X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH (X4084810) SERGIO ZENERE
A330 MYTH IN THE GREEK AND ROMAN WORLDS EMA ISBN 978-1-387-44422-9
A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH IN CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY MAY 2012 1
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH INTRODUCTION
The present writer wishes to offer a succinct overview of the main themes linking together the narratives discussed in this writing. Such mythological narratives are those of Adonis, Callisto, Ganymede and Hippolytus. Although improbable at first sight, there are a number of motifs accompanying one or all the versions of these myths. The main motifs are those of the dying and rising hero, which may optionally take the form of a metamorphosis; of the boundary that is eventually transgressed; of the consequences of the lack of sophrosyne appropriate to the circumstances; of the realm that is eventually gotten back and forth into. In the beginning, the present writer shall argue how such narratives are quintessential narratives sinking into the mist of time. Then it will be explained how the characters are doomed because of a transgression in matters of sophrosyne. Finally - before the conclusion- the motif of realms and boundaries will be discussed, namely the intertwined yet polarized continuum between the realms of Diana and Venus.
First of all, it is important to caution against having mythological narratives ventriloquize our day's obtuse obsessions and circular monomania. What sort of results could one obtain by putting our day's morbid bogeymen on trial by mythological proxy? Wall -for one- is exemplary in this respect of an approach the present writer shall not follow, sending in the dock real-life 2
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH rogues, literary figures and psychological archetypes along with unsympathetic critics:
like the meaning of the word "virgin," a patriarchal imposition -...modern women who are Hera figures "are more critical than sympathetic toward unmarried mothers on welfare and toward rape victims -...-. The myth indicates in a disturbing way the overwhelming dominance of the male world and the absolute and even capricious power it has over a woman. -...- First, women have been encouraged to be passive, as was Callisto, when threatened with rape; they are told that any attempt to repulse the male physically may result in severe injury or even death . Yet such passivity is in itself attractive to the rapist, especially in instances where the rape is meant as an expression of power (Wall 1988:13,24-5,171). For some, Ovid has a stake in his characters (for example Jupiter as Augustus' proxy); for others1, he makes no such investment. It is easy to have such narratives ventriloquize power struggles in Rome, yet scholars disagree about how that might precisely happen. Does Ovid endorse, parody or criticize the
Principatus (or something similar)? Does he use mythological proxies to indicate the Imperial family or himself? Doesn't he rather address generic concerns involving political power or possibly the role of creative artists? Any opinion seems as supported as the next one. The present writer shall stick to these mythological narratives as such.
1
3
Frecaut 1968:251.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH LONG LIVED
It is important to emphasize first how the mythological figures discussed herein may have a long story sinking directly into the well of the past: ”In representing the involvement of the gods in human life, tragic myths dwell on crises in which precisely this kind of paradox comes into focus.”2. Let's see what some authors contend:
[Ganymede ] seems to have been conceived as the deity responsible for sprinkling the earth with heaven's rain. He is compared with the Vedic Soma who, like him, was ravished by Indra - and changed into a sparrow-hawk. Ancient astronomers identified him with Aquarius, the Water-carrier (New Larousse Encyclopedia,1987:153; also Lang 1913:171.) First, the Hippolytus myth possibly reflects existing cults
- according to
Pausania and others- that predated related drama:
At both Athens and Trozen, which faced each other across the Saronic gulf, Aphrodite’s cult was closely linked with that of Hippolytos. -...- On the south slope of the Akropolis, in the same area as the sanctuary of Aphrodite Pandemos (and perhaps identical to it) was a shrine of Aphrodite “at Hippolytos,” also known as the Hippolyteion. Here the hero received regular sacrifices at his tomb. At Trozen, on the other hand, Hippolytos was a local god whose sanctuary contained a shrine of the goddess, so that their relative status was inverted. (Larson 2007:123). [it] appears to have been recorded in the 13th century before the Christian era -...-. Two brothers, Anubis and Bata, live together along with the wife of Anubis who is unnamed. One day when the younger brother, Bata, returns to the house, the wife of Anubis 2
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Woodard 2007:184.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH tries to seduce him -...- [then] she claims that she was beaten by Bata after she rebuffed his attempt to seduce her [the Egyptian “tale of two brothers”] “ (Dundes 2002:378-9). in both stories a man who spurns the goddess of love ends up having to face a bull sent by another god.-...-[in] Euripides' tragedy Hippolytus, and -...- the Ishtar-Gilgamesh episode (Karahashi & Lopez-Ruiz 2006:97-100). If we consider Callisto, she may appear as Artemis' doppelgaenger:
The Artemis of cult bears only a partial resemblance to the Homeric goddess, an adolescent girl who delights in the hunt and is celebrated as the divine prototype of the virginal maiden, ripe for marriage -...- Old Attic stories, dating to the founding of Brauron and beyond, tell how Artemis became enraged when local inhabitants killed a sacred bear. The ensuing plague could be stopped only by a maiden sacrifice or by the institution of a ritual in which young girls “played the bear” ( arkteuein) (Larson 2007:101,108). Joseph Campbell3 discusses the association between Artemis and the bear at length, placing it back to prehistoric times. According to him 4, even the evergreen figure of (King) Arthur is linked to Artemis and an object of attested devotion in the Pyrenees region during the first century CE.
Adonis, too, seems modeled upon quintessential, pre-existing deities:
The Adonis cult was an early import from the Levant, probably via Cyprus, but while many of the outward forms remained the same, its cultural context and significance changed. Adonis was modeled upon Tammuz, the consort of Ishtar whose death was annually lamented by women, and his name is a direct borrowing of the West Semitic adon, Lord. At Phoenician Byblos there was a 3 4
5
1989. 1989: where there was no path.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH sanctuary of “Aphrodite and Adonis,” that is, the city goddess Astarte and a consort who corresponded to Tammuz. (Larson 2007:124).
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH SOPHROSYNE
Although the mythological misfortunes discussed here rest on lack of it,
sophrosyne “is the most multifaceted of all the Greek virtues, and some of its aspects belong exclusively to men”5;“the term sophrosune has been commonly translated as “temperance,” “moderation,” and “control of self.””6. De Souza7 sees
sophorosyne coalescing as a concept resulting from the revolt against hybris (excess) on the part of the (wealthy and aristocratic) powerful as Greek ethics formed in the transition from areté seen as thymos and areté seen as
sophrosyne: the basis of a social equilibrium called eunomia. Peregrina Hernandes8 muses on the same concept detailing how eupsichia, too, was supposed to be subordinated to sophrosyne; ”the Roman equivalent, Pudicitia, who was portrayed in images and portrait busts, as well as on the imperial coinage from the time of Hadrian”9.
De Souza10 mentions epiméleia ( vigilant self-control) as necessary ingredient of sophrosyne. Frecaut suggests11 that Ovid's characters (unwisely) stretch their possibilities to the limit, of which metamorphosis is the most glaring symbol. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
7
North 1977:35. Higgs 2004-5:43. 2010:149-50. 2011:33. North 1977:35. 2010:152. 1968:263.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH This use of saophron is notable because to be silent, or to speak only briefly, was to become an important facet of sophrosyne for women (and for young persons of either sex) throughout Greek literature. -...- The concept was especially congenial to the Apolline morality with its emphasis on restraint, self-knowledge, and the acceptance of limits, imposed in some cases by the gods, in others by the state, and in the case of women by men. (North 1977:37-8). Still sophrosyne and its cognate forms were so closely identified with the feeling for harmony and restraint which governed every phase of Greek life that they were bound to appear occasionally in literary criticism. Their use serves to illustrate the constant interchange between ethical and aesthetic spheres in ancient civilization, for the process by which sophrosyne found its way into criticism is typical of the development of many such terms. -...-[Sophrosyne] reflects the equally Greek demand for fitness and propriety in speech and action (North 1948:2) Although the “heroes” of Homer’s Iliad and the central protagonists of Thucydides’ the Peloponnesian War possess the Homeric excellences of skill in battle and the ability to inspire other warriors, they lack the introspective natures necessary to cultivate a sophron state of being or moral excellence. Many of these characters are akratic because when they do have moments of clarity or revelation, they often do not have the strength of will necessary to act upon the insight they have gained, or they sometimes act in direct opposition to what they know on some level is the greater good. (Higgs 2004-5:43). In Ovid, Venus' speech to Adonis (Metamorphoses X:503ss) exemplifies the (unheeded) warning to carefully walk on the tight rope of moderation; not every open possibility shall be explored, under pain of (self)destruction.
As Diomedes (in the Iliad ) epitomizes, even what is otherwise construed as virtue trespasses into vice in the absence of moderation. In wider
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH terms, Apollo's threat to Diomedes12 aptly encapsulates the relationship between gods and men: “Don't set your sights on the gods. Gods are To humans what humans are to crawling bugs”. Alternatively -as Vandiver hypothesizes 13- the gods may consider humans their playthings under the fiery urges of sexual passion Aphrodite inspires, with no necessary implications of durability or romance.
Because individual appreciation plays such a role, it is difficult to discern the thin line between moderation and excess at times:”Adonis abandoning Venus would be the type of that most famous exemplum virtutis "Herkules am Scheidewege." ” explains Rosand describing Titian's Venus And
Adonis14; Adonis' transgression becomes a virtue worth of oblique political messages from Titian to Philip II.
Different authors pick different situations up along the continuum, as Flygt sharply summarizes:”We have seen that the Greek Phaedra is a study of conflict in character; the Roman Phaedra is a study in baseness -...- [as] there is nothing in Seneca's play to indicate that Phaedra's actions are fated”15. As Meinek suggests16, Greek religiosity pivoted around a triangle: the gods represented the top, family and eating the bottom. Hippolytus violates all: an 12 13 14 15 16
9
Homer: 1997:199 (5:478). No date-1:laughter-loving Aphrodite. 1972:534. 1934:513-14. 2005-1: Religion and society.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH eligible bachelor -though a bastard-, he denies sexuality (family/progeny);”In fact, Hippolytus the bastard is the mirror image of Theseus, the man with two fathers. Both react with extremely violent anger to suggestions of sexual impropriety. Both arrive on stage crowned with votary garlands ”17. His religiosity is also off the beaten path as ”Theseus accuses his son of being an Orphic and -...- that the burning of the Derveni papyrus thus may have had a ritual function.”18. Hippolytus honors a goddess presiding over young, eligible yet unmarried girls, scorns Aphrodite and abstains from meat (eating); he also unmanly shirks his duties as a citizen:”but in the city I prefer to have a secondary role -...-without the danger of royal power” (Euripides, Hippolytus 1148-1153)*. He represents his mother's droll doppelgaenger, or the uncanny foreigner with bizarre habits who does not belong among his peers.
Hippolytus' transgression(s) may be heftily extended to Callisto, scorning sexuality and motherhood that are ultimately forced upon her, whom Ovid compares to Arachne in her punishment Diana administers (II:466ss):”At this she clutched her in front by the hair of her forehead and pulled her face forwards onto the ground”; to Adonis who -like Callisto and Hippolytus- fails to heed the warning implicit in conventional Greek customs and thus renews with a family tradition of transgression and self-destruction; to Zeus himself, whose
17 18 *
10
Mitchell 1991:109. Torjussen 2008:221. All Euripides' translations in this paper by Arnson-Svarlien.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH commodious lack of restraint in the Ganymede episode may be construed as precipitating the Trojan war, although Plato 19 offers a surprisingly modern and sociological account:
I think that -...- the intercourse of men with men, or of women with women, is contrary to nature, and that the bold attempt was originally due to unbridled lust. The Cretans are always accused of having invented the story of Ganymede and Zeus because they wanted to justify themselves in the enjoyment of unnatural pleasures by the practice of the god whom they believe to have been their lawgiver Although of royal descent -much as Ganymede, Adonis and Callisto are-, Hippolytus represents irreconcilable otherness. Vandiver 20 suggests that it is the incompatibility between conventional Greek ethos and Hippolytus' eccentric priggery that determines the gruesome outcome. After Hippolytus' extremely uncompromising assertions, Euripides' Phaedra “determines to bring Hippolytus to ruin so that her dishonour should die with her and not triumph over her”21;”he will learn to practice wise restraint, when all is done” (811); Hippolytus wrongly assumes – as Callisto does - that his virginal lifestyle affords him all the sophrosyne he might need:“But Hippolytus is not a thoroughly attractive character, for he is too conscious of his devotion to his ideals of virtue and of his own perfect chastity -...- [which] seems to be a sex-obsession ”22; “[Euripides is] the most psychological of classic writers, at least in our sense, but 19 20 21 22
11
Plato:no date:361. No date: Phaedra, Hippolytus and Aphrodites' wrath. Liebmann 1893:15. Flygt 1934:508-9.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH only because we define psychology in terms of pathology.�23.
23
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Rexroth 1989:10.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH REALMS AND BOUNDARIES
Having established how Adonis, Callisto, Ganymede and Hippolytus represent old deities that transcend related mythological incarnations (for example Ovid's or Euripides' ), and how lack of sophrosyne brought about their misfortune, it is now time to emphasize they all partake in death and resurrection. Ganymede becomes the immortal cup-bearer of the gods, allegedly displacing no less than Hephaestus and Hebe (in various versions). Callisto, too, rises to the heavens with such prominence to threaten the image of mother-earth Hera so that she pleads ( in Ovid's version ) with Tethys and Oceanus:”If this contemptible insult to your foster-child moves you, shut out the seven stars of the Bear from your dark blue waters” (Metamorphoses II:524-7)24. Hippolytus is reborn as the god Virbius -or twice-born, an epithet reserved to many gods such as Dionysus- in Italy (in Virgil's version Virbius is also the son of reborn Hippolytus and Aricia ). Adonis is continually reborn/immortalized in the form of an anemone.
All the narrative are interwoven into a broader mythological context. Some25 take Ganymede's story as antecedent of the Trojan War:”Hera still seethed with jealousy. -...- all Greece rose up to do her bidding, massacred Ganymede’s kin and the whole Trojan race to boot”. Callisto is Lycaon's daughter, the man whose hubris convinced Jupiter a flood was necessary to 24 25
13
Ovid's verses are from the Kline translation. Calimach 2007:3.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH punish humankind; it shall be noted in passing how Ovid explicitly links Lycaon with the contempt of common morality and practices:
I [Jupiter] gave them signs that a god had come, and the people began to worship me. At first Lycaon ridiculed their piety” (Metamorphoses I:199ss) Incredulity is furthermore associated with impietas and contempt for the gods. -...- when the myths told are read as allegories of imperial power. Belief becomes a test of loyalty and disbelief a sign of political opposition. (Wheeler in Textual Sources 2 2010:160)“ Hippolytus is the son of Theseus and the Amazon Queen Hippolyta. Adonis is born from the incestuous relationship between Myrrha and Cinyras, in turn a(nother) victim in the sparring between Artemis and Aphrodite as Artemis exacted revenge for Hippolytus' death Aphrodite had brought about.
Some offer suggestions about the narratives' landscape:”Like Vergil, Ovid also transforms the locus amoenus by building up tensions between the fragility of the landscape and a loss of innocence experienced by the characters.”26;”This landscape of virginity, with all its ambiguities, is a symbolic projection of [Hippolytus'] own self-image”27;”as Barrett notes elsewhere, luxuriant vegetable growth and hair are commonly interrelated metaphorically. In a sense, then, Hippolytus dedicates 'hair' ”28.
26 27 28
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Ongaro 2009:22. Segal 1988:267. Braund 1980:185.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH A way to posit the continuum between moderation and excess is in Marquetti's29 terms of an interpenetrating polarity between Aphrodite's and Artemis' domains. Or -the present writer suggests- between the civilized world and its commonly held values and wilderness where the individual is more free to live alternatively. Such dichotomy may be suggested by the difference in landscape, for example transiting from the wilderness to a palace (Hippolytus at Theseus' palace; Ganymede at Jupiter's palace), or with the presence of a deity (Jupiter in the case of Callisto; Venus in Adonis' case) who brings authority to the wilderness. Finally, others suggest:
Greek tales of huntsmen such as Actaeon and Adonis, who die after sexual encounters with goddesses, have parallels with these early myths and provide the narrative base of the Greek love-hunt analogy.-...- In the Hippolytus, the chaste heroic hunt is placed in deadly conflict with the hunt of love.-...-[Diana's] Olympian virginity made her no more kindly to those who, like Callisto, would mingle the hunt with love. This aspect of the goddess, possibly coupled with primitive hunting taboos on sexuality, helps to account for the long-standing antithesis between love and the hunt (Dunn 1980:v,xi, 24).
29
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2006.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH CONCLUSION
This writing tried to unify mythological narratives pertaining to Adonis, Callisto, Ganymede and Hippolytus into a coherent discourse under the sign of the many motifs such narratives partake in. First of all, such mythological figures represent much older deities sinking into the well of the past. Second, the narratives recount of mythical figures transcending their humanity -or the dying-rising hero archetype- through interaction with the divine. Third, a transgression in matters of sophrosyne at various levels brings about their misfortune. Fourth, the tension between the opposite yet interwoven realms of Diana and Venus seems to bring about situations whose ongoing oscillation on the continuum between sexuality and chastity, civilization and wilderness, conventional and offhand customs or religiosity ends up under the auspices of triumphant commonsense whereby mainstream religiosity and sexuality defeat any possible alternative.
WORD COUNT:2988.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH BIBLIOGRAPHY
Block 1-2, 2010, A330 Myth In The Greek And Roman Worlds, Open University. Block 3-4, 2010, A330 Myth In The Greek And Roman Worlds, Open University. Braund, D.C., 1980, 'Eukleia And Euripides' Hippolytus', The Journal Of Hellenic Studies, 100:184-185. Campbell, J., 1989, Transformations of Myth Through Time , Video Series, Mythology LTD. Casson, S., 1922, Ancient Greece, Oxford University Press. DVD resources, 2010, A330 Myth In The Greek And Roman Worlds, Open University. Dundes, A., 2002, 'Projective Inversion In the Ancient Egyptian "Tale of Two Brothers"', The Journal of American Folklore, 115:457/458, 378-394. Dunn, H.D., 1980, 'The Hunt As An Image Of Love And War In Classical Literature', Ph.D thesis, University Of California At Berkley. Calimach, A.,2007, 'The Exquisite Corpse Of Ganymede', Thymos, 1:2, 117-137. De Souza, D., 2010,A Excelência Moral E As Origens Da Ética Grega , URL:http://www.periodicos.ufrn.br/ojs/index.php/principios/article/viewFile/49 6/428 (Accessed on 1 February 2012). Euripides, 2007 (reprint), Alcestis, Medea, Hippolytus, D. Arnson Svarlien (trans.), Hackett Publishing. Flygt, S.G., 1934, 'Treatment Of Character In Euripides And Seneca ', The Classical Journal, 29:7, 507-516. Frecaut, J.M., 1968, 'Les Transitions Dans Les Métamorphoses D'Ovide', Revue Des Etudes Latines, 46:247-263. Grimal, P., 1951/1990, The Concise Dictionary Of Classical Mythology, Kershaw, 17
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH S. (ed.), Blackwell. Hard, R., 2004, The Routledge Handbook Of Greek Mythology, Routledge. Higgs, D., 2004-5, The Sophrosyne Problem, URL:http://www.hsu.edu/uploadedFiles/Faculty/Academic_Forum/2004-5/20045AFSophrosune.pdf (Accessed 1 Fenruary 2012). Homer, 1997 (reprint), Iliad, Lombardo, S. (trans.), Hackett Publishing. Karahashi, F., & Lopez-Ruiz, C., 2006, 'Love Rejected', Journal Of Cuneiform Studies, 50:97-107. Lang, A., 1913, Myth, Ritual And Religion, vol.II, Longmans, Green & co. Larson, J., 2007, Ancient Greek Cults, Routledge. Liebmann, J.A., 1893, Essays, Cape Town Printing Works. March, J., 1998, Cassell's Dictionary Of Classical Mythology, Cassell&co. Marquetti, F.R., 2006, Limite E Transgressão, URL: http://www.ies.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/artemis/article/view/2158/1916 (Accessed 1 February 2012). Morford, M.P.O. & Lenardon, R.J., 2003, Classical Mythology, VII edition, Oxford University Press.
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X4084810 S.ZENERE A330 EMA: A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF THE THEME OF DEATH North, E., 1977, The Mare, The Vixen And The Bee, URL: http://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/11657 (Accessed 1 February 2012). Ongaro, K., 2009, 'Ovid's Fasti', M.A thesis, University of Victoria. Ovid, 2000/reprint, Metamorphoses, Kline, A.S. (trans.), URL:http://www.poetryintranslation.com/Downloadcat/Pdf/Ovidpdf.zip (Accessed 1 December 2011). Peregrina Hernandes, M., 2011, 'A Relação Entre Bravura (eupsychia) E Moderação (sophrosyne) Nos Discursos De Arquídamo Presentes Na Obra De Tucídides', B.A thesis, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul. Plato, no date, Late Dialogues, Forgotten Books. Rexroth, K., 1989, More Classics Revisited, Morrow, B. (ed.), New Directions Books. Roman, L. &M., 2010, Encyclopedia Of Greek And Roman Mythology, Facts On File. Rosand, D., 1972, 'Ut Pictor Poeta', New Literary History, 3:3, 527-546. Segal, C., 1988, 'Confusion And Concealement In Euripides' Hippolytus', Metis, 3:1/2, 263-282. Seneca, no date, Phaedra, URL:http://www.theoi.com/Text/SenecaPhaedra.html (Accessed 1 November 2011).
Textual Sources 1, 2010, A330 Myth In The Greek And Roman Worlds, Open University. Textual Sources 2, 2010, A330 Myth In The Greek And Roman Worlds, Open University. Torjussen, S.S., 2008, “Metamorphoses Of Myth”, Ph.D thesis, Tromso University. Vandiver, E., no date-1, Classical Mythology, audio lectures, The Teaching Company. Vandiver, E., no date-2, Greek Tragedy, audio lectures, The Teaching Company.
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Visual Sources, 2010, A330 Myth In The Greek And Roman Worlds, Open University. Wall, K., 1988, The Callisto Myth From Ovid To Atwood , McGill-Queens University Press. Woodard, R.D. (ed.), 2007, The Cambridge Companion To Greek Mythology , Cambridge University Press.
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