postcolonial theory offers a way to talk about The reality that decolonization is not just about handing back of land to the dispossessed people and the signing of declarations of independence. “It is also a process of overturning the dominant ways of seeing the world, and representing reality in ways which do not replicate colonialist values.”16 It is about ‘decolonizing the mind,’ as the African writer Ngugi famously stated. 5. Postcolonial theory offers a way to talk about Recognizing that the force of continuing colonization is now in the form of globalization, ‘postcolonialism’ is thus not the same as ‘after’ colonization. The term moves beyond a strict marking of historical moments or periods. It recognizes both historical continuity and change. Likewise postcolonialism acknowledges that “. . . the material realities and modes of representations common to colonialism are still very much with us today, even if the political map of the world has changed through decolonization.” 17

13 Ngugi wa Thiongo, cited in John McLeod, Beginning Postcolonialism Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2000, 18 14 John McLeod 2000, 18 15 John McLeod 2000, 19 16 John McLeod 2000, 22 17 John McLeod 2000, 33

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It is imperative to acknowledge that colonial relationships still exist in the world as well as in once colonized areas. Its values are silently or apparently alive in the treatment of women, children, poor, less privileged and the marginalized even within Oceania, our cultural, political, and ecclesiastical backyards. The literature offers many definitions and terminology clarifications.18 Postcolonial in its historical sense is not a chronological marker to certain “periods,” or “eras.” It is used here as a referential marker for a range of critical perspectives on the social, cultural, and political conditions after the historical demise of empire and the process of decolonization.19

2. Postcolonial biblical hermeneutics In biblical studies, scholars concentrate on three modes of reading. They are all based on relating postcolonial studies with the Bible as an ancient text, by relating postcolonial studies to modern readings either by way of Europe or America, and, identifying those who re-read biblical narratives in the light of postcolonial concerns.20 Some of these concerns are plurality, hybridity, multiculturalism, nationalism, diaspora, refugees, and asylum seeking.21 Let me elaborate more on these three modes of reading. I.

Situating imperialism and colonialism at the centre of the Bible

This mode of reading treats the Bible as a literary product of various colonial contexts like the Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greece and Roman Empires. Fernando Segovia, one of the pioneers of postcolonial biblical studies argues, “. . . the shadow of empire in the production of ancient texts (Bible) is to be highlighted.”22 The purpose is to obtain the always forgotten views of the marginal and how they look at a world that See Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, 1989; Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, Key concepts in postcolonial studies Routledge, 1998; Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism Routledge, 1998 19 R. S. Sugirtharajah 2006, 64-65 20 Fernando F. Segovia, Decolonizing biblical studies: a view from the margins. Maryknoll New York: Orbis Books, 2004, 125-131. R. S. Sugirtharajah, Voices from the margins 2006; 67 21 R. S. Sugirtharajah 2006, 67 22 Fernando F. Segovia 2004, 126 18

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was dominated by the reality of empire. How does the centre regard and treat the margins in the light of its own view of the world? How is history constructed by both sides? How is the margin represented in the centre? With the reality of empire in the biblical texts, stories and narratives are re-read with an eye on power relations, hegemonic intentions, and imperial inclinations that silence the voices and worldviews of those at the margin of society. The task of postcolonial reading is to surface critical issues that are sidelined, as well as questions of power, ideology and culture. For such magnitude, see especially the contributions by Musa Dube’s re-reading of John;23 Warren Carter’s re-reading of Matthew in the colonial context of the Roman Empire;24 and Itumeleng Mosala’s re-reading of the Book of Esther in the colonial context of the Persian Empire. II.

Situating imperialism and colonialism at the centre of Western reading

The second mode of reading focuses on the exposure of colonial intents behind Western scholarship and interpretations of the biblical texts. Segovia points out that in biblical criticism, the academic study of the Bible and its formation in the nineteenth century “. . . parallels the second major wave of the missionary movement as well as the transition period to the second, high phase of Western imperialism and colonialism.”25 The point is, questions of power, ideology, and culture are not excluded in the production of Western readings and interpretations of the Bible. This phase includes the missionary period that affected Oceania the most. Some of the following names are not postcolonial practitioners in their respective fields of study, but their insights reflect this magnitude of the postcolonial enterprise. Havlor Moxnes exposes how colonialism, national identity, ethnicity, and race have influenced scholarly constructions of Galilee in nineteenth century biblical scholarship in Musa W. Dube, “Reading for decolonization: John 4. 1-42,” in John and postcolonialism: travel, space and power. Eds. Musa W. Dube and Jeffrey Staley, The Bible and Postcolonialism 7. Series Editor, R. S. Sugirtharajah. London and New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002; 51-75 24 Warren Carter, Matthew and the margins: a sociopolitical and religious reading. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2000 25 Fernando F. Segovia 2004, 128 23

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Europe.26 Shawn Kelly exposes how the category of ‘race’ was injected into the historical streams of Euro-American biblical scholarship.27 Michael Prior contends that the task of interpretation involves “. . . the imperial past of European expansion into Latin America, South Africa and Palestine, and showing how the fabricated ethnocentric, xenophobic and militaristic character of the Bible provided the legitimacy and inspiration for such a barbaric enterprise.”28 For postcolonial critics, Western interpretations and constructions of biblical history and theology are very much influenced by an attitude of western supremacy. III.

Readings in the light of postcolonial concerns

The truth is, in spite of the omnipresent character of imperialism and colonialism; it was never imposed and received in an impression of absolute passivity. At times, there were resistant readings from the part of the politically, culturally, and religiously subordinated margins. It is therefore appropriate to distinguish between two groups of readers; people who readily accept and associate with the long tradition of Western dominant readings, and those from the colonies and once colonized areas who rail against such imperialist interpretations. These readers (mostly from the third world) resisted dominant readings by placing the Bible in the context and reality of their life situations. The analysis of the readers' contexts and their reactions are as significant as the worldview(s) of the Bible writers. Essays and articles in anthologies like John and postcolonialism edited by Musa Dube and Jeffrey Staley, thematic Semeia issues like Semeia 75 (1996) edited by Laura Donaldson and Semeia 88 (2001) edited by Roland Boer, are very good examples of the scope and purpose of postcolonial biblical interpretation. Two broad strategies dominate this magnitude of postcolonial hermeneutics within biblical studies; a search for the marginalized or suppressed voices in, behind and below the text, and the formulation of subversive readings, or a deliberate inversion of the 26 Havlor Moxnes, “The construction of Galilee as a place for the historical Jesus: Part 1,” Biblical theology bulletin 31/1 (2001), 26-37 27 Shawn Kelly, Racializing Jesus: Race, ideology, and the formation of modern biblical scholarship. London: Routledge, 2002 28 Cited from R. S. Sugirtharajah, “Postcolonial biblical interpretation,” in Voices from the margin (Ed). R. S. Sugirtharajah, 2006; 70. See also Michael Prior, The Bible and colonialism: a moral critique. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997

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traditional reading of the biblical texts.29 The purpose is to overcome the remoteness and strangeness of the biblical texts by trying to make links across the cultural divides. How? By illuminating biblical narratives and making sense of imported foreign concepts, spatially and temporally through indigenous resources, texts, and concepts.30 IV.

Summary

Several conclusions can be drawn from the above analysis. First, biblical narratives were conditioned by cultures of imperialism in the Ancient Near East. In that respect, the canonical authority of the Bible should no longer be treated as absolute, but as contextual and dialogical. 31 Our concern should not be of whether the Bible is literally binding, but how best to bring its life-giving message to God's people in their own time and place. Secondly, the universalizing Western methodologies and scholarship that govern their hermeneutical conclusions were conditioned by Western cultures and present a limited worldview. Biblical interpreters are required to be familiar with the history of Western imperialism and its influence on biblical hermeneutics. The existence of an absolute method of reading is to be treated as a revitalization of colonial values. Triumphalistic universal interpretations should be challenged. Other ways of reading and interpretation are to be appreciated as part of the biblical hermeneutical dialogue. Thirdly, biblical and theological hermeneutics can be a resistant and counter-culture discipline, paying special attention to hidden and neglected voices in biblical narratives and modern society. Biblical hermeneutics must be resistant in terms of neglecting those dominant readings and interpretations which foster inequality and injustice. At the Jeremy Punt, “Postcolonial biblical criticism in South Africa: some mind and road mapping,” Edited section of a paper read at the annual meeting of the New Testament Society of SA, 9-12 April 2002, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education. 30 R. S. Sugirtharajah, “Thinking about vernacular hermeneutics sitting in a metropolitan study,” in Vernacular hermeneutics, Ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999; 97 31 Lee Boyung, “When the text is the problem: a postcolonial approach to biblical pedagogy,” Religious education, Winter (2007); 4-5 29

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same time, biblical hermeneutics has to be emancipative by siding with the suppressed voices of society.

3. Do we (Oceania) need postcolonial theory? From the above conclusions, it seems adequate to say YES. Postcolonial theory has the ability and value to assist a theological hermeneutics that is truly Oceanic. I.

Ability and value of postcolonial theory

In spite of its limitations, I assume that postcolonial theory lends its shoulder to Oceania theological hermeneutics in two dimensions. First, its ability to articulate the aspirations of subjugated people with reference to their sense(s) of identity and self-determination. It offers a way to eloquently and coherently express the reality of who we are and how we view the world. I have in mind a new understanding of Oceania identity; one that realizes the importance of change, of hybridity, where identity is understood as hyphenated, split, multiple and multiplying. One scholar put it in more concrete words and contends that our identity becomes “. . . a complex web of cultural negotiation and interaction forged by imaginatively redeploying the local and the imported elements.”32 This understanding disqualifies any essentialist notion of “identity” based on consciousness and genetic “origin.” Secondly, the value of postcolonial theory is invested in its capacity to pose a resistant and emancipative encounter against dominant readings and interpretations, without ever neglecting aspects of gender, sexuality and ethnicity in the process. This is one of the most significant contributions of postcolonial theory to our purpose. A hermeneutic of both resistance and emancipation aims at dislodging Western constructions of knowledge about us, by defying the standard binary models of categorization. On the same level, a hermeneutic of emancipation addresses our diversity and diverse issues we face in the region. It serves our interests in reclaiming our histories and memories,

A. Carusi, “Post, post, and post or where is South African literature in all this?” in Past the last post: theorizing post-colonialism and post-modernism. Eds., I. Adam and H. Tiffin. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; 100 32

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not for the sake of triumphalism, but our presence in this Ocean as flesh and blood readers. II.

Oceania and ‘decolonization’

Postcolonial reading emerges as a fitting marker for a variety of critical perspectives on the process of decolonization. Oceania is a place with a history of colonization and obviously, some island nations are still traumatized by colonization, and maybe most of us in this gathering are descendants of its victims. In such scenario, decolonization is imperative. We affirm that colonization was also about getting natives to accept their lower ranking in the colonial order of things—a process we can call ‘colonizing the mind.’ It functioned through the internalization of Western values and assumptions as regards the way they perceive and represent the world. The internalization of such colonial sets of values was effectively disempowering people.33 Biblical and theological hermeneutics in Oceania must involve in a process of decolonizing the mind. This is about emancipating our perspectives when reading the Bible, which are still imprisoned in the social, cultural, and religious impacts of colonial structures. Postcolonial hermeneutics is more than ideology criticism. It specifically addresses the silencing of the ‘other’ through colonial strategies, like posing the colonized as the contrary of the colonizer, and emptying the colonized world of meanings.34 Decolonizing the mind as the re-engagement of Oceania world of meanings can be one of the focuses of Oceania theological hermeneutics, a process towards the empowerment of the people of Oceania.

4. Which ‘Bible’ for Oceania theological hermeneutics? I would like to end this presentation with a challenge in terms of resources; born out of my personal journey in biblical criticism and as an Oceania faifeau. Postcolonial reading changed my attitude towards biblical John McLeod 2000, 19 L. Gandhi, Postcolonial theory: a critical introduction, New York: Columbia University Press, 1998, 15

33 34

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studies, towards its traditional principles which are so precious to any biblical student. The greatest challenge that this mode of reading pressed on me was the place and value of the Bible in my own tongue, the Bible that my mom taught me to respect and worship as a god, to love it, to memorize its verses, to perform its stories, to recite and sing its lines day and night. Does it have a place in biblical and theological scholarship? The point is, ‘How could an Oceania hermeneutics be ‘Oceania’ when we still rely on the use of foreign Bibles in Greek, Hebrew, Latin or English languages as the basic texts that direct our readings and interpretations/’ ‘Isn’t there any value or inspiration in the Word of God in our own tongue to be cherished as the texts for Oceania biblical reflections?’ I argue for a serious reconsideration of Oceania Bibles not simply as translations, as copies or colonies of some Ur-texts, but as textual resources at our disposal. Oceania languages and conceptual framework of thinking should be the starting point of a biblical and theological hermeneutics that is truly Oceanic. I believe, the first hurdle to traverse is the change of attitude towards our Bibles. To accomplish that, it is vital to re-read the history of their production and translation, focusing an eye on how they be used sensibly and judiciously as valuable tools for Oceania theological hermeneutics. I.

A postcolonial reading of Bible translation

Although the translation and production of Oceania Bibles was completely controlled by Western missionaries,35 their superior attitudes were not hegemonic enough to guard the ‘originality’ of biblical languages from being distorted. In other words, Hebrew, Latin, and Greek—and their related cultural values—were not sufficiently universal to remain unaffected when crossing the borders of language and cultural difference in the process of translation. Western missionary translators couldn’t resist the pressure of native (recipient) languages and their cultural symbols in order to effectively transfer biblical ideas to native readers. Likewise, recipient languages—and their related cultural symbols—were fairly limited and could not fully accommodate biblical worldviews and foreign notions. Cultural politics of ‘difference’ is therefore an inescapable reality in any textual translation, and the Bible is Oceania Bibles in particular were translated (experimental translations) by the pioneering work of the London Missionary Society missionaries in the early nineteenth century. 35

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no exception. A number of examples from the Samoan Bible indicate the fluidity of the Bible translation process. At the end of the day, the language or poetics of the Samoan Bible, for example, is neither entirely biblical [Greek /Hebrew] nor purely (native) Samoan. Any claim on either is perhaps untenable.36 However, as literary productions of the colonial (mission) 37 period, postcolonial theory argues that translated biblical texts like the Samoan, Tongan or Fijian Bibles are eligible to be classified as postcolonial texts. This is because their introduction, reception, and translation presented the colonial significations of cultures and languages. Based on the notion of difference, languages of Oceania Bibles constitute a poetics of imperialism; a biblical language that is packed with ideas and creeds that promoted a Western oriented Christian culture. The production of Oceania Bibles was affected by the desire to convert, to educate, and to change Oceania cultural perceptions. Consequently, the process of Bible translation produced and imposed a colonial mentality, accepting our inferiority and savage nature. In reading our Bibles, we were compelled to discard our indigenous linguistic systems and cultural values in favor of Western and biblical values. However, postcolonial theory offers another way of analyzing the story of Oceania Bible translation. As literary productions of imperialism, Oceania Bible languages exemplify hybridity, neither the one nor the other. Their fabricated languages comprise of a mixture of Hebrew, Greek, English, and other Oceania linguistic symbols.38 Postcolonial theory argues I wish to take note here that the ambivalence of native Bible languages does not mean that indigenous Bibles did not accomplish the desire for Christian religious univocity or the movement towards planting Christianity in Polynesia. It was indeed accomplished, but just like the ambivalence of cultural representation, it was an achievement within the ambivalence of mimicry, a type of Christianity that was neither completely Western nor totally indigenous. It was universal Christianity not in terms of sameness or difference, but in terms of hybridity, an offshoot of both Western Christianity and Polynesia indigenous religious and cultural experiences. 37 Oceania Bibles were produced during the era of British and European imperial expansion in the South Seas and all over the world. Missionary translators were no doubt agents of such colonial expansion. 38 A number of examples from the Samoan Bible demonstrate that its language is layered with a fusion of linguistic forms and cultural variables from diverse cultural contexts. 36

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that such text is an authentic site for readings that resist the pressure of the dominant readings. These types of texts, as hybrids, are culturo-linguistic layered, and contains a ‘new language.’ These postcolonial texts frequently referred to as ‘hybrid’ or ‘métissés’ because of the culturo-linguistic layering which exists within them, have forging a new language that defies the very notion of a ‘foreign’ text that can be readily translatable into another language. 39 As Bible translation has, in a sense, forged new biblical poetics, native Bibles defy the very notion of an eternal, original, and universal biblical language. In referring to Bible translation, Bhabha points out that in the colonial mission context, translation relocated the Bible from being an insignia of colonial authority to be a sign of resistance, from being a fetish to a hybrid. Translation, then, allowed the written authority of the [original] Bible to be subverted and challenged in the postcolonial context. Bhabha further argues “. . . the process of translation is the opening up of another contentious political and cultural site at the heart of colonial representation.” The Word of God was forced to be flawed. It (the word of divine authority) was deeply affected by the insertion of indigenous signs, and “. . . the language of the master becomes hybrid—neither the one thing nor the other…”40 The written authority of the Bible was confronted. Its historical priority, which was central to evangelical colonialism, was put to the test by the presence of Oceania language and cultural symbols. Bhabha’s use of ‘hybrid’ to designate the master’s language [Bible] after translation points us to the possibilities of new readings and interpretations. Oceanic Bible languages become an unexpected sign of native resistance. It is upon that same political site (the Tongan, Tahitian, or Samoan Bible) where we can contend authoritative readings and dominant interpretations. It is the reassertion of the indigenous sign via translation where we can argue against colonial and imperialistic readings 39 Samia Mehrez, “Translation and the postcolonial experience: the francophone North African text,” in Rethinking translation: discourse, subjectivity, ideology. Ed., Lawrence Venuti. London and NY: Routledge, 1992; 121 40 Homi K. Bhabha, “The commitment to theory,” in The location of culture. London and NY: Routledge, 1992; 33-34

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of the Bible. Through (Bible) translation, we, Oceania readers, have in our possession the textual resource for resistant biblical reading and competitive theological hermeneutics. II. A change of attitude towards our Bibles In most Oceania theological institutions, Bibles in our own languages are only treated as ‘copies,’ ‘shadows’ or ‘colonies’ of the masters; Hebrew, Greek, Latin or English. The value of our Bibles is confined to evangelical mission and conversion purposes. In terms of authority in scholarly dialogue, our Bibles are never equalized to the original texts and even the English Versions, simply because they are ‘translations.’ This attitude indicates the hierarchical classification of Bibles, categorizing the so-called ‘Word of God’ based on language and cultural ‘difference.’ In biblical scholarship and research, indigenous readers and interpreters are forced to be experts, learned scholars, depending on Western biblical resources and European guilds of biblical scholarship to seek biblical truths and the right hermeneutical reading. Terms like mamoe or sipi for ‘sheep,’ auauna for ‘servant,’ Alii/alii for Lord/lord, tausamaaga for ‘marriage feast,’ Keriso for ‘Christ,’ papatiso for ‘baptise,’ areto/ulu for ‘bread,’ or ola faavavau for ‘eternal life’ and many others (Samoan Bible), exemplifies biblical hybridity. In my view, these terms represent a new language ‘in-between’ that occupies what Bhabha terms the Third Space41 of negotiation; a space where foreign and local symbols are brought into the harmonious creation of new concepts and new meanings. From the point of view of translation studies, the language of a native Bible is, The continued life of a text at another moment in time…translation therefore becomes the act that ensures the life of the text and guarantees its survival… [A translation] injects new lifeblood into a text by bringing it to the attention of a new world of readers in a different language.42

Homi K. Bhabha, “The commitment to theory,” 36-37 Susan Bassnett, “The meek or the mighty: reappraising the role of the translator,” in Translation, power, subversion. Eds. Roman Alvarez and M. Carmen41 42

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Oceania Bibles indicate the continued life of the original Bible in the Oceania context. They are the texts where God speaks directly and originally to the real world of Oceania readers no longer as a foreign God, but as a universal God. It is through our Bibles that God speaks in a tongue understood to Oceania readers, while remaining a universal God. Our failure to appreciate our Bibles as the continued life of God’s Word in our context indicates neo-colonial attitudes where readers of original texts would think, “Thanks to translation, we become aware that our neighbours do not speak and think as we do.”43 Cautiously, Oceania Bibles do not signify cultural superiority. Their languages should “. . . remain perpetually in motion, pursuing errant and unpredictable routes, open to change and reinscription.”44 Biblical studies in our postmodern and postcolonial contexts need this perpetual movement, allowing diverse cultural experiences to pursue unpredictable biblical interpretations. Taking Oceania Bibles seriously on the same kerygmatic calibre as the original Hebrew, Greek or English Bibles offers a huge challenge to the future of biblical studies in Oceania. III. Oceania Bibles as texts for theological hermeneutics Oceania biblical hermeneutics has to start by acknowledging which Bible ‘telling’ we are reading from. It is not about absolutizing a native Bible as mark of identity. It is to take its hybridity as the starting point of reading. Our cultural variables are to be re-signified as ‘referents,’ not as the ‘starting point’ of interpretation. Sugirtharajah cautiously wrote, At a time when vernacular cultures and languages are intermingled with those of the metropolis, it is not always feasible to use dialect as a test of identity. In our enthusiasm to recover the native, we may put ourselves in the double predicament of finding redeeming values both Africa Vidal. Clevedon, Philadelphia, and Adelaide: Multilingual matters Ltd.: 1996; 22 43 Octavio Paz, “Translation: Literature and letters,” trans. Irene del Corral in Theories of translation: an anthology of essays from Dryden to Derrida. Eds. Rainer Schulte and John Biguenet. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992; 154 44 John McLeod, Beginning postcolonialism, 219

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in the indigene and in the text… By eulogizing the ascendancy of the native and revalorizing the text, we may end up by fixing, absolutizing and immobilizing both.45 Oceania theological hermeneutics re-signifies our presence, our voices, and our memories in theological dialogue. It would be naïve if our purpose is to eulogize our cultural values. Our purpose is to ‘uncover’ our presence as hybrid human beings in terms of identity, rather than recovering our past as cultural purity. There is difference between recovering the native’s culture and recovering the native as a hybridized cultural human being. The former is perhaps plausible if any pure indigenous culture still exists. But the latter is more close to the present concrete reality, because it is about re-signifying our indigenous experiences as universal human beings rather than falling into the temptation of being culturally exclusive. Taking the native Bible seriously should not be based on its language as mark of identity, but because of its hybrid language and cultural diversity. For instance, in the Samoan Bible, theological hermeneutics begins with biblical terms in our own languages, auauna, Alii, tausamaaga, papatiso, or ola faavavau, then the interpreter explores the richness of the Samoan language and its conceptual framework of thinking. The next step should be a comparative analysis to other Oceania languages and cultural variables. After that, then we move on to the original biblical languages and their cultural values, as well as the available options offer by other cultural locations worldwide. But starting with our own Bible languages builds our confidence to read, talanoa, and formulate our theological expositions in a familiar household tongue. At the same time, we also recognize that our hermeneutics is just part of a global theological dialogue, where nothing is lost but also gained in translation.

R.S. Sugirtharajah, “Vernacular resurrections: an introduction,” in Vernacular Hermeneutics, 1999; 15

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Bibliography Ashcroft Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, Key concepts in postcolonial studies Routledge, 1998 Ashcroft B., Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin, The Empire writes back: theory and practice in postcolonial literatures, Routledge, 1989 Bassnett, Susan. “The meek or the mighty: reappraising the role of the translator,” in Translation, power, subversion. Topics in translation, 8. Eds. Román Álvarez and M. Carmen-África Vidal. Clevedon, Philadelphia, and Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1996; 10-24 Bhabha, Homi K. “The commitment to theory,” in The location of culture. London and New York: Routledge, 1994; 19-39 Bhabha, Homi K. The location of culture. London and New York: Routledge, 1994 Boyung, Lee. “When the text is the problem: a postcolonial approach to biblical pedagogy,” Religious Education, Winter (2007); 4-5 Carusi, A. “Post, post, and post or where is South African literature in all this?” in Past the last post: theorizing post-colonialism and post-modernism. Eds., I Adam and H. Tiffin. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991 Dube, Musa W. and Jeffrey Staley, (Eds), John and postcolonialism: travel, space and power The Bible and Postcolonialism 7. Series Editor, R. S. Sugirtharajah. London and New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002 Dube, Musa W. “Reading for decolonization (John 4. 1-42),” in R. S. Sugirtharajah (Ed.), Voices from the margin 2006; 297-318 Fanon Frantz. Black Skins, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam, Markmann: Pluto, 1952 Gandhi, L. Postcolonial theory: a critical introduction, New York: Columbia University Press, 1998 Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism Routledge, 1998 McLeod, John. Beginning Postcolonialism Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2000

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Mehrez, Samia. “Translation and the postcolonial experience: the francophone north African text,” in Rethinking translation: discourse, subjectivity, ideology. Ed. Lawrence Venuti London and New York: Routledge, 1992; 120-138 Paz, Octavio. “Translation: Literature and Letters,” Trans. Irene del Corral in Theories of translation: an anthology of essays from Dryden to Derrida. Eds. Rainer Schulte and John Biguenet. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992; 152-162 Prior, Michael. The Bible and colonialism: a moral critique. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997 Punt, Jeremy. “Postcolonial biblical criticism in South Africa: some mind and road mapping,” Edited section of a paper read at the annual meeting of the New Testament Society of SA, 9-12 April 2002, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education Rainer Schulte and John Biguenet (Eds), Theories of translation: an anthology of essays from Dryden to Derrida. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992 Román Álvarez and M. Carmen-África Vidal (Eds), Translation, power, subversion. Topics in translation, 8. Clevedon, Philadelphia, and Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1996 Said, Edward. Orientalism 2nd Edition, London: Penguin, 1995 Segovia, Fernando F. Decolonizing biblical studies: a view from the margins. Maryknoll New York: Orbis Books, 2004 Sugirtharajah, R. S. “Thinking about vernacular hermeneutics sitting in a metropolitan study,” in Vernacular hermeneutics, Ed. R. S. Sugirtharajah, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999 Sugirtharajah, R. S. (Ed.), Voices from the margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World. Revised and Expanded Third Edition. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2006 Venuti, Lawrence (Ed.), Rethinking translation: discourse, subjectivity, ideology. London: Routledge, 1992

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Young, Robert C. Postcolonialism: a very short introduction Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003 Samoan Bible

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The Challenge and Contribution of Gender to Theological Hermeneutics in Oceania

‘Asinate Fuakautu’u Samate

Introduction Gender is defined as the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Gender is socially-constructed and its meaning and interpretations are shaped by one’s own contexts where distinct roles and behavior attributed to males and females may have evolved. This has resulted in gender inequalities and inequities which can systematically favour one group over the other. As a social construct, gender analysis can be addressed against the power structures and ideologies of the social systems where men and women live.

Rev. Dr. ‘Asinate Samate is an ordained minister and currently works at the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga Education Office as the Senior Education Officer for Policy, Planning and Development for the whole system. Her achievements include BA/DipEd (Aust), Master in Educational Management (UK), PhD (aust) and Doctorate in Ministry (SFTS, USA). Her main interests include doing research and empowerment of marginalized people.

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Hermeneutics is the study of interpretation theory, both the art of interpretation and the theory and practice of interpretation. The meaning and interpretations are shaped by one’s own socio-political and cultural contexts and backgrounds. Theology has many interpretations. A literal interpretation of it is “God-talk”, meaning that God talks to us through the text (Scriptures) or experiences of many men and women (stories). The meaning can be interpreted within the context, be it historical, social, political, economic, religious and cultural. Theology is not only a matter of faith but of realities of everyday life and the culture. In this context, theological hermeneutics can be taken to mean the study of the interpretation of realities in the light of God-talk (Tala-Ótua). In this paper, I would like to firstly discuss the issue of power and authority as a reference point to the analysis of gender. This is followed by a discussion of a specific hermeneutical approach from an African context referred to as Cultural Hermeneutics as developed by Musimbi Kanyoro. Then some contextualization of gender issues will be made with reference to Oceania and using some specific examples from Tonga. Finally, as an attempt to re-think the journey and course of hermeneutics in Oceania in the context of gender perspectives, some recommendations and proposals for consideration will be made.

The Concept and Issue of Power and Authority

1.1 Meaning and Definitions Power and authority have a variety of definitions and these two concepts are so inter-connected and inter-related that they are often used interchangeably in everyday speech. But in this case, we will only consider the characteristics of power and authority which are used in decisionmaking processes. In the light of engendering power and authority, we will only consider positive and negative use of power and authority. In everyday life, power and authority can be used properly or it can be abused. For example, if power means having “control over others”, then it can be an example of domination which is a misuse of power, if it takes away the right and freedom of the subjects under control to exercise their power. But, if the power to control is used in a responsible way, as when parents exercise control over their young children to save them from dangers such as fire or falling into a swimming pool or running onto a busy road, or when police arrest criminals and imprison them to avoid

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further damage in the community, then these are regarded as a good use of power of control. The dominating nature of power supports the claim made by Ackerman (1996) that when it is “power over” without the justification provided by deficiencies in those who are subjected to this domination, then it is considered bad power. This happens when the power-brokers either remove, reduce or take over the power and right of those under their care, as often happens in certain systems of government, such as dictatorships, totalitarian rule, and absolute monarchy. However, there are cases where ‘power over’ is neutral such as when a country controls the headwaters of a river and thereby acquires a certain degree of ‘power over’ the communities downstream, at least in terms of water quality and supply; or positive when parents are providing security, guidance and nurturance to children until they are mature enough to look after themselves. Ackerman also compares “power over” to a more relational use of power which she refers to as “power to” or “power with”. The latter is often referred to as power for good especially if the power is shared. However, it is also quite possible for domination to occur in relational power, where one individual or some members in the group with more power exploit those members with less or no power. This can happen among individuals, as with bullies in schools; or in groups, as with gangsters, or in institutions with legitimate power as with the police or army. There are various bases for that ‘recognized right to exercise power’, which can be derived (by hereditary right), achieved (by election or appointment), delegated (by authoritative declaration or decree), legalized (by enactment or law,) or even earned (by war or charisma) in order for authority to be legitimate. Hence, authority can be used legitimately to command order, to enforce obedience, to give an ultimate decision, to enact the law or to exert influence on conduct in order to achieve legitimate ends. However, it is also very possible for those in office, leaders holding legitimate authority, to use their power in illegal, unconstitutional, or irresponsible ways to achieve selfish ends. For example, kings can use their veto power (legitimate authority) to frustrate some constitutional amendments or parliamentary proposals for change in order to protect their own power. Dictators can order the killing of innocent people without trial in order to protect their own position or for private revenge.

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Police (who have legitimate authority) sometimes act outside the law to illegally arrest and brutally beat up prisoners. Principals can use their legitimate authority to expel students outside the boundary of school policies. These are examples of those in power who misuse their legitimate authority, either through coercion, domination or violation, in order to achieve their own self-gratifying ends. From these definitions of power and authority, we can see that, although often used interchangeably, there are significant differences which depend on the intentions and motives behind the use of power and authority, the actual realities of the situation, the relationships of the parties involved, the way in which people make use of the power and authority in their hands and the criteria used for assessing the ways power and authority are being used. 1.2

Theological reflections on power and authority

1.2.1 Power and authority from God Christians believe that all power and authority on earth and in heaven come from God. When God created the first man and woman, He gave them power and authority to “rule over” and have dominion over all living things (Gen.1:28). Because the man and woman are created in the image of God and share in His Kingly rule, they are God’s servants, God’s representatives and God’s good stewards for the rest of God’s creation. That includes the environment, plants, animals and all living things. To ‘rule over’ and have ‘dominion over’ them means that human beings have power and authority over them. What we, as human beings, do with that power and authority is the question. If we destroy, exploit or waste them, then that is not responsible use of the power and authority God has entrusted to us. But if we care, protect and conserve them, then we are using our power and authority responsibly. In this context, Dunn & Rogerson (2003) remind us that, “every human being, male and female… is God’s representative who governs the rest of creation on God’s behalf”2 and are not given “a mandate to exploit the earth but to manage the earth for the benefit of all creation”. This calls for good stewardship where human beings look after and take good care

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of God’s creation. This prevents environmental degradation and results in ecological preservation. In fulfilling our responsibility to each other, Jesus set the example during his ministry on earth for his disciples and for the believing community to follow. He has a special compassion for the poor, the rejects and outcasts in society. His ministry on earth was foretold by Prophet Isaiah: “The Spirit of the Sovereign Lord is on me, because the Lord has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim freedom for the captives and release from darkness for the prisoners…to comfort all who mourn and provide for those who grieve…” (Isa.61:1-3a). On the Day of Pentecost, the apostles and those who were present received the power of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:1-12) which empowered them to preach, to teach, to heal, to drive out demons and to bring people to God just as Jesus was fulfilling in his ministry. As people of faith, we can be empowered by the Spirit of God to do what Jesus did – to teach, to preach, to heal, to serve, to liberate those in bondage to sin, to set the prisoners free, to drive evil spirits out of people’s lives and to empower the marginalized, the disadvantaged, the rejects, the poor and those people who need help in society. By doing this, we are providing human security to these people - by reclaiming their identity, by empowering them to acquire wealth through legitimate means and by doing so may be able to relinquish poverty. Our ministry will make a difference if we depend on the spiritual power from God, the Source of all life. 1.2.2 Powers and authorities at work There are so many powers and authorities at work in our world today – economic, political, social powers as well as personal, intellectual, spiritual and structural powers. These powers can be used, intentionally or unintentionally, for the benefit or to the detriment of those who are affected by them. The spiritual dimension of power is emphasized in Paul’s Letter to the Ephesians when he advises them that “our struggle is powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms “ (Eph.6:12). In other words, human struggle is not a physical war between persons but a spiritual warfare between good and evil or between God and the Evil One.

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Walter Wink is one of the leading authors on the issue of powers and authorities at work in our world today. Wink (1992) refers to the totality view of Powers as: “both visible and invisible, earthly and heavenly, spiritual and institutional. The Powers possess an outer, physical manifestation… and an inner spirituality, or corporate culture, or collective personality. The Powers are the simultaneity of an outer, visible structure and an inner, spiritual reality. The Powers, properly speaking, are not just the spirituality of institutions, but their outer manifestations as well…”2. When Powers become corrupt and pervasive, they are exploitative and dominating as in the lives of ordinary people who are affected by “unjust economic relations, biased race relations, patriarchal gender relations, oppressive political relations, hierarchical power relations, and the use of violence to maintain them all” (3) which are external features of a Domination System. For example, in the economic sphere, powers of domination occur when the rich few benefit by exploiting the poor. In the political arena, systems like kingship, dictatorship and totalitarian rule means so much power is concentrated in the hands of the few and they can command the obedience from the majority under their rule by force, veto power or military control. In social institutions, ranking, status and classism create unequal relationships between those playing the superior roles over those who are regarded as lower or inferior to them. In family systems, the supreme rule of the father demands respect and obedience from the mother and children. In the context of the corruptive nature of having too much power, Abraham Lincoln warns us of how human nature cannot handle unchecked power: “’Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man’s character, give him power’. Power can be compared to a great river; while within bounds it is both beautiful and useful. But when it overflows its bounds, it destroys. The danger of power lies in the fact that those who are vested with it tend to make its preservation their first concern. Therefore, they will naturally oppose any

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changes in the forces that have given them this power. History tells us that power leads to the abuse of power, and abuse of power leads to a loss of power”4. Therefore, in this context, Lincoln shows both the positive and negative aspects of the powers while Wink (1992) tells us that the biblical perspective on the powers is that, “The Powers are good, the Powers are fallen, but the Powers will be redeemed”(5). By that, he means that Powers are good because they are created in, through and for Christ (Col.1:16), that Powers are fallen because those who hold power abandon their divine purposes for the good of all to pursue their own idolatrous goals and live under the conditions of the Domination System; and that Powers will be redeemed because Christ can transform both the structure and the spirituality of oppressive institutions under his rule since he is the ultimate giver and author of all authority and power. Both the systems and people who maintain the systems can and need to change because one influences the other. The systems are powerless unless people grant them power and some systems give people more power than others. However, it is the task of responsible leaders, believers and the Church to recall Powers to their divine vocation by discerning both the structure and spirituality of the Powers. In Wink’s terms, the task can be done by “Naming the Powers” which identifies the pervasive forces that dominate lives, by “Unmasking the Powers” which takes away their invisibility, and by “Engaging the Powers” which takes them back to their divine purposes6. Yule (1973) also reminds us that: “ We should test the spirits to see whether they are of God (1 John.4:1)”7. Evil is not just personal but also structural and spiritual. In the godless and soulless world of today, it is not easy to talk about spirituality. Therefore, our goal is not just to free ourselves and those in bondage from the Powers of Domination but also to free the Powers from dominating us and our human brothers and sisters. It is only the power of Christ which can set us free: “So if the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed” (Jn.8:36). With Christ at the Cross, he both accepts and overcomes evil with the power of love. 1.2.3 The divine power and authority to govern Politically, there are many types of governments and the structure is as important as those who run the system. Different systems typically

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embody certain value commitments which can provide a very useful constraint upon the freedom of those in power. For example, in a democratic system, the government is ruled by the majority vote of the people and the rights of the individuals are protected by the rule of law while in a monarchy, the power to rule is mainly vested in one person, the king or queen. The former has checks and balances in the structure to regulate the Powers involved while the latter depends very much on the one who holds the Powers. In Paul’s teachings about the source of authority and responsibility of citizens towards the governing authorities, he states that, “Everyone must submit himself to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God.” (Rom.13:1). There are three parties involved in this claim: God, the source and author of all power and authority who has the ultimate responsibility and accountability; the state or the government who is given power and authority to take leadership of the people on behalf of God; and the citizens whose primary responsibility is to obey the governing authorities and abide by the laws of the country. Dunn et al (2003) refer to the last two as the “doctrine of the state” and “good citizenship” respectively8. As far as the ‘doctrine of the state’ is concerned, Paul highlights the positive side which claims that it is God who appoints the governing authorities and therefore, the latter must rule well and responsibly. In other words, the civil government having a God-initiated right and duty, is ordained to promote good and prevent evil (Rom.13:3-4) as it is God’s intention for governing authorities to be true to their duty, “to do what is right” (v3) and “to do… good” (v.4). In this context, civil authorities are servants of God who have the divine power and authority to execute judgment and punishment on wrongdoers. This responsibility is done in order to promote and ensure ‘good citizenship’ in society where ‘good citizenship’ means being obedient to the governing authorities and doing what the law and leaders demand of them. However, if the citizens disobey the rulers who are God’s servants, then they rebel against God who gives them power and authority of leadership (v.2&4).The same advice is given by Peter to believers, requiring them to submit to “every authority… whether to the king, as the supreme authority, or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right” (1 Pet.2:13&14). Paul’s and Peter’s teachings here reflect a very ideal situation as far as the execution of power and authority is concerned and the assumption

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is, that there is no inherent evil in the intentions and motives of both the governing authorities and citizens. In other words, their intentions and motives are supposed to be all positive, creative, life-giving and good but we are living in a fallen world, a world where the opposing powers and principalities are at work and spiritual realities are corrupted under the Evil One. The corruptive acts of power and authority occur when the governing authorities misuse the national resources for personal gains, or exploit poorer people by extracting wealth from them and make the rich richer, or provide militarism as a divine legitimacy for the suppression of poor people, or promote discriminatory social policies as in health, education and employment based on racial, gendered and class differences. Wink (1992) praises the responsible and uncorruptive leaders and citizens because they do not “legitimate blind obedience to an oppressive system” and therefore, “no matter how greedy or idolatrous an institution becomes, it cannot escape the encompassing care and judgment of the One in and through and for whom it was created”9. To combat pervasive Powers, Wink (1992) advises us of what to do by saying that, “We can love our nation or church or school, not blindly but critically, recalling to its own highest self-possessed ideals and identities. We can challenge these institutions to live up to the vocation that is theirs by virtue of their sheer createdness. We can oppose their actions while honoring their necessity”10. In support, Hastings (1963) suggests that, “For leaders and those governing authorities with higher powers, they are ordained by God as officers who have influence and authority for the administration of justice among people”11. George Bush prayed in his Inaugural Address of 1989, “For we are given power not to advance our own purposes nor to make a great show in the world, nor a name. There is but one use of power and it is to serve people”12. Jesus said that he did not come to be served but to serve. Therefore, we believe that it is the responsibility of governments, as divinely-appointed authorities, to do justice to their citizens by upholding God’s intentions of “what is right and good”. On the other hand, if they abuse and misuse their God-given power and authority without repentance and without working towards correcting their wrong actions, then they will face guilty conscience and eventual loss of power.

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1.2.4 The divine power and authority of ordained ministry The church is not just a spiritual organization but it is also a social institution. It is not just a building but it includes people who worship in the building and their service to the community. In the general development of the organizational structure of the church as a social institution, there are three main phases observed: Firstly, the authority in the early church was mainly spiritual and the nature of the group was like a fellowship of believers, sharing their faith, belongings and sacrament, and as a result, the number of recruits increased daily (Acts 2:42-47). Secondly, throughout the ages, the church organization became more hierarchical and structured through the development of the offices of bishop and pope. This resulted in the spiritual, legal and political power of the church being housed in the same offices. The integration of the Church and the State was encouraged. The church became more secular, juridical and institutional. The Church and the State became actively involved with each other and gave rise to church-state systems where religious and political aspects were interwoven and ecclesiastical leaders exercised political power either in their own right or as officials of the state. Thirdly, following schisms in the church and the subsequent separation of church and state in recent centuries, a restructuring of church authority has taken place towards unity, diversity and communality. In other words, the church has become more collegial, contextual and local. As far as ordained ministry is concerned, it is a special call and the recognition of that call is at the heart of its ministry. This call may be discerned through personal prayer and reflection, as well as through suggestion, example, encouragement, guidance coming from family, friends, the congregation, teachers, and other church authorities.. The call to ordained ministry is authenticated by the churchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recognition of the gifts and graces of the person called, whether they are natural or spiritual gifts. As part of the churchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recognition of the call, the church prepares her ministers for ministry by training, study of scripture and theology, prayer and spirituality, discipline, experiences of realities of life and ministry, nurturing and providing support as in salary, housing and health provisions. When candidates for ministry fulfill the requirements set by the Church, then ordination takes place.

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In essence, the ordained ministry is necessary for the church to fulfill its mission of unity and witness. The ordained ministers need to be constantly reminded of their dependence on Jesus Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit for their ministry. The continuous presence of the ordained ministry as a guardian of the apostolic faith helps the continuity of the church throughout the ages. In some churches, there is so much power and authority concentrated at the top with the ordained persons that in order for the church to maintain its ministry of unity and witness, these leaders need to be aware of how much power they have and how they make use of their power. Within the order of the ordained ministry, there are three basic components that need to be present: a personal expression (i.e. expression in and through a person) for genuine ministry, so that a corporate body such as an Assembly or Conference cannot ‘minister’ except through persons; a collegial expression, through the co-operation and sharing with colleagues in ministry, and a communal expression, through the community of the faithful whereby the minister actively participates and shares in the life of the community13. A balance is needed between the three, and all three need to be considered when decisions are made in church ministry. 1.2.5 Patriarchy and women in the church Patriarchy is derived from the word ‘patriarch’ which means “a man who rules a family, clan, or tribe” or a “system … ruled by a man and with descent through the male line” or “rule of the father”. In a patriarchal arrangement, men are regarded as the head of social institutions such as the family, the church and the government. In the Bible, the genealogy of the descendants of Jesus in Matt.1:1-17 is patriarchal because it goes through the male side (“the father of…”) and although five women are included, namely: Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, Bathsheba and Mary, they are seen more as a disruption in the ideal genealogy of Jesus. The headship of men is further elaborated by one of the household codes where Paul instructs the wives to “submit to your husbands as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church, his body…” (Eph.5:22&23). Paul appears to be giving a theological rationale to patriarchy but because the subjection of the wives to their husbands is compared to the submission of the Church to Christ as its head, and the responsibility of the husbands to the wives is compared to Christ’s attitude and responsibility to the church, then ideally, the Christian love between

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the husband and wife in marriage is one of respect of and submission to the other rather than domination. We are reminded by WCC (1982) that “Where Christ is present, human barriers are being broken”14 and “The Church is called to convey to the world the image of a new humanity. There is in Christ no male or female” (Gal.3:28). Unity in Christ transcends ethnic, social and sexual differences and all human distinctions are laid aside since Christ is the author and finisher of our human existence. The ultimate source and author of power and authority is God and the manifestations and divine origin of power and authority are varied with different contextual and theological meanings. How power and authority are applied in real life and how they are handled by leaders and power-holders will determine if they use them responsibly for the good of those who receive them or not. Therefore, the understanding of the concepts and workings of power and authority is very central to the challenge and contribution of gender to theological hermeneutics. I have chosen to use the hermeneutical approach developed by Musimbi Kanyoro in her theory of Cultural Hermeneutics where she attempts to critique culture in order to identify which aspects of culture are empowering and which are disempowering as far as men and women are concerned.

Cultural Hermeneutics from an African Perspective (Kanyoro)

2.1 Meaning of Culture Kinoti (1996) defines culture as “the totality of any given society’s way of life” and “Undergirding culture is a network of interrelated value systems that is capable of influencing and conditioning perception, judgment and behaviour”14. In other words, culture is a human creation and achievement; it is not static but always changing as it responds to the changing needs of society. Writing from the African context, Kanyoro (2002) believes culture to be the basis of our common understanding of who we are and what that means. She regards it as a powerful tool of influence because it shapes our lives and our beings, our belief and thought systems; it determines our roles and responsibilities; it formulates our customs and traditions. In her view, culture is like a thread which holds things in the community together

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and a window through which everything is explained. Culture explains how authority and relationships are organized in the community. Culture is the center of our lives and essence of our identities. Life to us is explained by culture. However, because of the ’double-edged nature’ of culture, it is seen as both a “creed for the community identity” as well as “the main justification for difference, oppression and injustice”15 Kanyoro suggests that culture needs to be put under close scrutiny and under a thorough test and analysis in order to determine what is liberating and life-giving and what is harmful and destructive. To effect change, these conflicting issues need to be addressed, discussed and challenged in order to affirm and nurture what is beautiful, wholesome and healthy and to denounce what is deadly and evil. Therefore, to deal with the affirmation of culture as well as the critique of it, Kanyoro develops one of the contemporary feminist methodologies of cultural analysis known as “Cultural Hermeneutics”. Hermeneutics literally means “interpretation” and cultural hermeneutics means “analysis and interpretation of how culture conditions people’s understanding of reality at a particular time and location” by putting “every culture to scrutiny with the intention of testing its liberative potential for people at different times in history”16. Cultural hermeneutics is said to be a prerequisite for Biblical hermeneutics, and therefore, a necessary tool for teaching in theological colleges. 2.2 The African Context Kanyoro (2002) claims that in Africa, people are deeply religious. Although they see Christian faith as “like a shoe too big to grow into or too small to render comfort”, they still name God as their “most faithful companion” in their life journeys and when trauma happens, “they are given a religious explanation or interpretation”. They struggle to sustain life in a cultural as well as a religious manner because culture and religion are so interwoven and sometimes very hard to distinguish one from the other – the sacred and secular, the spiritual and material, and the natural and supernatural25. In their theological engagement with gender issues, they seek to “expose harm and injustices that are in society and are extended to Scripture and the teachings and practices of the church through culture”. When they read the Bible, they read “with the eyes of their cultures and they apply a mirror-image reading” where “the Bible

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helps read their cultures while at other times their culture gives meaning to the texts of the Bible”. In the church, the dilemma of the gospel and culture continues to exist although the church has decided that the gospel is the better one because they claim that “The gospel will only be understood through the eyes of culture” although Kanyoro also claims that “everything in my village is explained through the eyes of culture” and therefore, if change has to occur, “it must address first and foremost, cultural issues”. A good way of expressing the pull of the gospel from one side and the culture from the other side is by the African proverb of the hyena which was following the general direction of the aroma of barbecuing meat. As he wanted a share of this enticing and mouth-watering meat, suddenly his path forked into two. Therefore, he was not sure which one would lead him to the meat. In his uncertainty, he put his legs astride the two paths and tried to walk along both and oops! The poor hyena split in the middle. Alas! The meaning of the proverb pertains to the African Christian who puts one foot with the African religion and culture and the other in the church and western culture. The former is usually condemned as evil and pagan and the latter as good and to be accepted. There are issues which often cause dilemmas, such as the practice of polygamy and female circumcision in Africa. In the eyes of culture, they are acceptable but how does Christianity regard them? As in the context of the story of the hyena, the Christian church has to make a firm and clear stand in the addressing of such issues in the light of the Scriptures. As far as African women are concerned, as experienced by Kanyoro in her community of Bware Village, they see contemporary Africa “lamenting a moral world fallen apart”. They have witnessed destruction and bad influences from the West and the new religion such as destruction of the family as “the nucleus” and “powerhouse of society”, the uncontrolled attacks of AIDS and HIV, disintegration of the sense of community, the disillusionment of youth and bringing chaos and confusion to the people. However, at the same time, there are signs of hope and positive attempts to claim their equal and rightful place in society as they believe God created them to be. For example, African liberation theology is not an individual but a communal theology; the kind of cultural Christianity where they feel at home with the gospel. The search is for the kind of theology where those with differences can affirm their differences and create a space for their expression; where “strangers” such as prostitutes, sinners, tax collectors and “rejects” in society feel

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welcome and accepted because they are the ones “who help us know when justice is done” and thus creating a new community in Christ. Perhaps there is a need to re-invent the Biblical Jubilee where justice is done, slaves are freed, land is restored and protection is granted for the vulnerable such as the widow, the orphan and the poor. As for the church and Christians, their “prophetic voice” and “daring to be a conscience” need to be on the look out as a watchdog in society on peace, justice and equality issues for example. Sometimes their speaking out involves serious risks where the ‘mouthpiece of God’ faces reprimand, excommunication and loss of position in the Government, if they speak out against the Government leaders, and in the Church if they speak out church leadership. Those who question the authority of the church, especially from within, often threaten the institutional comfort of the church, their invested privileges, their secured positions and the security of their judgments of what is right or wrong and what they often get in return are threats, counter-attacks and discomfort in performing their roles in the church. This occurs if church leadership exercises power of domination and operates a top-down structure of authority, but church leadership which adopts a partnership, collegial and communal style tends to respond in an accepting way to prophetic criticism. Those who lose their faith, courage and commitment in the face of danger lose their prophetic vision for a new world order of “righteousness, justice, peace and undisturbed security” as Prophet Isaiah declares in 32:15-17. Kanyoro suggests that it is the prophetic task of the church to hold the gospel and culture in tension with one another in order to create a new community of justice and equality. However, there is a precaution here regarding use of equality because by pretending we are all the same means that someone becomes invisible in the process. Oftentimes, it is the most vulnerable that disappears in the process such as women, the “rejects” and “outcasts” in society. In the light of gender equality, Kanyoro (1995) realises how difficult it is to challenge culture because it is “something subconscious, so ingrained in us that we do not hear or see ourselves within our cultural skin”18. That is why so many traditional and conservative people worship culture and protect its preservation at all costs. In addition, she develops what she calls “Engendered Cultural Hermeneutics” which is a method of analysis that doubly addresses issues of culture while being critical of that culture from a gender perspective. This is one of the attempts to fulfill the

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new vision of a just society where men and women equally unite in struggle by struggling equally and benefiting equally, and where there is true partnership among men and women. In other words, gender roles need to change as contexts change over time. In the church, there is a need to affirm partnership where women and men share in ordained ministry and in leadership. The church also needs to celebrate lives of women leaders in the Bible like Deborah, Esther and Huldah (Chron. 34:22-28) who broke through limitations of patriarchy and helped shape history by breaking down boundaries of injustice and doing justice to the people they are held responsible for. To challenge culture, Kanyoro (1995) advocates dialogue, which is a feature of cultural hermeneutics, and at the same time, realizes that “The complexities inherent in cultural debate require a space and safe environment of mutual trust and mutual vulnerability in order for dialogue to take place”. Dialogue can be a beginning of the process of empowerment of the women who are marginalised by culture, but as part of the process, their powerlessness must be identified, its roots must be analysed and women themselves must be part of the process of change. She sees culture as a “euphemism used to explain biases, justify actions that might otherwise be challenged and foster diversity at the expense of unity”19. Therefore, “There is need to challenge this and to face what it takes to have sincere dialogue on culture”. So, the task of cultural hermeneutics is to explore the structures and institutions established to support the rites, the ceremonies and practices which constitute culture. This can be done in the form of finding tools to address issues, of dialoguing with all concerned parties and of applying critical cultural and theological analysis to the oppressive elements and injustices of cultural practices and values. To address the power issue, I found the questions posed by Kanyoro (1992) to be very useful. They are: "Where are you in the power structure of your family, church and society? How did you get there? Do you see power as a negative or positive attribute that you possess or lack? How do you share or distribute your power to others or how do you attempt to get power if you have none? Does Scripture empower you or diminish you?"20. The responses to these questions show that the understanding of power and authority can start with the individual. Then a collective group of enlightened individuals can critique culture in a

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collective manner and in the light of the collective community as in the Tongan society.

Cultural Traditions, rituals and symbolism in Oceania

3.1 Story-telling or “Talanoa” as a cultural symbol of empowerment and change In Oceania, the networks of human relationships and the cultural systems of understanding are often naturally expressed in poems, drama, proverbs, songs, painting, art & craft, dance, music and stories to be heard rather than read, to be interpreted rather than taken literally. The Bible is full of stories. Jesus uses parables or stories as an effective way to teach people because they have a specific message which reaches them at their level and in their context. In Tonga, stories as in myths and legends were passed on orally from generation to generation in the form of story-telling. They were only written when missionaries introduced the printing press in the early nineteenth century. Sharing stories is empowering because at times, we feel we are alone and different, not knowing that so many men and women are going through the same struggles and challenges in life as we are. We are enriched and encouraged by each other especially if we are open, unreserved and trusting. In the empowerment of the unknown and marginalized in society, Deifelt (1992) rightly says that we need to encounter each other with our stories of pain and joy ”because no one would deem their lives important enough to write them down” and “these are everyday stories, of kitchens and fields and factories”. Deifelt shares the story of her mother, like most mothers and women we know, who have low self-esteem and think themselves of no account. She tells of her mother as one who ”does not think that her work is important. In the First World she would probably be called a counselor or a psychologist if she had proper training (since she is a good listener)… she keeps telling herself how little she knows, that she is not capable, that others can do it better. She works hard to diminish herself. She has been brought up believing that her opinions don't count"21. In other words, it’s her attitude towards herself that needs to change and she needs empowerment from those who are empowered. Our attitudes to life and other people will largely determine our destiny. Barriers can become opportunities if we have a positive and an

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empowering attitude of life. Maxwell (1993) claims that “we are in charge of our attitudes” and “It’s the attitude that makes the difference”22. Empowering has to be a liberating experience that gives full humanity to those who are power-less. Liberation can be a communal or an individual experience. The judgment of those who need liberating can be different from that of the oppressor or the dominant group. Therefore, it can be argued that the oppressed and the marginalized know best about their conditions of oppression and they are the best people to be involved in assessing the liberating process. However, those with the “prophetic voice” who are “daring to be a conscience”, and in this case, the church and its leaders also have a moral responsibility to address the issue of power of domination, coercion, humiliation and exploitation in order to help liberate those who are oppressed and disadvantaged by the abuse and misuse of power. 3.1.1 Using stories in the FWCT Women’s Monthly Bible Studies’Project (Kaluseti or Naá) Story-telling is central to the Pacific thinking and understanding of reality. In Tonga, I included stories in a project for women as a method of raising awareness of church women in Tonga towards themselves and towards other women. The assumption is, that when women read stories about other women, they may be encouraged and empowered when they read about the realities of other women, either from their own situations or from other contexts. This may raise their awareness of themselves and of others. Self-awareness may help to increase their self-esteem and confidence in themselves as women. Knowledge is power and experience gives them confidence. The Project was based on adding a new dimension to the usual monthly bible study materials written primarily for the FWCT women. The study materials were printed in the Na’a Booklet as part of their monthly Crusade (or Kaluseti) meeting. The new addition was a story added for each month in the Na’a Booklet of 2005. The stories used were mainly about women from different countries such as Sri Lanka, Australia, Thailand, Indonesia as well as Tonga. . Most of the stories used are those of ordinary, unknown and little people (mainly women) in society that are often neglected and forgotten. The feedback I got from the results of evaluation as well as from individual women in Tonga and overseas has convinced me that many women are encouraged and empowered by the stories used in the Na’a Booklets.

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Deifelt (1992) refers to the imagery of a garden as a useful metaphor of empowerment. She suggests that we all imagine ourselves as plants in a garden and that only a few plants get fertilizer and water (whose stories are told) while the rest get nothing at all. That implies that the plants that are underfed don't grow, and they shrink and die (those whose stories are forgotten). And for many of those underfed and dying plants, "talking and listening to each other is like arriving at an oasis, with fresh water and shady palm trees, after a long journey in the wilderness."23. In this context, she challenges us to claim our mother's garden and let us make a difference by giving space to those different plants so that their true colours lighten up and grow. By doing that, we, who have power and authority and a voice that is heard, can empower the power-less and the voice-less to tell and share their stories. Stories are a source of empowerment and encouragement. The appropriate questions to ask are: ‘Why are some stories told and some remain untold? Whose responsibility is it to tell those stories? What are the tools and skills needed? What do we do with those stories? These questions are for those who have power, authority and responsibility to write stories to be accountable and to do justice to the untold stories. Telling stories lifts our religious imagination and raises up the silenced lives of the forgotten members of society.

3.2 The Weaving Metaphor in Oceania as creative arts Weaving is one of the creative activities of women in the Pacific. It is often done as a communal activity by women. The products have social, ceremonial, mystical, economic, political and religious values. Similar to weaving mats (fala), Valamotu Palu (2003) refers to the "creative work of tapa-makers" (ngatu) as an example of the people of the Pacific women seeking a more relevant way to come to understand God through their own cultures. She emphasizes the fact that "Each culture has its own distinctive symbols of words and images for the Divine, that transcendent reality which is beyond ordinary human experience and which cannot be adequately expressed in words or pictures". With the diverse use and ultimate role of women’s creations, they are there to "serve the family, the community, and the church” and “its service is not only to the living but also to the dead, not for the King alone but for the commoners and the outcasts..."24. The double-layer of the ngatu and the double-strand of the fala reflect how the duality in living – the individual and the community,

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the church and state, the traditional and the modern, the spiritual and physical forces of life - are blended together in the center where authority exists. The figure of authority can either be God, fahu, parents, teachers, wife/husband, or ministers which is very central to the life of the Tongans. In the context of the Weaving Metaphor, power and justice need to be interwoven together as a “double-stranded fala” or “double-layered ngatu” where both strands and layers are needed to reinforce and strengthen each other. In addition, all the strands (or au) need to have exactly the same width, length and texture in order for the mat to be straight and balanced and of quality. This adds beauty and value to the product. A crooked or an un-proportional mat is a shame on the weavers. These qualities of weaving can be applied to any form of relationships in the community such as the need for both male and female to work side by side to support, to uplift, to encourage and to empower each other. As the man said to the woman in the story of creation: “This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh” (Gen.2:22&23). This is real oneness and unity. In order to live in a real community, we all need each other – men, women and children. This can be applied to the environment and ecology where all living things – humans, plants, animals - live in harmony with nature and all that is in it (as in oikos and cosmos). This is an example of relational power at work, and not ‘power over’ which is dominating and exploitative. If relational power is used to liberate, to uplift, to build up and to encourage each other, then it is ‘good power’ working towards benefiting the entire community. Empowerment is where power and authority are to be shared, to be collaborative, to be inclusive and hospitable, to be consultative and to be used for the benefit of all. The power-less, the marginalised, the outcasts and the disadvantaged in society need to be empowered. The concept of weaving as a metaphor has been picked up by the Women’s arm of the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS) known as Weavers. SPATS was established in 1969 as a branch of the Pacific Conference of Churches (PCC) and Weavers was launched twenty years later. This was a result of a "Women and Ministry in the Pacific" meeting in Tonga in 1989, which recognised that the low participation of women in the official ministries of the churches could only be changed if more opportunities and encouragement were given to women for theological education, both formal and non-formal. Hence,

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Weavers was established with the specific objective of promoting theological education for women in the Pacific. SPATS and PCC have provided funds and scholarships to encourage women in the Pacific to go into higher level theological courses and to become teachers in theological schools. In the area of church ministry and theological education, a number of Pacific women have gone through the process and have succeeded. Some have become ordained ministers, theologians, lecturers, deaconesses, stewards and lay preachers. However, in the spirit of partnership with men, Rev. Jovili Meo (1996) suggested women getting the support of men in his opening address at a PTC consultation by stating that “as you advocate the pursuit of theological education for women, and as you struggle for women’s liberation, you should invite men to understand your struggle and woo them as partners in the struggle for this liberation”25. Men and women together add a colourful pattern to the woven fala or ngatu. In 2001, Weavers organised a writers' workshop in Nadi, Fiji, where about thirty women participants from all over the Pacific attended and using the contextual imagery of weaving a mat, participants were invited to reflect on and share their own experiences... to weave their own theology". The product of this workshop was a book of collected essays and stories titled “Weavings: Women Doing Theology in Oceania.” The emphasis is commitment and action for change and not just preaching and talking if they are to make a difference in the lives of women in the Pacific. With these weaving patterns and colours, we can see the beauty, the meaning, the coherence, the discipline, the skill, the tension, the complications and the sweat and toil involved in the weaving process. This is an ongoing process and a sign of empowerment to all people. Palmer (2004) suggests that we may require “a loom of corporate discipline strong enough to hold those threads in creative tension with one another”26. In Oceania, the weaving metaphor and story-telling can be used as models of transformation and empowerment as in partnership and community living. In re-thinking hermeneutics for Oceania from the gender perspective, three models based on partnership, servant leadership and community participatory forum have been recommended as alternatives to traditional power structures and arrangements.

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Recommended Models of Partnership and Authority in Oceania

4.1 Russell’s Model in the House of Freedom (MODEL A) In the early stages of her work on partnership, Russell (1988) uses the imagery of “our mother’s garden” and the “welcome table”. In this process of partnership, neither men nor women can do it alone. We need each other in order to give each other strength, value and courage as we struggle together for justice and equality. It also means moving out from our own traditions and bringing our gifts to the table. In commitment to break down barriers, she raises three insights that need to be taken into account: What prevents people from coming to sit at the welcome table; a possibility of discussing our theology around the kitchen table; and creating a round-table where we share realities of our existence27. She further develops the ‘round-table talk or partnership’ in the Church in the Round (1998) where those in the margin are all welcome to the table and all the participants, regardless of sex, race, class, religion or orientation have equal access and status in the household or commonwealth of God. They all share in the breaking of bread, of gifts contributed and experiences shared to achieve the common good. It is the common spirituality of connectedness and true partnership that brings both trouble and beauty, faith and struggle, pain and joy, to a structure-less community where there is no head or foot, and no corners where persons get lost. In her Model of Partnership as in the ‘church in the round’ and ‘round-table fellowship’, Russell claims that the Spirit of God, of Christ and of the Holy Spirit is at the center of the fellowship or partnership. Both leaders and persons of different classes, relationships and genders all have the same status and have equal access to the center. This form of partnership is without hierarchy and each and every one of them stays connected to the Spirit and to each other. True partnership is when all the parties stay connected to each other. Their connection is spiritual, communal and collegial. Russell (1987) also further develops her model of partnership to include a new perspective of authority that centers around the idea of “Household of Freedom“ (Gal.5:1) which is both a future and present reality. “Household” is used here as a metaphor where human life is to be nurtured and where women and children feel at home. In the traditional

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Pacific context, household is not a nuclear family (father, mother and children) but an extended family known as “nofo-á-kainga or haá” (as in clan or mataqali). In terms of power and authority, Russell makes a contrast between the old household or “master’s house” and the “new household of freedom”. In the “new household”, God is the “housekeeper of all creation” who continues to welcome all outsiders regardless of race, sex, class, age, nationality, sexual orientation or religion as in Luke. 4:16-30. In that household, diversity and difference are welcome; cooperation not competition is encouraged; authority is exercised “in” community, not “over” community; members serve each other as partners and servants; the language used is inclusive and sharing stories and life experiences means that every voice is being heard. In order to move from the old to the new household, Russell proposes a need for a “Paradigm shift” or a “Temple cleansing experience” (as in Mk.11:15-17) or a “Conversion Experience” (as in 2 Cor.5:17) where we see the world with new lens. This change requires an entire shift in the rules of the “authority game” and not just re-juggling the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle of the old household order. To be able to make the shift, the players need to know the rules and tools of the “old master’s house”. For example, when Jesus cleansed the temple, he challenged the “temple establishment of his time”, and his purification of the temple was seen as “an eschatological sign of the restoration of God’s righteousness” and a “prophetic protest against the temple banking system and the priestly system of taxation”. When Jesus used the whip, it was “not to control but to challenge the disorder of the religious establishment in the name of God’s new order of freedom in community”. In other words, he did not wish to destroy the house of authority but to build it up again as a new house where the authority of God’s love and care for outsiders is clearly seen and by claiming God’s house as “a house of prayer for all nations” and not “a den of robbers”. In order to rebuild or to replace the old master’s house, Russell suggests to begin where you are, to listen to the underside and to work from the other end (future as “already but not yet” in anticipation of God’s new creation). In the “new household of freedom”, good housekeeping revolves around partnership which is “an authority of freedom that responds to people’s need for solidarity and care to empower them through a relationship of mutuality”. In other words, men and

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women, rich and poor, the powerful and the oppressed and suffering, work in partnership to “mend God’s creation”. By including the oppressed and the poor, then we know that God’s will and justice are done, meaning, creation is being mended. Russell claims that we should make their story our story by standing in solidarity with them and empowering them by sharing together in Christ’s Messianic suffering. We should make a stand against unjust and oppressive powers and principalities as Jesus confronted the old structures of death and domination. And as Jesus became victorious, he empowered others to have faith, new life and partnership in God’s new reality as in the “new household of freedom” where Jesus turned the word “kingdom” on its head by making those at the bottom of the old house of authority become the first in the kingdom or reign of God. Russell also claims that in this new household, “God’s power works like leaven, in humble circumstances, but in a way that transforms both personal and social relationships28. It is in this “new household of freedom” and with the new housekeeping rules, that the tireless efforts, sacrifices, unselfish service and manifold contributions made by women, are, therefore, valued, praised and counted. 4.2 Jesus’ Model of Servant-Leadership (MODEL B) Servant-Leadership is power turned upside down and inside out. The nature of power is predominantly ‘power-over’ because it is the natural instinct of humans to control and to dominate others compared to the kinds of power Jesus promotes in his earthly ministry, as the power from within, power from behind, and power from the underside. 4.2.1 Power from within This kind of power was released when Jesus healed the sick, drove the evil spirits out of possessed people’s lives and liberated those in bondage to sin during his ministry on earth. For example, in the story of Jesus healing the haemorrhaging woman, she came up behind him and touched the edge of his cloak, and immediately her bleeding stopped (Lk.8:44-48). Samate (2001) sums up the story by saying that the woman was: “victimized physically, socially and financially because she was religiously impure and polluting the society. That’s why she did not only seek physical cure of her illness but also social acceptance and spiritual wholeness. She had to summon enough courage to defile and violate the patriarchal religious taboos and

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social ostracism. That was why she had to approach Jesus from behind, took the initiative and challenged the traditional boundary. As a result of her persistence, Jesus shared her shame with her, stood with her and broke the barrier of male privilege and status. He saved her by restoring her physical condition and renewing her identity from being a nameless, status-less and dehumanized non-person to calling her a ‘daughter’. To her, Jesus was the life-giving Saviour and her Liberator”29. This kind of healing power comforts, forgives, renews, changes and empowers those who seek for it. Jesus is known by women as the boundary-breaker, the freedom-giver and women-supporter. 4.2.2 Power from behind This kind of power is best illustrated by the role of shepherding and geese flying in a V-shaped formation. A shepherd does not lead his sheep by the nose or walk in front and the sheep follow. S/he always walks from behind taking care of the welfare of the sheep. If one falls behind, falls sick or hurt by a wild beast, or even gets lost, the shepherding leader will tend them, heal them or go and look for them until they are found and s/he takes them home in his/her arms. That is a good model of a true servant-leader which Jesus models during his earthly ministry. Similarly, with the story of the geese flying in a V-shaped formation, the story says that: “When you see geese heading south for the winter flying along in a ‘V’ formation…as each bird flaps its wings, it creates an uplift for the bird immediately behind it. By flying in a V-formation, the whole flock adds at least seventy-one percent greater flying range than if each bird flies on its own…Whenever a goose falls out of formation, it suddenly feels the drag and resistance of trying to go it alone. It quickly gets back into formation to take advantage of the lifting power of the bird immediately in front… When the lead goose gets tired, s/he rotates back in the V-formation and another goose flies the point… The geese honk from behind to encourage those upfront to keep up their speed… And finally, when a goose gets sick or is wounded by gun-fire and falls out, two other geese fall out of formation and follow it down to help and protect it. They stay with the goose until it is either able to fly

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again or dead, and then they launch out on their own or with another formation to catch up with their group…”30. This story demonstrates real partnership where vulnerability and responsibility go hand-in-hand. Keeping the geese together and helping those who fall behind is the task of a good leader working from behind. S/he ensures the presence of a sense of direction, a strong feeling of community, upholding and sustaining each other, and caring for each other especially for those who are disheartened, hurt or dislocated in the course of life. Pastoral care involves individual healing as well as communal healing, nurturing life and confronting those that violate justice for all creation. Jesus’ leadership style is non-hierarchical, non-violent and shared. He came to the world to serve, not to be served (Matt.20:28). 4.2.3 Power from the underside Liberation Theologies were started by stories. They were developed mainly in Latin America and many developing societies, where theology starts from the crying of the poor, the suffering and the oppressed in society. Rather than just an internal liberation from personal guilt and sin, the call is to remove the oppressive powers and structural injustices that underlie all aspects of domination, be it cultural, social, political, economic or religious, in order to alleviate suffering and poverty. This kind of theology is based on God’s action on behalf of the poor, the enslaved and the outcasts in society and on God, as Liberator, throughout the course of history. In the same way, Russell (1987) refers to “authority from the bottom” which is a new metaphor for relationships of authority in community that is “built up from the bottom rather than established from the top down”. She goes on to say that “God’s option for the poor and marginal people, the homeless nobodies, sends us to look among those people to find how God’s power is at work in the world” and welcoming them to our household means a “paradigm shift toward an inclusive authority of partnership or ‘koinonia’”31. Jesus himself demonstrated “power from the underside or bottom” when he was against the Domination System of the Pharisees and Sadducees. His theological model of "doing and being" was his example of "foot washing" for his disciples, with the instruction to do likewise if they are to become leaders. He said to them: “Now, that I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also should wash one another’s feet. I have set you an example that you should do as I have done for you”

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(Jn.13:14&15). Two of his disciples, James and John, asked to be seated with him at each side of the Father but Jesus rebuked them because if they wanted to be true disciples and followers of him, they would have to take up their cross and follow him. Then Jesus said: “Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all” (Mk.10:43&44). That is the road to suffering, to self-sacrifice, to denying the self and bearing the shame with him and with the “least other”. He made it clear to them that real authority comes from God and it was revealed to them on the day of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit came down and filled them with power and authority to empower them to minister to people especially the sick, the poor, the rejected and the nobodies in society. So, servanthood and foot-washing is not just a ministry of suffering and selfdenial but of “suffering hope” by standing in solidarity with the poor and the oppressed, of dealing with the oppressive powers of the ruling systems and supporting changes which bring healing, wholeness, freedom and justice to the communities in struggle. The heart of a servant is to be filled with humility and reverence in the presence of God. With that power, they can work towards the good of humanity and the community, never for themselves or for their own benefits and self-interest. A servant-leader, who is a good follower and a disciple of Jesus, is one who denies the self, who loves God more than family and loved ones, who stands in solidarity with the poor and identifies with the sinners, and who takes up his/her cross and follows Jesus’ footsteps. That is power turning inside out and upside down, which is the true spirit of servant-hood. Since ordained ministers in the church have power and authority over people, the WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES’’s Faith and Order Commission (1982) rightly reminds them that they: “must not be autocrats or impersonal functionaries. Although called to exercise wise and loving leadership on the basis of the Word of God, they are bound to be faithful in inter-dependence and reciprocity. Only when they seek the response and acknowledgement of the community can their authority be protected from the distortions of isolation and domination. They manifest and exercise the authority of Christ in the way Christ himself revealed God’s authority to the world, by committing their

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life to the community. Christ’s authority is unique, “He spoke as one who has authority (exousia), not as the Scribes” (Matt.7:29). This authority is an authority governed by love for the “sheep who have no shepherd” (Matt. 9:36). It is confirmed by his life of service and supremely, by his death and resurrection. Authority in the Church can only be authentic as it seeks to conform to this model”32 Whatever gifts the people of God have, whether ordained or lay, they are all for the service of the community and not for the domination of others. As demonstrated in Jesus’ model of servant-leadership, Jesus turns the human power structures upside down, to show the true spirit of servanthood and self-sacrifice for humankind is to serve the least of the least.and the oppressed of the oppressed. In Oceania, GOD is the central focus and the highest ideal for their existence. They believe that the centrality of God, the necessity of an authority figure and the sense of community still remain as the central features of the society. In the case of Tonga, for example, people pay special respect and treatment to their King and Royalty, but they pay higher respect to their Christian God. That is why certain religious taboos are still kept such as the sacredness of the altar in the church building and the bible as a book, paying special respect and tribute to the church ministers and upholding the church as the center of the community. Tongan people still pay high respect to the leader, whether it is the king or queen, the church minister or the head of the household. The people (both men and women) still see the leader as the mediator, the negotiator, the connecting person between the people and God. His/her role is very central and respected and the authority figure is still very much necessary in the community as a source of wisdom, providing solutions to problems, playing the role model and exercising responsibility for the overall development (or destruction) of society. When the issue of power and authority is addressed in the wider community, I find these questions to be useful: Who controls? Who benefits most? Who is controlled? Who speaks? Who listens? Who is silent? Who obeys? Cultural hermeneutic will show who holds the most power over whom.

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Searching for power is central to the survival and existence of the Pacific people. It can either be God’s power or power of gods or spirits. Lisa Meo (1996) states that the Pacific people: “wanted power to catch fish, power over other people, and power to get well when they were sick. They sought this power in the spirits and thought magic. When Christianity came, the people saw it as a new source of power… For Pacific Island people, theologies are an integration of traditional and Christian beliefs of the nature of God or gods, and a craving for God’s power. God’s power brings blessings, mana, and to be without God’s power means a curse, or sau. …”33. Therefore, despite the changes, the essence of the Pacific identity will remain, I believe. In an attempt to develop a model of leadership which is contextual to Oceania, I constructed a model of leadership which centers on the idea of a household community forum as in the Tongan context. 4.3

Spreading the mat and Let the clan talk as a forum for communal leadership (Fofola e Fala kae Alea e Kainga) (MODEL C)

As discussed above in the Weaving Metaphor section, weaving fala is one of the main activities of women in parts of Oceania. In Tonga, there are many different types of mats (fala) and the value and function depend very much on the type of materials used for weaving, how they are woven and the occasion in which they are presented. There are different sizes and shapes of mats. Some are square, oblong or round. The normal shape of the fala is oblong but a large sized fala can provide a very big space so that it can accommodate a lot of people. The original purpose of this arrangement (fofola e fala kae alea e kainga) is mainly for the extended family or kainga to come together and discuss some family affairs or matters. For example, if there is a celebration like wedding or birthdays or even funerals, there are certain roles, responsibilities and functions that need to be done and apparently, each family member knows what role to play depending on where he or she is in the overall ranking of the kainga. In this context, fahu (sister of auntie) plays a very elaborated role. And if there are any misunderstandings, controversies or unfulfilled tasks and roles,

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then they discuss and decide there what to do and who is designated for which task. This is a very inclusive forum where all the kainga are welcome to contribute although the elders are the ones who dominate the conversation. The discussion (alea) can be formal and is often directed by the head of the kainga or ‘ulumotu’a The idea of “fofola e fala kae alea e kainga” can be used in other occasions but with certain restrictions. For example, in the traditional community meeting called fono, the noble or the chief of the village calls it and chairs it. It is conducted in a one-way direction, just like making announcements. There is no discussion; the attendants, who are mainly males although women are also allowed to attend, are only told what to do. Another occasion is the kava circle (faikava), where the attendants discuss matters or issues openly but it is a social activity mainly for males and females only attend if they are required to or in special occasions, or when they play the role of the tou’a (person mixing the kava). The seating arrangement in the kava circle are designated to particular roles. For example, at the head of the circle sitting directly opposite the tou’a is the ‘eiki (chief) and the matapule (spokespersons) sit on each side of the ‘eiki, The closer to the ‘eiki, the higher the status. This kind of open forum is also used with Pacific diaspora overseas especially when dealing with crisis situations. They bring the parties involved in conflicts and invite elders in their communities together with the police, church ministers, counselors or social workers, and work together to address the issues and try to resolve the conflicts. This is a communal and participatory way of standing together in partnership to find new insights through communal search for solutions and sharing of stories. This corporate undertaking often results in some kind of retribution and reconciliation between the parties involved and problems are solved. So, in this model of communal leadership form, the long spacious fala is spread (fofola) far and wide where all are welcome and are free to sit around the circle on the fala where they feel comfortable. The seating is arranged on a ‘first-come-first-serve basis’. It will be a mixture of male and female, young and old, chief and commoner, educated and unschooled, ministers and farmers, the healthy and handicapped, rich and poor. Yes, sitting around the circle are the women and children, the rejected and the nobodies in society. The facilitators will sit among the crowd and facilitate or monitor the free-flow conversation among the attendants. Everyone is free to speak or tell their stories including children.

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There will be new relationships among the members of the circle. Those who used to be outside are now inside; those who used to be served now serve; those who used to be at the head are now in the midst of the crowd. In other words, all have equal access to leadership, to God and to each other as male and female members of the new community. These features need to be kept as long as each player uses their power and authority responsibly and for the benefit of all involved. The features of the new relationships are more relational than dominating, more communal than top-down, more collegial than exploitative, more participatory than coercive, more constructive than humiliating, and more inclusive than exclusive. In this context, God, as the source of all power and authority continues to mend creation and welcome all outsiders regardless of race, sex, class, age, nationality, sexual orientation or religion. It will be a place where diversity and difference are welcome, cooperation not competition is encouraged, authority is exercised “in” community, not “over” community, language used in inclusive not exclusive; where members serve each other as partners and servants; and where sharing stories and life experiences means that every voice is being heard. This is a Pacific model formulated within the context of partnership and equal sharing of power and authority and equal access to divine authority. Once we succeed in making “their story” “our story”, in drawing our courage and strength from the memory of the future, of “already – but not yet”, of “doing communal theology” in acting and reflecting on mending the creation rather than theorizing God, and in reaching out our “healing touch” into communities of faith and struggle, then we are moving into a new interpretive framework of transforming the pyramid and hierarchy of powers of domination and oppression into new strategies and models of true diversity of partnership, of communal and servant leadership based on unity, inclusivity, equality, mutuality and communality.

Conclusions Recommendations as to how gender challenges and contributes to Theological Hermeneutics in Oceania :

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That gender analysis has to include the issue of power and authority by recognizing the fact that: ¾ That the ultimate source of power and authority is the Trinity – God, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit – who is at the very center of the life and existence of the people of Oceania ¾ That governing authorities are divinelyinstituted and the leaders have divine responsibility to do good, to do right, to do justice and to take responsibility of God’s creation as good stewards ¾ That the powers of domination, coercion, exploitation, violation and humiliation are abuse, misuse and irresponsible use of power and authority (negative and disempowering) while the responsible use of power and authority includes collegial, communal, inclusive, shared and relational forms of human existence which aims at empowering the marginalised, the excluded and the disadvantaged in society

That culture needs to be under close scrutiny in the light of the gospel so that the empowering aspects should be enhanced and dis-empowering aspects be discouraged

That the art of story-telling or talanoa be promoted as a source of empowerment by telling, sharing and listening to the stories especially those of the marginalized and disadvantaged in society.

That instead of a top-down or hierarchical mode of existence, to create a Weaving Metaphor or

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lalanga as a corporate and community way of coming together of different kinds of people in society to live, to work, to reflect, to share, to struggle together and to serve each other as partners, as a community and as one people in unity, harmony and beauty Â&#x192;

That a forum of communal leadership as in fofolae-fale-kae-fai-e-alea (Spread the mat and let the clan talk) be used as an open and inclusive space where all diversity and differences (men, women, children and all) have equal value, equal access to the center and equal opportunity to speak and tell their stories as all are welcome in the household of God â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and to stand together to challenge the oppressive power structures and evil forces that dehumanize and victimize those that are helpless and powerless

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MODEL A (i)

RUSSELL’S MODEL OF PARTNERSHIP AND HOUSEHOLD OF FREEDOM

“Church in the round” “Round-table fellowship”

G = GOD L = Leaders P = People

P P

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MODEL B JESUS’ MODEL OF SERVANT – LEADERSHIP “Power Turned Upside Down”

OUTCASTS LAITY

ORDAINED MINISTERS

JESUS

Power from within Power from behind Power from underside

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MODEL C

“FOFOLA-E-FALA-KAE-FAI-E-ALEA” (Spread the mat and let the clan talk)

G = God F = Facilitator P = People

P P

Pacific Journal of Theology

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Notes 1. Dunn, James D.G. and John W. Rogerson (eds). Eerdmans Commentary of the Bible. M. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003. 2. Wink, Walter.Engaging the Powers (Discernment and Resistance in a World of Domination). Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992, p.4 3. Wink, Walter. The Powers That Be (Theology for a New Millennium). New York: Augsburg Fortress, 1998. 4. Maxwell, John C. Developing the Leader Within You. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1993, 173 5. Wink (1992), 85 6. Wink (1998), 34-35 7. Yule, Sandy. “Ideas of God: Some Dialogues”, USA: Princeton Theological Seminary, 1973 (An Unpublished Th.D Thesis), 8-9 8. Dunn, James D.G. and John W. Rogerson (eds). Eerdmans Commentary of the Bible. M. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003, 1305-1306 9. Wink (1992), 67 10. ibid, 68 11. Hastings, James (ed). Dictionary of the Bible. Edinburg: Clark, 1963, 785 12. Maxwell (1993), 173 13. World Council of Churches (WCC), “Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry”: Faith and Order Paper No. 111. WCC Publications: Geneva, Switzerland, 1982. 14. Kinoti, Hannah W. “Culture”. In Dictionary of Feminist Theologies, eds. Letty M. Russell and J. Shannon Clarkson, 63. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996, 63 15. Kanyoro, Musimbi R.A. Introducing Feminist Cultural Hermeneutics: An African Perspective. Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press, 2002, 13 16. ibid, 9-10 17. ibid, 59 18. Kanyoro, Musimbi R.A. “Cultural Hermeneutics: An African Contribution.” In Women’s Visions (Theological Reflections, Celebration, Action), Ofelia Ortega, 18-28. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1995. 19. ibid, 121 20. Kanyoro (1992), 2 21. Deifelt, Wanda. “Of Gardens and Theology: Women of Faith Respond.” In The Power We Celebrate (Women’s Stories of Faith and Power), eds. Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro and Wendy S. Robins, 5-18. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1992, 7-9 22.Maxwell (1993), 98-102 23. Deifelt (1992), 7 24. Palu, Valamotu. “Tapa-making in Tonga: A Metaphor for God’s care.” In Weavings: Women Doing Theology in Oceania, eds. Lydia Johnson and Joan Alleluia Filamoni-Tofaeono, 62-71. Suva: Weavers, SPATS, IPS and USP, 2003, 62-67

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25. Meo, Jovili. “Pioneering New Perspectives in Pacific Theology.” (Consultation Opening Address). In The Pacific Journal of Theology, SPATS, Series II, No.15, 1996: 14 26. Palmer, Parker J. A Hidden Wholeness : The Journey Toward an Undivided Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004, 127. 27. Russell, Letty M, Kwok Pui-lan, Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, Katie Geneva Cannon (eds). Inheriting our Mothers’ Gardens (Feminist Theology in Third World Perspective). Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1988, 153-4. 28. Russell, Letty M. Household of Freedom: Authority in Feminist Theology. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1987, 62-83 29. Samate, Asinate F. “Women’s Views from Africa, Asia and Tonga”. In Tonga – Women and Theological Impact, ed. Fuka-Tu’itupou, Lynette Mo’unga, North Carolina: Mountain Church of Alexander, 60-74, 2001. 30. Heyward, Carter. Our Passion for Justice – Images of Power, Sexuality and Liberation. New York: Pilgrim’s Progress, 1984, 118. 31. Russell (1987), 96 32. WCC (1982), 19-20 33. Meo, Lisa. “Feminist Theologies, Pacific Island”. In Dictionary of Feminist Theologies, eds. Letty Russell, M. and J. Shannon Clarkson, 108-110. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996, 109. .

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References Ackerman, Denise M.“Power.” In Dictionary of Feminist Theologies, eds. Letty M. Russell and J. Shannon Clarkson, 219-221. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996. Deifelt, Wanda. “Of Gardens and Theology: Women of Faith Respond.” In The Power We Celebrate (Women’s Stories of Faith and Power), eds. Musimbi R.A. Kanyoro and Wendy S. Robins, 5-18. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1992. Dunn, James D.G. and John W. Rogerson (eds). Eerdmans Commentary of the Bible. M. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003. Hastings, James (ed). Dictionary of the Bible. Edinburg: Clark, 1963. Heyward, Carter. Our Passion for Justice – Images of Power, Sexuality and Liberation. New York: Pilgrim’s Progress, 1984, p.118. Kanyoro, Musimbi R.A. Introducing Feminist Cultural Hermeneutics: An African Perspective. Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press, 2002. Kanyoro, Musimbi R.A. “Cultural Hermeneutics: An African Contribution.” In Women’s Visions (Theological Reflections, Celebration, Action), Ofelia Ortega, 18-28. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1995. Kinoti, Hannah W. “Culture”. In Dictionary of Feminist Theologies, eds. Letty M. Russell and J. Shannon Clarkson, 63. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996. Maxwell, John C. Developing the Leader Within You. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1993. Meo, Jovili. “Pioneering New Perspectives in Pacific Theology.” (Consultation Opening Address). In The Pacific Journal of Theology, SPATS, Series II, No.15, 1996: 13-15. Meo, Lisa. “Feminist Theologies, pacific Island”. In Dictionary of Feminist Theologies, eds. Letty Russell, M. and J. Shannon Clarkson, 108-110. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.

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Palmer, Parker J. A Hidden Wholeness : The Journey Toward an Undivided Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004. Palu, Valamotu. “Tapa-making in Tonga: A Metaphor for God’s care.” In Weavings: Women Doing Theology in Oceania, eds. Lydia Johnson and Joan Alleluia Filamoni-Tofaeono, 62-71. Suva: Weavers, SPATS, IPS and USP, 2003. Russell, Letty M, Kwok Pui-lan, Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, Katie Geneva Cannon (eds). Inheriting our Mothers’ Gardens (Feminist Theology in Third World Perspective). Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1988. Russell, Letty M. Household of Freedom: Authority in Feminist Theology. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1987. Samate, Asinate F. “Women’s Views from Africa, Asia and Tonga”. In Tonga – Women and Theological Impact, ed. Fuka-Tu’itupou, Lynette Mo’unga, North Carolina: Mountain Church of Alexander, 60-74, 2001.

Wink, Walter. The Powers That Be (Theology for a New Millennium). New York: Auggsburg Fortress, 1998. World Council of Churches (WCC), “Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry”: Faith and Order Paper No. 111. WCC Publications: Geneva, Switzerland, 1982. Yule, Sandy. “Ideas of God: Some Dialogues”, USA: Princeton Theological Seminary, 1973 (An Unpublished Th.D Thesis).

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Ecumenism and its Hermeneutical Experience in Oceania

Fele Nokise

Introduction ecumenism1

Our hermeneutical experience of and since 19612 has been on the main, a relentless journey of discovery and re-discovering into nonchartered territory. And true to the nature of such an enterprise, there have been highs and lows along the way. Celebrations of new life, of hopes being fulfilled, of success and achievement have all contributed in affirming our Pacific roots and cultural linkages.

Rev. Dr. Feleterika Nokise is currently the Principal of the Pacific Theological College â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a regional theological college situated in Suva, Fiji â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and President of the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS)

An excellent study of the origin and meaning of Ecumenism is provided by Marlin v. Elderen & Martin Conway: Introducing the World Council of Churches. Revised edition. WCC. Pub. Geneva 2001 1

The inaugural meeting of Pacific Churches was held at Malua (Samoa) 22 April to 5 May 1961. 2

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Moreover, our faith has been challenged, enriched and perhaps renewed. Together, they reflect a certain degree of pride and confidence in our ability and potential to embrace the spirit of ecumenism. Our resolve to promote and exhibit ecumenism has been, from the outset, firm and resolute. In recent years, this enthusiasm has sadly waned. We have encountered accidents and problems that have precipitated the need for astute and sound leadership as well as delicate repair and maintenance work. It has not been all plain sailing. As a region we have not been immune to the fickleness of life and the winds of change that have affected our existence. It has highlighted the importance of having a clear vision, proper planning and the appropriate personnel. Even more challenging is the need for us to re-examine the theological basis of our involvement and the kind of spirituality that has emerged as a result. This paper is divided into three parts: Part One attempts to identify and analyse our understanding and practice of ecumenism in Oceania over the past forty nine years. This will involve addressing the following questions: What is the nature of such understanding and practice? What were the causes? Who were responsible? What positives and negatives that have emanated from such experience? Who has benefited from such experience? Who has been disadvantaged from such experience? Part Two seeks to establish whether a particular hermeneutical theory was responsible for such experience(s) and to explain its basis and impact on the development of ecumenism in Oceania. In essence this will require addressing the following questions: What are the basic assumptions underlying such a theory? Has our understanding and practice of it changed over the years? Is the theory still valid for the future? And Part Three examines lessons we may have learnt and discuss how these could assist us in the process of rethinking the ongoing development of a distinctly Oceania hermeneutic that will guide our ecumenical experience over the next fifty years.

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PART ONE Our forty nine years of ecumenical experience makes us a novice in the ecumenical movement. It is a reflection not only of how late we entered the movement but also of how young our churches are in the overall history of the Church.3 These historical facts however, did not prevent our church leaders from discerning the signs of the times and adjusting the sail of our church canoe accordingly. In other words, it was not by accident that our churches had their first collective encounter with ecumenism at the beginning of the 1960s. The period itself was heralded by WCC as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the age of changeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. That a number of our churches gathered and met together for the first time in Samoa in 19614 could be interpreted as a direct consequence of changes that were sweeping through the world and within the universal church at the time. The period moreover, was a defining moment for the Pacific not only on the ecclesiastical front, but also in the political arena. The attainment by Samoa of independence status in 1962 had a domino effect on other island countries who were trying to shake off the shackles of colonialism.5 In retrospect, our region responded to the tide of change that emanated from global organisations such as the United Nations and the World Council of Churches. The real impetus was provided by a paradigm shift in ecclesiological thinking that surfaced during the WCC Assembly in New Delhi in 1961 whereby the Church and the World was no longer seen as separate entities hostile towards each other, but rather different sides of the same coin. The Church was in the world and a part of that world. It had to deal with what was happening in the world and its impact on human lives. In other words, the paradigm shift also ushered in a new perception of what mission was all about. The ecumenical spirit was in effect defining the parameters of mission. The shift resonated well with the hopes of our church leaders for closer cooperation and the sharing of resources.

3 The formal introduction of Christianity to our region happened in 1797 when LMS missionaries landed at Matavai Bay, Tahiti.

The meeting was held at Malua Theological College where students of the Congregational Christian Church of Samoa are trained for the ministry. 5 The Kingdom of Tonga being the only exception. There are still a few who are still under colonial rule, namely New Caledonia and French Polynesia. 4

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It was in essence an acknowledgement from our leaders that as a region we were not unaffected by such changes. Moreover, it signaled on the one hand, our so called ‘coming of age’ insofar as our becoming a part of the global family; and on the other hand, a clear message from the churches, that we are prepared to embrace and work together towards the visible expressions of the unity we possess as God’s gift to the Church. Therefore, more by design rather than by coincidence, the leaders and representatives of our churches that attended the inaugural ecumenical gathering in Samoa, discovered with much excitement not only the aura of a new spirituality invading our shores, but also the realisation that as Christians, it was our destiny to be involved. The prayer of our Lord as recorded in the Gospel of John Chapter 17:20-23ff., is generally acknowledged as the scriptural basis and the guiding light of the call for ecumenism. This quest for unity has and continues to haunt the universal church from its meager beginnings to now. From the first Ecumenical Council held in Nicea 325 AD to the WCC Assembly in Porto Alegre (Brazil) 2006, the cry for unity has become louder, clearer, urgent and critical. Indeed the different themes and emphases of these meetings are but a mere manifestation of the same concern. Like a thread running through the seams of an unfinished tapestry, the search for unity has become a distinct feature of the ecumenical landscape in the life and work of the World Council of Churches since its inception in 1948 and its inaugural meeting in Amsterdam. The pilgrimage of the churches towards a common understanding and vision of ecumenical unity is vividly summed up in the summary statements and themes of subsequent assemblies.6 These theological statements encapsulated the vision of the ecumenical movement. And although we are late comers in so far as being active participants in this fellowship of churches, it does not disqualify us from the effects of what happened prior to 1961. Such a profound history is part and parcel of our identity as carriers of ecumenism. The willingness of our leaders to have our churches join the movement during the 1960s and the 1970s, was made possible by an awareness that such a history provided the impetus to be involved as well as the platform to launch and declare our interest in such a quest.

See Appendix A. The summaries are from the Reports of the WCC Assemblies. 7KH 3DFL¿F -RXUQDO RI 7KHRORJ\

The inaugural ecumenical meeting of our churches in 1961 was our first ever collective response as churches to issues affecting the life and work of our churches. That it was also a response to a trend encouraged by WCC and the International Missionary Council after the Amsterdam Assembly for churches to organise themselves into regional bodies7 does not in any way deny the uniqueness and merit of such a development for our people. This latter point is aptly summed up by one of the founding fathers8 of ecumenism in our region, the late Reverend Dr. Sione ‘Amanaki Havea9. “This was the first ecumenical step taken for Christian churches and mission to break through theological, social and national levels which had existed in the Pacific region for more than 150 years…..The Malua Conference of 1961 was the first of its kind held predominantly for the Pacific churches.”10 Rev. Leslie Boseto,11 long time champion of ‘grassroot ecumenism” echoed a similar sentiment: “… that conference was the foundation stone of ecumenism for the indigenous people of our Pacific countries.”12 Given the novelty of the gathering and the excitement it generated, faith statements dominated the countless resolutions it passed. In reality, the wording and concerns identified were essentially carbon copies of goals and objectives of the WCC. If there was anything distinctly Pacific about them, it was in the ‘spirit’ of what was envisaged based on what the participants were experiencing during the occasion. Communal gathering is a prominent feature of all Pacific societies.13 Familiarity with the merit and value of such a forum in facilitating our distinctly Pacific style of celebration as well as enabling both formal and informal dialogue The Pacific was the last of the regions to establish a Conference of Churches. The so called ‘founding fathers’ of ecumenism in our region are: Rev. Dr. Sione Amanaki Havea (FWCT); Rev. Setareki Tuilovoni (MCF) and Rev. Vavae Toma (CCCS). For further details see PCC’s Publications: Affirming our Ecumenical Journey 2002. 9 Ordained Minister of the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga 10 Rev. Dr. S.A. Havea “A Background paper” prepared for a PCC Consultation, Suva, 12-14 February, 1996.p1. 11 Ordained Minister of the United Church of the Solomon Islands. 12 Rev. Leslie Boseto. Opening Address, Consultation of the Pacific Conference of Churches, Nadi 25-28 June 2001.p1 13 Our church scholars have acknowledged anthropological and sociological literature dealing with this aspect of our social and cultural systems. 7 8

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to happen, meant everyone was involved and participated in one way or another. This generated a new awareness and to some degree a new understanding of what the ‘Pacific’ represented and more importantly, what is a Pacific islander. Distinct ethnic groups discovered to their delight, that they actually shared a number of commonalities in their histories, cultures and traditions. Many realised that denominational boundaries were not as theologically rigid as they had perhaps imagined. Not surprisingly therefore, all the discussions led to a unanimous decision to uphold one over-arching theme: “To Stay Together; To Grow Together; To do Mission Together”. The theme was a prophetic statement defining the parameters of our ecumenical concerns and activities. This however posed a major challenge in terms of what was needed to portray a visual unity in their relationship. In other words, they were faced with the daunting question of how unity could be realised in a concrete form given the diversity of the churches. It is a tribute to the wisdom of our Pacific ecumenical pioneers that they perceived the only possible solution as one that would have to involve the churches doing something together. This realisation provided the impetus for the plans to establish two ecumenical regional organisations and ushered in ‘regionalism’ in the mindset of our churches. The birth of the Pacific Conference of Churches14 and the Pacific Theological College15 were the first fruits of the 1961 meeting. It heralded the formal beginning of ecumenical activities in our region. The two institutions were the physical manifestations of our leaders’ faith in our capacity and ability to pursue and promote ecumenism. In the years that followed, these two regional ecumenical organisations became not only the flag bearers of our struggle and search for unity, but in their life and work, had to wrestle with the daunting hermeneutical task of how to perceive the struggle for unity from a distinctly Pacific perspective. Compounding their efforts was the unfortunate non-existence of an agreed manifesto as to what this perspective meant. The late Sir Ratu Kamisese Mara’s famous dictum ‘the pacific way’ is at best a convenient generalised slogan reserved for political Inaugural Assembly, May 1966, Lifou, New Caledonia. Formally established in 1966 after the Lifou Assembly. First intake of students in 1968. See also: Theological Education in the Pacific, Consultation May 7-13 1961. Pub. By The Theological Education Fund Committee of the International Missionary Council. P45

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diplomacy and at worst a misleading description of something that actually does not exist.16 The diversity amongst churches was a compelling reality no one could afford to ignore. The quest for unity was becoming a mind boggling exercise. But the founding fathers were men of vision and deep faith. To their credit they persevered. With WCC closely mentoring and supporting developmental programmes and projects based on issues it had identified and urging our churches to promote; and overseas partners and donors rallying to the call for much needed resources and general assistance, these two organisations bloomed. The period from 1961 to 1990 is generally acknowledged as the booming era of ecumenical activities amongst our churches. Our efforts at the same time, was all the more creditable in view of the kind of issues our churches had to address.17 Most notable of these were ‘nuclear testing’, political autonomy and church autonomy. Re-asserting who we are as Pacific people at both the local and regional level were challenges not for the faint hearted. From a theological perspective, our spiritual heritage and faith was on the line. The determination of our churches to meet the challenges is to be applauded. It was no small feat. It was however, the manner in which they did this that suggested that perhaps the spirit of ecumenism was already embedded in our cultural understanding and practices of communal living and thus enabled ecumenism to thrive in its infancy years. In other words, regional meetings and gatherings afforded opportunities for churches to discover that each was already blessed with the essential ingredients of what ecumenical cooperation required. And this was precisely what transpired. There was unprecedented support from all the member churches. Financial obligations in the form of annual contributions or subscriptions were not only met, but were given on time. Church arrears were an unknown phenomenon. Leaders, meaning Presidents, Bishops, We have our distinct cultural Ways: There is a Fijian Way, a Tongan Way a Samoan Way, a Kiribati Way, a Ni Vanuatu Way, a Tuvaluan Way etc. 17 The themes of subsequent PCC Assemblies sums up these concerns. For example: 2nd Assembly (Davuilevu, Fiji) 1971: “God’s purpose for his people”; 3rd PCC Assembly (Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea): “God’s Mission in a Changing Pacific Society”; 7th PCC Assembly (Papeete, Tahiti) “Reaffirming God – the Hope of the Fenua” to mention a few. 16

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Moderators, Chairman of the churches attended meetings. Churches sent appropriate personnel to numerous regional workshops and consultations offered by PCC. Students from almost all the churches were sent annually to study and learn together at PTC. Newly emerged Church scholars with higher degree were seconded by the churches for teaching responsibilities at PTC. Movements, encounters and dialogue between and amongst people of different ecclesiastical traditions and cultural heritage intensified resulting in the gaining of new perspectives, new awareness, new information, knowledge and healthy appreciation of each others’ uniqueness and limitations. Ecumenism was in a healthy state of flux. All these interactions and inter-relationships had the overall effect of fostering and nurturing the need to support, share and journeying together as churches. More importantly, the churches began to listen and hear of each other’s concerns and uphold the importance of seeking together what ‘unity in diversity’ or ‘diversity in unity’ meant. Of the many factors that contributed to the emerging spirit of optimism that characterised the mood and activities of the period, perhaps the most profound was the fact that we had leaders who were visionary and committed to the search for unity. Leaders like the Rev. Dr. Sione ‘Amanaki Havea from the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga; the Rev. Setareki Tuilovoni from the Methodist Church in Fiji; the Rev. Vavae Toma from the Congregational Christian Church of Samoa; Bishop Leonard Alufurai from the Anglican Church in the Solomon Islands; Bishop Patelesio Finau from the Catholic Diocese of Tonga; Bishop Leslie Boseto from the United Church in the Solomon Islands; Rev. Lopeti Taufa from the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga; Bishop Japez Bryce from the Anglican Diocese of Polynesia; Rev. Baiteke Nabetari from the Kiribati Protestant Church and many others. Lay Leaders such as John Doom from French Polynesia and Stehl Mileng from the Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea. We also had outstanding women who represented not only the women but the rank and file of the lay people. Mrs. Fetaui Mata’afa from Samoa and Mrs. Lorine Tevi from Fiji to mention a few. In the ensuing years, young and energetic ministers and lay people of our churches were appointed to strategic positions in the PCC Secretariat, PTC Faculty and from the mid 1970, in the South Pacific Association of Theological Schools (SPATS). The emergence of new ecumenical leaders of our churches over the years is a direct result of three parallel developments:

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increasing number of regional meetings offered by PCC, PTC and SPATS increasing number of church leaders and workers attending regional workshops, consultations and meetings under the auspices and leadership of the three ecumenical bodies; and large number of ministers who studied and graduated from PTC.18 There is no doubt that these developments heightened the churchesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; awareness and appreciation of the benefits of doing things together. But a number of realities began to emerge that threatened to derail the vision of cooperation amongst our churches. The threat was primarily perceived on four levels. First, despite efforts by the three ecumenical regional organisations to deliver their respective mandates, the support and cooperation from the churches began to decline from the mid 1990s. Financial commitment was found wanting from many churches. Less and less leaders attended regional meetings and consultations. Wrong people were ent to represent the churches. Few students were sent to study at the regional ecumenical theological college. Perhaps the mandates for the ecumenical organisations have become outdated. Perhaps the needs of the churches were not acknowledged in the programmes and projects that were pursued. Secondly, the organisations were evolved into autonomous entities with little evidence of any concrete cooperation amongst themselves in relation to programmes and sharing of resources. From the perspectives of member churches, they were finding it increasingly difficult to financially support and maintain these organisations given their own weak economies and the demands of their own local mission and ministry. Some of our churches were and are continuing in their struggle to make ends meet given the state of their countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. There is not much they can do about that. But their burden is nevertheless real. We need to take on board the reality and effects of their struggle in our search for new alternatives. It is in effect a challenge to our spirit of ecumenical cooperation. I suspect there is much goodwill amongst our churches to support ecumenical developments but the means and resources are 18

By 2010, over 800 had graduated from PTC.

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beyond their capacity at this point in time. How do we perceive this kind of situation? What is it that this situation is challenging? Thirdly, issues directly affecting the churches were not being properly teased out. They were identified but were not thoroughly researched so as to highlight their biblical, theological and ethical basis. How can the churches respond in an informed manner if these were lacking? And fourthly, our ecumenical developments seem to have ignored the possibility that our cultures are blessed with models that echoed biblical truths and could be utilised to discern a new hermeneutic of what it means to be an ecumenical Pacific islander. In other words, our search for a distinct Pacific ecumenism had become stagnated until recently. It came as no surprise therefore, that when we entered the 21st century, the call for a renewed form of being together and working together amongst the churches can no longer be ignored. As churches, we have interpreted our ecumenical experience from a purely communal framework. Our ecumenical community is a symphony of diverse multi-layers of meaning systems.19 Our cultural, ethnic and denominational loyalties, as well as our different political histories inform us that interactions and relationships resemble a minefield that needs to be carefully navigated. It is a hazardous reef constantly pounded by past and current waves of diverse psychological needs and cultural expectations. These require more than merely being sensitive and considerate. A deep appreciation of the complex nature of such a social entity and the enormity of the task to understand the diverse streams of meaning systems inherent in it is a good starting point. For it acknowledges certain realities and truths that are part and parcel of what its members perceive to constitute its identity. Moreover, it safeguards one from propagating simplistic analysis and unbalanced assumptions that serves the purpose of nothing more than effectively masking oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own prejudices and preference over and against other equally valid perspectives. But this is easier said than done.

See the following works for further analysis of meaning systems: Friedman, E.H. Generation to Generation: Family Process in Church and Synagogue, Guildford Press. 1985 Peter L. Steinke. How Your Church Works: Understanding Congregations as Emotional Systems. Washington, DC; Alban Institute 1993. 19

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The hermeneutical experience of our ecumenical journey thus far can best be seen in three main areas: co-operation, mission and capacity building.

Co-operation This need cannot be fully appreciated if it is examined solely within the parameters of our region and the perceived needs of our churches. Neither can it be discussed merely in terms of a self evaluation exercise confined to the performance of our existing ecumenical bodies. To do so would suggest that we are unwilling to discern the signs of the times and to be confronted with challenges these may pose on the nature, purpose and structure of these institutions. Such a position could also be interpreted as a denial of the universal character of the call for transformation as vividly portrayed in the theme of the last WCC Assembly in Porto Allegre, Brazil: â&#x20AC;&#x153;God in your Grace, transform the world.â&#x20AC;? Our ecumenical regional institutions are but a fragment of the volatile global scene. They are not immune to the ripple-like effects of what is happening world-wide. Global issues raise fundamental questions for our existing ecumenical organisations in terms of relationships, cooperation, responsibility, accountability, transparency and good governance, the possibility of any re-envisioning therefore for an effective and meaningful future among these organisations and its member churches, can only emerge if these issues are addressed. Despite their having different mandates, there was an expectation amongst the churches that some form of cooperation between PCC, PTC and SPATS will eventuate. Their functional purpose seems to complement each other. They serve basically the same clientele. Their administrative headquarters are all located in Suva. But regrettably cooperation was never formalised.20 What emerged was a kind of an ad hoc arrangement whereby their leaders were accorded membership in the respective decision making bodies of these organisations. But Councils and Executives are policy making bodies devoid of any effectiveness in so far as programmatic planning is concerned. The possibility of a common Exception is the highly successful GPP programme which is under the auspices of PCC, but delivered by PTC. This is the only south to south mission programme in our churches and in our region. 20

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strategy, action and usage of resources never materialised. The possibility of an integrated and inter-active approach to the programmatic and relational work of the two organisations (and also with SPATS) suffered the same fate. No in-depth or profound discussion on how the work of one relates or impacts on the work of the other. No theological discussion concerning issues so as to ascertain their ecumenical meaning and common relevancy took place. What emerged was the tendency of each to regard certain area of concerns as their prerogative and consequently contributed to the stagnation of constructive ecumenical activity in the region. Unpleasant as this may be, it is nothing compared with the gloom and doom ecumenism will suffer in our region if these organisations are allowed to continue as separate entities devoid of any sense of structural and programmatic changes needed to address the issues facing our churches today. There is no other option but to cooperate. This cannot happen if attitudes and perceptions of why it is necessary to change are not embraced.21 We will continue to suffer from the pitfalls of ecumenical institutional stagnation if we do not heed the call to search for a new identity and a new understanding of a healthy ecumenical reality. Our ecumenical organisations are not immutable. We have to seek new ways of working together and find more appropriate patterns. This sentiment is well expressed by the last General Secretary of the World Council of Churches, the Rev. Dr. Sam Kobia. “…the ecumenical movement has produced a number of institutions through the years in order to meet the needs of a particular moment … yet none of these institutions – not even the World Council of Churches – is eternal.”22 Dr. Kobia offered a timely reminder that the ecumenical movement is not ultimately about such institutions as instruments per se, rather it is fundamentally about faith in God, proclamation of new life in Christ and confidence in the Spirit to lead us to unity. Institutions 21 Fei Tevi offers an excellent discussion of “What Type of Change” in ‘ReEnvisioning the Takia’: Report of the Strategic Planning Committee. PTC., October 2005. Pp8-9 22 Kobia, S. “Challenges facing the Ecumenical Movement in the 21 st Century”. Keynote Address Symposium on the ecumenical Movement in the 21st Century, New York. 22 October 2005.

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therefore are evolving entities. Their usefulness rests on whether they are still effective as instruments of the ecumenical cause. The case for a renewed form of ecumenical cooperation between PTC, PTC and SPATS is compelling. They serve more or less the same churches. Their personnel are members of each others’ governing bodies. They encounter problems of the same nature in terms of issues that the churches have identified as urgent and the ongoing problem of financial sustainability. They all courted the goodwill and support of essentially the same overseas partners and donors. These commonalities warrant the need not only for constructive discernment of alternatives but also as acceptance that if the current status quo continues, it will have serious debilitating effects on the ecumenical movement in our region. A nonchange approach will lead to a marginalisation of one from the other as well as from the regional and global community. As ecumenical bodies, they should be enquiring together as to God’s purpose in a world characterised by the plurality of contexts and realities. “Our theology, our education, our methodology, our Christian ways of life must be developed to respond to the needs of our world”23 Our ecumenical organisations should be signs of hope in a world of seeming hopelessness. An example of how cooperation can reach new heights can be seen in the area of theological education. The delivery of this, in so far as it leads towards achieving a formal qualification, has been perceived to be the prerogative of established theological schools and in particular, PTC. In recent years however, the content of theological education has emerged as a contentious issue in terms of relevancy and methodology, the result of churches’ enquiries as to the kind of clergy graduating from such establishments. Concern has now been raised regarding the need to produce ministers/priests/pastors who are not only academically sound, but are also able to offer constructive theological critique on issues that affect peoples’ lives. This has precipitated a number of key questions especially in the area of ministry studies:

Aram 1 Patriarch of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Opening Address. Symposium on the Ecumenical Movement 21st Century. October, 2005, New York. 23

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What should be the nature and content of the courses? What is the best method to teach such courses? Who qualifies to teach these? What qualifications are essential for such a task? Can some courses be taught outside PTC? The search for possible answers is not a monopoly of any one ecumenical body. All three have experts on their staff who can contribute to the content, structure, methodology and delivery of a formulated agreed programme. The three are dealing with issues essential for our ecumenical wellbeing. For example, HIV/AIDS, global warming, church leadership, women in the church, youth, violence and peace building to name a few. Input from the three bodies should be part of deliberations from the planning stage onward. If this occurs, we would discover that there is enormous potential for ecumenical growth. Of course there would have to be some structural and constitutional changes to accommodate such cooperation. But the likely benefits are obvious. Not only would there be a sharing of resources in terms of personnel, skills, experience, knowledge and finance; but the students would also receive a sound and balanced ecumenical theological education from a highly qualified academic and professional staff. In effect, a cross fertilisation of ecumenical wisdom will emerge, providing the impetus for ecumenical growth and development. PTC is to be commended for accepting the challenge to explore the issue of relevancy and sustainability in relation to its future.24 Its envisaged future however, is all the more compelling because it will impact on the mandate and operational wellbeing of PCC and SPATS. In effect, PTC has embarked on the delicate task of mapping out the future of the Oikoumene in our region. In so doing, it laid down the gauntlet to PCC and SPATS to be involved in the reconfiguration of the ecumenical movement for our churches. The fact that PCC and to a lesser extent SPATS are now vigorously engaged in the same exercise, is a tribute to the new kind of visionary and bold leadership these bodies now have. Fundamental to any form of renewed cooperation becoming a reality is the existence of a spiritual openness, an intellectual openness, a political will and the ability of parties concerned to engage in the kind of 24 See Report of the Strategic Planning Committee submitted to the PTC Council November 2005.

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comprehensive planning that complement their ecumenical, missiological and contextual mandates. Our ecumenical bodies are already blessed by the fact that they are held together by mutual ties of one kind or another. This can only enhance the strong cohesiveness embedded in their current makeup. Evidence of a renewed form of ecumenical cooperation in the existence of collective action to promote mutual interests. The basic test is whether the three bodies can function together as a coherent group on a significant number of issues. It is both the range of functions in which they engage corporately, as well as the particular kind of function they undertake which is important. Furthermore, there must be a willingness to adopt policies that commit the resources of the churches to common purposes. The need for our ecumenical bodies to be cohesive, to plan and act together, to be committed to mutual programmes cannot be overstated. Suffice to say that the intrinsic merits of their existence will in the end be determined by the perceptions of our churches that these bodies are cooperating in delivering the ecumenical mandate entrusted to them as reflected in the positive growth of ecumenism in the region. The factors alluded to already strongly support the contention that renewed cooperation is the only viable option. The proposal is further enhanced by other considerations. For instance, the issue of proximity in terms of their headquarters being located near each other in Suva. Then there is a kind of homogeneity in terms of their structural and administrative setup, as well as the size and population of the churches they serve. There is a historical affinity courtesy of their missionary roots. Communication, in relation to the volume and number of transactions amongst the three suggests that connection and linkage in areas of interest and concern exist. When transactions are highly visible, member churches would form a positive image of our ecumenical bodies and begin to identify closely with their work. Limited financial resources necessitate not only a careful discussion on the sustainability of each as separate entities, but also whether it is prudent for each to continue as such. One of the common denominators shared by PCC, PTC and SPATS, is mutual relevance. Regrettably, this has not been fully explored in terms of its meaning and implication for each and for them as a group. Consider for example the following questions: To what extent do the three bodies share compatible values? To what extent do they have inter-locking roles?

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To what extent do they experience joint rewards? To what extent have they found each other responsive to each others’ messages, interpretations and needs? It is conceivable that these questions have never been asked which tends to suggest that an agreed common awareness and platform is lacking. But issues raised by mutual relevance demand that such questions cannot be avoided, that they are pertinent to any intended planning and deliberations on possible common perceptions and actions. Take the issue of limited financial resources that has plagued the three bodies in recent years. So much has been said about this issue to basically the same group of people in numerous meetings, that a sense of paralysis seems to surface amongst the participants whenever this is now raised. Accentuating the problem is the fact that such discussions are held in isolation of each body. And yet, there are now serious questions concerning the sustainability of each especially when they are competing for declining funds from basically the same sources. Why do they insist on surviving on their own when they face a common problem that could be resolved if they pool their resources together? The reluctance to explore and embrace much needed structural, administrative and managerial changes has stifled their effectiveness in promoting and delivering their agreed mandates. It raises the possibility that perhaps they do not share the same understanding of the ecumenical vision.

Mission “To do mission together” was part of the mandate for ecumenical activities that was formulated by the Malua meeting in 1961. In hindsight, what our leaders had in mind was an understanding of a mission praxis that would… enable us to recover something of the zeal and commitment, the discipline of caring for others that was so characteristic of the missionaries that went from our churches in the past. develop an understanding of God, Jesus and salvation that can be shared with others in ways that foster reconciliation rather than exclusion; and, take global realities and the structural dimension of sin seriously.

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But our different church traditions25 made the task difficult. Nevertheless, such differences26 highlighted a number of common challenges: First, we needed to assess and address our legacies from the missionary era. Secondly, all churches are facing a decline in membership, some more rapid than others; and the questions this posses regarding identity, capacity to function and relevance. And thirdly, all were seeking, in varying ways and degrees, to come to terms with other challenges of the period identified as post-modern, postcolonial, post missionary and globalised. Addressing these was done in a loose haphazard kind of manner relying on the initiative of individual churches27 and the few regional consultations organised by PCC. Part of the incentive to establish PTC was the hope of these concerns to be properly addressed. The need to examine the extent to which our theological institutions are prepared and willing to be involved in this task was also mooted.28 A pertinent question the churches needed to ask was: To what extent is our theological training today fostering a spirit of ‘mission in unity’ and a sense that ‘my church is just one part of the Church Universal and needs to relate to the other parts?’ The quest to identify and interpret ‘mission concerns’ precipitated further meetings and discussions culminating in a special consultation of church leaders held in Kiribati in October 1991. This meeting gave birth to a document called “God’s Pacific People: Looking to Jesus for a Way Ahead.” This document was approved by the Pacific Conference of Churches’ (PCC) Executive in subsequent meetings held in Fiji in 1992, and in Tuvalu in 1994. It was endorsed by the Pacific Theological College Council at its Annual Meetings of 1995 and 1996 respectively, and was The Roman Catholic; Anglican, Methodist, Reformed Congregational, Presbyterian, United); Lutheran and Pentecostal. 26 Especially in relation to church polity and doctrine 27 For example, the establishment of National Council of Churches in some of the countries. 28 See L. Ramambason, “The Study of Mission in Theological Institutions: A Critical Synopsis”, Ecumenical Missiology, Banglore, United Theological College, 2002. 25

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approved by the Pacific Conference of Churches’ Meeting in Tahiti in 1997. The ongoing fine tuning finally came in a conference held in Suva on the 7-11 June 1999 when a formal programme and structure was approved, and for PTC to deliver it on behalf of PCC. The Statement of Purpose agreed to by the leaders encapsulated their vision of our churches sharing in the mission enterprise: “Our vision is of a Pacific community that grows together by sharing; by building within it the spiritual vitality, the missionary commitment, and the skills with which to respond to the situations and needs that surround us: to be able to analyse and address the root causes of poverty, social injustice and lack of human rights that are on the increase in our island communities: to build within our people the needed introspection that would help them preserve the best aspects of their traditional values and build themselves up to be holistic communities. We believe that in the contemporary situation in the Pacific three elements stand out, intertwining mission and ministry, challenging us to share ourselves together. Firstly, the need to be engaged with each other across the Pacific in cross cultural mission, working together on issues that affect or challenge our societies today. Secondly, to respond to the need for renewal of our own communities and see that challenge as part of our mutual mission. Thirdly, to see as the frontiers of our mission today social issues development and justice concerns.”29 The success of the GPP programme in delivering the mission mandate as set out by our churches cannot be overstated. But its various projects especially in the areas of capacity building and personnel exchange programme have effectively ensured the sharing of resources amongst our churches and in the process enhanced the ecumenical spirit of working and growing together.

PART TWO It would appear that a hermeneutical theory based on the principle of sharing was the guiding light of our ecumenical experience. This sharing includes sharing of resources, planning, administration and responsibilities. In essence, it depended on constructive inter-confessional dialogue amongst our different church cultures which aimed at increased understanding of the integrity of the other. Our willingness to meet and discuss things together has had the effect of forcing our churches to 29

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wrestle with the relational structure of catholicity in the church, explore further what it means to dialogue and encounter the other and hear the call for reconciliation. In the course of our journey, we discovered the importance of the need to understand one anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theological language and cultural ethos; of reclaiming a new understanding of mission and embracing new ways of doing theology. In essence our churches have unintentionally evolved into a hermeneutical community through the life and work of its three regional ecumenical bodies. Some of the basic assumptions inherent in the above theory are as follows: Our understanding of unity is in the context of our diversity. As such we have placed much emphasis on our being together in fellowship, in communion, in koinonia with one another. Our communal heritage resonates well with this kind of structure. It allows us to express and share the cultural values of hospitality and respect that serves the purpose of creating harmony and balance in relationships. The theory also encouraged us to examine how we can share our meager resources. The GPP personal exchange programme is an example of how this can be done in a meaningful way that enhances our fellowship and sharpens our perceptions and appreciation of doing mission together. In essence, sharing resources implies a commitment to cooperate and work together. The theory further presupposes that our diversity is not a hindrance in our quest for genuine koinonia. Our respective church confessional identity is being challenged in the context of the catholicity of the Christian faith rather than on denominational loyalties. In other words, we are not being asked to forgo our denominational roots, rather we are being challenged to revisit the daunting issue of what it means to be a member of the universal church and the kind of identity inherent in such a membership. Is my confessional identity and culture threatened by the otherness of those different from me? What exactly is being threatened? In view of these issues, the theory expresses a tacit hope that convergence amongst people of different Christian persuasions is possible, that fellowship in Christ can happen. The theory in principle has not actually changed in terms of its underlying assumptions. It is therefore still valid. But our understanding and practice of it, especially in recent years, has highlighted the need for us to discern the signs of the times and adjust the sail of our canoe

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accordingly. Lessons acquired inform us that a new, more comprehensive distinctly Pacific hermeneutical theory is emerging. These lessons will be identified and discussed in detail in Part Three of the paper. For now, a discussion on the change in perception and practice of mission will illustrate the point that the theory, though valid, has acquired new meaning and relevance. It is only in recent years that the church recovered the biblical insight that mission is God’s rather than the church’s. In other words, God, not the church, is the generator of mission. David Bosch puts the point well: “During the past half a century or so, there has been a subtle but nevertheless decisive shift toward understanding mission as God’s mission. During preceding centuries mission was understood in a variety of ways. Sometimes it was interpreted primarily as saving individual souls from eternal damnation. Or it was understood in cultural terms. Often it was perceived in church categories: as the expansion of the church or of a specific denomination. Sometimes it defined salvation historically: as the process by which the world would be transformed into the Kingdom of God.”30 What Bosch is trying to convey is the view that the church is an instrument of mission. The identity of the church should arise from the mission, and it is clear that this order of priority is foundational for the Christian church. However, churches have taught Christians to think of church as the prior category and mission as one among several functions of the church.31 By contrast, mission should be understood not as something the church does as part of its total programme. Rather, mission is the church’s essence because the calling and sending action of God forms the church’s identity. Mission is founded on the mission of God in the world, rather than the church’s effort to extend itself. We have however a misconception of the church as a place where certain things happen. If mission is God’s mission, then missional activity takes its character from the nature of God. In other words, it is the name of God that determines mission, and not a doctrine of the church, or policies of the church. See Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, New York, Oxford University press, 1986 31 Wilbert R. Shenk, ‘Changing Frontiers of Mission, Maryknoll, N.Y., Orbis Books, 1999,p7 30

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This raises a real theological challenge for our churches in the Pacific. How is God understood by our churches? What is the basis of such understanding? Some of our churches are favouring a theocratic understanding of God that emphasises male domination and control.32 Others tend to understand God as demanding relatively little. Both positions compromise the biblical and historical evidence of the kind of God we are dealing with. In so doing, our churches conveniently omit the crucial place prophetic faith has in understanding the nature of God. Prophetic faith perceives God as a God of justice, mercy and truth. Therefore there is a call to address social injustices as well as a conversion of social systems to ensure that God’s will is done on earth. There is also a call to the oppressive elites to repent and do justice. The prophet Amos articulates this concern well: “I hate, I despise your festivals and I take no delight in your solemn assemblies….. Take away from me the noise of your songs, to the melody of your harps I will not listen. But let justice roll down like waters and righteousness like an ever flowing stream”.33 We as churches need to reconfigure our understanding of and relationship with God’s mission at this point in time and in our own context. We need to ask, ‘do we have a vision of mission that connects prophetic faith and justice and what are the committed actions required for the realisation of such a vision? If our understanding of God is that of a God that redeems and sustains our lives, then it is the same God who is calling us to redeem this world. It is the auctioning of that calling that gives meaning to our lives. The God of prophetic faith favours no one group against others but is all encompassing. We as a community of believers are to stand in solidarity with those who are oppressed.34 Each of us however needs to ask: Is prophetic faith a part of my church’s mission today? See Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, New York, Oxford University Press, 1986. 33 Amos 5:21; 23-24. 34 Paulo Freire defines oppression as follows “Any situation in which “A” objectively exploits “B” or hinders his/her pursuit of self-affirmation as a responsible person is one of oppression. Such a situation in itself constitute violence, even when sweetened by false generosity, because it interferes with man’s (woman’s) ontological and historical vocation to be more fully human” Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York, Continuum 1970, pp40-41. 32

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If an honest examination was to be conducted of the Christian traditions from which our respective churches have evolved and which we continue to perpetuate, we would find that our theology and the structures and processes that support such a theology is one that oppresses many of our people. Therefore, prophetic faith demands a restructuring of such tradition as well as a redefinition of theological images and roles. We need to be reminded that God acts in human history on the side of the oppressed, of the marginalised and of the deprived. God is concerned with the victims of injustice. Justice is a dimension of God’s character. God is a God of Justice.35 Justice is the duty of humanity under God.

What is Justice? In its broadest sense as revealed in the scriptures, Justice is nothing less than ‘right relationship’ or ‘righteousness’. It is found not in rights but in responsibilities, mutuality and duties. Justice can also be understood as the process of correction of injustice and God’s justice for the oppressed requires liberation from oppression. In the Bible, justice is about a concern for the weak against power and privilege.36 The challenge this poses for our churches is this: Can Christianity be transformed from an ideology of the oppressor to a gospel of liberation for the oppressed, and through the oppressed, the oppressor as well? The plight of women in our churches highlights the tragic contradiction that exist between our theology of mission and our mission praxis today.37 A number of pointers we must consider in formulating a new ecumenical hermeneutic for Oceania today: Christian mission is primarily and ultimately God’s mission – the mission Dei. It is centered in the loving and eternal purpose of the triune God for humankind and all of creation, revealed in Jesus Christ. Central to God’s mission is the life-giving presence of the Holy Spirit. Psalm 72:1-4; Psalm 99:4 See Karen Lebacqz, Justice in an Unjust World: Foundations for a Christian Approach to Justice, Minneapolis, Augsburg Publishing House, 1987, esp. pp 154160. 37 This well treated by Rosemary Ruether, Sexism and God-talk: Toward a Feminist Theology, Boston, Beacon Press 1983. 35 36

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It is an ongoing learning process of acknowledging and respecting other people’s identity, language and culture. Dialogue is therefore essential. Mission believes in the possibility of change occurring in people through the message of the Gospel. It encourages culture to meet the Gospel so that the Gospel can be rooted in the culture in a form acceptable to that culture. Mission involves the struggle for justice. The prophetic faith is an integral part of mission. Missiology is the essence of the churches’ being. It is the process of action and reflection, from the past to the present and hopefully into the future. Mission deals with reflections on the presence of God in this world. Participating in God’s mission is an imperative for all Christians and all churches, not only for particular individuals or specialised groups. It is an inner compulsion, rooted in the profound demands of Christ’s love, to invite others to share in the fullness of life Jesus came to bring (cf. John 10:10). Mission in Christ’s way is holistic, for the whole person and the totality of life are inseparable in God’s plan of salvation accomplished in Jesus Christ. Mission is both local and universal. It is local – the primary responsibility for mission, where there is a local church, is with that church in its own place. It is also universal, that is, to all peoples, beyond all frontiers of race, caste, gender, culture, nation – to “the ends of the earth” in every sense (cf. Acts 1:8; Mark 16:15; Luke 24:47).

The Ecumenical Challenge To encourage the churches and mission agencies to avoid all forms of competition in mission and to commit themselves anew to witness in unity. To proclaim the Gospel in unity, churches in partnership in mission must commit themselves to: deepened understanding of what it means to be church in today’s world, and acceptance and celebration of their inter-relatedness in the one body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12:12);

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deepened conviction that it is God’s mission in which the churches share as God’s co-workers, not their own; reaching out together in Christ to new frontiers of mission – listening, accompanying, walking with, resourcing, receiving from one another; renewed determination to manifest together “the One hope of (their) calling” (Eph.4:4) in order to share more fully in the divine plan of salvation for the reconciliation and gathering up of all peoples and things in Christ (cf. Eph.1:9-10)

PART THREE We have learnt many lessons from our short history of ecumenical involvement: We have learnt that we can remain rooted in our own tradition of the church and yet become open and responsive to the richness and perspective of other churches so that we can become more active in seeking unity, openness and collaboration amongst ourselves. We have learnt that we can risk honest encounters with one another before God. We have learnt that we can study and struggle together in community. We have learnt the importance of understanding the differences and particularities by which other people live. We have learnt to appreciate our context of diversity within the Christian faith which permits us to acknowledge the need for cultural and contextual particularities of the Christian faith. Our experience has taught us that God in Jesus Christ has not given us a first, second or third world, but one world and that we are members of this world. Therefore we should be concerned with global issues that affects the future of humanity and the world at large. We have learnt that ecumenical involvement necessitates the continuing assessment of our own context as an ecumenical community. What are we doing for the suffering and oppressed in our communities? Are we addressing issues of justice and peace? These are essential undertakings of God’s mission for our churches today. We have learnt that the crucial ecclesiological question is not “what is the church’, but rather, ‘what is the church for’. This was a slow process for many of our churches. The missionary zeal that was a part of

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many churches’ histories faded dramatically once they became autonomous. Self preservation and consolidation became the norm to measure development and success. In the process, many of our churches forgot that they are not supposed to exist for themselves. They gathered in order to be sent. We have often neglected the eschatological characteristic of the church. This has contributed to our vague misleading understanding of ‘mission’ as an activity emanating from the church when as discussed already, mission is God’s mission. We have learnt that lack of commitment is not the only reason why ecumenism in our region has taken a downturn in recent years. What is disturbing is the tendency for churches to agree together on an action but in the end quite a number abscond. To deliberately contradict agreed decisions poses serious questions concerning integrity and honesty. We have learnt the value of cooperation but at the same time seem reluctant to discern the need to change structures and embrace new alternatives as to how this can be improved. In retrospect, the brief histories of our three ecumenical organisations clearly illustrate some hard lessons we as churches have had to endure and the real possibility of life emerging out of what has become an unfortunate situation if the alternative posed by the lessons is taken up. Perhaps the time has come for all three ecumenical bodies to seriously consider some essential structural changes. One of these could be the establishing of an Ecumenical Council as the governing body to oversee and coordinate their work. This possibility would be a major exercise in ecclesiastical integration, in constitutional debate and in the associated logistics. But the task is not as daunting as it may at first appear. The ingredients and the tools for such a reconfiguration are available and have been alluded to already. There is also the compelling argument mooted by Mr. Feilo’akitau Tevi38 that the Executives of PCC, PTC and SPATS could all meet at the same time in view of the enormous financial resources spent by each on their own meetings. There is merit in the suggestion. We save money and improve networking. But these benefits, amidst others, would not address the root cause of the problem. The tendency for each to regard their Council as an autonomous entity has contributed to the lack of effective cooperation. Their priority has been on issues that safeguard and ensure their own survival rather than Executive Secretary, WCC Office Pacific, Part of his Report to the PCC Executive meeting 2004 and to the PTC Council 2005.

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on issues for ecumenical cooperation and development. Council structures as we have them now have outlived their usefulness. Their effectiveness in nurturing and fostering ecumenism in our region has waned in recent years. Perhaps their original mandates have run their courses. Many of their decisions, made after careful consideration of constitutional clauses, are undermined and ignored by their own members. Some policies fail to consider the economic and socio-political realities of the members. The history of annual subscriptions is a bizarre tragedy that could have been avoided. There are churches struggling to make ends meet. Have the responses from the ecumenical bodies allowed for ecumenical growth? The bleak picture suggests a lack of commitment by many of the member churches and the ongoing struggle for survival of each organisation. But how accurate is it to say that commitment is lacking because one is not in a position to meet financial obligations? What ecumenical space is afforded for such members to explore other alternative means of support? How effective are these Councils in discerning the signs of the times and respond accordingly in the spirit of ecumenical wellbeing? The PTC Council mirrors a tragic picture of how ineffective such a body has become. In the beginning, leaders of the member churches attended Council meetings as required in its constitution. Their presence offered some guarantee that discussions, debates and decisions were conducted with a certain air of authority and officialdom. In recent years however, only a handle of leaders have been attending and for those who could not attend, proxies were sent in the persons of Principals, General Secretaries, Directors of Mission or Conveners of some church committee. Discussions tended to be dominated by a few. Decisions have a fragile nature about them with much uncertainty about commitment and support of envisaged actions. Many of the issues that demanded firm decisions tend to meander somewhat aimlessly because most of the proxies felt they did not have the authority to commit the support of their churches. In the end, resolutions are passed without any confidence they would lead to life. In a sense therefore, PTC as an organisation, has become a victim of its own structure. The problems that have plagued the PTC Council have a ring of familiarity about them in the life and work of the PCC and SPATS Council as well. Therefore, it makes sense to explore the feasibility of a totally new structure that would encourage ecumenical cooperation, accountability and transparency; and allow for effective administrative and management processes.

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An Ecumenical Council will inevitably precipitate other structural changes at the executive and managerial levels of operation. Cooperation will filter through all channels of communication. Accountability and monitoring would be transparent and accessible. The Ecumenical Council would serve as the one and only official regional forum. Its members would be empowered to establish norms and rules for the achievement of objectives and accelerate ecumenical awareness and growth. There would be co-ordination of policies especially those designed to overcome the problem of mobilising sufficient capital and investment to finance development programmes. A single budget with appropriate allocations would benefit the member churches with one annual contribution from them for ecumenical work. A network of effective communication will emerge. An increase in the volume of communication, frequency of face to face meetings, increasing volume of business and perhaps frequency of similar opinion will encourage cooperation. There would also be the added benefit of better and effective relationships with our overseas partners and donors in their knowing of our efforts to foster unity amongst ourselves, accept the cost of ownership and free ourselves from the bondage of depending on their financial support. Our ecumenical voice would not only be heard, it would be an authentic and relevant voice.

Theological Considerations The theological basis for a renewed cooperation is embedded in the insight that our existing ecumenical bodies do not confront one another as sovereign and autonomous bodies, but that they are indissolubly related. Their task is to interpret unity and diversity within and among the member churches they serve.39 What is at stake here is the issue regarding the identity of the church which in essence, is a relational reality. In the course of their history, our churches have responded in different ways to the ecumenical challenge represented by this reality. This is an acknowledgement not only for our confessional, contextual and cultural 39 Diversity and Plurality are not necessarily in contradiction with Unity. They are in a sense the condition for the possibility of cooperation and community.

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diversity, but also of certain ecclesiological truths that bind us together as members of Christ’s Body, the Church. Both the Trinitarian and Christological creeds of the Church emphasise the oneness of Christ and God and the union of divine and human nature in Jesus Christ. This is the common confession we are called to witness in our efforts to re-configure relationships in our faith community. The unity in the Trinity is the model for our quest for unity. Cooperation is evidence of our willingness to promote our oneness in Christ. Imperative in this process is our learning to listen in order to understand and appreciate what is happening in the lives of others and their capacity to offer us life. From this listening we will be in a position to respond with faith, hope and love. This process is known as spirituality of engagement that links things of the spirit to life giving actions. It raises questions concerning our identity as ecumenical beings. Who are we? What is the meaning of our lives and our relationships to God and one another? How can we explore the depth dimension of human existence? If we answer such questions purely from the western understanding of what the ‘self’ represents, then we run the risk of ending up with an ill-defined egoistic spirituality which can be used as an excuse for selfishness. In the end, our theology and our practice become inward and self-centered. We ought to heed John Wesley’s warning that the Bible knows nothing of solitary religion. Given our communal framework, we ought to cultivate a spirituality that rejoices in the continuity of things of the spirit with action for the welfare of everyone. Moreover, a spirituality that is willing to confront the real world as well as personal challenges and persevere in the quest to resolve them. Our interaction with the world and its people will affirm our identity as followers of Jesus Christ. We should also be concerned with the kind of relationship the church should have with the world. At stake here is the ‘holiness’ of the church. The vocation of the church is to be in the world but not of it. This is the tension between adaptation and critical distance. Then there is the delicate question regarding the catholicity of the church. Are we willing to take up the challenge of relating to other faith communities and new churches that have emerged as a result of neoPentecostalism? There is a real need for us to be open to other expressions of Christianity. If the truth be known, we have not always been sensitive enough to the problems and needs of our people, nor been sufficiently humble and open to what other expressions of Christianity can contribute.

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This is a theological engagement. As Christians, as churches, we should be inquiring together as to Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose for us in a multi-cultural world characterized by a diversity of faith. Finally, we need to transform our perception of unity. There are many levels of disparity amongst our churches. There are enormous gaps in the areas of economic, social and political developments. The diversity in terms of land mass, population, cultural and religious affiliations further heightens the differences. Our churches are directly affected by the impact of these factors. Many struggle to make ends meet as their weak economies try to cope with the reality of globalisation. For many, finance has emerged as the most powerful consideration in determining whether or not involvement in ecumenical activities is prudent. The possibility of a single governing body will provide the ecumenical space for the spirit of ecumenical cooperation to be realised by all churches. All will share in offering an annual contribution for ecumenical work. The emphasis for this should be on the principle of sharing the cost irrespective of the amounts each give. Some will give bigger amounts than the others because they are able to do so. Those with smaller contributions should not be marginalised or penalised. The important thing is for everyone to participate in this giving. We need to move away from the position of perceiving our churches as strong or weak. Rather we should cultivate an appreciation of each as valued members of our ecumenical family. Our quest for unity will therefore become a journey whereby we assist our fellow travelers along the way and in so doing realise the meaning of being one in Christ. If we are willing to confront the ecumenical challenges with a new sense of seeing and understanding, we may be able to discern life-giving changes in our institutional cultures as gifts of Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grace, that would enable meaningful transformation to happen and contribute to the ongoing process of seeking unity among churches today. Challenges can either be stumbling blocks or stepping stones. The choice is ours.

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APPENDIX SUMMARY STATEMENTS AND THEMES OF SUBSEQUENT WCC ASSEMBLIES Amsterdam (Netherlands) 1948 To call the churches to the goal of visible unity in one Faith and in one Eucharistic Fellowship. Evanston (Canada) 1954 Should not our churches ask themselves whether they are showing sufficient eager-ness to enter into conversation with other churches, and whether they should not act together in all matters except those in which deep differences of conviction compel them to act separately. The WCC is not and must never become a super-church. Membership does not imply the acceptance of a specific doctrine concerning the nature of Unity. New Delhi (India) 1961 Unity… is being made visible as all in each place … are brought by the Holy Spirit into one fully committed fellowship … breaking the One bread, joining in common prayer, and having a corporate life reaching out in witness and service to all … Uppsala (Sweden) 1968 Church the sign of the coming unit of Mankind. The quest for catholicity faces us with the question whether we betray God’s gift by ignoring the diversities of the Spirit’s working. Diversity may be a perversion of catholicity but often it is a genuine expression of the apostolic vocation of the Church. Nairobi (Kenya) 1975 True conciliarity is the reflection in the life of the Church of the triune being of God. The one church is to be envisioned as conciliar fellowship of local churches which are themselves truly united. In this conciliar fellowship each local church possess, in communion with the others, the fullness off catholicity. Vancouver (Canada) 1983 A Eucharistic vision of Unity. It is the goal of the ecumenical movement to serve the cause of the visible unity of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church. The ecumenical movement is more than the World council of Churches, and it is not limited to any one Christian World Communion or church. In response to the promptings of the Holy Spirit, it encompasses a worldwide variety of forms of expression: Christian churches, including united and uniting churches, councils,

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bilateral and multilateral dialogues and other networks, proclaiming together in word and deed that Jesus Christ is the Life of the world. Canberra (Australia) 1991 The Unity of the Church as Koinonia. The purpose of God according to Holy Scripture is to gather the whole of creation under the Lordship of Christ Jesus in whom, by the power of the Holy Spirit, all are brought into communion with God (Eph. 1). The church is the foretaste of this communion with God and with one another. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit enable the one Church to live as sign of the reign of God and servant of the reconciliation with God, promised and provided for the whole creation. The purpose of the church is to unite people with Christ in the power of the Spirit, to manifest communion in prayer and action and thus to point to the fullness of communion with God, humanity and the whole creation in the glory of the kingdom. Harare (Zimbabwe) 1998 Towards a Common Vision. The World Council of Churches began its journey in faith with the determination to stay together. We experienced this same determination in Harare, even when we were aware of the difficulties that we faced. As churches long committed to staying together we now commit ourselves to being together in a continuing growth towards visible unity â&#x20AC;&#x201C; not only in assemblies and ecumenical gatherings but each in every place. It is this being together that all ecumenical work at every level must serve. The mission to which God calls the church in the service of Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign, cannot be separated from the call to be one. Porto Allegre (Brazil) 2006 God in your Grace, transform the World.

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Bibliography & Reports Theological Education in the Pacific Consultation. May 7-13, 1961. Pub. By The Theological Education Fund Committee of the International Missionary Council, London. 1962. WCC Assembly Reports Summaries 1948-2006. Papers: (a) Published Aram 1 Patriarch of the Amenian Apostolic Church. Opening Address. Symposium on the Ecumenical Movement 21st Century. October 2005. New York. Kobia, S. ‘Challenges facing the Ecumenical Movement in the 21st Century.’ Keynone Address Symposium on the Ecumenical Movement in the 21st Century. New York. 22 October, 2006. (b) Unpublished Rev. Leslie Boseto. Opening Address. Consultation of the Pacific Conference of Churches. Nadi 25-28 June, 2001. Rev. Dr. Sione Amanaki Havea: A Background Paper prepared for a PCC Consultation Suva, 12-14 February, 1996. Fei Tevi ‘What Type of Change’ in ‘Re-Envisioning the Takia’: Report of the Strategic Planning Committee, PTC, October 2005. GPP Mission Statement Paper/Statement of Purpose Paper 1999 Report of the Strategic Planning Committee. PTC Council November 2005. Executive Secretary, WCC Office Pacific. Part of his Report to the PCC Executive meeting 2004 and to the PTC Council, 2005. Journals L. Ramambason, “The Study of Mission in Theological Institutions: A Critical Synopsis”, Ecumenical Missiology, Bangalore, United Theological College, 2002.

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Biblical Texts Psalm 72:1-4 Psalm 99:4 Amos 5:21; 23-24 Books Affirming our Ecumenical Journey: The Pioneers of Pacific Ecumenism tell their Stories, PCC Publication, 2002. David Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission, Maryknoll, N.Y. Orbis Press, 1991. Marlin v. Elderen & Martin Conway: Introducing the World Council of Churches Revised Edition, WCC Pub. Geneva 2001. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York, Contiuum, 1970. E.H. Friedman, Generation to Generation: Family Process in Church and Synagogue, Guildford Press. 1985. Karen Lebacqz, Justice in an Unjust World: Foundations for a Christian Approach to Justice, Minneapolis, Augsburg Publishing House, 1987. Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, New York, Oxford University Press, 1986. Rosemary Ruether, Sexism and God-talk: Toward a Feminist Theology, Boston, Beacon Press 1983. Wilbert R. Shenk, Changing Frontiers of Mission. Maryknoll, N.Y. Orbis Books, 1999. Peter L. Steinke, How Your Church Family Works: Understanding Congregations as Emotional Systems. Washington DC: Alban Institute 1993.

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Apology and Reprint

Holger Szesnat

Dear Readers and/or Subscribers:

Dr Holger Szesnat is currently a Senior Lecturer in Biblical Studies (New Testament) and Head of the Department of Biblical Studies at PTC.

The following are the Endnotes to Dr. Holger Szesnat’s article titled, “A Church-State Covenant on the Environment” which was published in the Pacific Journal of Theology Issue 44 of 2010.

Holger is a member of the United Reformed Church in the United Kingdom and is married to Felicity.

Our sincere apology to Dr. Szesnat and to you Readers/Subscribers for the inconvenience we have caused you in accidentally omitting part of the Endnotes from Nos. 7 to 31. from the Board of the Pacific Journal of Theology, 2011.

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________________________ Notes 1 I wish to dedicate this paper to Professor Dr Lothar Schreiner, who was Professor of Missiology, Ecumenism, and the History of Religions at the Kirchliche Hochschule Wuppertal, Germany, when I began my theological studies in the mid-1980s. In many ways, I felt encouraged in my subsequent ecumenical journey in South Africa (1987-1998), Fiji (19982001), England (2001-2010), and now back in Fiji; my early explorations in theology were often prompted by his perceptive teaching, and his commitment to the world church, which was itself no doubt much informed by his own service at a theological college in Indonesia for many years. 2 I would like to express my appreciation to the committee in charge of arranging this consultation, especially Mr. Aisake Casimira (PCC) and Dr. Manfred Ernst (PTC). 3 “Creation and Crisis” (forthcoming). 4 World Council of Churches, Man's Disorder and God's Design, 5 vols. (New York: Harper, 1948). 5 See the literature referred to further below. 6 The ‘religious’ vs. ‘secular’ dichotomy is an invention of modernity which tries to separate distinct spheres of life which can then be analysed and compartmentalized individually, with the common assumption (certainly since the 20th century) that ‘religion’ and the separate spheres of, say, ‘culture’ or ‘economics’ have nothing to say to each other except in the broadest possible terms (‘morals’). ‘Holy’ or ‘sacred’ in the Old Testament means, by and large, a condition “defined on the one hand as that which is consistent with God and his character, and on the other as that which is threatened by impurity”. (David P. Wright, "Holiness: Old Testament," in Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman, Vol. 3 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p. 237. While we can see the beginnings of a shift away from ritual purity aspects of this notion in the New Testament, the fundamental idea of ‘holiness’ is not dissimilar. For a brief overview, see Robert Hodgson, "Holiness: New Testament," in Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman, Vol. 3 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 249254. The function of purity language in the NT is disputed though; see, for instance, the argument of L. William Countryman in his influential and widely debated study (first published in 1988), Dirt, Greed and Sex: Sexual Ethics in the New Testament and Their Implications for Today (London: SCM, 2001). 7 The literature on the concept of ‘covenant’ in the scriptures is extensive. For an overview, see: George E. Mendenhall and Gary A. Herion, "Covenant," in

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The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman, Vol. 1 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 1179-1202. Also: Ernest W. Nicholson, God and His People: Covenant and Theology in the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986); Steven L. McKenzie, Covenant (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2000); A. D. H. Mayes and R. B. Salters, eds., Covenant as Context: Essays in Honour of E. W. Nicholson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); Walter Brueggemann, "Covenant and Social Possibility," in A Social Reading of the Old Testament: Prophetic Approaches to Israel's Communal Life (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994), pp. 54-69; Eckart Otto, "Die Ursprünge der Bundestheologie im Alten Testament und im alten Orient," Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte 4 (1998): 1-84. 8 Walter Brueggemann, Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), p. 37. 9 This is argued in great detail by Robert Murray, using inter alia an idea by Bernard Batto on the ‘covenant of peace’ (Is 54:10, Ez 34:25; 37:26). Regardless of whether one agrees with the entirety of either Batto’s or Murray’s argument, the centrality of the so-called Noahic covenant (Gen 9), which is a decidedly cosmic covenant involving all creation (literally, “all flesh”, klbśr, which in the context must refers to all living things, kl-npš – or rather, breathing things, since it is breath that is associated with life in Hebrew thought), not just humanity (or even, paradigmatically, Israel) is well understood and needs to be underlined. This is what the latter prophets kept returning to in their visions. See: Robert Murray, The Cosmic Covenant: Biblical Themes of Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation (London: Sheed & Ward, 1992); Bernard F. Batto, "The Covenant of Peace: A Neglected Ancient near Eastern Motif," Catholic Biblical Quarterly 49, no. 2 (1987): 187211. 10 “Creation and Crisis”, (forthcoming). 11 For technical reasons, I use a simplified transliteration scheme for Greek and (consonantal) Hebrew texts or words in this article. 12 ‘Cutting’, so one would assume, either in stone (to record the covenant) or by cutting an animal as a sacrifice. 13 Most of what follows in this paragraph is based on: Brueggemann, Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes, pp. 37-39. 14 Scott Hahn offers a useful overview of recent research in his article "Covenant in the Old and New Testaments: Some Current Research (1994-2004)," Currents in Biblical Research 3, no. 2 (2005): 263-292. Also see the helpful discussion by the Old Testament scholar, Frank Crüsemann: "Der neue Bund im Neuen Testament: Erwägungen zum Verständnis des Christusbundes in der Abendmahlstradition und im Hebräerbrief," in Mincha: Festgabe für Rolf Rendtorff zum 75. Geburtstag, ed. Erhard Blum (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2000), pp. 47-60.

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See, for instance: Norbert Lohfink, The Covenant Never Revoked: Biblical Reflections on Christian-Jewish Dialogue (New York: Paulist Press, 1991). 16 For an overview, see: Mendenhall and Herion, "Covenant," pp. 1197-1201. 17 See the overview by W. S. Campbell: "Covenant and New Covenant." In Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, eds. Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1993), pp. 179-182. 18 "Final Document: Entering into Covenant Solidarity for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation," in: Between the Flood and the Rainbow: Interpreting the Conciliar Process of Mutual Commitment (Covenant) to Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation, ed. D. Preman Niles (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1992), p. 165. 19 One might want to consider, for example, the medieval crusades; the ‘German Christian’ movement which allied itself to the Nazi terror regime, and the failure of the mainline church to resist the regime; or Apartheid theology in South Africa. The literature is voluminous; for an overview, see Andrew Jotischky, ed., The Crusades, 4 vols. (London: Routledge, 2008); Susannah Heschel, The Aryan Jesus: Christian Theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008); Doris L. Bergen, Twisted Cross: The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); John W. De Gruchy, and Charles Villa-Vicencio, eds. Apartheid Is a Heresy (Cape Town: David Philip, 1983); John W. de Gruchy and Steve de Gruchy. The Church Struggle in South Africa: Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition, 3rd ed. (London: SCM, 2004). 20 The conflation of nationalism and Christianity that permeates much of USAmerican culture is one example of such a dangerous trend. See, for example, William T. Cavanaugh, "Messianic Nation: A Christian Theological Critique of American Exceptionalism." University of St. Thomas Law Journal 3, no. 2 (2005): 261-80. http://www.jesusradicals.com/wpcontent/uploads/messianic-nation.pdf (28 April 2009); Michael S. Northcott, An Angel Directs the Storm: Apocalyptic Religion and American Empire (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004). 21This claim deserves more discussion than I can offer here. The conflation of ethnicity and Christian faith that is evident in some places is worth exploring further. See, for instance, some of the debate between the Fijian Church leaders I. S. Tuwere and M. Lasaro, discussed in Joseph E. Bush "Claiming a Christian State Where None Exists: Church and State in the Republic of Fiji," Pacifica 12 (1999): 55-68. In this connection, I remember being strongly struck by the experience (May to August 2000) of listening to thousands of Fijian Christians praying and singing hymns in the parliamentary complex in Suva, day after day, night after night, while inside renegade soldiers and others held hostages at gunpoint, seriously assaulting some of them. As one of my students at the time commented: “The vanua is sick, and so is the lotu.” 15

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Walter Brueggemann, "Covenant as a Subversive Paradigm," Christian Century 97, no. 36 (1980): 1094-1099. 23 Ibid., p. 1094. 24 Ibid., p. 1095. 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid., pp. 1096-1097. 27Ibid., p. 1096. 28 Ibid., p. 1097. 29 Cf. the Westminster Confession of Faith, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/anonymous/westminster3.toc.html (11 August 2008), esp. chapters 7 and 8. Given the Reformed tradition, it is no accident that the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) has continued to work with the concept of ‘covenant’ even after the World Council of Churches drifted away from it in the 1990s. 30 World Council of Churches, Now Is the Time: The Final Document and Other Texts from the World Convocation on Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 5-12 March, 1990. (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1990). 31 See, for example: Emilio Castro, "JPIC: A Conciliar Process," Ecumenical Review 44, no. 3 (1992): 291-303; Heino Falcke, "The Ecumenical Assembly for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation," Ecumenical Review 56, no. 2 (2004): 184-191; idem, "Biblical Aspects of the Process of Mutual Commitment," Ecumenical Review 38, no. 3 (1986): 257-264; D. Preman Niles, "Covenanting for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation: An Ecumenical Survey," Ecumenical Review 39, no. 4 (1987): 470-484; idem, ed., Between the Flood and the Rainbow: Interpreting the Conciliar Process of Mutual Commitment (Covenant) to Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation; idem, "Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation," in Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement, ed. Nicholas Lossky (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2002), http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/who/dictionary-article11.html (24 May 2008); Geraldine S. Smyth, A Way of Transformation: A Theological Evaluation of the Conciliar Process of Mutual Commitment to Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation, World Council of Churches, 1983-1991 (Bern: Peter Lang, 1995); Hans Vorster, "Konziliarität, Bundesschluß und Überlebenskrise: Eine theologische Würdigung des Konziliaren Prozesses nach Seoul and Canberra," Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 88, no. 4 (1991): 526-548. 32 Niles, "Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation." 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 I have argued above that this point is overemphasised in the covenant debate in the JPIC process. 22

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37Ibid.

This is a little known and researched aspect of the work of the South African Council of Churches during the Apartheid era. See: Joe Seremane "The Covenant Project," Ecumenical Review 38, no. 3 (1986): 337-41; and several contributions in Andrea FrĂśchtling and Ndanganeni P. Phaswana, eds., Being (the Church) Beyond the South-North-Divide: Identities, Othernesses and Embodied Hermeneutics in Partnership Discourses South Africa - Germany (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 2003). Some further information is available at this website: Aktion Bundeschluss: http://www.aktionbundesschluss.de (12 August 2008). 39 Castro, "JPIC: A Conciliar Process." 40 See, for example: Dirk Smit, Dirk. "Covenant and Ethics: Comments from a South African Perspective," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics 1996: 265-82. 41 Susan Ellis Wild, ed., Webster's New World Law Dictionary (Hoboken: Wiley, 2006), p. 110. 42 "Otin Taai Declaration: The Pacific Churches Statement on Climate Change: A Statement and Recommendations from the Pacific Churchesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Consultation on Climate Change 6-11 March, 2004 Tarawa, Kiribati," http://www.wwfpacific.org.fj/publications/climate_change/Otin_Taai_D eclaration.pdf ; also http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wccprogrammes/justice-diakonia-and-responsibility-for-creation/climatechange-water/11-03-04-otin-tai-declaration.html (10 June 2008). 43 Castro, "JPIC: A Conciliar Process." 44 "Pacific Church Leaders' Consultation Statement (Pacific Theological College, Jovili Meo Mission Centre, Fiji, 18 to 21 September, 2006)," http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wccprogrammes/justice-diakonia-and-responsibility-for-creation/climatechange-water/21-09-06-pacific-church-leaders-consultation-statement.html (12 June 2008). 45 Eklesia News Brief, "Church of England Faces Investment Gloom," http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/7919 (6 November 2008). 46 Conservation and Theology Consultation: Phase 1 Report: Jovili Meo Centre, Pacific Theological College, Veiuto, Suva, Fiji, 15-19 October 2007, (Suva: South Pacific Association of Theological Schools, 2007). 47 Perhaps best expressed in his book, Vanua: Towards a Fijian Theology of Place (Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies; Auckland: College of St John the Evangelist, 2002). 48 Ilaitia Sewati Tuwere, "Belief in God the Creator: A Call to Make a Difference in the Household of Life," in Conservation and Theology Consultation: Phase 1 Report: Jovili Meo Centre, Pacific Theological College, Veiuto, Suva, Fiji, 15-19 38

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October 2007 (Suva: South Pacific Association of Theological Schools, 2007), pp. 16-23. 49 For example: Ama'amalele Tofaeono, Eco-Theology: Aiga, the Household of Life: A Perspective from Living Myths and Traditions of Samoa (Erlangen: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Ökumene, 2000); Petero Mataca, "The Natural Environment: Its Key Resources for Peace," Pacific Journal of Theology 35 (2006): 67-83; Peter J. Salamonsen, "Ecumenical Dimensions of the JPIC Process: World and Pacific Regional Responses from a Roman Catholic Perspective," Ecumenical Review 44, no. 3 (1992): 350-362; idem, "Report from Rio: The Earth Summit from a Pacific Perspective," Pacific Journal of Theology 8 (1992): 23-34; idem, "Accelerated Climate Change: An Emerging Awareness of Pacific Churches Towards Their Environmental Responsibilities," Life and Peace Institute, http://www.lifepeace.org/default2.asp?xid=493 (29 July 2008). 50 M. L. Daneel, "Contextualising Environmental Theology at Unisa and in African Society," Religion & Theology 2, no. 1 (1995): 87-110. http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=73 45 (1 October 2006). 51 A senior member of the Pacific Theological College pointed out, during discussion time at an unrelated presentation of a visiting speaker in July 2008, that South Pacific theology, if it is to be truly indigenous, needs to take account of the chiefly structure of South Pacific societies. As he put in a nutshell: “chiefs do the thinking; the people do the work”. Regardless of how we may think about this, the fact is nevertheless that without local support, based on local conviction and local faith practice, no amount of chiefly instruction will be able to support the kind of sustainable, longterm faith practice that is required to make a real difference to the ecology of South Pacific island nations. 52 Daneel, "Contextualising Environmental Theology at Unisa and in African Society." 53 Ibid. 54 National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., "Environmental Justice Covenant Congregation Program," http://www.webofcreation.org/ncc/covcong.html (10 May 2008).

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Book Launch - The Pacific Islands – At the beginning of the 21st Century, Religion, Culture and Society, Institute of Research and Social Analysis, Pacific Theological College, Suva and Association of Protestant Churches and Missions in Germany, Hamburg, 2009. ISBN 978-982-348-021-3.280p. This book was launched by Professor Vijay Naidu, Professor and Director of Development Studies, Head of School of Government, Development and International Affairs, Faculty of Business and Economics. University of the South Pacific, Suva on 21st October 2009 at the Pacific Theological College. “Of calm lagoons with very strong undercurrents!” Staff and students of PTC and PRS, distinguished guest, ladies and gentlemen, I would like to thank the Institute of Research and Social Analysis members at PTC for the invitation to launch this book. It is a privilege and honour to be able to launch a book of this significance to Pacific people and those interested in our ‘sea of islands’. Before I launch the book, I would like to say a few words about it and recommend it to those interested in understanding societal change in the Pacific, and to congratulate the editors of the book and the chapter contributors for a job well done. About the Book “The Pacific Islands At the Beginning of the 21 st Century” is beautifully designed with a cover page that portrays a perennial oceanic image of emerald green- blue clear seas with sandy bottom, a golden sand bank with deeper blue passage that links to a large darker blue high island that is the backdrop, presided over by a cloud covered, yet blue sky. The forward part of a fibre glass hull with a red rag symbolizes the 21st Century intrusion in this idyllic setting. The book is written by nearly 40 authors from Germany and the Pacific Island countries as well as other parts of the world. We are told that most of the articles in it were part of the 2008 Year Book published in the German language and because of their pertinence to the contemporary Pacific, the editors decided to have these translated for this book.

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There are three parts to the book. The first section includes the Preface and the first nine chapters that provide more general coverage of the region. They address social, economic, cultural, political and religious change in Oceania. There are issues of environmental change and political instability, poor leadership and unsatisfactory governance, cultural survival and identity maintenance in an age of globalization, militarization, disputes over resource exploitation and unequal sharing of the benefits of development, dominance of the region by big brothers Australia and New Zealand as well as other large actors who are out to promote their own self interests often at the expense of the Pacific Island states. We are informed that colonialism by France, Indonesia, the United States as well as New Zealand is alive and well in the region. Struggles for self determination in West Papua, New Caledonia/Kanaky, French Polynesia/Maohi Nui, Guam and Hawaii are on-going and require more attention by the Pacific community. The role of internal dynamics and of island leaders and politicians in fueling conflicts to serve their own ends is highlighted in a number of the articles. All these pose particular challenges to the Christian churches which are seen to be moving away from ecumenical orientation of the 1960s as new Pentecostal and Charismatic denominations have entered the Pacific stage in a most dramatic fashion. These churches have special appeal to women and young people. Mainline churches are warned that arrogance and complacency are likely to result in further erosion of their membership. Articles on contextual theology and women’s theology reveal both the agony and liberation of giving voice to hitherto marginalized indigenous universe and cosmology, and the disenfranchised and subordinated women. These are extremely potent theologies which will augur in a more balanced understanding of our world and its spiritual underpinnings. Fele Nokise summarises the situation of Oceanians in the contemporary period very well in the conclusion to the preface (P.9) “The calmness of the lagoon is a poignant image of the Pacific today. On the surface, there is calmness and a certain degree of serenity. But underneath, there is much turmoil as the different currents of change threaten to tear its protective reef into pieces and alter appearance forever. In some parts of the Pacific, a sense of being in a paradise is still evident. And yet, there is also a sense of foreboding in knowing that it is only a matter of time before these isolated geographical landscapes and social harmony are disfigured by the impact of global forces.”

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The second part of the book comprises 29 pieces about Pacific countries. These are alphabetically American Samoa, the Cook Islands, FSM, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Easter Island (Rapanui), Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Palau, Papua new Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon islands, Tokelau, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and West Papua. Each country has a story to tell, be it sorcery and witchcraft in Papua New Guinea; meeting with the challenges of HIV/AIDS pandemic in this largest and most rugged Pacific country; political instability and an economy in decline with grave consequences as in Fiji; emerging gangs in American Samoa; struggles of indigenous people for self determination in Hawaii and Rapanui; oppression and violence against West Papuans; the on-going negative consequences of French nuclear tests for Maohi; New Caledonia’s impending referendum on independence; a priest’s story of capture, torture and surviving the conflict in the weather coast of the Solomon Islands; increasing consumerism in the Samoas; Kiribati seafaring and its contribution to the welfare of the extended family; democratic struggles in Tonga; disturbing news about islands drowning in Tuvalu; and questions about whether Vanuatu was indeed the happiest place in the world in 2007 These stories provide a rich collage of representation of life in Pacific island countries and the issues and challenges faced by islanders. Environmental, economic and social justice is threaded into these stories as challenges for Christians in the context of denominational fragmentation. The last section entitled Forum has the report of the 9th Assembly of the Pacific Conference of Churches held in Pagopago, and article on contemporary art from Oceania and a list of recommended books. The conference report is titled “In search of liberation: Atua, Empower us to be liberating communities” and reflects the prophetic calling of Christian communities. Four artists are discussed in the article on artists: Filipa Onevela Tohi, from Tonga is a sculptor and weaver; Teddy Balungu is from Papua New Guinea and is a graphic artist; and Ake Lianga is from Solomon Islands and is an artist and mural painter. Brief biographies of these artists are outlined together with their prominent art work, rationale and sources of inspiration. Each of them embodies Pacific and external influences in their art. Two books are recommended – and

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appropriately one is on globalization and Christianity and the other one on stories of the mission in the midst of conflict in the Solomon Islands. This book could have benefited with a concluding chapter bringing the diverse elements of these stories together and posing the challenge of addressing the issues of decolonization, climate change, social disintegration, economic exploitation, political instability and denominational fragmentation. I would like to congratulate the dittos, Manfred Ernst, Verena Gruter, Frank Kurschner-Pelkmann, Fele Nokise and Michael Press. The translators and copy editors have done admirable work â&#x20AC;&#x201C; there does not seem to be much lost in translation. The Pacific Islands At the Beginning of the 21st Century provides most useful insights into religion, culture and society and is a welcome addition to the corpus of knowledge about Oceania. It is well written for all readers interested in the Pacific islands but especially useful for scholars of change in our corner of the globe.

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Information for Contributors Policy Statement The Pacific Journal of Theology is published twice yearly by the South Pacific Association of theological Schools (SPATS). It seeks to stimulate theological thinking and writing by Christians living in or familiar with the South Pacific, and to share these reflection swith church and theological education communities, and with all who want to be challenged to reflect critically on their faith in changing times. Opinions and claims made by contributors to the journal are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Editorial Board of SPATS and its constituent bodies, nor of associations with which the authors are affiliated. The Editorial Board welcomes various kinds of writing that express an emerging Pacific theology. These may include: original articles in the theological disciplines articles relating theological thinking to Pacific cultures, contemporary issues and other academic disciplines helpful material for pastors and church workers (liturgical, pastoral, educational) artistic expressions of the Christian faith (poetry, visual art, music) notes and reviews of books that are relevant for Pacific Christians information about ongoing research in the theological disciplines in the Pacific. Guidelines for Authors: The Editorial Board will consider for publication all manuscripts of scholarly standard and in keeping with the overall policy of the journal. Articles in English, French or Pacific languages will be considered. Poetry, photographs and black and white drawings are also

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welcome. Manuscripts must be previously unpublished and not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Review Policy: Criteria for Acceptance: Following initial screening, papers are reviewed by two or more board members, using these criteria: Relevance and/or currency of interest to the Pacific Islands Contribution to current debates Originality, balance, scholarship Argument, organization and presentation. The final decision to publish is retained by the Editor and the Editorial Board, who may also suggest editorial changes for all articles submitted for publication. Submissions, addressed to the Editor, PJT (see SPATS contact address inside front cover), must comply with the following requirements: Maximum Length:6000 words (book reviews 1000 words including notes. Style: Australian Government Publishing Service, Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 5th edn; or the 6th edn. Revised by Snooks & Co., and published by Wiley in 2002. Spelling: British (not American) spelling is preferred. Follows the Concise Oxford Dictionary. Notes: In the manuscript, all notes, commencing on a new page, must be double-spaced end- (and not foot-) notes.

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Notes should be substantive only, not documentation. In the text, the identifier, if in superscript, should be outside the punctuation, like this1. If you use the Insert, Notes facility, the programme will superscript for you. If you prefer to construct your list of notes manually, you will have to set the identifiers manually too. Alternatively, you may just indicate it in parentheses, thus: (1). In this case, you will have to construct your list of notes manually. Author and date referencing in text: (surname date:page) e.g. at the end of a clause or sentence, (Ernst 1994:8); or within a sentence, ‘Little (1996:212) notes that …..’

Reference List, commencing on a new page, of all (and only) cited references listed alphabetically by author and, within author, by date, title and publisher. Use italics for book and journal titles, single inverted commas and minimal capitalization for article titles, and no markings for presented papers or unpublished texts. Chapters and articles should show page numbers. See Style. e.g. Ernst, Manfred, 1994, Winds of Change; rapidly growing religious groups in the Pacific Islands. Pacific Conference of Churches, Suva. Little, Jeanette, 1996, “……………….. and wife”. Mary Kaaialii Kahelemauna Nawaa missionary wife and missionary’, in The Covenant Makers: Islander Missionaries in the Pacific, eds. Doug Munro & Andrew Thornley, Pacific Theological College & Institute of Pacific Studies at the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, pp.210-34

Cover Page: A separate cover page must include: title, author’s name, affiliation, postal, fax and e-mail addresses, and a list of any maps, figures etc. accompanying the text. Please include brief biographical data and a head-and-shoulders photo of the author, with any necessary information about the paper, e.g. details of where it was presented, in the case of a conference paper. Maps, Tables, Diagrams, Graphs, Photographs: Indicate location in text and include the electronic copy of the material at the end of the file, each on a separate page; or in separate files; or submit camera-ready copies on separate pages. Publication will be b&w. Any necessary attribution notes and copyright clearances are author’s responsibility. Computer Processing: MS Word preferred.

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Format: A4 paper, double or 11/2 (one-and-a-half) spacing, 5cm spaces all margins, font 11 or 12 point Times Roman, left aligned; all pages numbered sequentially at bottom of pages. Minimal formatting. Italics (or marked by underlining) may be shown where appropriate. Subheads: Bold, left aligned, minimal capitalization. Sub-subheads: Italics, left aligned, minimal caps. A lot of formatting will have to change in the final layout so the less you put in the better.

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Electronic sub mission: E-mail attachments addressed to the editor at the SPATS e-address are the fastest. A 3.5â&#x20AC;? diskette or CD-ROM is also acceptable. The electronic file must contain all files relevant to the manuscript. If hard copy is submitted, it is helpful to provide an electronic file as well.