Safeguarding Salmon: Tackling Health Challenges in a Growing Aquaculture Industry
Ecosystem Issues Involving Prophylaxis Treatment for Ectoparasites of Pets in the UK
Understanding and Managing Tablet Weight Variation in Solid Dose Manufacturing
The Global Rise of Biogas Renewable Energy, Regenerative Agriculture and Anaerobic Digesters
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04 EDITORS LETTER
REGULATORY & MARKETPLACE
06 StreetVet: Swapping the Practice for the Pavement StreetVet is a UK-registered charity that delivers free, accessible veterinary care to pets belonging to those experiencing homelessness. Jade Statt of StreetVet discusses how it operates in 23 UK locations from Glasgow to Cornwall, with a dedicated network of over 300 volunteers, offering vital care where it is most needed – on the streets, side by side with society’s most marginalised.
08 Development and Laboratory Validation of Bird-Side Molecular Assays for Avian Influenza Virus
Avian influenza viruses (AIV), particularly subtypes H5Nx, pose significant threats to both animal and human health. This study details the development and laboratory validation of the Alveo Sense Poultry Avian Influenza Tests. These tests provide rapid, accurate, and reliable diagnostics for AIV subtypes, valuable for early detection and outbreak control, with further field validation needed to enhance understanding across various avian species. Prof. Sjaak de Wit, Remco Dijkman and Sander Schuurman of Royal GD discuss how Alveo Sense tests can complement existing diagnostic methods and significantly improve monitoring and surveillance programs, especially in resource-limited settings and areas lacking suitable laboratory facilities.
The introduction of fipronil and imidacloprid-containing ectoparasiticide treatments over the last 30 years made breaking of the flea life cycle possible. Year-round prophylactic usage of parasiticides with pets has been considered the best practice for many years. Dr. PA Holdsworth and Dr. MA Fisher of VRM discuss however the concerns raised on the appropriateness of this prophylaxis and how this has come to a head in the UK by questioning its appropriateness. They go on further to analyse the “Use it right, treat them right,” campaign that encourages responsible usage of ectoparasiticides.
The opinions and views expressed by the authors in this journal are not necessarily those of the Editor or the Publisher. Please note that although care is taken in the preparation of this publication, the Editor and the Publisher are not responsible for opinions, views, and inaccuracies in the articles. Great care is taken concerning artwork supplied, but the Publisher cannot be held responsible for any loss or damage incurred. This publication is protected by copyright.
Volume 12 Issue 2 Summer 2025
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ROUND TABLE ANALYSIS
16 Expert Discussion Reveals the Unique Parasite Control Approach Required for a Unique Species
The 4th Scientific Roundtable Parasitology, hosted by Vetoquinol, once again saw an esteemed group of global leaders in parasitology, pharmacology and feline medicine meet and discuss the latest developments in feline parasitology. Katrin Blazejak and Norbert Mencke of Vetoquinol discuss in order to ensure the improvement and protection of both feline and human health, everyone in the sector must place as much importance on further investigation and consideration of the parasitic risks presented to and from cats that is seen for other pet species.
20 Safeguarding Salmon: Tackling Health Challenges in a Growing Aquaculture Industry
Aquaculture has emerged as a vital contributor to food security and economic development. The rapid expansion of salmon farming has brought with it a host of health and welfare challenges such as infectious diseases, environmental stressors and the limitations of traditional treatment methods that threaten both fish welfare and industry sustainability. Dr. Bill Roy and Dr. Charlotte Burgess of Moredun Scientific discuss by embracing these advanced disease models, novel vaccine technologies, and holistic welfare strategies, the aquaculture sector can safeguard fish health, protect the environment, and ensure long-term profitability.
LIVESTOCK AND DISEASES
24 Improvement in Dairy Herd Health. Report by Kingshay
The last milk year was a positive one for UK dairy producers, with continued improvements in cow
health and growing momentum in the organic milk sector. Olivia Cooper of Kingshay discusses that by understanding your milk buyer’s pricing mechanism and how your business can match it is critical. Whether through improved constituents, aligned seasonality, or regenerative practices, the tools to improve milk price are increasingly within the producer’s control.
30 The Global Rise of Biogas: Renewable Energy, Regenerative Agriculture and Anaerobic Digesters
Biogas from anaerobic digestion has the potential to significantly offset global fossil fuel use by utilising natural renewable gas, which is circular in the carbon cycle. Several co-benefits are also now being realised through anaerobic digestion, including the enhancement of on-farm regenerative agricultural practices and the production of uniform, nutrient-dense digestate. Richard Lally of Alltech discusses all the necessary levers in place to create a successful energy and sustainability proposition, positively reflecting on the agri-food sector.
34 Understanding and Managing Tablet Weight Variation in Solid Dose Manufacturing
Tablet weight variation is one of the most important quality control parameters in pharmaceutical manufacturing. The failure to control weight variation can lead to underdosed or overdosed tablets, presenting safety risks for patients and causing compliance issues for manufacturers, including the risk of needing to recall products. Rob Blanchard of I Holland discusses that by following proven methodologies, employing thorough and regular maintenance procedures, and drawing on specialist tools like TSAR~Predict™ and polymer insert technologies, manufacturers can meet regulatory expectations, and ensure safe, effective products for end users.
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We wish you a warm welcome to summer and to our second edition of IAHJ in 2025. We hope you enjoy reading. In this Summer issue, we centre our focus on the continuous efforts undergone globally to preserve, as well as promote, animal public health and welfare.
We begin our Regulatory and Market Place section with StreetVet’s Jade Statt as she shares her journey in founding a charity that strives to provide vital care to homeless communities and their pet companions in their time of need. Statt explains how her non-for-profit organisation began with only herself and fellow veterinarian Sam Joseph, as they walked the streets of London treating the pets of society’s most marginalised. This work reflects on the accomplishments it has made in its growth as it is now recognised as a nationwide charity, where it operates in 23 locations from Glasgow to Cornwall with over 300 volunteers to help steer the vision that Statt sought to create.
Rob Blanchard defines the tablet weight variation as the most important quality control parameters in pharmaceutical manufacturing. Rob explains that in the event of a failure to control weight variation it could lead to underdosed or overdosed tablets, presenting safety risks for patients and causing compliance issues for manufacturers, including the risk of needing to recall products. In response, Rob’s
research proposes that by utilising proven mythologies, employing maintenance procedures, and specialist tools like TSAR~Predict™ and polymer insert technologies, it will meet expectation and ensure safety.
Come join us as Dr. Bill Roy and Dr. Charlotte Burgess discuss the growing importance of ensuring the safeguarding concerns centring around the Aquaculture Industry are maintained with the ever-increasing demand of seafood. Moredun shines a light on the welfare challenges that the rapid expansion of salmon farming has created as it has generated infectious diseases, limitations to traditional treatment methods and environmental stressors, thus threatening fish welfare and the industry’s sustainability. Moredun present the solution of novel vaccine technologies, and holistic welfare strategies as it safeguards fish health, protects the environment, and ensures long-term profitability.
Richard Lally of Alltech explores how biogas from anaerobic digestion has the potential to significantly offset global fossil fuel use by utilising natural renewable gas, which is circular in the carbon cycle. Richard goes on further to discuss the process of anaerobic digestion on how it converts organic waste streams into biogas, thus capturing the associated greenhouse gas emissions, from where it can be used as a renewable energy source.
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Carel du Marchie Sarvaas Executive Director Health For Animals
Kimberly H. Chappell – Senior Research Scientist & Companion Animal Product Development Elanco Animal Health
Dr. Sam Al-Murrani – Chief Executive Officer Babylon Bioconsulting & Managing Director at Bimini LLC
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Dan Peizer – Director Animal Health at Catalent Pharma Solutions
Dawn Howard – Chief Executive of the National Office of Animal Health (NOAH)
Jean Szkotnicki – President of the Canadian Animal Health Institute (CAHI)
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StreetVet is a UK-registered charity that delivers free, accessible veterinary care to pets belonging to those experiencing homelessness. Born out of compassion and clinical necessity, the initiative began in 2016 when two vets, Jade Statt and Sam Joseph, armed only with backpacks and a few veterinary supplies, began treating pets on the streets of London. From that modest beginning, StreetVet has flourished into a nationwide charity. Today, it operates in 23 UK locations from Glasgow to Cornwall, with a dedicated network of over 300 volunteers, offering vital care where it is most needed – on the streets, side by side with society’s most marginalised.
StreetVet’s mission is rooted in recognising the deep and often misunderstood human-animal bond that exists in homeless communities. To their owners, these pets represent far more than companionship. They are family, guardians, therapy animals, and at times, the only constant in a turbulent world.
As one StreetVet client Andy, emotionally said about his dog Bailey: “He is all the family I have got; he’s everything – it’s like having another heartbeat that is on your side.”
For those people who are street-sleeping or living in hostels and emergency accommodation, accessing a veterinary practice can feel impossible. Barriers such as paperwork, proving eligibility, a lack of funds or transportation, anxiety, fear of judgement and reprimand, or of their pet being seized, make clinic-based care impractical. So StreetVet brings the practice to the client, on their terms and in their own environment. Ultimately, we aim to empower our clients to collaborate with us in decision-making and providing the best possible care for their pet.
Outreach clinics are typically established alongside existing homeless services, such as soup kitchens or drop-in centres, ensuring holistic support in familiar settings. Building trust is paramount. Our clients have experienced trauma and exclusion, so seeing familiar volunteers week on week can transform uncertainty into trust. These consistent relationships allow us not only to care for the animal but also to support the owner in a respectful, judgment-free manner.
The majority of our patients are dogs that are generally mid to older-aged. Many of these dogs were much-loved companions before their owners were made homeless, or were acquired later in their pet’s life through unexpected circumstances. Often, there is a misconception that those experiencing homelessness acquire pets for sympathy and to increase public donations, but in the vast majority of cases, this is simply not true. Regardless, the bond between human and pet is deep and reciprocal.
In the words of Brian, talking about his dogs Mist and Rain, “My dog loves me and she doesn’t care what I have or haven’t got or what I have lost.”
Contrary to popular misconception, the dogs we see are often in excellent health. Several studies corroborate our
experience that pets living on the streets are often less likely to suffer from obesity or separation anxiety. They are more likely to be mentally stimulated, socially bonded, and physically active, traits which ironically, many pet owners in more stable housing environments struggle to ensure. Their owners go to great lengths to ensure they are fed, exercised, and well cared for, frequently prioritising their pets’ needs above their own.
Clinical presentations among our patients are similar to those seen in a regular practice. Skin and ear disease are common, as is cruciate disease, potentially due to an overrepresentation of Bull Terrier breeds. Osteoarthritis is also a frequent issue, consistent with the higher number of geriatric patients seen. Gastrointestinal issues, often triggered by scavenging or sudden dietary changes, are also not unusual. Other common conditions include pyometra and mammary tumours. Leptospirosis is also a concern, perhaps linked to a high number of owners and dogs dwelling close to watercourses, such as canals.
Preventative medicine is therefore crucial. Flea and worm control, vaccinations, nutritional advice, and behavioural support are all part of our routine street clinics. Anything that can be done in a consulting room can be done on the street. For cases requiring surgery or hospitalisation, we are fortunate to have strong partnerships with local veterinary practices and referral networks that support our work. The service provided to our clients is at no cost to the owner and fully funded by StreetVet. For those pets that require emergency care, a free out-of-hours phone number is given to all our registered clients, providing 24–7 support throughout the year, just like any other vet practice.
The benefits of pet ownership for those experiencing homelessness are profound and well-documented. Research conducted in partnership with Battersea highlights a range of positive health and social outcomes: improved mental wellbeing, routine and structure, reduced substance misuse, and increased self-worth. These benefits can reduce criminal activity and ultimately contribute to people escaping homelessness.
StreetVet aims to directly improve animal health and wellbeing, which in turn positively impacts the owner’s mental health and stability.
One StreetVet client, Mick, said, “He’s my boy – he’s the only one who puts up with me. I have no mental health support, but he keeps my head straight. He’s my reason for everything.”
But pets can create barriers too—access to hospitals, mental health services, or even temporary accommodation is often denied to pet owners unwilling to leave their animals behind. In making the very difficult decision to forgo accommodation to avoid separation from their special companion (and an unknown fate for their pet), people are labelled ‘voluntarily homeless,’ and many essential services are withdrawn on this basis.
To address this, StreetVet created the Accredited Hostel Scheme, providing training, resources, and ongoing support to hostels enabling them to safely and confidently welcome
pets. There are now 40 StreetVet Accredited Hostels across the UK, with 86 more currently onboarding. As a result of this work, 67 clients and their pets have successfully transitioned into independent living accommodation – a significant milestone for individuals who might otherwise have remained homeless due to pet ownership.
In addition to the Accredited Hostel Scheme, StreetVet is also piloting a new accreditation scheme for day centres and hubs. Accessing these essential services might be the first step towards meeting a person’s very basic needs and propelling them towards a tangible and safe future in permanent accommodation.
StreetVet’s growth and impact would not have been possible without collaboration with the veterinary pharmaceutical and pet food industries. Donations of vaccines, prescription diets, medications, and diagnostic tools enable us to deliver gold-standard care. Equally, our work is strengthened by the expertise and generosity of the wider veterinary profession –CPD support for volunteers, referral surgeons who give their time to treat complex cases, and pharmaceutical reps who go out of their way to ensure we have what we need.
To work with StreetVet is to be reminded of the very core of our profession: compassion, service, and science in the name of alleviating suffering. We are able to advocate for our patients while treating our clients with dignity. With the continued partnership of the veterinary and pet care industries, we can make sure that no pet goes without care and no person has to choose between their best friend and a roof over their head.
1. Kerman, N., Lem, M., Witte, M., et al. (2020) A Multilevel Intervention Framework for Supporting People Experiencing Homelessness with Pets. Animals (Basel). 10(10), 1869
2. Rhoades, H., Winetrobe, H., Rice, E. (2015) Pet ownership among homeless youth: associations with mental health, service utilization and housing status. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 46(2), 237-44
3. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ homeless-youth-pets-guelph-study-2016-1.3497338. Accessed May 2025.
Jade Statt, Co-Founder & Clinical Director at StreetVet. StreetVet is an award-winning national charity offering free accessible vet care and services to pets belonging to those experiencing homelessness. A chance meeting with a homeless gentleman and his dog inspired co-founder Jade, a vet who qualified from Glasgow Vet School in 2002 to take vet care out onto the streets to the people and pets that need it most. What started in 2016 as 2 vets, Jade Statt and co-founder Sam Joseph and a backpack full of veterinary supplies, is now a charity fuelled by hundreds of vet and vet nurse volunteers who swap the practice for the pavement in more than 20 locations across the UK from Glasgow to Cornwall and growing. StreetVet recognises and champions the importance of the human-animal bond and in discovering that less than 10%* of UK hostels are pet friendly, launched the StreetVet Accredited Hostel Scheme in 2020 to make it as easy as possible for hostels to say yes to pets and prioritise keeping owners and their beloved pets together. Nobody should have to face the impossible choice between a roof over their heads or giving up their best friend. For more information, please visit streetvet.org.uk
Avian influenza A viruses (AIV) significantly impact both animal and human health, necessitating reliable diagnostics for effective control, particularly for highly pathogenic strains such as H5Nx. This study details the development and laboratory validation of the Alveo Sense Poultry Avian Influenza Tests, designed for rapid, on-site detection of the AIV M-gene and subtypes H5, H7, and H9 using reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and impedancebased measurements. These tests, using single-use microfluidic cartridges, deliver results within 45 minutes.
Laboratory validation demonstrated 100% specificity for AIV subtypes without cross-reactivity with non-AIV pathogens. The tests showed a limit of detection (LoD95) for H5, H7, and H9 subtypes ranging between RT-PCR Ct values of 29–33 in cloacal and oropharyngeal samples and could detect AIV in both spiked and field samples. Reproducibility and repeatability studies confirmed perfect agreement across operators and laboratories, maintaining accuracy under different pre-analytical conditions. These tests provide rapid, accurate, and reliable diagnostics for AIV subtypes, valuable for early detection and outbreak control, with further field validation needed to enhance understanding across various avian species.
Introduction
Avian influenza viruses (AIV), particularly subtypes H5Nx, pose significant threats to both animal and human health. The primary reservoir for AIV is aquatic birds, with the viruses classified into subtypes based on haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) surface glycoproteins. In poultry, AIV strains are categorised into low pathogenicity (LP) and high pathogenicity (HP), with pathogenicity mainly determined by the number of basic amino acids in the HA0 cleavage site, influencing the proteases that can cleave HA and the tissues where AIV can replicate.
Historically, all AIV strains detected in aquatic birds were of low pathogenicity, causing minimal clinical signs. However, in poultry LP H5 and H7 strains can mutate into highly pathogenic forms, causing severe disease and death in poultry. The emergence of the goose Guangdong (Gs/GD) H5Nx lineage in China in 1996 marked a significant shift, with these viruses spreading globally via wild birds and causing mass deaths in various bird species, significant poultry outbreaks, and deaths in mammals, posing an increasing risk to humans.
Materials and Methods
Alveo Sense Technology
The Alveo Sense Poultry Avian Influenza Tests employ RT-LAMP technology combined with electrical impedance sensors, using single-use microfluidic cartridges. Each cartridge contains six assays for broad detection of avian influenza virus (AIV) through the M gene and specific detection of H5 and H7 or H9 subtypes. These tests yield qualitative results from oropharyngeal or cloacal samples and are validated for pooled samples of up to five cloacal or ten oropharyngeal swabs.
LAMP Assay Development
Influenza A virus HA sequences for H5, H7, and H9 assays and
M sequences for the generic assay were sourced from the GISAID EpiFlu™ database. Conserved regions were identified through multiple sequence alignments, and RT-LAMP primers were designed accordingly. Specificity was confirmed via in silico mapping and primer BLAST, ensuring no cross-reactivity with non-target sequences.
Strains and Sample Collection
A diverse panel of archival AIV strains and other avian pathogens were used for validation. Swab samples were collected from specified-pathogen free (SPF) chickens and processed according to standard protocols. Limit of Blank (LoB), Limit of Detection at 95% (LoD95), and technical specificity studies were conducted using these samples.
Influenza A Real-Time PCR
RNA extraction from samples was done using the MagMax RNA/DNA isolation kit on a KingFisher™ Flex Purification system. Detection was carried out using a generic PCR targeting the Influenza A matrix gene. PCR assays were performed with the AgPath-ID™ One-Step RT-PCR kit on a QuantStudio™ 5 system, following established protocols for accurate detection and quantitation.
LoB testing involved four unique pools of cloacal and oropharyngeal matrices, each tested in five replicates, showing 100% negativity across influenza-negative samples, indicating no cross-reactivity. Specificity testing across different Influenza A strains and non-influenza pathogens demonstrated 100% specificity, correctly identifying all influenza-positive and negative samples without crossreactivity. The LoD95 was determined using H5N2, H5N8, H7N7, and H9N2 strains, with cloacal samples showing Ct values between 28.5 and 33.5 and oropharyngeal samples between 29.0 and 33.2.
Reproducibility and repeatability were assessed across different operators and laboratories, showing 100% agreement with expected outcomes, indicating robust and reliable assays. Post-rehydration reagent stability was evaluated by subjecting the reconstituted reaction mix to prolonged incubation at 30°C before testing, confirming the assays' robustness for field use.
Field samples from influenza-negative flocks and spiked positive samples were tested to validate the system. All negative field samples tested negative, while spiked samples showed robust detection across various matrices and pool sizes. Additionally, samples from an H5N1 LPAI positive flock were correctly identified, further validating the assays' performance.
For the M assay development, 1474 full M sequences were analysed across serotypes like H3N8, H5N1, H5N2, H6N6, H7N3, H7N7, and H9N2. Twelve M designs were tested, with two selected for their broad detection and specificity. For the H5 assay, 9532 full HA sequences were analysed, resulting in three selected designs to cover all H5 clades. The H7 assay involved 384 sequences, leading to one selected design for broad H7 strain detection. For H9, 3856 sequences were
analysed, with one design chosen for its broad detection and specificity.
Limit of Blank (LoB) testing showed no cross-reactivity with non-target RNA or DNA, indicating a low risk of false positives. The Alveo Sense tests demonstrated 100% specificity, correctly identifying all influenza-positive and negative samples without cross-reactivity, confirmed by testing various avian influenza strains and pathogens.
The Limit of Detection (LoD95) was defined as the lowest concentration with ≥95% positive replicates. For H5N2, the LoD95 was Ct33 for both sample types; for H5N8, it ranged between Ct31-32; for H7N7, between Ct29-30; and for H9N2, between Ct31-32.
Reproducibility and repeatability assessments showed 100% agreement with expected outcomes, confirmed by a Cohen’s kappa value of 1.0. Post-rehydration reagent stability testing confirmed assay robustness and suitability for field conditions. Field samples from influenza-negative flocks and spiked positive samples validated the system, with all negative samples testing negative and spiked samples demonstrating robust detection. Samples from LPAI H5N1 infected animals were correctly identified, validating the assays' real-world performance.
Discussion
Reliable diagnostics are crucial for controlling AIV outbreaks, especially for highly pathogenic strains like H5Nx. Traditional RT-PCR, while accurate, requires specialised equipment and trained personnel, making it less accessible in resourcelimited settings. The Alveo Sense Poultry Avian Influenza Tests overcome these limitations with RT-LAMP technology, providing rapid, on-site detection.
The tests demonstrated high specificity and sensitivity in laboratory validation, with LoD95 values indicating effective detection of AIV in samples with moderate to high viral loads. The robust performance across various conditions and matrices suggests these tests offer rapid, accurate, and reliable on-site diagnostics for AIV subtypes H5, H7, and H9 on samples from fresh dead and sick birds, valuable for early flock-level detection and outbreak control.
Further field validation is necessary to fully understand the diagnostic performance across different avian species and in real-world conditions. This will help determine the best applications for these tests, whether for screening or as decisive diagnostics.
Conclusions
The Alveo Sense Poultry Avian Influenza Tests represent a significant advancement in the rapid, on-site detection of avian influenza viruses. These tests, employing cartridge-
based RT-LAMP technology and electrical impedance detection, offer a portable, efficient, and reliable method for identifying AIV subtypes H5, H7, and H9 in unprocessed cloacal and oropharyngeal samples. The high specificity and sensitivity demonstrated during laboratory validation, along with robust reproducibility and stability of the assays, highlight their potential to enhance early detection in avian influenza outbreaks when using samples from fresh dead or sick birds. The ability to obtain results within 45 minutes supports faster decision-making and intervention, crucial for minimising the spread of infection and reducing economic impact and public health risks. As field validation continues, the Alveo Sense tests can complement existing diagnostic methods and significantly improve monitoring and surveillance programs, especially in resource-limited settings and areas lacking suitable laboratory facilities.
More information: www.gdanimalhealth.com/alveo-sense
Published in: Microorganisms 2025, 13(5), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13051090
Prof. Sjaak de Wit, DVM, PhD, DipECPVS gained his veterinary qualification at the University of Utrecht in 1989 and completed a PhD degree, concerning diagnosis and transmission of infectious bronchitis virus, in 1997 at the University of Utrecht. His job as an immunologist and senior researcher at GD has included responsibility for the quality and accreditation of serological tests for poultry pathogens, test development, applied research and on-site consultancy at farms, hatcheries and integrations. Since 2019, he is also professor of Integrated Poultry Health at the Utrecht University.
Remco Dijkman, PhD studied Life Sciences and Technology at Saxion University, graduating in 2000 with a specialisation in Molecular Biology. He began working at Leiden University Medical Center in Dermatology, researching cutaneous lymphoma. In 2007, he joined the Dutch Food and Consumer Products Safety Authority, developing molecular diagnostics for foodborne pathogens. Since 2010, Remco has been at GD, focusing on molecular diagnostics and epidemiology. He earned his PhD from Utrecht University in 2016 with a thesis on Mycoplasma synoviae, and received the Bart Rispens Research Award in 2017 for his paper in Avian Pathology.
Sander Schuurman, BSc graduated from Saxion University in 2009, having studied Life Sciences with a specialisation in Molecular Biology. After graduating, he started working at GD in the laboratory, joining the Research & Development team and focusing mainly on molecular diagnostics. Since 2025, he works as the R&D team lead, responsible for innovations in molecular biology, chemistry and immunology at GD.
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The commercial success of the animal health pet sector has been driven in part by tapping into identified market needs of veterinarians and pet owners. The development and the growth of the pet parasiticide market, especially flea treatments, has been at the vanguard in this success.
The introduction of fipronil and imidacloprid-containing ectoparasiticide treatments over the last 30 years made breaking of the flea life cycle possible. Over the same period, we have seen significant increases in both dog and cat populations, and utilisation of parasiticides, often on a yearround basis. This together with a reported decline in insect populations in nature in the United Kingdom (UK) high-lights the importance of the ecosystem pillar in the “One Health,” principle being considered equally to the animal and human pillars in any risk assessment decision-making process relating to these product types (Holdsworth & Fisher 2025).
Year-round prophylactic usage of parasiticides with pets has been seen by some as best practice for many years with support and guidance offered by the notfor-profit organisations the European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites in Europe [ESCCAP] and the Companion Animal Parasite Council [CAPC] in the United States of America. On face value the argument presented for maintaining year-round pet protection/prevention from parasites has logic. It can offer convenience for pet owners in not having to remember multiple times of, or events in, the year related to treating their pets. This logic is further supported and driven by the veterinary pharmaceutical industry delivering purpose designed parasiticides now being used for year-round prophylaxis.
Concerns have been raised, however, on the appropriateness of this prophylaxis and this has come to a head in the UK by questioning the appropriateness of this approach. Linked to the prophylaxis issue are the UK emerging concerns relating to actual or perceived ecosystem risks involving the availability and usage of certain ectoparasiticides, in particular neonicotinoid-based flea treatment products for pets with perceived negative ecosystem impacts in general and on bees in particular. A definitive linkage between the usage of these product types on pets, especially based on advice for year-round prophylactic usage, and bee deaths, is controversial. The responsible UK regulator [Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD)] has explained how it regulates such products, and it has support via the National Office of Animal Health (NOAH), however the acceptance of these products based on their present usage remains in question.
As the type of insecticides at issue appear not to have been used in agricultural practices in the UK since 2016 there was an assumption that pet parasiticide products were the cause of the ecosystem contamination. In response to this concern the VMD with support from the Environmental Agency funded a project to examine the occurrence, using water samples, of the insecticides at issue in 20 English rivers from 2016 to 2018. Analysis of data emerging from that project indicated that fiproles were a high risk and imidacloprid were a moderate
risk to aquatic ecosystems. Sites immediately downstream of wastewater system works had the highest levels of fipronil and imidacloprid, supporting the hypothesis that potentially significant quantities of pesticides from veterinary flea products may be entering waterways via household drains and even from treated dogs permitted to swim in waterways. Ongoing field work in the UK reinforces these concerns.
During its joint VMD and Veterinary Products Committee open information day, (18 November 2020), the VMD indicated that the present data generation requirements to satisfy the regulatory environmental assessment of companion animal ectoparasiticide products, may need reviewing to establish whether the existing exemption for such product types from conducting a Phase II environmental assessment is now warranted.
The European Medicines Agency also became involved and initially issued a 2022 draft reflection paper, and then a final paper in 2023 that while confirming the concerns, advocated, among other things, for an awareness program as the way to progress at present.
Unpublished data from the VMD in 2022 confirm the significant increase in sales of both imidacloprid and fipronil based veterinary ectoparasiticide products in the UK. Sales in the UK of products containing the relatively new active isoxazoline are also showing prominence. Results of a survey of UK pet owners on their attitude and behaviour to usage of ectoparasiticides for flea treatment, has further raised the possibility of specific chemical ecosystem contamination being linked to ectoparasiticide availability and usage. Detection of fipronil and imidacloprid in wastewater effluent from multiple treatment plants occurred out of the 3rd UK Water Industry Research Chemical Investigation Programme further reinforcing concerns.
This development raises many issues for not just the veterinary pharmaceutical industry, but more so the veterinary profession, including on what role they play and what advice they should be providing their clients in relation to pet parasite management.
The other side of this emerging issue is the ethical component of what the veterinary profession advocates as best practice in relation to chemical intervention for parasite management for pets. The British Veterinary Association (BVA) highlighted their policy statement advocating that veterinary practices avoid year-round parasite treatment policies and alternatively encourage informed discussions to occur with the veterinarian and their client (British Veterinary Association 2021). Recently the BVA has announced its intention to review its policy relating administration of pet parasiticides (British Veterinary Association, 2025). Compounding the issue are the outcomes of a survey conducted on 2008 pet owners in the UK, that revealed 83.2% preferred to manage their dog’s treatment at home on a weekly basis, rather than monthly visits to their veterinarian (Animalcare 2023). A further study focusing on down the drain emissions from 98 dogs treated with fipronil or imidacloprid based spot-on ectoparasiticides, through bathing, bed washing and washing of owners' hands
detected the targeted chemicals in 100 % of wash off samples. (Perkins et al 2024).
While the focus at present is on specific products targeting fleas on pets, the fundamental issue of year-round prophylaxis of pets is also bringing into focus the availability and usage of other pharmaceuticals including endoparasiticides/ endectoparasiticide pet products. Bagster & Elsheikha (2022) highlighted that the prevalence of veterinary practice healthcare plans which promote year-round parasite control in pets complicates the issue. In contrast, a coalition of UK veterinary pharmaceutical industry companies has highlighted its own campaign called “Paws to Protect,” aiming to raise with pet owners their awareness of, and compliance with, veterinary medication packaging information. Similarly, one veterinary pharmaceutical company has taken the initiative here and developed their own “Let’s do it smart,” program to provide veterinarians with appropriate tools to tailor parasiticide solutions to the pet and pet owners’
specific needs. Additionally, the UK based NOAH, on behalf of its animal health company members, has launched a campaign called “Use it right, treat them right,” to encourage responsible usage of ectoparasiticides (National Office of Animal Health 2025). It is likely that we will see further such programmes appearing overtime. Separately, the veterinary corporate CVS has steered its veterinarians to prescribe orally administered antiparasiticide products for dogs and cats as the first preference in relation to this emerging environmental risk issue.
Within the understanding of “One Health,” companion animal ectoparasiticide usages at issue here appear to support animal health (parasite and vector borne disease management) and human health (management of certain zoonoses disease risks), however they appear to be found wanting, as far as ecosystem health is concerned. While acknowledging awareness campaigns initiated in the UK by specific pharmaceutical companies and by NOAH, key regulators and the veterinary profession as a whole needs to decide how they intend to manage this developing risk. It is noted that within the livestock industry the ecosystem risks of acaricide usage have been recognised and initiatives are already underway to manage these concerns (Food and Agricultural Organisation 2025).
This overall issue will likely continue to occupy the attention of veterinarians, regulators, the pharmaceutical industry, scientists and environmentalists for time to come with continuing pressure being mounted for specific chemical regulatory reviews; chemical/usage restrictions or bans.
Whilst this has largely been a UK issue, there are indications that these issues are being considered further afield.
1. Animalcare Dog Owner Survey 2023. https://www.animalcare. co.uk/dog-owner-survey/
2. Bagster A & Elsheikha H. Perception of UK companion animal veterinarians on risk assessment based para-site control. Veterinary parasitology: regional studies and reports. (2022);34(March):100774. doi: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2022.100774.
3. British Veterinary Association. BVA. (2025) https://www.linkedin. com/posts/vet-times_bva-to-review-parasiticide-policyactivity-7342941167388418048-xukL?utm_source=share&utm_ medium=member_ios&rcm=ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1s
4. British Veterinary Association. BVA, BSAVA and BVZS policy position on responsible use of parasiticides for cats and dogs. (2021) Available at: https://www.bva.co.uk/media/4352/bvabsava-and-bvzs-policy-position-on-responsible-use-ofparasiticides-for-cats-and-dogs.pdf
5. Food and Agricultural Organisation. https://www.fao.org/onehealth/resources/events/events-detail/webinar–ecotoxicityof-acaricides-and-environmental-risk-mitigation-inlivestock/ (2025)
6. Holdsworth PA & Fisher MA.‘The ecosystem impacts of pet parasite management must be addressed’. Veterinary Record, 196: 238-238. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.5360 (2025)
7. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/vet-times_bva-toreview-parasiticide-policy-activity-7342941167388418048xukL?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_ ios&rcm=ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU-3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1s
8. National Office of Animal Health. https://www.linkedin.com/ posts/national-office-of-animal-health-limited_useit righttreatthemright-pethealth-parasitepreventionactivity-7308429468119777280-5Leb?utm_source=share& utm_medium=member_ios&rcm=ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1s (2025)
9. Perkins R, Barron L, Whitehead M, Woodward G & Goulson D.
Down-the-drain pathways for fipronil and imidacloprid applied as spot-on parasiticides to dogs: Estimating aquatic pollution. Science of the Total Environment. 917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2024.170175 (2024)
10. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/vet-times_bva-toreview-parasiticide-policy-activity-7342941167388418048xukL?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_ ios&rcm=ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU-3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1s
11. Veterinary Practice. https://www.veterinary-practice. com/2023/rcvs-council-delays-implementation-of-antiparasitics-under-care-guidance (2023)
12. Please contact the authors for a complete list of references.
13. Caption Figures 1 and 2: Dogs swimming in waterways or open water that have been treated with insecticide may pose a risk to the aquatic ecosystem
14. https://www.fao.org/one-health/resources/events/ events-detail/webinar---ecotoxicity-of-acaricides-andenvironmental-risk-mitigation-in-livestock/
15. https://www.fao.org/one-health/resources/events/ events-detail/webinar---ecotoxicity-of-acaricides-andenvironmental-risk-mitigation-in-livestock/
16. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/vet-times_bva-toreview-parasiticide-policy-activity-7342941167388418048xukL?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_ ios&rcm=ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU-3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1s
17. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/vet-times_bva-to-reviewparasiticide-policy-activity-7342941167388418048-xukL?utm_ source=share&utm_medium=member_ios&rcm= ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU-3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1shttps:// www.linkedin.com/posts/vet-times_bva-to-reviewparasiticide-policy-activity-7342941167388418048xukL?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_ ios&rcm=ACoAAAYIVOUB7WOxoU-3UE2JuzrofkbDnM1Gg1s
Dr. Maggie Fisher BVetMed CBiol MSB MRQA DipEVPC MRCVS graduated in 1986 from the Royal Veterinary College and is director of VRM Ltd, a project management company (www.vrm. uk.com). Dr. Fisher has been active in the establishment and advancement of a number of animal health associations including WAAVP and ESCCAP. She is a Diplomate of the European Veterinary Parasitology College.
Email: maggie@shernacre.co.uk
Dr. Peter Holdsworth AO BSc (Hon) PhD FRSB FAICD was the founding Chief Executive Officer of Animal Health Alliance (Australia) Ltd – the peak industry body in Australia representing R,D&E companies, registrants, manufacturers and marketers of veterinary medicines, veterinary chemicals and biologics in Australia. Dr. Holdsworth is apast president of WAAVP and a former president of the Australian Society for Parasitology.
Email: peter.paragon60@gmail.com
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The 4th Scientific Roundtable Parasitology, hosted by Vetoquinol, once again saw an esteemed group of global leaders in parasitology, pharmacology and feline medicine meet and discuss the latest developments in feline parasitology. Held in Venice, Italy in March 2025, the packed three-day agenda examined the challenges and opportunities that exist in the sector. The event was structured around four key pillars, ensuring that a full spectrum of relevant topics was covered.
“This event uniquely brings together a global team of stakeholders in the field of feline parasitology. Facilitating inter-disciplinary and inter-generational interactions is so key to eliciting meaningful change that is backed by experience, evolving knowledge and innovation.”
Katrin Blazejak, Vetoquinol Global Medical Manager - Parasitology
Thought-provoking presentations and subsequent animated discussion revealed a strong theme relating to the unique nature of cats. This distinctiveness applies to both individual animals and features of the species as a whole, with many consequences for the parasitic risk profile that cats both face and present. As such, strategies to improve feline parasitological care need to be equally unique and innovative in their approach and implementation.
Feline Medicine and Behaviour
Individual cats can present with many contradictions to others within their species. For example, indoor pet cats, those with outdoor access, street cats and feral animals all differ drastically in terms of their exposure to parasites, their needs for parasite prevention and treatment, and thus their health risk profiles.
Dr. Samantha Taylor (Specialist Veterinary Consultant to the International Cat Care Veterinary Society, UK) argues that this is further compounded by the fact that
currently defined ‘cat types’ neglect an important group–the ‘inbetweener cat’. These cats present the seemingly impossible challenge of reliance on humans for survival, while experiencing significant stress from confinement and forced interaction with people. Dr. Taylor believes that applying this new important description will help develop more effective strategies to maintain a balanced feline population that better caters to the welfare needs of many more individual animals. This is of particular importance for rescue cats (especially foreign rescues) with many of their would-be rescuers not appreciating that a domestic setting doesn’t respect their individual needs.
Cat ‘types’
As proposed by International Cat Care
• Pet cat: socialised with people as a kitten, lives with people as a companion and well adapted to life in a domestic home setting.
• Inbetweener cat: has previously lived as a pet but unsuccessfully, either due to lack of socialisation with people as a kitten, or negative experiences. Not adapted to free-roaming or domestic home living. Lives in inhabited areas and relies on humans for survival but doesn’t want to interact with them closely.
• Street cat: born outside the domestic setting and adapted to free roaming in inhabited areas. Not socialised with people.
• Feral cat: adapted to free-roaming and avoids people, living in uninhabited (or very low population density) areas.
Despite this variability in how they live, a lot of feline behaviour is ubiquitous to all cats while remaining diverse from other species. A higher rate of accidental breeding means that genetic control is much lower than in the dog population, and many wild traits are retained by cats as a result. Expression of these entirely normal behaviours are often at odds with human expectations of their pets however, causing friction and compromise of both human and animal welfare.
“Expression of normal cat behaviour often clashes with human expectations but it’s important to remember that problem behaviours are usually not behaviour problems.”
Dr. Samantha Taylor, Specialist Veterinary Consultant to the International Cat Care Veterinary Society, UK
Dr. Rachel Korman (Veterinary Specialist Services, Qld. Australia) described how understanding of feline behaviour must be applied to a cat’s experience at the veterinary clinic to promote clinical success – including the routine visits that appropriate, targeted parasite control often relies on. Appreciating cats as very ‘sense focused’ creatures can help improve the yield of information from clinical examinations. In addition, a more positive experience for the cat and their owner increases the probability of that cat returning to the clinic for future successful clinical experiences and outcomes.
Education for veterinary staff and owners is key to be able to identify behaviours that signal potential stress and allow appropriate adjustment to environment, handling and procedures. One useful way to implement more ‘cat friendly’ principles for veterinary visits is to apply the ‘4 ‘C’s’.
One Health and Zoonoses
Outdoor access, very little control over defecation – even in pet animals – and roaming and hunting behaviour are all important factors that contribute to the unique zoonotic risks that cats present compared to other pet species. Increasing overlap between domestic cats, other cat types (and their differing lifestyles) and wildlife further complicates the spread of feline parasites. Owners of cats with unsupervised outdoor access often cannot control, or are even aware of these interactions, unlike other pet animals such as dogs.
A ‘risk-based’ approach is frequently advocated for parasite control protocols in pet animals, but the variability discussed can make it extremely challenging to identify and target the ‘high risk’ cats. This is further compounded by biological and physiological factors. For example, parasitic egg shedding and disease are poorly correlated. With any contribution to zoonotic parasite populations from cats representing a risk to human health, there is a logical argument that cats should be treated routinely and regularly to achieve adequate parasite control.
As well as relying on factors such as pet owner compliance to be fully effective, this approach is at odds with mounting concerns over anthelmintic resistance and environmental contamination with parasiticides. Recent studies demonstrating contamination of waterways and bird’s nests with ectoparasiticides have turned up the spotlight on the animal health sector to act now to prevent any potential long-term harm. Demonstrating how seriously Vetoquinol takes its responsibility to One Health, an open discussion about the topic of responsible use of parasiticides was included into the roundtable meeting for the first time this year.
As an obviously complex issue, the group agreed that diverse and reliable information gathering is essential to better understand and therefore tackle the problem. Current data certainly suggests towards ‘it’s present’ but provides very few answers to the next important question – ‘how is it a problem?’. Tracing the true sources of these chemicals, understanding how they degrade in the environment and gaining valuable perspective on their potential impact within various ecosystems is key to coming up with strategies that most effectively mitigate any harm.
If needed, these strategies could include exciting future innovations, such as the development of more ‘environmentally friendly’ active ingredients for commercial antiparasitic products. Many of the roundtable discussions demonstrated the potential for genetic targeting as a promising avenue of exploration to tackle parasitic challenges in the future, with a likely lower environmental impact risk. More informed global regulatory guidelines would be another welcome development, along with appropriate veterinary and public information from credible organisations, to minimise the spread of misinformation.
It was agreed that it is important that the animal health sector is able to have an informed voice in the discussion. As advocates of the One Health approach, it is vital that the ‘welfare’ of each group (animals, humans and environment) remains balanced, with the animal health sector naturally advocating most strongly for animal health. For this
conversation to remain balanced, cross-discipline discussion needs to take place to include environmental scientists and human health representatives. Similarly, companion animal colleagues should take advice from within our sector too; associates working in large animal medicine will have a lot of important insight.
Ultimately, any interventions, changes or strategies should be in response to science, not political or social pressure. It is vital to acknowledge the importance of the issue as a sector though and be proactive in addressing it.
“In my role at Vetoquinol and involvement with industry representative bodies, such as HealthforAnimals, I am acutely aware of the responsibility that the animal health industry has to wider society. Facilitating meetings like this, which encourage important and sometimes even uncomfortable conversations to take place, is a big part of fulfilling that responsibility. It is only through discussion and collaboration that we can proactively contribute to addressing key concerns and advancing global health, following One Health principles.”
Norbert Mencke, Vetoquinol Global Medical Manager - Parasitology
Parasitology
Better understanding of risk is an important immediate way to mitigate the threat of parasites and their management. The variability in lifestyle seen across the feline population is one major factor that makes addressing the parasitic care needs of cats a huge challenge though – particularly when it comes to the development of meaningful guidelines for parasite control.
Many meeting attendees expressed the view that the importance of cats in the perpetuation of some parasites –both established and emerging – is often overlooked. There were multiple examples shared which demonstrated how this is often fuelled by assumptions. Veronica Risco Castillo (Alfort Veterinary School, France) shared study data looking specifically at indoor cats that demonstrated infection with helminths, challenging the commonly held belief that indoor cats are at extremely low risk of worms. Similarly, cats are often considered at low risk for ticks and some other ectoparasite infestations due to their grooming behaviour, yet the presentations from both Filipe Dantas-Torres (Aggeu Magalhães Institute, Brazil) and Lindsay Starkey (Oklahoma State University, USA) suggested otherwise. The US based
‘Show us your ticks’ campaign has seen almost 900 tick samples taken off cats submitted from 39 states. Perhaps most surprising is that 4.2% of these cats were reported to spend no time outdoors at all! US prevalence data looking at evidence of tick-borne diseases in cats demonstrates that ticks are feeding on cats long enough to transmit disease too. These findings highlight how failing to embrace the ‘if you don’t look, you won’t find’ mantra may be limiting important investigative studies.
“Ticks are a very real and constant parasitic threat to cats in the US. We receive ticks taken off cats every month of the year – often found incidentally during a visit to the vet clinic.”
Lindsay Starkey, Oklahoma State University, USA, ref. the ‘Show Us Your Ticks’ campaign
Assumptions are just one of the factors that limit parasite investigation and understanding in cats. Wholesale lack of knowledge is something that many of the meeting attendees are working hard to address. One clear example of this relates to Hepatozoon felis. Despite prevalence being high in many regions, the complete lifecycle of H. felis –including its vector – was previously unknown. By looking for the sporogenic life stages of this parasite in ticks removed from cats and studying the activation and encystation of the sporocysts stage from the vector, Gad Baneth (Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, Israel) and his team have successfully demonstrated that Rhipicephalus spp. ticks are vector species for this parasite.
“Closing the lifecycle of Hepatozoon felis by identifying its vector in cats is an important step for the development of more effective strategies to control this parasite.”
Gad Baneth, Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, Israel
Better understanding of Sarcoptes mites came from Jacques Guillot (Nantes University, France), who explained how fascinating genetic microsatellite research has revealed that there is evidence of variants of this parasite which demonstrate a degree of host preference. Interestingly, this variation is entirely independent of geography for some host species, but not others. This knowledge helps us build a more complete picture about the spread of this parasite between host populations and may even eventually provide some insight as to the rise in human cases of scabies that are being reported across the globe.
While improved knowledge of specific parasites is useful for assessing risk, practical implementation of some study findings can sometimes remain a bit abstract. This was not the case for the presentation of Emilie Bouhsira (Université de Toulouse, France) however, which clearly defined risk factors for gastrointestinal and respiratory helminth infection in cats. The study that she presented investigated helminth infections in clinically well, privately owned cats in France with the objective of helping to homogenise deworming advice and promote European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP) guidelines. While some results were unsurprising, other, less well-known risk factors emerged too. Echoing the findings of the work of other attendees, even indoor cats without contact with any other animals who live in urban areas showed infection. Cats also showed increased diversity of helminth parasites compared to dogs – yet another demonstration of how they differ from other pet species.
• Outdoor access
• Hunting behaviour
• Age (<12 months)
• Being male and intact
• Other animals in the household
It is clear that a unique approach to investigating and addressing the parasitic risk relating to cats is required. Reassuringly, there was plenty of evidence that this is happening from the meeting!
Exciting examples of cutting-edge innovations are opening up new opportunities for resistance surveillance and the development of more effective parasite control strategies. One example is the Nemabiome Project, presented by Vito Colella (Melbourne Veterinary School, Australia). The use of a long-read genetic sequencing technique is allowing characterisation of parasites more efficiently than ever, with the potential to revolutionise research and diagnostics. Christopher Fernandez Prada (Université de Montréal, Canada) presented latest insights from his research group, including how oxygenconsumption rate (OCR) correlates to drug resistance in Leishmania, presenting a potential new way to screen for resistance in this parasite.
As well as completely novel research findings, better utilisation of existing information was also celebrated as a way to gain new insight. Analysis of parasiticide adverse event data in cats from Wolfgang Bäumer (School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany) revealed a reassuringly low incidence, particularly for neurological disorders. This can be useful for clinicians when reassuring pet owners that parasiticides are safe to use, combatting misinformation that is often spread on social media. Another good example of using existing data to gain valuable understanding was demonstrated by Ian Wright (ESCCAP Chairman & Director), who shared the most frequently asked questions submitted to ESCCAP by veterinary professionals and pet owners. It would seem that veterinary professionals are more anxious about the environmental impact of parasiticide use than pet owners, but that pet owners worry most about zoonotic risk. Knowing this helps direct educational efforts that will resonate the most with various audiences and therefore have the most positive impact.
Looking at things from a different perspective is another useful way to prompt innovation and there were some great examples of this shared at the meeting too. Anja Joachim (Institute of Parasitology Vetmeduni Vienna, Austria) took inspiration from how the clinical presentation of Encephalitozoon cuniculi differs in cats compared to other species to change the diagnostic approach of this parasite. By looking at direct ocular samples, rather than serology in cats with cataracts, it was demonstrated that this parasite is likely causative in many more cases than originally thought. Diagnostic overhaul was also a theme within the presentation given by Cassan Pulaski (University of Georgia, USA). She explained how the discovery that heat-treatment yields much more accurate heartworm antigen test results was one factor that prompted the American Heartworm Society to completely change their diagnostic guidelines.
These examples reiterate the importance of a thorough and considered diagnostic process when it comes to tackling parasites – both at an individual and population level. While exciting modern diagnostic tools open new avenues to explore parasitic infection, they must not be considered ‘shotgun’ solutions. To create the most appropriate diagnostic plan, clinicians should maintain a targeted diagnostic objective for each case presented to them. This includes building a clear differential list and critically assessing the diagnostic tools available to them by understanding their strengths and limitations. The importance of this was highlighted in Barbara Kohn’s (School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany) presentation of a clinical dermatology case, in which the complicated presentation of Feline Atopic Syndrome required a structured and systematic diagnostic approach to reach eventual successful clinical management.
Unrivalled in the sector, this meeting continued its legacy of facilitating the sharing of knowledge, prompting important discussions and enabling exciting collaborations.
“This meeting has elicited partnerships for my lab. It is so valuable, and it is important to continue for future advancement.”
Christopher Fernandez Prada, Université de Montréal, Canada
This year, the message came through loud and strong that cats must be considered separately from other pet species. There are 127 million cats and 104 million dogs living in Europe1 – yet there is a clear mismatch when it comes to the number of published scientific articles specifically related to each of the species. To ensure the improvement and protection of both feline and human health, everyone in the sector must place as much importance on further investigation and
consideration of the parasitic risks presented to and from cats that is seen for other pet species.
About Vetoquinol
Vetoquinol is a leading international player in animal health, with operations in Europe, the Americas and Asia/Pacific. Independent and a pure player, Vetoquinol innovates, develops and markets veterinary medicines and nonmedicated products for farm animals (cattle, pigs) and pets (dogs, cats). Since its creation in 1933, Vetoquinol has combined innovation and geographic diversification. The strengthening of the product portfolio and acquisitions in high-potential territories ensure hybrid growth for the Group. At December 31 2024, Vetoquinol employed 2501 people.
1. European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF)
2. Image adapted from ‘How cat-astrophic are the knowledge gaps in feline parasitology?’ Prof. Andrei Mihalca. Vetoquinol 3rd Scientific Roundtable, March 2024.
Katrin Blazejak studied Veterinary Medicine at the University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany. After graduation in 2015, she commenced her specialisation in parasitology with a doctoral degree (Dr. med. vet.) and obtained a German veterinary specialisation degree as a certified Veterinarian for Parasitology (Fachtierarzt für Parasitologie) in 2020. In September 2021, she joined Vetoquinol as Global Medical Manager Parasitology and is based in Paris, France.
Norbert Mencke studied Veterinary Medicine at the University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany. After graduation in 1987, he commenced his PhD studies at the Department of Agriculture in Adelaide, Australia. In 1995 he became a certified Veterinarian for Parasitology, and in 2003 a European Veterinary Specialist in Parasitology. He has lectured in veterinary parasitology and tropical veterinary medicine at the University of Hannover since 2003. In 2020, he joined Vetoquinol and holds the position of Global Medical Manager Parasitology, Paris, France.
As the global demand for seafood continues to rise, aquaculture has emerged as a vital contributor to food security and economic development. Among the most valuable aquaculture species is the Atlantic salmon, with Scotland alone producing over 205,000 tons annually (source Scottish Government Marine Directorate). However, the rapid expansion of salmon farming has brought with it a host of health and welfare challenges. Infectious diseases, environmental stressors, and the limitations of traditional treatment methods threaten both fish welfare and industry sustainability.
This article explores the most pressing health issues affecting farmed salmon, the innovative solutions being developed, and the future directions for research and industry collaboration.
The Health and Welfare Landscape in Salmon Aquaculture
Fish health is a cornerstone of aquaculture success. It directly influences productivity, profitability and animal welfare. However, the intensification of farming practices has increased the prevalence and impact of infectious diseases. Bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens are estimated to cause annual losses of 5–7% in finfish aquaculture, equating to approximately 10 billion USD globally.
Alongside ‘traditional,’ diseases of farmed salmon, such as (but not limited to) sea lice infection, Piscine Myocarditis Virus (PMCV) and Amoebic Gill Disease (AGD), environmental
With a move away from using chemical treatments to protect against environmental damage and antimicrobial resistance, research is focusing on alternative methods of disease control and monitoring.
The aquaculture industry is increasingly focused on noninvasive health and welfare monitoring. Technologies such as remote sensing, machine vision, and biosensors are being explored to detect early signs of stress or disease without handling the fish.
In terms of disease control vaccine development is key, however in parallel alternative solutions such as functional feeds, probiotics, and selective breeding are gaining traction. These approaches aim to enhance the innate immunity of fish and reduce reliance on pharmaceuticals.
Vaccines are a cornerstone of disease prevention in aquaculture. They offer a proactive approach to health management, reducing the need for antibiotics and chemicals, which can contribute to antimicrobial resistance and environmental degradation. Effective vaccines must provide long-term protection with minimal side effects and be cost-effective to produce and administer. Factors such as fish species, life stage, pathogen serotype, and route of administration all influence vaccine design.
Vaccines for aquatic species have seen significant advancement, with commercial options now available for approximately 30 different bacterial and viral pathogens,
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REDUCTION of the number of animals used in standardized tests for pure substances – a practical solution to the ”one substance, one assessment” approach.
REFINEMENT through improvement of animal testing methods and recording results to enhance data reusability. The aim is to avoid or minimise the stress on animals during an experiment.
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REPLACEMENT of animal tests by buying or selling existing test results – as anonymous as possible, as transparent as necessary.
REUSE of standardized test results by trading them between companies. This approach combines and leverages REDUCTION, REFINEMENT and REPLACEMENT –taking it to the next level.
signalling continued growth in this important field of aquaculture health.
Vaccination in aquaculture offers a range of benefits that extend beyond individual fish health. By curbing disease transmission, vaccines help protect both vaccinated and nonvaccinated populations, leading to overall lower infection rates. This reduction in disease-related losses directly boosts farm profitability, as fewer fish succumb to illness and productivity increases. With a shift toward preventive strategies rather than reactive treatments, farms can better manage health outcomes while enhancing animal welfare. Additionally, reliance on antibiotics and chemicals diminishes, which helps address the growing concern over antibiotic resistance. This more sustainable approach also translates into decreased environmental impact from aquaculture operations.
To test new treatments and preventive measures, researchers rely on robust experimental disease models. These models simulate real-world conditions and allow for the controlled study of pathogen-host interactions.
Experimental models play a vital role in advancing health surveillance, prevention, and treatment strategies. They are also vital in the development and testing of new vaccines and novel vaccine technologies, as well as for market-led breeding programs aimed at genetic improvement and disease resistance. They can also be used to evaluate functional feeds and dietary interventions that enhance immunity and overall health as well as validating new medicines and the efficacy of feed and water additives.
The future of salmon aquaculture hinges on the industry's ability to manage health and welfare challenges effectively. Vaccines represent a major area of growth, offering a sustainable alternative to antibiotics and chemicals. However, their success depends on continued investment in research, innovation, and collaboration between academia, industry, and regulatory bodies.
By embracing advanced disease models, novel vaccine technologies, and holistic welfare strategies, the aquaculture
sector can safeguard fish health, protect the environment, and ensure long-term profitability.
As the sector evolves, so too must our approaches to fish health – balancing scientific rigor with practical application to meet the demands of a growing global population.
Moredun Scientific is a contract research organisation that specialises in the use of experimental disease models for the uses described above. They have a range of established experimental models and regularly work towards developing new models.
Bill Roy is Head of Aquaculture at Moredun Scientific and is responsible for service development and delivery of contract research on farmed fish health and welfare. He has a Ph.D. from the Institute of Aquaculture, and more than 30 years of experience in contract research to evaluate and support the registration of fish vaccines, veterinary medicines, and feed additives for use in salmon production.
Email: wroy@moredun-scientific.com
Charlotte Burgess is the Head of Business Development for the Moredun Group and is responsible for building strategic partnerships and supporting the commercialisation of research outputs. She has a PhD in Quantitative Genetics from Roslin Institute and worked for many years in animal health research prior to taking a more commercial focus.
Email: cburgess@moredun-scientific.com
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The last milk year was a positive one for UK dairy producers, with continued improvements in cow health and growing momentum in the organic milk sector, according to the latest Kingshay Dairy Costings report.
All reported health indicators saw year-on-year improvements. Mastitis dropped by 2 cases, to 24 cases per 100 cows, with lameness down from 37 to 34 cases per 100 cows. Lameness had experienced quite a jump in 2023/24 due to the extremely wet autumn, winter and spring, so this is a return to previous levels.
spending £11,764 less on health issues than the average group. “There are clearly some good savings to be made by focusing on marginal gains when it comes to health, with mastitis and lameness likely to have the biggest impact,” she adds.
Somatic cell counts (SCC) in conventional herds continue to improve year-on-year, showing an 8.3% decline over the past decade, to a record low of 154,000 in 2024/25. This reflects improved udder health and proactive management over the years.
“The only departure from this trend is in mobility scores, with the proportion of cows scoring two to three rising marginally from 5.9% to 6.7%,” says Emma Puddy, farm services specialist at Kingshay. “Given the reduction in lameness overall, it’s likely that this is due to better reporting, rather than increased mobility problems.”
Drawing on data from 1,064 conventional herds and 98 organic herds, the report showed that although overall health parameters improved, the higher milk price meant the cost of each case increased on the year. Given the higher cost of lost milk and replacements, the average overall cost of poor health rose by £320 to £27,655.
“These figures are based on a milk price of 42.4ppl, concentrate costs of £309/t, a herd size of 200 cows and yield of 8,500 litres/cow. It’s also important to note that they don’t include the knock-on cost of poor health on fertility, which should be taken into account,” Mrs Puddy continues.
The difference between the top 25% and total group also widened due to these higher costs, with the top quartile
“As would be expected, the highest SCCs are seen in the late summer (July to September) due to a combination of heat stress, flies and lactation curves,” Mrs Puddy explains. “Given that many of the UK’s cows calve in the autumn, they are reaching late lactation over the summer, creating the seasonal increase. The lowest counts are from November to February.”
However, organic herds tell a slightly different story. Although the decade also shows a decline for average bulk SCC – of 5.3% – the figures themselves are higher for conventional herds, averaging 180,000 in 2024–25. Organic herds saw a much higher bulk SCC than usual during April, May, June and July 2024. These herds did see a lower than usual SCC during September, October and November, as conventional herds did, but this did not continue into the winter months. “Organic herds have fewer tools at their disposal to
Figure 2: Organic Cell Counts manage udder health, so close attention to hygiene is even more important,” says Mrs Puddy.
Bactoscans have not shown the same downward trend, generally remaining within a range of around 25 to 30 for conventional herds and 20 to 35 for organic herds. This is because bactoscan is linked to milking line cleanliness and as these values are well within most contracts’ requirements, there is little incentive to improve further.
Fertility Status (Year ending...) Last Year (March 2024) This Year (March 2025)
Table 3: Fertility
Fertility has long been improving in the UK, but last year saw a bit of a slide, most likely due to the poorer quality forage, as a consequence of the weather. Last year featured a highly unusual combination of factors. Poor summer weather resulted in difficulty grazing, suboptimal silage production, and therefore huge dents in milk from forage across the board.
Most indicators showed a drop in fertility, with the calving interval extending by a day to 394 days, and days to first service creeping up by 2 days to 72. The 100-day in-calf rate fell by four percentage points, with the 200-day not in-calf rate up by the same amount.
Trouw Nutrition, which analyses forage for Kingshay, showed that most first cut silages had a higher neutral detergent fibre level and lower metabolisable energy content than normal, while second cuts suffered from increased lignin and lower rapidly fermentable carbohydrates.
“Outside of nutrition, it’s also possible that the increasing use of sexed semen, which has slightly lower conception rates,
could be another factor contributing to the drop in fertility figures,” Mrs Puddy says. “However, there remain long-term improvements in fertility. Since 2017, the calving interval has shortened by an incredible 14 days, with days to first service down by four and services per conception dropping by 0.6. The conception rate is five percentage points higher, with the 100-day in-calf rate up by 11 percentage points. This is all good progress upon which producers can further build in the years ahead.”
The proportion of cows leaving the herd reached a record high of 29.2% in the year to March 2025. Although rates do fluctuate slightly each year, the long-term trend is one that’s creeping up – from 25.9% in 2015/16. The age at exit has steadily declined, from 3.76 lactations 10 years ago to 3.43 now, meaning cows are having a shorter productive life.”
However, the number of forced culls has dropped to its lowest level, at 63%, with selected culls comprising 37%. Producers are choosing the best cows to keep and culling those with potential problems,” explains Mrs Puddy.
Health reasons dropped from 41.7% last year to 40.1% of cows leaving, with management reasons easing from 14.7% to 14.4%. However, cows leaving for fertility and performance reasons were up, year-on-year, from 28% and 15.5% to 28.2% and 17.3% of total leavers, respectively.
“Looking at all individual reasons, not in-calf remained the primary problem, at 14.8%. New in at number two was surplus
Average conventional milk price was 11% higher than the previous year, but with concentrate prices 9% lower. After some very turbulent years in terms of input costs, 2024/25 saw relatively calm waters for prices of feed and fertiliser (see page 14)
Despite these headline figures, there are still large ranges in what individual herds are experiencing in their income and outgoings. We saw a 12.9ppl difference between the top 10% of herds for milk price versus those in the bottom 10% (see page 8).
KingshayDairy CostingsFocus: 2025|3
The yearendingMarch 2025was a hugecontrasttothe previousyear, 2023/24,which saw lower milkpricesand higherfeedcosts,squeezing margins and makingreinvestmenta lower priority. Thisyearhas seenfavourable milkprice:concentrate price ratiosatlevelsnot seensince 2001, givinga significantly largermarginover purchased feedfor the majorityofproducers.
2024/25 was also very notable for the lowest milk from forage production for years, this figure was depressed for the entire 12 month period due to the wet weather seen over the summer. As always, however, there was a very wide range in milk from forage figures, but the importance of milk from forage is seen in the performance figures, with the herds in the top 10% for milk from forage achieving a margin over purchased feed that was 20% higher per cow and 14% higher per litre (see page 9).
It is always interesting to see how the different production systems perform under the differing challenge of each year. This year, housing focused, all-year round herds had the highest average margin over purchased feed per cow of any system at £2,937/cow. The highest margin over purchased feed per litre was achieved by the low to moderate-yielding organic herds, at 41.15ppl (see page 7).
stock, at 8.9%, up from 5% last year. In third place was mastitis at 6.5%, down from 8.1% last year,” says Mrs Puddy.
When comparing herd size bands, traditionally exit rates increase with herd size, but that wasn’t the case last year. Herds with under 100 cows had the lowest rate of cows leaving the herd at 27.4%, with 300 to 400 cow herds the highest at 30.7%. Those with the highest proportion of forced leaving reasons were in the 150 to 200 cow band, at 67.3%, while the smallest herds had the highest selected proportion of selected leaving reasons, at 43% of leavers.
The age of cows at exit is steadily declining, but the proportion of selected versus forced leaving reasons has increased (see page 20).
The South East of England was the only region to avoid a depression in milk from forage this year, while Scotland saw more of a decrease than all other regions (see page 10).
Higher yields were directly related to higher leaving rates, rising from 24% in the lowest yield band to 34% in the highest. “Health was a bigger issue for 9,000 to 10,000 litre herds, and fertility for 7,000 to 8,000 litre herds, whereas the smallest herds culled more for performance reasons, and the largest herds culled more for management reasons, such as conformation or not fitting into the calving pattern,” Mrs Puddy explains.
Herd health trends saw a worsening in fertility in almost all parameters except conception rate, presumably due to the poorer forage quality (see page 18). In contrast, many health parameters saw improvements, including the mastitis rate dropping by 2 cases per 100 cows, and lameness dropping by 3 cases per 100 cows. This is fortunate, as due to the high milk prices the cost of these health problems has increased sharply (see page 18).
Organic herds have most certainly turned the corner following a few tricky years. Low to moderate yielding systems saw the
(for the period ending
(See page 8)
Fell by 3 cases to 34 cases per 100 cows
Average age at exit = 3.43 lactations +
highest jump in milk price, year-on-year, up 20% to a charttopping 54.09ppl. They had the highest culling (32%) and replacement (34%) rates of all systems as well as the highest feed costs per litre (14.53ppl).
All year-round calving herds are the most common conventional systems. The grazing-focused group had the smallest herds (177 cows), this year producing 6,837 litres/ cow (34% from forage). Housing focused, year-round calving systems are the most prevalent overall, boasting the largest herds (266 cows) and highest yields (9,775 litres/cow). These intensive systems exhibited the highest conventional culling (30%) and replacement rates (33%).
Channel Island herds bucked the trend when it came to milk production in 2024/25, by increasing yields despite the challenging season. Having reduced herd size by seven in 2023/24, producers cut numbers again this year, to 206 head. They also reduced the stocking rate, to 2.62 cows/ha –although that is still well above the conventional and organic stocking rates of 2.39 and 2.05, respectively.
When it comes to margins, the reasonably high milk price and lower feed costs meant margins remained firm, despite the dreadful weather over the summer of 2024, which saw yields from forage drop sharply. In fact, given the most favourable milk price: feed price ratio since 2001, the average margin over purchased feed (MOPF) was the strongest for a very long time, bar the milk spikes of 2022.
“This year housing-focused, all-year-round calving herds had the highest MOPF per cow at £2,937/cow, and the highest
margin per litre was achieved by the low to moderate-yielding organic herds, at 41.15ppl,” says Mrs Puddy. “But we are still seeing a wide variation between the top and bottom quartile within each production system, where groups of herds have similar goals.”
It seems milk from forage is still very strongly linked to MOPF, with conventional herds in the top 10% for milk from forage achieving a margin that was 20% higher per cow and 14% higher per litre. The top 10% of producers’ reliance on forage, the most cost-effective on-farm feed, allowed them to use considerably less concentrate – 2,426kg/cow, costing £816 – while the bottom 25% used 3,563kg and spent £1,227/cow.
This focus on forage directly translated to higher profits: The top herds earned a margin over purchased feed of £3,131/cow, compared to £2,514/cow in the bottom quartile, even though the latter group produced more total milk (2.3m litres) from larger herds feeding more concentrates. Even for housed herds, prioritising grass and silage management while balancing rations will pay dividends in herd efficiency.
“The best way for a farm business to see where they are successful and where they could improve is by putting their figures side-by-side with other producers in similar systems,” says Mrs Puddy. “We hope that by publishing this report we can help farmers to do exactly that, and to find ways to continue the positive trends we’ve seen.”
The full report can be downloaded at www.kingshay.co.uk.
Taking a look at the bigger picture can help identify trends to consider, both positive and negative. So, what do the past 10 to 20 years show us?
Over the past decade, average herd size has grown by 17.7% – reaching a record high of 226. Stocking rates have also increased, by 5.3% in 10 years, to a record high of 2.39 livestock units per hectare. When it comes to milk production, the average herd produced 1.9m litres in the year ending March 2025, up by nearly a quarter in the past 10 years. Yield per cow also increased, by 4.6%, to 8,421 litres, reflecting better genetics, nutrition and health.
However, the data shows that most of the production gain is from herd expansion, rather than individual increases. Yield from forage is up by 12.8% over the past 10 years, to 2,450 litres. Clearly each season affects forage growth and quality, which is also reflected in milk from grazing figures. Butterfats have seen an 8.7% increase over the past decade, to 4.35%. Protein levels saw a more modest increase of 2.7%, to 3.38%.
Milk prices also enjoyed a good year, up 41.6% from 10 years ago to 42.44ppl, with milk value per cow up nearly 50% to £3,574. Over the past decade, concentrate use has increased steadily both per cow and per litre, up 12.9% and 6.3% respectively. However, feed prices have increased by £79/t, and feed cost per cow has more than tripled since 2005, rising 48.6% in the past 10 years.
Margins have improved significantly, increases essential to cover higher overheads and other variable costs. The margin over purchased feed (MOPF) per cow has increased by 47.9%, to £2,602 – nearly two and a half times higher than 2005, while the MOPF per litre has increased by 41.4% to 30.90p. This will have been driven by a strong milk price and efficiency improvements.
Following the sharp dip in milk prices seen through spring 2023, this past milk year has brought a period of relative stability, albeit with notable fluctuations across contracts.
From the low point of 36.64ppl in July 2023, average prices gently climbed, lifted by tighter supply. By December 2024, average prices had climbed to 45.82ppl, although record production then saw them ease back to 45.47ppl by March 2025.
While the difference between the top and bottom 10% narrowed markedly up to July 2024, to 9.88ppl, the higher prices meant it then rebounded sharply, reaching 14.04ppl by February 2025. This widening gap demonstrates the increasing divergence between milk contracts and the importance of aligning production systems to market signals. Processors are increasingly rewarding attributes beyond volume alone, with premiums available for quality, seasonality, and sustainability measures.
So, what lies ahead? With continued climatic uncertainty and high input costs, confidence remains fragile. However, there's growing recognition that milk pricing structures are evolving. As consumer pressure intensifies and supply chains strive for greater resilience, price differentiation within and between contracts is likely to continue.
Now more than ever, understanding your milk buyer’s pricing mechanism and how your business can match it is critical. Whether through improved constituents, aligned seasonality, or regenerative practices, the tools to improve milk price are increasingly within the producer’s control.
Kingshay Dairy Consulting works with a wide range of UK and international milk processors, consultants, nutritionists, feed companies and other experts to collect regular farm data. This helps farmers to make relevant comparisons to support proactive animal health care across a wide range of production systems, from extensively grazed to fully housed.
It also works closely with the European Dairy Farmers group, bringing together top producers from across the Continent. The UK will be hosting the EDF Congress in Chester from 23–25 June 2026, featuring a range of animal health topics, data benchmarking and knowledge sharing.
Olivia Cooper is director of Agri-hub, an agricultural journalism and PR agency. She is former chair of the British Guild of Agricultural Journalists, current GB representative on the International Federation of Agricultural Journalists’ executive board and managing editor of British Dairying magazine.
Biogas from anaerobic digestion has the potential to significantly offset global fossil fuel use by utilising natural renewable gas, which is circular in the carbon cycle. The process of anaerobic digestion converts organic waste streams into biogas, capturing the associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which can then be used as a renewable energy source.
Several co-benefits are also now being realised through anaerobic digestion, including the enhancement of on-farm regenerative agricultural practices and the production of uniform, nutrient-dense digestate. Additionally, anaerobic digestion offers attractive revenue streams and energy security, making it a sensible option from both a capital investment and sustainability perspective.
All the necessary levers are in place to create a successful energy and sustainability proposition, positively reflecting on the agri-food sector.
The Climate Crisis
In 2016, international communities agreed to limit global warming to 1.5°C above preindustrial levels, or well below 2°C, through the Paris Agreement, following repeated warnings from climate scientists. In 2024, the 1.5°C limit was temporarily reached, underscoring the urgency of climate scientists’ recommendations.
In addition to posing an existential threat to plants, animals and humans, climate change has been described as the most threatening issue to economic stability globally. This is certainly true for agriculture, which is already seeing negative impacts through weather extremes and an increase in natural disasters, including hurricanes, droughts and flooding.
Climate change, under a 2°C warming model, poses an even more significant threat to agricultural production. And
the closer the climate gets to that threshold, the more severe the impact. At 2°C above preindustrial levels, climate models suggest drops in crop yield, a decline in aquaculture output, and decreases in milk and meat production.
These impacts highlight the urgent need for a transition away from fossil fuel use, both to protect the planet and to improve food security.
While burning and extracting fossil fuels for energy accounts for 73% of CO2 equivalent (CO2e) of global GHG emissions, agriculture is also under pressure for its environmental footprint, contributing 18% of global CO2e emissions. This includes emissions from livestock, manure, crop production, deforestation and soil management.
Waste management contributes to 3% of all emissions, including wastewater and landfill GHG emissions. The agri-food sector has a role to play here as well, as poorly managed organic waste, including food waste and manure, are significant contributors to anthropogenic GHG emissions. Nitrous oxide (N2O), typically linked to fertiliser volatilization, soil enzymatic activity and manure management, is 273 times more warming than carbon dioxide (CO2), while methane (CH4) is 28 times more warming than CO2
This is where anaerobic digestion can play a key role. Redirecting organic landfill, food waste and livestock manure to anaerobic digestion creates an opportunity to trap those gases and use them as energy sources. This helps provide energy that is locked into the natural carbon cycle, thus being a “net zero” energy option.
While progress has been building across the globe in the coordinated attempt to avoid and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the scientific community warns that efforts need rapid scaling to make significant progress toward targets.
https://www.europeanbiogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/24-Oct_All-Day-Sessions.pdf
Currently, renewables – including biogas, wind, solar, hydro and geothermal energy – meet about 15% of the world’s energy demands. Biogas makes up 2% of that share, indicating significant scope for growth. If the full potential of biogas is to be met, up to 9% of total global energy consumption can be fulfilled. It is also estimated that this output could replace up to 30% of coal use globally, or transition 100% of agricultural energy requirements from fossil fuel to biogas. This suggests that biogas production will be a key lever in the transition to renewable fuel sources. In fact, it’s estimated that biogas could reduce global GHG emissions by up to 13%.
At scale, this source of energy has the ability to sharply reduce the impact of agri-food-related emissions, driving the industry toward a more sustainable future.
The benefits of anaerobic digestion go well beyond biogas. Digestate, a byproduct of anaerobic digestion, plays a unique role in regenerative agriculture.
Nutrient recycling through anaerobic digestion offers significant environmental benefits. By diverting farm and food waste to anaerobic digestion, nutrients are trapped in stored and controlled fractions. This process helps recycle nutrients within the agri-food system, reducing the need for additional nitrogen synthesis and phosphorus extraction. Consequently, it mitigates greenhouse gas emissions, minimises environmental damage from extraction activities, and prevents ecological issues such as eutrophication of waterways.
This organic matter component can also be used to introduce carbon to soil, helping feed beneficial plant symbionts that can help reduce dependency on pesticide inputs and nutrient use. The digestate can be applied to land in a controlled manner, reducing the need for additional nutrient applications to crops and pasture. And it can improve both nutrient availability to plants and soil enzymatic activity. In fact, it is estimated that digestate could potentially remove the need for up to 7% of all inorganic fertiliser, providing the needs of 82 million hectares of land. This demonstrates how anaerobic digestion, through the power of digestate, plays a key role in regenerative land management.
Anaerobic digestion infrastructure offers significant economic benefits to farmers and rural communities. Farmers can diversify their revenue streams through the sale of electricity, heat and fuel, as well as organic nutrients and animal bedding. Anaerobic digestion reduces energy costs and creates opportunities for selling excess energy to the grid. Additionally, the construction and operation of anaerobic digesters stimulates rural economic growth by creating local jobs and increasing tax revenue from rural communities. Various government programme and incentives further support farmers in adopting this technology, making it a financially viable and environmentally sustainable solution.
In fact, governments and private entities are making substantial investments in biogas production, motivated by policies that promote carbon neutrality, energy diversification and security. This market expansion is particularly evident in municipal, agricultural and industrial waste processing, where anaerobic digestion is utilised to convert organic waste into biogas and digestate, thereby reducing reliance on landfills.
Globally, the potential of anaerobic digestion is already being realised in many geographies, with a current market size of 17 billion and a market potential of US$40 billion expected by 2031. This represents a compound annual growth rate of 10%.
on renewable energy, sustainable waste management and energy security.
Alltech views biogas production as a crucial area for the sustainable future of the agri-food industry and has been actively investigating sustainable solutions to assist in the anaerobic digestion of organic waste and animal manure.
Alltech’s research has demonstrated significant advancements in enhancing biogas production by optimising co-digestion ratios, enzyme treatments and trace element supplementation. Key findings include the identification of optimal enzyme concentrations that significantly boost methane yields, as well as the synergistic effects of codigesting chicken litter with plant biomass to improve process stability and biogas output.
Research on enzymatic and mineral preparations has revealed additional benefits, such as:
• Increased biogas production with lower substrate requirements
• Reduced viscosity and parasitic load in reactors
• Stabilised biogas production despite substrate variations
• Minimised floating layers
Alltech has also partnered with several key anaerobic digester projects, serving as a strategic technical advisor on fermentation processes. These collaborations aim to maximise resource utilisation and enhance biogas production, demonstrating Alltech’s commitment to advancing sustainable energy solutions.
Conclusion
Anaerobic digestion presents a transformative opportunity for the agri-food sector to contribute significantly to global sustainability efforts. By converting organic waste into biogas and nutrient-rich digestate, this process not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also enhances regenerative agricultural practices. The potential for biogas to offset fossil fuel use and provide renewable energy is substantial, with promising market growth driven by increasing investments and supportive policies.
As the world faces urgent climate challenges, anaerobic digestion stands out as a key solution for achieving energy security, reducing environmental impact, and fostering a sustainable future for agriculture.
1. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/energy-101-anaerobicdigestion/
2. https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/glossary-item/ anaerobic-digestion_en
3. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10311-024-01789-1
4. https://ourworldindata.org/ghg-emissions-by-sector
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8. https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-
anaerobic-digestion-market?srsltid=AfmBOoqZ0xYyo5u5XeP c5uKwOnpyb_3ecyTRrQgWmCH1jtVOm67H8dUg
9. https://www.europeanbiogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/ 2020/04/20200419-Background-paper_final.pdf
10. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-foodsystems/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.609097/full
11. https://www.gasnetworks.ie/docs/business/renewable-gas/ GIF-South-Kerry-AD-Feasibility-Study.pdf
12. https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/tools/a-globalperspective-of-ad-policies-incentives.pdf
13. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/13/3477
14. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02246-9
15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ S0301421517305955
16. https://www.worldbioenergy.org/uploads/221223%20WBA%20 GBS%202022.pdf
17. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-andbiological-sciences/plant-symbionts#:~:text=Plant%20 symbionts%20drive%20the%20composition%20of%20the%20 phytomicrobiome%3B,increasing%20tolerance%20to%20 biotic%20and%20abiotic%20stress%20factors.
18. https://www.worldbiogasassociation.org/wp-content/ uploads/2019/09/WBA-globalreport-56ppa4_digitalSept-2019.pdf
Richard Lally, Ph.D. is a Technical Manager, Business Development at Alltech, where he combines his expertise in biosciences with a focus on commercial strategy and ESG initiatives. He holds a PhD in sustainable agronomy from the Institute of Technology Carlow (now SETU). Dr. Lally has conducted postdoctoral research at Alltech’s Nutrigenomic Centre in Kentucky, USA, and worked with Agolin SA in Switzerland, gaining experience in carbon credit projects and methanemitigating feed additives. Currently based at Alltech’s European Bioscience center in Dunboyne, Ireland, he promotes sustainable innovations in animal nutrition and farm resource efficiency management.
40 years of building powerful industry partnerships.
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Tablet weight variation refers to inconsistent tablet weight or mass across samples taken from a single production batch. It is one of the most important quality control parameters in pharmaceutical manufacturing, as it directly ensures that each tablet contains the correct dosage of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Regulators such as the MHRA, EMA and the FDA require manufacturers to demonstrate that weight variation is within defined limits, typically assessed by accurately weighing a sample of tablets from each batch at regular intervals during production. Failure to control weight variation can lead to underdosed or overdosed tablets, presenting safety risks for patients and causing compliance issues for manufacturers, including the risk of needing to recall products.
There are several common causes of tablet weight variation and addressing them requires both technical expertise and robust maintenance practices. One of the most frequent contributors to weight inconsistency is excessive variation in the working lengths of punches. When punch working lengths are non-uniform, the volume of granule compressed in each die cavity can vary, leading to tablets with different weights. To avoid this, manufacturers should validate the working length of all new or unused punches before use. Additionally, the working lengths of used tooling should be measured regularly, and any punch found to be outside the acceptable tolerance range should be reworked or replaced. A solid maintenance process that includes rigorous assessment of tools offers reliable and repeatable procedures for length measurement and punch maintenance.
Another significant cause of weight variation is sticking or picking, which occurs when granule adhere to the punch faces during compression. This can cause material build-up, resulting in punches with effectively longer working lengths on some stations than others. This randomness leads to weight variation across the batch. To correct this, punches should be thoroughly cleaned and polished to remove product residue. Polishing the punch faces a higher-quality finish can also reduce the tendency for sticking. Increasing the amount of lubricant in the granulation can further improve material flow and minimise adhesion. Additionally, compression force can be increased within the safe operational limits of the punch tips to ensure complete formation of tablets. To address this cause of sticking, a specialist anti-sticking coating should
be considered. Choosing the correct tool coating can be overwhelming as there are many available choices in the market. This choice can however be supported by TSAR Predict™, a predictive model which helps identify the most suitable coating solution based on single particle adhesion force for the formulation. Modifying the tablet design may also help to achieve more uniform density and reduce surface defects contributing to sticking. A good tablet-tooling supplier will also be able to carry out compaction studies to identify solutions for sticking should a more detailed study of the issue be required.
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A practical example of successfully addressing weight variation and sticking issues comes from a real case involving a customer producing effervescent tablets. The manufacturer was compressing a cleaning product into a 20mm round tablet using D Type tooling. The formulation, which acted as a degreaser, was not only highly corrosive but also prone to severe sticking, leading to progressive corrosion of the tooling. These issues were causing repeated production delays, increased maintenance requirements, and inconsistent tablet weights, ultimately affecting overall manufacturing efficiency and quality.
After consultation, the customer adopted a tooling solution featuring polymer inserts matched with a suitable grade of corrosion-resistant steel. These inserts, which can be made from materials such as Vulcalon, Adiprene, or PTFE, depending on the formulation characteristics, are designed to match the punch tip profile and are particularly effective in reducing
product adhesion. Available in thicknesses ranging from 1.5 to 2.0mm, polymer inserts proved to be a cost-effective and easily replaceable solution that resolved the sticking problem without requiring a complete tool redesign. It is important to note that polymer inserts are only suitable for flat beveled edge and flat faced punch types. With the sticking issue resolved, the manufacturer observed a complete elimination of weight variation problems in their effervescent tablet production.
Inconsistent die filling is another major cause of tablet weight variation and is often the result of incorrect press set-up, poor operational conditions or poor granule flow characteristics. One aspect to check is the free movement of lower punches in their guides. If punches do not move smoothly, this can affect the consistency of die fill. Adequate lubrication is necessary to ensure proper motion, and the dust seals should be inspected for wear or damage. Punch brakes
must also be adjusted carefully. If they are overtightened, they can restrict punch movement and contribute to erratic lower punch behaviour, which in turn affects fill volume. Formulation buildup within the die bore could also lead to travel problems for the lower punch. Additional features can be added to the lower (a Bakelite relief), as well as ensuring correct clearances to help prevent the risk of this occurring.
Granule loss or gain after the die has been filled can also lead to inconsistent tablet weights. This is often due to excessive vacuum pressure or incorrect positioning of the vacuum nozzle, which can unintentionally remove or fail to remove excess powder. To address this, the vacuum settings and nozzle alignment should be checked and adjusted as needed. Ensuring effective granule re-circulation is also essential to maintain a stable and uniform supply of material to the dies throughout production.
When die cavities are not filling properly, further investigation of the feeder system is required. Problems can result from the feeder paddles, either due to incorrect speed or unsuitable paddle design. A blockage or starvation of the feeder system can also affect fill levels. Reducing the press
speed can improve die fill by allowing more time for granules to flow. Another option on many modern presses is an independent speed control of the feeder paddles. Additionally, using the correct fill cam for the specific formulation and press setup can significantly enhance filling consistency and accuracy.
In conclusion, tablet weight variation is a complex but manageable issue in pharmaceutical manufacturing. It requires an integrated approach that includes precise tooling control, ongoing maintenance, and careful adjustment of press operation parameters. Regular measurement and maintenance of punch working lengths, elimination of sticking through suitable tooling material selection, cleaning and polishing, and optimisation of granule flow and die filling are all essential practices. Case studies such as the effervescent tablet example demonstrate how tailored solutions, developed through expert consultation, can directly resolve long-standing production challenges. By following proven methodologies, employing thorough and regular maintenance procedures, and drawing on specialist tools like TSAR~Predict™ and polymer insert technologies, manufacturers can achieve consistent tablet quality, meet regulatory expectations, and ensure safe, effective products for end users.
Blanchard
Since joining I Holland in 2004 Rob has been instrumental in the development of I Holland's PharmaCote® range of surface treatments and coatings for tablet compression tooling designed to improve properties such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance and antistick characteristics. He was also part of the Eurostandard steering committee and responsible for I Holland's registration to ISO 9001:2015. Rob holds multiple patents linked to solid dose manufacture. Rob also co-ordinates I Holland's close collaboration with various respected academic research bodies.
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4ReValue GmbH
OBC Alltech
Page 27
Christ Packing Systems
Page 11 Discovery Park
IBC FUJIFILM Irvine Scientific
Page 9
Henke-Sass, Wolf GmbH
Page 3 Moredun Scientific
Page 15 Nordson
Page 5 PCI Pharma Services
IFC Royal GD
Page 35 Senglobal Ltd
Page 23
Trilogy Writing & Consulting GmbH
Page 33 Ypsomed AG
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PYROSTARTM Neo+ is based on a genetically engineered approach to produce reactive factors required for endotoxin detection at pharmaceutical and medical equipment manufacturing sites. With greater stability of the negative control and better
endotoxin recovery in heparin and heparin-based compounds, Neo+ facilitates the same sensitivity of endotoxin detection as our traditional limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) reagent, through a more sustainable and environmentally friendly method.
• Colorimetric method, can be used with an absorbance plate reader
• 3-Factor system mimics the same cascade reaction as traditional LAL
• Endotoxin-specific reagent eliminates the risk of false positives from (1-->3) ß-D-Glucan
• 100% free of horseshoe crab blood
• Quantitative range: 0.001 to 50EU/mL
• High sensitivity with less lot-to-lot variation
• Stable storage after dissolution (4 hrs. at 2-8°C and 2 weeks at -30°C)
