The Geographer: Space (Summer 2019)

The

Geographer Summer 2019

The newsletter of

the Royal Scottish Geographical Society

Satellites, Space and Place

Mountains, Moons, Minerals and Marvels • 50 Years of the Open University

• 50 Years Since the Moon Landing • Interview with Helen Sharman CMG OBE • Earth Rising, Moon Forming •C limate of Optimism: Responding to the Emergency • Space Weather, Junk and Technology • Navigating by Stars, Understanding the Planets • Protecting Scottish Landscapes • Reader Offer: Hello, Is This Planet Earth?

“We came all this way to explore the Moon, and the most important thing is that we discovered the Earth.”

William Anders, Apollo astronaut

plus news, books and more...

The

Geographer

space

O

ur planet is unique in the known Universe, because it is home to diverse life. The Earth, which formed around 4.5 billion years ago, hasn’t always been habitable, and conditions suitable for humans have only existed relatively recently. Whilst we fantasise about the possibility of finding life elsewhere on some distant planet, we are sometimes in danger of overlooking the incredible value and variety of life right here on Earth. Life, as we know it, is only possible on Earth due to a combination of seemingly serendipitous circumstances and some significant planetary and evolutionary adaptations.

Along with being an ideal distance from the Sun, our planet has, over time, evolved and developed an atmosphere, surrounding the world, keeping it warm and protecting it from the dangers of space. Without this, Earth would probably be around 30°C cooler, and life impossible, like on our uninhabitable Moon. As astronaut Loren Acton said, “There [Earth], contained in the thin, moving, incredibly fragile shell of the biosphere is everything that is dear to you.”

Geography of course is concerned with our planet. But the Moon’s gravity plays a fundamental role, influencing tides and the Earth’s rotation (and therefore the length of each day), and the Sun is obviously the main energy source of all life on Earth. By studying planets, moons and stars, we can learn more about the Earth. We can test our theories and explore their similarities. We can push new technology and techniques for scientific study. And we can draw inspiration from the remarkable and courageous handful of individuals who venture into space.

In this 50th year since Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on the Moon’s surface, and took some of the first images of ‘Earth rising’, we have aimed to capture the latest space research and innovation with the help of the Open University, who are also celebrating 50 years of inspiring and informing generations of independent learners. We are grateful to them for their help with this edition of The Geographer, and for sharing their expertise on space and technology.

Arctic Day for Young Geographers In March, the Scottish Government held its first Arctic Day in Inverness to bring together policy makers, academics, business leaders, NGOs and others interested in the future of the Arctic region. On behalf of the RSGS, three members of the Young Geographer editorial team – Eilidh Watson, Cameron Mackay and Kalina Dimitrova – attended the event to help inform their upcoming publication on the topic. Along the way, they made a video (bit.ly/2YmZC1k) about their fact-finding mission which included an interview with Fiona Hyslop, Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs.

Arctic dialogue In early April, we were delighted to co-host the first CanadaScotland Arctic Dialogue in Edinburgh. The aim of the meeting was to strengthen ties between the UK and Canada, with a particular focus on Scotland’s links with the Canadian North, including opportunities for trade and cooperation, academia and policy making.

Cool Conversations We’ve known it for some time, but our Explorer-in-Residence is now officially cool! In early March, Hazel Robertson was selected to feature on a panel of modernday adventurers for the inaugural Cool Conversations event at the Edinburgh Grand. Organised by The Herald on Sunday, the occasion saw Hazel answer questions about © Gordon Terris, Herald & Times Group her career as an explorer on the front line of climate change, and her successful string of ultra-endurance running events.

She was joined by ‘hostile conditions’ expert and BBC regular Aldo Kane, wild swimmer and online sensation Calum Maclean, and teenage parkour athlete Robbie Griffith.

Mike Robinson, Chief Executive

New website coming soon

RSGS, Lord John Murray House, 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU tel: 01738 455050 email: enquiries@rsgs.org

Thanks to generous funding from the Transform Foundation, we are delighted to be developing a new website created by Raising IT, a social-purpose tech company and the UK’s leading charity website and fundraising platform. The state-of-the-art new site will facilitate a more streamlined navigation, a more functional and contemporary design, and built-in modules for ticketing, donations and membership, all helping to raise profile and money for RSGS. HQ staff, with the invaluable support of volunteer Margaret Paterson, are putting the finishing touches to the new-look site, which should launch in the summer.

www.rsgs.org Charity registered in Scotland no SC015599 The views expressed in this newsletter are not necessarily those of the RSGS. Cover image: Astronaut Piers Sellers during the third spacewalk of STS-121. © NASA Masthead image: A star-trail looking towards the South Pole, a composite of over 100 longexposure photographs taken 30 seconds apart, which captures Earth’s rotation. © Jamie Carter

RSGS: a better way to see the world

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Dr John Scally FRSGS

Geography Day 15th June

In March, we were delighted to present historian, scholar and National Librarian Dr John Scally with Honorary Fellowship of RSGS. It was conferred for his active and wide-ranging contribution to the promotion of libraries, and for expanding the National Library of Scotland’s role and impact in this exciting digital age.

© Roie Galitz

book now!

Come and join us for our annual Geography Day, which this year has as its theme Films, Photos and Funny Animals! From 11am to 4pm on Saturday 15th June, there will be talks from guest speakers, insights from the RSGS Collections Team, and the chance to view some of the best images from the wonderful Comedy Wildlife Photography Awards 2018. Refreshments and lunch are included in the £15 ticket price. Spaces are limited, so book now via Eventbrite to avoid disappointment!

Mungo Park Medal

A free course which enables learners to use a Tenerifebased robotic telescope (see page 21) to take pictures of distant astronomical objects from anywhere in the world has been launched by The Open University (OU). Astronomy with an online telescope is an eight-week course available through the OU’s OpenLearn platform (www.openlearn.com), aimed at anyone interested in learning how to navigate and understand the night sky.

Course co-author Dr Alan Cayless commented, “Astronomy with an online telescope is an ambitious course, made possible by the latest technology. We wanted to give anyone with an interest in astronomy the opportunity to use this incredible facility and to obtain their own spectacular images of these objects in the night sky.”

Iain Rankin Student Presentations

National Geographic Society Explorer-in-Residence Wade Davis (centre) with RSGS Explorers-in-Residence Hazel and Luke Robertson.

It was an honour to present our Mungo Park Medal to Professor Wade Davis for his outstanding contribution to anthropology, ethnobotany, writing, photography and filmmaking, following his run of Inspiring People talks in March.

A master across a range of disciplines, Wade is a fount of wisdom and epitomises the very best of geography and multidisciplinary thinking.

Collections visit

In mid-April, three University of Aberdeen Geography students – Pieter de Jong, Lewis Bruce, and Jessica McDavid – presented some of their undergraduate Pieter de Jong, Lewis Bruce and Jessica McDavid. dissertation findings at the second annual Iain Rankin Student Presentations evening. The talks covered an analysis of the Scout movement worldwide, transport infrastructure in Aberdeen, and paleoglaciers in the Italian Alps. The event was organised by the RSGS Aberdeen Group and hosted by the University of Aberdeen. Thanks to all those involved.

Led by former RSGS Chairman Barrie Brown, a party of 17 from Larbert Old Church, Stirlingshire, were welcomed to RSGS in April and shown around the Fair Maid’s House by volunteers John Lewington and Ian Kellie. An eye-catching display was put on

by Collections Team members Margaret Wilkes and Pat Brown, including the First Atlas of Scotland, splendidly produced in Amsterdam in 1654 by Joan Blaeu. Also on show were a manuscript plan for the Forth and Clyde Canal (drawn c1758) and a superb map of the Antonine Wall by William Roy (1793).

space

Free OU astronomy course

2 SUMMER 2019

news

Firsts and Nearly Firsts Over recent months, our in-house Collections Team have been working hard to display some of the Society’s most treasured items in a newly designed RSGS exhibition entitled Firsts and Nearly Firsts. In both Dunfermline and Perth, interested audiences perused items such as a telegram from Robert Peary, the first to reach the North Pole; a signed cover of The Times special supplement for September 1953, showing Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay on the summit of Mount Everest; and a special map from the First World War signed by Earl Haig. Our thanks go to Collections Committee Chair Margaret Wilkes, and all those who helped bring the Society’s history back to life!

70 years of National Parks It is 70 years since the 1949 Act of Parliament that began the family of National Parks in Great Britain, and Ordnance Survey’s GeoDataViz team have created a large poster to showcase their varied landscapes. Joe Harrison created the data visualisations using a variety of software and a range of OS data; the process was inspired by Daniel Huffman from the SomethingAboutMaps blog. The poster’s colour scheme was inspired by historic OS One Inch Tourist Maps and other maps that use natural colour palettes.

Covering a combined area of 23,138km2 (c10% of Great Britain), the National Parks offer us a stunning variety of landscapes to explore. Pembrokeshire Coast boasts the longest coastline at 418km; Cairngorms is the largest by area at 4,528km2; the Lake District has the most paths for walkers at 7,189km. The poster is available from the OS Map shop (www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/shop/gb-nationalparks-70th.html) and you can see the data visualisations in OS’s Flickr album (www.flickr.com/photos/ordnancesurvey/ sets/72157707938542704).

Climate justice event

19th - 21st June

The inaugural World Forum on Climate Justice, at Glasgow Caledonian University, 19th-21st June 2019, will bring together leading civil society groups, academics, business representatives and policy-makers, to foster new thinking and explore pressing topics in climate justice advocacy, research, policy and practice as we adapt to reach the 1.5°C goal set out in the most recent IPCC Special Report. Amongst those due to speak are RSGS Livingstone Medallist and climate justice advocate Mary Robinson, Met Office Chief Executive Penelope Endersby, and Kerry Kennedy, President of Robert F Kennedy Human Rights.

Visitor centre attractions visit us in Perth!

© Jakob Strecker

Our visitor centre, the Geographical Heart of Scotland, will be open for the next few months during the hours detailed below. Visitors will be able to peruse some of our historical collections, learn about the Earth’s tectonic forces, and even snuggle down with a book in our cosy Explorers’ Room. And, from 15th June, there will also be the opportunity to view some of the hilarious winning entries from the Comedy Wildlife Photography Awards 2018. This entertaining exhibition is perfect for the whole family and will run during the school summer holidays.

Opening Hours to Saturday 26th October 2019 May, June

Thursday to Saturday 1:00pm to 4:30pm

July, August

Monday to Friday

1:00pm to 4:30pm

Sept, October Thursday to Saturday 1:00pm to 4:30pm

Polly Higgins FRSGS (1968-2019) In April, we were saddened to hear that Polly Higgins, a recent recipient of our Shackleton Medal, had died after a short illness.

Full of vigour and enthusiasm for life, Polly had spent more than a decade leading a global campaign to recognise the principle of ‘ecocide’.

Her aim, as outlined in her book Eradicating Ecocide, was to create a fifth internationally recognised ‘crime against peace’, in order to provide greater environmental protection for our planet in the eyes of the law. Her work sparked conversations and campaigns across the world, and helped influence legislation such as the Bolivian Parliament’s much-admired Law of the Rights of Mother Earth. She will be sorely missed.

Canada’s climate warming A report published by the Canadian Government has found that climate warming in the country is progressing at twice the rate of the global average. Since 1948, annual average temperatures in Canada have increased by approximately 1.7°C, with some northern parts of the country recording warming of 2.3°C. High rates of snow and ice melt in the region, which reduces solar reflection, have been identified as a cause of this significant geographical variation.

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Zero Waste

RSGS grants We are pleased to announce that Gergana Daskalova (PhD, University of Edinburgh), Paula Duffy (PhD, University of St Andrews) and Craig Smeaton (Research Fellow, University of St Andrews) have each been awarded an RSGS Knowledge Exchange Grant to help disseminate the results of their geographical research to a wider public audience, particularly through RSGS channels.

The Zero Waste Perth team have temporarily moved into a shop, located in a busy pedestrian area, to inspire local householders, businesses and schools to reduce their waste by reducing, re-using and recycling everyday items.

Arctic Connections

Gergana is hoping that the financial assistance will support the creation of a storytelling portfolio to communicate the impacts of climate change in the Arctic; Paula, that the monies will support her research on the demographics and economies of Scottish coastal communities, including the publishing of a paper in the Society’s Scottish Geographical Journal; and Craig, that the grant will support his work on the marine carbon cycle, specifically in order to engage school-aged children with this highly topical environmental issue.

Record-breaking attempt

Our Explorers-in-Residence Luke and Hazel Robertson have returned from their latest expedition, Arctic Connections. The journey saw the Edinburgh-based couple ski over 400km, including in the hoof-prints of one of the greatest animal migrations on Earth – the natural movement of reindeer from feeding grounds in the south Finnmark region of Norway to birthing areas on the north Arctic coast.

Building Glasgow Frank Norris, RSGS Glasgow Group Chair In April, the RSGS Glasgow Group enjoyed a guided tour around the city centre.

The stone that was used to build the very fine buildings in central Glasgow came from all over the world, including Argentina and Italy.

Glasgow was lucky in that it was difficult to make bricks locally, and the major structure of the buildings had to be made of sandstone. Special marble was imported and used in the finer parts of the buildings, giving us the fine heritage we can enjoy today.

Black hole breakthrough Early April saw a breakthrough in one of the most intriguing lines of space science, as the first image of a black hole was reported.

The donutshaped ring, © Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration composed of dust and gas, is the accretion disk or boundary of a supermassive black hole in the Messier 87 galaxy; the void within is the black hole’s event horizon beyond which no light or matter can escape, and where all physical laws are known to collapse. Situated 55 million light-years from Earth, the black hole is thought to have a mass 6.5 billion times greater than the Sun. The image, created using complex computer algorithms, was made possible by the Event Horizon Telescope, a network of eight ground-based radio telescopes synced together around the world.

space

But this journey was about more than just physical endurance and harsh weather conditions. It was a quest to learn about the indigenous Sámi people who shepherd the reindeer, and whose traditional way of life and unique culture are threatened by factors such as climate breakdown and industrial development. On the way, they captured a series of interviews with local people, including the President of the Sámi Parliament in Kárášjohka; they are hoping to turn this footage into a documentary film.

By the age of 26, Mollie Hughes had successfully reached the summit of Mount Everest from both the North and South sides. Now she is aiming to be the youngest woman to trek to the South Pole.

And she’s doing it the ‘hard way’, solo and unsupported, the whole 700+ miles from Hercules Inlet in Western Antarctica.

The good news for RSGS is that we are now official partners in this ambitious and record-breaking expedition, due to start in November 2019. We’re looking forward to working with Mollie as she prepares physically, mentally, and financially for the challenge ahead. See www.molliehughes.co.uk to follow her progress.

4 SUMMER 2019

news

A line in the sand

Polar Academy awards ceremony Tim Ambrose, RSGS Treasurer

Two Finnish artists working in the Outer Hebrides, Pekka Niittyvirta and Timo Aho, are visualising the impacts of climate change in a new way. Using LED lights, sensors and timers, their installation entitled Lines (57° 59’ N, 7° 16’ W) demarcates future possible sea levels around Lochmaddy on North Uist to explore how these changes will affect coastal areas, inhabitants and land use.

A new low

In May, a new record for deep-sea exploration was set. In the submarine Limiting Factor, Victor Vescovo reached a maximum depth of 10,928m, 16m further than any human in history. Diving to the murky limits of Challenger Deep within the Mariana Trench, the mission opened a new door to this extreme frontier, an area which is 90% unexplored.

On the surface, helping coordinate these efforts, was RSGS Member Kelvin Murray, Director of Expedition Operations and Undersea Projects at EYOS Expeditions.

Air Departure Tax One of the first announcements made after Scotland’s First Minister acknowledged the climate emergency in April, was the welcome news that the Scottish Government is now scrapping its proposed abandonment of Air Departure Tax, to help meet its ambitions to be net carbon neutral by 2045.

Our Chief Executive has been the environmental advisor on the Scottish Government’s Air Passenger Duty Forum since it was established in 2015. He said, “The proposed tax cut was unaffordable economically and environmentally: Scotland stood to lose £300m per year in tax revenue, and to competitively advantage aviation over every other form of transport. This is a welcome outbreak of common sense and joined-up thinking.”

In late April, I was honoured to attend the awards ceremony for the 2019 Greenland expedition of the Polar Academy on behalf of the RSGS. The evening was hosted by Craig Mathieson, RSGS Explorer-in-Residence, who set up, leads, and inspires the Polar Academy and its expeditions.

This year the young participants were from Bathgate Academy, aged 13-15, and they had just accomplished a very demanding ten-day journey through a remote area of eastern Greenland, pulling all their supplies on large (and heavy!) sledges. The expedition is the culmination of almost a year of selection and tough physical training, as well as fundraising, which involves the whole school and the participants’ parents, families and friends.

Craig Mathieson awarded each expeditioner with a silver Polar Medal, sponsored by the RSGS, in commemoration of their work on the expedition. I was left inspired by the efforts and enthusiasm of the young explorers, who had grown in confidence and will now take their inspiration out to others. The Polar Academy is very well worth supporting and achieves wonderful results. There should be a chance to see more on a four-part BBC documentary on the lead-up to the expedition, and the time in Greenland, later in the year.

IPCC in Edinburgh In early April, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) met in Edinburgh as part of their work to reduce the rate of climate change. During the week, the IPCC teamed up with ClimateXChange and Edinburgh University’s Centre for Carbon Innovation to run a public panel discussion on Climate Action in Small Countries and Regions. Discussion co-chair Professor Dave Reay said, “We are delighted to be collaborating with the IPCC at a time when Scotland is developing new climate goals.

There are many examples where cities, states, regions and small countries are leading the way in making a low-carbon future a reality. This is an opportunity to hear about innovative and inspiring action to tackle climate change from some of those at the forefront of these efforts across the world.”

Inspiring People 2019-20 Our Inspiring People talks programme for 2019-20 is taking shape, and we already have some great new speakers lined up. So far, these include Sean Conway, the bearded adventurer known for his record-breaking endurance feats; Calum Maclean, the wildswimmer extraordinaire made famous by BBC The Social; and Mollie Hughes, the two-time Everest summiteer and motivational speaker who has now set her sights on the South Pole.

Calum Maclean

Sean Conway © Adam Hoskins

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Map it, scrap it

First Scot in space

In an attempt to tackle Scotland’s coastal litter, the team at SCRAPbook have been using aerial photography to map and better understand the severity of the problem. Their first findings were announced at an event in April, at which our Chief Executive spoke alongside Mairi Gougeon, Minister for Rural Affairs and the Natural Environment.

RSE lecture

30th May

On Thursday 30th May, the Royal Society of Edinburgh’s annual Peter Wilson Lecture will be given by the Chief Executive of Scottish Natural Heritage, Francesca Osowska OBE. The lecture, International Leadership for the Environment, will be followed by a panel discussion involving some of the leading figures in the Scottish environmental movement. Tickets can be booked via the RSE website.

Improved rail connectivity In mid-May, ScotRail introduced new timetables, more high-speed trains and brand-new class 385 electric trains across some parts of the network. Despite some teething problems, this should result in 20,000 more seats being added to weekday services, giving a total of 625,000 per week. Further timetable improvements will be delivered in December 2019. Customers are advised to check their journeys by visiting www.scotrail.co.uk/plan-your-journey/maytimetable-changes.

Doors Open Day

14th

September

Doors Open Day, on Saturday 14th September, will provide an opportunity to visit our headquarters in the Fair Maid’s House in Perth. This year’s theme is ‘Arts and Entertainment’, so we will be putting on geographical quizzes in our stylish Explorers’ Room, and showcasing the best of the Society’s images, films, ephemera and maps – both old and new! Everyone is welcome and entry is by donation.

join us!

OU at Dynamic Earth A public, family-orientated event to be held at Dynamic Earth, Edinburgh, 14th-16th October 2019, will showcase science at the Open University. From the OU’s co-production with the BBC on Blue Planet II, to exploring space and getting involved in citizen science, there is something for everyone. Interactive activities and hands-on demonstrations accompany two public open evening talks: The Science behind our 14th -16th Blue Planet and 50 years since the Moon Landings.

October

Socio-economics of space According to Dr Leslie Budd and Dr Manish Patel of the Open University (OU), the role of space exploration and its socio-economic benefits are all too often overlooked in public debates. That is why a team from the OU were recently appointed to undertake a two-part study of the socio-economic benefits of exploration efforts in Low Earth Orbit and to the Moon and Mars.

As part of this, the researchers developed an evaluation methodology that can provide analytical insights into existing and future space projects. Such process allows the socio-economic development of new spaceports in Scotland, for example, to be considered in terms of inclusive growth, the UN Sustainable Development Goals, and the role of science and education in inspiring future generations of citizens.

University News

In February, Dave Mackay, who grew up in the Sutherland village of Helmsdale, became the first Scottish-born person to visit space. Having studied Aeronautical Engineering at the University of Glasgow, Dave now works as Virgin Galactic’s Chief Pilot and was carrying out a test of their spacecraft, SpaceShipTwo. Reaching an altitude of 55.85 miles, the flight was a significant step in Virgin Galactic’s ambition to offer extra-terrestrial trips for tourists.

SCRAPbook’s technical coordinator Sophie Greene said, “Since beginning this innovative project in 2018, we’ve observed and digitally mapped litter at over 5,500 locations across Scotland, much of which was found in remote or difficult-to-access locations off the north and west coast. It’s been made possible by the generous support of volunteers across Scotland, from pilots in the air to litter pickers on the ground, to whom we are extremely grateful.”

RSGS Board We would like to thank Vanessa Collingridge and Val Vannet, who stood down from the RSGS Board of Trustees at the AGM in March, for all their hard work and encouragement on our behalf. We welcome their offers to remain closely involved in helping to deliver our future plans.

We are pleased to welcome Professor John Briggs FRSGS, recently retired Clerk of Senate and Vice-Principal at the University of Glasgow, and former RSGS Vice-President, onto the RSGS Board, as a co-opted member.

John began his career as a Geography lecturer and researcher at the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. Since then, Africa has been in his blood; he has worked collaboratively with partners from across the continent, studying a range of critical issues which sit at the intersection of human, environmental and physical geography. We look forward to tapping into his wealth of experience in academia and institutional leadership.

Walton Prize Richard Scales (right) was awarded the 2016 Walton Prize for the best final-year undergraduate dissertation in Physical Geography from a Scottish university.

RSGS President Iain Stewart presented the prize, a Times Atlas, at his Inspiring People talk in Dumfries in March.

6 SUMMER 2019

Earthrise Emmanuel Vaughan-Lee, film-maker, Global Oneness Project

On 21st December 1968, Apollo 8 launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida. The threeman crew – Frank Borman, Bill Anders, and James Lovell – were the first humans to escape Earth’s orbit, venturing 240,000 miles farther than anyone before them.

Their mission was to travel to and orbit the Moon, testing the viability of a future Moon landing. Although they were instructed by NASA to take pictures of the surface of the Moon, capturing photographs of Earth was not a priority.

NASA was focused on getting to the Moon and beating the Soviet Union in the space race; everything else was secondary. Yet during their lunar orbit, the crew emerged from the dark side of the Moon to see the Earth rising before them over the lunar horizon. They scrambled to capture the image. Borman took one photograph in black and white while Anders captured one in colour. This was the first colour photograph taken of the Earth from the Moon and became known as Earthrise.

Within days, the photograph was on the front pages of newspapers and magazines around the world. The astronauts were praised as heroes – great adventurers returning from man’s most daring mission with an important artefact for humanity.

Earthrise has since become one of the most well-known photographs in history, an iconic image that shifted the vision of space exploration from one that leaves Earth behind, to one that marvels in the rare magnificence and beauty of our home planet. Borman later described the vision of the Earth as “the most beautiful, heart-catching sight of my life, one that sent a torrent of nostalgia, of sheer homesickness, surging through me.”

The photograph of the Earth as a beautiful ‘blue marble’ instilled a collective sense of wonder, awe, and stewardship toward the planet, and ushered in an awareness of the Earth as a whole – a common home that transcends borders and boundaries.

But this awe and wonder contrasted sharply with a reality on the ground in which these boundaries were being ever more asserted. Amidst outrage over oil spills, anti-war protests, and growing alarm at the rate of species extinction, Earthrise became a natural inspiration for the creation of Earth Day. On 20th April 1970 – just 16 months after the photo was taken – 20 million Americans rallied from coast to coast for a cleaner environment.

Earthrise from Apollo 8. © NASA

The resounding success of the first Earth Day led, in turn, to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency and the passage of major amendments to the Clean Air Act in December of that same year. The Clean Water Act passed in 1972, followed by the Endangered Species Act in 1973. Five years after humanity witnessed our shared home for the first time, the environmental movement was in full swing.

Now, 50 years later, what does this image represent for us as we again face intense political, social, and ecological upheaval? Could Earthrise be a symbol of remembrance that unites us? Could it act as a catalyst, enabling us to see our planet again as one ecosystem, one whole?

These questions inspired me to make the film Earthrise.

I conducted long, multi-day interviews with the Apollo 8 astronauts, discovering that all these years later, they still remembered every detail, vividly describing the mission and their experience looking back at the Earth. It was as if seeing the Earth from the Moon had awakened a primordial feeling within each of them. Home.

In crafting the story, I wanted to recreate that sense of human connection to the Earth, exploring how an audience could witness the Earth as home in the way the astronauts had. By conveying the awe and beauty of that experience, we are invited to remember the power of this image that was shared with the world.

In the months since it was released, watching the film has stirred up big questions for people in the same way the photograph did when it was first shared 50 years ago. What can we do with this profound sense of wonder and love for our home?

In the words of poet Archibald MacLeish, to whom Borman turned when he felt his own words were inadequate, ”To see the Earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautiful in that eternal silence where it floats, is to see ourselves as riders on the Earth together.” Perhaps we can again remember that we are together here, at home, on this “…bright loveliness in the eternal cold.”

“Five years after humanity witnessed our shared home for the first time, the environmental movement was in full swing.”

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Making the Moon: the legacy of Apollo Dr Simon Lock, Postdoctoral Scholar in Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology

Throughout history, civilisations have weaved intricate stories as to how our Moon came to be. But, when it comes to understanding the Moon, our civilisation has a distinct advantage: we have been there. Fifty years ago, Neil Armstrong stepped out on to the lunar surface and changed our view of the Moon forever.

Analysis of the samples brought back by the astronauts led to the development of a new hypothesis for lunar origin. The last stage of planet formation is marked by collisions between planet-sized objects. It was proposed that one of these ‘giant impacts’ could have injected a disc of material into orbit around the proto-Earth, out of which the Moon formed.

One of the major advantages of the giant impact hypothesis was that it could reproduce the angular momentum (the spin-inertia) of the Earth-Moon system. Angular momentum can be passed between different parts of a system, but the total angular momentum must stay the same. It was hence thought that the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system when the Moon first formed was the same as it is now. It was found that a Mars-mass object hitting the proto-Earth at a grazing angle and about 10km/s could produce a large enough Moon and the correct angular momentum. The ‘canonical’ impact, as it became known, became the accepted theory and can be found in every introductory textbook.

could transfer angular momentum to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, slowing the rotation of Earth. The fact that the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system could have been higher when the Moon first formed dramatically expanded the range of potential Moonforming impacts.

Exploring this wider range of impacts led us to make © NASA / JPL-Caltech / T Pyle (SSC) a fundamental discovery: giant impacts produce an entirely different type of planetary body. Giant impacts are highly energetic events. More energy is released in the first few hours of a giant impact than from the surface of the Sun over the same period. The rock of the impacting bodies is mostly melted or vaporised and huge torques leave the postimpact body rapidly rotating. What we found is that a lot of giant impacts produce bodies that are so hot and rapidly rotating that the planet overflows, pushing the outer parts of the body into orbit. The giant donut-shaped body produced is tens of times larger than Earth today. We named such bodies synestias.

“A lot of giant impacts produce bodies that are so hot and rapidly rotating that the planet overflows.”

But there is a problem. Bits of other planetary bodies are brought to Earth as meteorites. Where these meteorites come from is determined by their isotopic fingerprint (the ratio of different isotopes of the same element) and most have a fingerprint very different from Earth’s. We would then expect the body that hit the proto-Earth to have a different fingerprint from the proto-Earth. Simulations of the canonical giant impact find that the Moon is formed primarily from the impactor, and so the Moon would have inherited an isotopic fingerprint distinct from Earth. However, this is not what we observe: Earth and the Moon share identical isotopic fingerprints. Various solutions have been proposed to overcome this problem, but none has proved satisfactory.

In 2012, the game changed. A mechanism was found that

Synestias provide a very different environment for Moon formation. The synestia is so large that the Moon is formed within its vapour. Cooling of the surface by radiation drives a torrential rain of droplets (ten times the highest rain rate ever seen on Earth) into the centre of the synestia. Fragments of debris from the initial impact gobble up the falling droplets and grow to form the Moon over several years. The Moon is baked inside the synestia at thousands of degrees, acquiring the isotopic fingerprint of the vapour. Over time the synestia shrinks, leaving the Moon in orbit around Earth. Formation of the Moon from a synestia can reproduce many of its properties and help explain its isotopic similarity to Earth.

Although we have made great progress, there is a lot about lunar formation that we don’t yet understand. However, the future is bright. CNSA (China National Space Administration), NASA and various other players are planning missions to the Moon in the next decade. The measurements made by these missions, and analysis of the samples they return, will test the different lunar origin scenarios. Like the Apollo missions 50 years ago, I’m sure that we will be surprised by what we find.

© NASA / graphic by Sarah Stewart

8 SUMMER 2019

OU at 50 Susan Stewart, Director, The Open University in Scotland

“From the start, it will flow all over the United Kingdom.

Wherever the English language is spoken or understood, or used as a medium of study, and wherever there are men and women seeking to develop their individual potentialities […], there we can offer our help.”

This is how Lord Geoffrey Crowther described The Open University’s approach to the concept of ‘place’ 50 years ago, on the day in 1969 that saw Jennie Lee’s fledgling university receive its Royal Charter from the Privy Council and start its remarkable journey.

As the OU’s first chancellor, the mission he announced that day – that it would be open to people, places, methods and ideas – remains the same in 2019. Our open access policy – that no qualifications are needed to study the vast majority of our courses – has not changed, as radical now as it was 50 years ago.

Neither has our commitment to be open to places, to enable people to study with us regardless of where they are. But how we do that has changed a lot. We’re still a distance-learning university – the UK’s first – but we’ve moved from late-night programmes on BBC2 and a reliance on correspondence through the post, to cutting-edge use of online opportunities, artificial intelligence and virtual reality. This has allowed us to reach over two million students across more than 150 countries around the world in our 50 years of making higher education accessible to everyone.

room, with professional athletes and business leaders alike among those learning with us. And our partnerships with trade unions and charities make sure that everyone who needs to be able to learn, can do so.

The key thing is that our students don’t have to go to university; instead, university comes to them. Our students tell us how their kitchen, spare room, local library, oil rig, train, work canteen, or barracks becomes their university.

‘Place’ means something different to everyone and, in line with our mission, OU study is flexible enough to accommodate that.

And we’re not just limited to these shores. Our ZEST project, which is funded by the Scottish Government, has seen hundreds of teachers in Zambia’s Central Province learn how to develop more student-centred practice, with an ambition to reach thousands more by the end of the project. All the materials developed through ZEST will be available in Zambia after the project’s conclusion, free of copyright, so they can be used to reach teachers all over the country, improving the educational experience of young Zambians.

What will the next 50 years bring? Our technology will continue to change, of course. And our students will continue to study anywhere they can find a relatively quiet half-hour.

But where that is might change. The socalled fourth industrial revolution is already impacting on the way we work, travel and live. As different kinds of jobs emerge and old ones disappear, the kinds of spaces in which we find ourselves probably will too.

The typical office might look different, and so could the way we get there. Or maybe change will be slower than we think.

“[We have reached] over two million students across more than 150 countries around the world.”

Here in Scotland, 200,000 people have studied with us, from Shetland to Selkirk, Stornoway to Stonehaven, and everywhere in-between. Almost a quarter live somewhere that’s officially considered ‘remote’ or ‘rural’. We have students studying on the front line in Afghanistan, in hospitals, and in prisons. Our students are just as at home in the dressing room as they are in the board

Either way, one thing is certain: The Open University will continue to be open to people, places, methods and ideas.

And wherever people are, we’ll be there to help them learn.

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Apollo 11 and 50 years of research on Moon rocks Dr Andrew G Tindle and Dr Mahesh Anand, School of Physical Sciences, STEM Faculty, The Open University

President Kennedy’s famous “We choose to go to the Moon” speech to a crowd of 40,000 people on 12th September 1962 resonated widely with the American population and dampened some of the disquiet about the cost and value of the Moon-landing effort. It also started the space race with the Soviet Union. To quote Kennedy, “We set sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to be gained, and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used for the progress of all people. For space science, like nuclear science and all technology, has no conscience of its own.”

When Apollo 11 successfully landed on the Moon on 20th July 1969 (20:17 GMT), history was made. Arguably this was the most important event for humankind and certainly one of the most important events of the 20th century. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, who spent 21.5 hours on the Moon, including 2.5 hours for an extra-vehicular activity (EVA) at the lunar surface, and the command module pilot Michael Collins became national and international heroes, and their exploits effectively ended the space race.

USA reported first direct detection of ‘water’ (measured as hydroxyl, OH) in lunar volcanic glasses. Almost coincidentally, remote detection of ‘water’ (present either as OH or H2O) was reported by scientists working with data collected by the NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper spectrometer which was on board the first Indian Space Research Organisation orbiter mission to the Moon (Chandrayaan-1).

Over the past decade, our team at the Open University have been undertaking cutting-edge laboratory research to look for water (and other associated volatiles such as C, N, O, S and Cl) in Apollo samples and on lunar meteorites. We find it in one of the accessory minerals found in lunar rocks – the mineral apatite, and inclusions of melt trapped during the early stages of magma cooling.

To be precise, we don’t find ‘water’, the molecule H2O. Rather, we find hydrogen in the form of a hydroxyl anion, OH. Data from these apatites and melt inclusions suggest the presence of a water reservoir in the Moon similar to that of certain regions in the Earth’s interior. Furthermore, the isotopic composition of water in the lunar samples points towards water in the Moon having a common origin with that of the Earth, and the majority of this water seemed to have been delivered by asteroidal material as opposed to cometary sources. Nevertheless, this field of research remain very active as many new questions have arisen through recent findings. Therefore, understanding the origin and evolution of the Moon is very much a work in progress, and samples brought back by Apollo missions continue to play a vital role in this endeavour.

“Perhaps their most important task was to collect samples of the lunar surface.”

During the EVA, Armstrong and Aldrin performed several experiments including a soil mechanics investigation to study the properties of the lunar soil, a solar wind composition experiment, a passive seismic experiment to detect lunar ‘moonquakes’, and a laser ranging retroreflector to very precisely measure the distance between the Earth and Moon. But perhaps their most important task was to collect samples of the lunar surface. Apollo 11 returned 22kg of lunar samples to Earth.

The Apollo 11 landing was the first of six successful landings on the Moon – a phase of exploration which ended on 14th December 1972 when the lunar module of Apollo 17 lifted off from the lunar surface. In this short period of time, 12 men walked on the lunar surface, and with the help of wheeled transport in the later missions they collected 2,200 samples (rocks and soils) weighing 382kg.

To this day, those samples are continuing to be used to provide important clues into the origin and evolution of the Moon. Planetary scientists at the Open University are at the forefront of that work, and for the 50th anniversary have been working with NASA to produce a virtual microscope collection of over 550 rocks collected during the Apollo missions (www.virtualmicroscope.org/collections/apollo).

These detailed images are a starting point for many investigations worldwide and show how important the Apollo samples still are to the scientific community. Indeed, NASA lunar curators often use virtual microscope images when allocating samples for new investigations.

At the Open University, virtual microscope images are being used as part of a search for water on the Moon. The conventional view has been that the Moon is devoid of water, but in 2008, a journal article led by Dr Alberto Saal from the Brown University,

Buzz Aldrin deploying the Early Apollo Science Experiments Package. © NASA

10 SUMMER 2019

Deep Time (4.5 billion years and counting) Daniel Wormold, Learning Researcher, Natural History Museum

Try this at home. Ask someone how long they think it would take to count to one million (at one number per second); hardly anyone will get close to the real answer of 11.5 days. Then ask them to estimate how long it would take to get to one billion (31 years).

Many of us have a very poor intuitive grasp of big numbers.

I have worked as an educator at the Natural History Museum for 20 years, looking for good (fun, exciting, interactive, specimen-based, affective and effective) ways to help people understand the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection.

Without wishing to downplay (in any way) our many, many successes, there are still those who go away with frowns of consternation. It turns out that there are several prerequisites for understanding evolution, and if these are not in place, people struggle. I know researchers studying intuitive thinking about probability as a potential barrier to understanding. I became interested in scale and especially our appreciation of Deep Time.

Deep Time, or Geological Time, refers to the 4.5 billion years scientists currently estimate as the age of our planet. It is often said that things need to be understood ‘in context’.

Deep Time is the context of all life and non-life on Earth.

Without billions of years, nothing on Earth makes sense.

From the movement of the continents to the diversification of life through evolution, we need the lens of Deep Time to focus and promote our understanding. As Carl Sagan once said, “If you don’t buy billions of years then you don’t buy evolution.”

The difficulty that people have appreciating large numbers and Deep Time is one manifestation of a wider problem that people have with scale. An ability to use and understand scale is an essential part of what it means to be scientifically literate. In news that should delight all geographers, the American Association for the Advancement of Science has identified scale as one of four major, interdisciplinary themes that should be viewed as “benchmarks for science literacy.”

“Deep Time is the context of all life and non-life on Earth.”

Sadly, humans are really bad at dealing with things at scales that are vastly different from the one we usually experience.

Things that are very big, very small, or very old leave us grappling with a disorientating vertigo. Even the greatest of scientists struggle. Charles Darwin in the first edition of On the Origin of Species wrote, “What infinite number of generations, which the mind cannot grasp, must have succeeded each other in the long roll of years.”

There are some things that help some people.

• People struggle to distinguish between millions and billions.

Researchers planning the Trail of Time, a walking timeline along the rim of the Grand Canyon, concluded that they needed to write out large numbers (millions and billions) in words rather than numerals as their test subjects “got lost in the zeros.”

• Analogies can be effective for some people. I remember an exhibit at the Geological Museum from my own childhood that asked what a million was. Was it the number of leaves on a tree? Or in a forest? Was it the number of bricks in a house? Or in a town? (When I was a school teacher this became a favourite homework I would set.)

• Making it personal helps many. Primary teachers have long used body measures as an introduction to measuring. It is somehow delightful to discover that ‘scale super-users’, as interviewed by Jones and Taylors (Nobel laureates, engineers, foresters, artists and chefs) all employ casual body measures in their work.

• Standard everyday reference points also help. The chemist and the zoologist both understood the size of one micron by reference to the size of a single red blood cell (seven microns across).

Richard Dawkins once said, “Our brains evolved to deal with problems in the orders of size and speed which our bodies operate at.” Is the disorientation and sensation of vertigo one experiences staring upward at a cloudless, night sky a symptom of our struggle to reach beyond that heritage?

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Navigating by the stars Professor Wade Davis FRSGS

The sky was still clear, the ocean black, the heavens dominated by the innumerable silences of the stars. The Hokule’a lumbered into the swells, which were moderate, but still strong, enough to heave the deck and obliterate, to my eye at least, any sense of a horizon. The crew worked in twohour shifts, with everyone taking a turn at the helm, which was not a rudder but a long steering paddle that took three to handle. Enshrouded by the night, the canoe itself became the needle of a compass that was the sky. Behind us sat the navigator, a young woman named Ka’iulani, Nainoa’s protégé.

She would remain awake for 22 hours a day for the entire voyage, sleeping only for fleeting moments when the mind demanded a rest.

or celestial body remains framed, for example, within the angle subtended between the top of the mast and stays that support it. Any consistent point of reference will do.

Ka’iulani, like Nainoa and all of the experienced crew, could name and follow some 220 stars in the night sky. She knew and could track all the constellations, Scorpio and the Southern Cross, Orion, the Pleiades and the North Star, Polaris. But for her the most important stars were those low in the sky, the ones that had just risen or were about to set.

Nainoa explained: As the Earth rotates, every star comes up over the eastern horizon, describes an arc through the sky, and then sets on a westerly bearing. These two points on the horizon, where a specific star rises in the east and sets in the west, remain the same throughout the year, though the time at which a star emerges changes by four minutes every night.

Thus, as long as one is able to commit to memory all the stars and their unique positions, the time at which each is to appear on a particular night, and their bearings as they break the horizon or slip beneath it, one can envision a 360-degree compass, which the Hawaiians divide conceptually into the 32 star houses, each a segment on the horizon named for a celestial body. Any one star is only dependable for a time, for as it arcs through the sky its bearings change. But by then there will be another star breaking the horizon, again on a bearing known to the navigator. Over the course of a night at sea – roughly 12 hours in the tropics – ten such guiding stars are enough to maintain a course. To steer, the crew at the helm, instructed by the navigator, takes advantage of the canoe itself, positioning the vessel so that a particular star

The stern of the Hokule’a is square, which allows the navigator readily to orient to east and west at both sunset and break of day. There are eight marks incised along the railings on both sides of the vessel, each paired to a single point in the stern, giving bearings in two directions, fore and aft – 32 bearings altogether, which correspond to the 32 directional houses of the star compass. The navigator by day conceptually divides the horizon ahead and behind, each into 16 parts, taking as cardinal points the rising and setting of the Sun. Thus by day he or she replicates the star compass of the night. The metaphor is that the Hokule’a never moves. It simply waits, the axis mundi of the world, as the islands rise out of the sea to greet her.

With the dawn comes the Sun, always a critical transition for the navigator. It is a moment to take measure of the sea and sky, study the winds, and observe their impact on the waves. Mau, Nainoa’s teacher, had dozens of names just to identify the different widths and colours caused by the path of the Sun as its light and shadow rose and moved over water. All of these told him something about the day to come.

“The most important stars were those low in the sky, the ones that had just risen or were about to set.”

This article is extracted with permission from The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World, by Wade Davis.

12 SUMMER 2019

2019: a changing climate for optimism Mike Robinson, RSGS Chief Executive

So far in 2019 we have seen a great deal of public concern around climate change. Much of it stems from the IPCC report of late 2018, spelling out the need to drastically curb our greenhouse gas emissions within the next 12 years. This report focused political minds around the world, and led to more impassioned speeches than ever by the likes of Sir David Attenborough. It also led to increased and large-scale public expressions of concern, through some direct action, and particularly through the growing school strikes for the climate, inspired by the Swedish schoolgirl Greta Thunberg, which have now spread to tens of thousands of protestors worldwide.

In March, around 3,000 children gathered at Holyrood in Edinburgh (100,000 worldwide) demanding a safer future and more action on climate change.

much more to achieve reductions and develop innovations and opportunities are transport and agriculture. And there is a growing sense of the need for everyone in every walk of life to better understand the issue, better understand the solutions, and consider how they can respond. This is a huge global shift in the way we behave, and if an organisation wants to be robust and future proofed, it needs to understand this arena much better.

“Moving to a net zero carbon society would only cost 1-2% of GDP.”

In addition to all this popular anxiety, there is a great deal of work going on within Parliament, NGOs and other policy bodies to consider Scotland’s response to this issue. Ten years ago, Scotland set the world’s most stringent climate legislation in response to civil society pressure. The headline ask was for a 42% reduction in emissions by 2020. The Scottish Government sought the advice of the main scientific expert body in London, the UK Climate Change Committee (UKCCC). This body reported that 42% would be impossible without more effort from Europe but, bowing to enormous civil society and business support, a 42% target was eventually agreed.

Ten years on and we are confidently predicting a 56% reduction, on the face of it exceeding that 2009 ambition.

Scottish Government have already acknowledged that in light of the 2016 Paris Agreement, the targets need to be strengthened. The Parliament are in the process of creating a new 2019 Act with new targets to reflect this. The stumbling block was around when it was deemed scientifically necessary to cut emissions to net zero, versus when it was deemed economically affordable and technologically feasible. The Government had been reluctant to push the 2050 target (of an 80% reduction) to any more than 90%. Campaigners wanted 100% by 2045.

But at the end of April, First Minister Nicola Sturgeon, acknowledging the pressure from pupils on the school strikes, declared a ‘climate emergency’, followed swiftly by other political leaders in the UK and further afield. And the UKCCC produced a comprehensive report detailing what was possible for Scotland and the UK’s future climate targets. They not only set 2045 as a reasonable possible date for net zero emissions, but also spelt out that moving to a net zero carbon society would only cost 1-2% of GDP (much less than previously assumed). This target and date look likely to pass into law in the late summer. It has notably been welcomed by all levels of government, business and civil society.

The UKCCC report gave detailed sectoral plans of the challenges and actions necessary to meet these targets for every part of our society over the next few months and years. The sectors needing to do

At RSGS we have been centrally involved in policy conversations on climate change for the past ten years or more, and have been working across sectors to try to help drive solutions.

We are currently engaged with a variety of transport bodies – aviation, rail, policy, active travel – and through policy discussions and our networks, we will continue to seek more joined up thinking in this critical sector to help deliver more sustainable transport services. Separately, this summer I am co-chairing an enquiry with NFUS and convening a range of scientific and agricultural experts, to produce a report on how agriculture can play more of a role, both in reducing direct emissions and in carbon capture through land use change. And to address the need for businesses and public bodies to better understand the issue and be better placed to respond to and plan for it, we are working with the Universities of Stirling and Edinburgh and the Institute of Directors, supported by Scottish Government and wide array of partner bodies, to create a simple qualification in climate literacy for managers, which we hope will better arm everyone with an understanding of the key solutions in which they can each play a role.

There is a great deal still to do of course, but in relation to this critical issue, which so often feels difficult and gloomy, the early part of 2019 has offered much optimism and promise. We all of us have a part to play though, if we are to deliver on that promise. For the sake of the striking school children, I really hope we do.

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Climate Solutions programme Mike Robinson, RSGS Chief Executive

In partnership with the Universities of Stirling and Edinburgh, and the Institute of Directors, and with the support of the Scottish Government, we are developing a new training programme aimed at managers in the private and public sectors. As a recognised qualification, the course will evidence participants’ personal and organisational commitment to addressing climate change, and equip them with all the basic understanding they need to plan, prosper and build their businesses.

in Scotland to reconcile ecology and economy. It is time to understand that protecting the environment is a very profitable business opportunity for everyone. And the RSGS is the perfect partner to help make this happen.”

Greater climate literacy won’t just help alleviate a deficit in understanding; it will provide a wealth of opportunities.

Improved understanding of climate change will better inform business leaders about future changes in their industry – in resource use, legislation, taxation, consumer behaviour, and trade.

And this understanding will help them plan and steer their operation, and make their businesses more robust. Scotland’s global leadership on this issue benefits all Scotland’s businesses and highlights our expertise, industry and innovation to the rest of the world. What’s more, on completing the course, individuals and organisations will be able to work towards accreditation, demonstrating that they have paid attention to climate change and responded to it. Off the back of the course, we also expect a network of cross-sectoral leaders to emerge in Scotland, encouraging greater cooperation, awareness and joined-up thinking across the country and further afield.

“This course will help businesses become more robust.”

David Watt, Executive Director of the Institute of Directors in Scotland, said, “Climate change is something that affects businesses all across Scotland and, indeed, the world.

I think given where we are with our environment and climate, the more business – and everyone coming into business – knows about climate change, the better. The climate literacy programme is an important initiative on possibly the world’s most vital issue.”

The course has been written with ‘time poor’ managers in mind, in the hope that as many people as possible can improve their understanding. A set of carefully structured online learning modules will shortcut vast amounts of literature and learning. The initial modules will provide a good basic understanding of the science and current national and international policy, focusing on the minimum essential information, but with options to drill down for much more detailed information. The later modules are all about solutions: what participants and their organisations can do to help in practice. After successfully completing the online modules, participants will attend a face-to-face training event and produce a report and action plan.

Christiana Figueres FRSGS, architect of the Paris Climate Agreement, said of the course, “Climate change and its associated impacts will drive our markets and behaviours over the next few years and decades, influencing national and global trade, legislation, innovation and opportunity. Any organisation which does not understand this issue is at severe risk of losing competitiveness and even becoming obsolete.”

Bertrand Piccard FRSGS, environmentalist, explorer and initiator of the Solar Impulse Foundation, added, “The Scottish Government is a pioneer in terms of fighting climate change. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that this initiative is being developed

Dave Reay, Professor of Carbon Management & Education at Edinburgh University, is the project’s science lead. He said, “As climate change intensifies, the need for expertise, leadership and well-informed action is more urgent than ever.

This new professional qualification is precisely the kind of innovative approach required. By providing accessible, robust and stakeholder-led training on tackling climate change, this course is set to become a core of professional development right across public, private and third sector organisations.

In doing so, it will greatly enhance the capacity of Scotland, the UK and other nations to achieve the rapid emissions cuts required for a net zero future. Time is against us on climate change, so this initiative led by Mike Robinson and the RSGS can’t come soon enough.”

There are huge risks in not tackling this issue head on.

But there are huge opportunities too, in leading change here at home and around the world, as governments and organisations everywhere ramp up their responses.

This course will help businesses become more robust as sustainability and sustainable practices will become an increasingly important expectation from shareholders, staff and customers.

We have to stop thinking that this is the next generation’s problem. It’s not. We have to do something now. With the unprecedented school strikes in recent months, we need to be able to look our children in the eyes and say that we are tackling this problem.

14 SUMMER 2019

Other moons Professor David A Rothery, Professor of Planetary Geosciences, The Open University

In this 50th anniversary year of the first human landings on the Moon, let’s not forget that there are moons in abundance elsewhere in our Solar System. The innermost planets, Mercury and Venus, don’t have moons, but Mars has two.

Go beyond Mars to the giant outer planets and the number of moons per planet skyrockets. Mars’ moons are small irregular-shaped bodies, perhaps captured asteroids, but Jupiter has three moons bigger than our own, a fourth that is almost as big, and 75 known small irregular-shaped moons.

Saturn has seven moons large enough to be spherical, one of which rivals Jupiter’s biggest, plus at least 55 small irregular moons. Uranus and Neptune have fewer known moons, but they include world-sized bodies with landscapes to rival the best that their inner neighbours can show.

We will probably wait at least another 50 years before humans visit any except Mars’ moons, but robotic spacecraft have studied some of the moons of Jupiter and Saturn well enough to establish that they are high-priority targets for future robotic missions. The moons of Uranus and Neptune have been barely glimpsed by just one passing spacecraft, but this was enough to show that they too have fascinating tales to tell.

icy moons. Europa is tidally heated less strongly than Io. Here the lower part of the ‘ice’ layer is liquid water overlying warm, tidally-heated, rock. It is pretty clear that Europa has a global ocean below its surface ice shell, and that this shell is repeatedly cracked apart by tidal stresses, and that occasionally whole patches melt completely, exposing the underlying ocean to space.

For my money, Europa’s internal ocean is the likeliest venue in the whole Solar System to host extra-terrestrial life.

Chemically-charged water escaping back to the ocean floor after reacting with the hot rock of the interior could have all the ingredients necessary to support microbial life of the kind found today in the sunless depths of the Earth’s oceans around ‘hydrothermal vents’.

“For my money, Europa’s internal ocean is the likeliest venue in the whole Solar System to host extra-terrestrial life.”

There’s a much smaller icy moon of Saturn called Enceladus that also has an internal ocean, and which expels jets of ice crystals tainted with organic molecules from cracks near its south pole. We know this because NASA’s Cassini mission discovered and then flew through them, analysing their chemistry. If we were to send a better-equipped probe, it might be able to detect definite signs of life by analysing plume material without even having to land on the surface.

The only large moon with a rocky surface is Jupiter’s innermost large moon, Io. The only outer planet moon Apart from its size (1,821km where a probe has landed is radius) it could hardly be Saturn’s largest moon, Titan. more different from the Moon This has a dense atmosphere (1,738km radius), because of mostly nitrogen and a it has dozens of volcanoes few percent methane. The erupting at any one time.

A 250km-wide view of part of Jupiter’s moon Europa, showing cracks and domes in European Space Agency’s the ice that overlies the internal ocean.

Some eruptions that are Huygens lander reached Titan’s powered by expansion of surface by parachute in 2005, landing in a plain strewn with sulphur dioxide gas send plumes of volcanic ash hundreds alluvial pebbles. This looked deceptively Earth-like except that of kilometres into the sky; others emit lengthy lava flows of the pebbles are water-ice and a composition akin to basalt. The global resurfacing rate by the floods that had transported lava and fall-out from the plumes is so high that not a single them resulted from methane impact crater has escaped burial. rainfall. Using radar from space, The heat source that powers Io’s activity is not radioactive, as for the Earth and (in the past) the Moon, but tidal. Tidal interactions between Io and the next two moons outwards, Europa and Ganymede, which take respectively twice and four times as long to complete one orbit, stoke enough heat into Io’s interior to melt the magma bodies that continually rise towards the surface to feed the eruptions.

All other large moons in the outer Solar System contain a lot of ice, as well as rock. Io probably did too originally, but this has long since been entirely lost to space thanks to the volcanic eruptions. Io’s closest neighbour Europa has about 100km of ice hiding its rocky interior. This might seem a lot, but it is a smaller fraction of ice than possessed by other

the Huygens mothership Cassini imaged polar lakes still filled with liquid methane, and supplied by methane rivers entering the lakes via drowned river valleys. There is a whole hydrological cycle on Titan, based on methane rather than water.

David A Rothery is the author of Moons: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press).

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Pluto’s active icescapes: geography, but not as we know it Lucy Kissick, PhD student, University of Oxford

The surface of Pluto is amongst the last places in the Solar System anybody expected to be geologically active. At 2,376km across, it is too small – smaller than our Moon – to have remnant core heat; around six billion kilometres from the Sun, it is too distant to receive significant warmth; even tidal heating from its binary world, Charon, is negligible. And yet, when NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft sent home its first images in 2015, they were of a surface fresh, diverse, and a geographer’s dream.

bright that it was known even to astronomers from 20thcentury Hubble images. On closer inspection, the Heart is actually two distinct regions: to the east a plateau of the highest terrain, including the Tartarus Dorsa methane spikes; and to the west its deepest – a vast, frozen sea of nitrogen.

The sea’s name is Sputnik Planitia, and it is held within a near-circular basin so wide the British mainland – from John o’ Groats to Land’s End – could comfortably fit inside.

“Familiar materials take wondrous forms on Pluto.”

They were also utterly alien, even to seasoned planetary scientists. Being on average 40° above absolute zero (a toenumbing -233°C), familiar materials take wondrous forms on Pluto. H2O-water becomes hard as rock; gases in the air we breathe (nitrogen, methane, carbon monoxide) become solid ice; rock itself is buried deep within the planet’s core. While Voyager 2 briefly documented similar properties on Neptune’s moon Triton in the 1980s, New Horizons at Pluto revealed such icescapes in exquisite and unprecedented detail.

At first sight, some of the features are familiar. There are mountains taller than the Alps, for instance, but that is where their comparison to terrestrial equivalents ends. Some like the al-Idrisi Montes are made of solid water-ice, not pushed up by plate tectonics but each apparently a colossal iceberg grounded in a denser, frozen sea. Others atop the highest plateau, Tartarus Dorsa, are sculpted knives of solid methane called penitentes, each up to a kilometre high and half as long, formed by the whittling action of wind over millions of years. Others in Hyecho Palus seem to be the calderas of cryo-volcanoes – vents that erupt liquid volatiles, not rock – which rise to form the greatest height difference on the planet at 5.5km.

Craters are a ubiquitous feature across airless or near-airless bodies, and with a surface pressure 10,000 times less than our own, Pluto is no different. The largest on the hemisphere surveyed by New Horizons are ~250km across, some like Burney half-sunken and barely distinguishable from their icy substrate, others like Elliot bisecting deep graben thought to be the source of ammonia cryo-lavas. Such striking tectonic structures like the Virgil, Inanna, and Dumuzi Fossae each extend for ~1,000km, and perhaps formed with the slow, potentially-ongoing freezing of a planet-wide ocean deep below the surface. Despite its size, its isolation, and its bitterly cold temperatures, Pluto might still have tectonic activity over four billion years after its formation.

Another familiar feature upon this unfamiliar landscape are glaciers – though, as we are coming to expect, not without a signature alien twist. Water-ice is for these glaciers their bedrock, their ice a blend of nitrogen and methane that flows, piedmont-style, from valleys to debouch into a deep ice sheet. What is so astonishing about these icy tongues is that, like the fossae, Pluto’s glaciers are young: their morphology, together with modelling studies, strongly implies they may be active to this day. Research suggests they are fed as part of a seasonal cycle of nitrogen sublimation then precipitation; a kind of Plutonian hydrological cycle, one driven by its slide from sunlight to darkness along a steeply eccentric orbit.

But of all these wonders, by far the most recognisable feature on Pluto, and the most beloved, is its Heart. Named Tombaugh Regio in honour of Clyde Tombaugh, the dwarf planet’s discoverer in 1930, this region is so anomalously

Of all the myriad jewels of Pluto as seen up close by NASA’s New Horizons. © NASA / APL /SwRI, edited by Lucy Kissick Pluto’s surface, this milky ice sheet is the nucleus around which many mysteries revolve. How did the colossal waterice mountains become beached at its shores? Is its basin an impact crater almost half the diameter of Pluto itself? Were the great graben like Virgil torn apart by the strain of its mass? And, like the glaciers that debouch down its cliffs, is it, too, active? Vast polygons across Sputnik’s surface appear to be young convection cells the size of counties; but what drives this convection, and whether it continues to this day, are as open to speculation as the hemisphere opposite New Horizons’ closest approach.

Possible, perhaps, could be. These are words no discussion on Pluto can be without. Being left with more questions than answers is a common theme in planetary exploration, one as frustrating as it is exciting. For a world smaller than our Moon, however, Pluto perhaps gets more than its share.

We’ll just have to go back.

The al-Idrisi Montes are beached rafts of ice cemented in place by the nitrogen ice sheet of Sputnik Planitia. © NASA / APL / SwRI

FURTHER READING

Stern et al (2015) The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons (Science) Moore et al (2017) Penitentes as the origin of the bladed terrain of Tartarus Dorsa on Pluto (Nature) Schenk et al (2018) Basins, fractures and volcanoes: Global cartography and topography of Pluto from New Horizons (Icarus) Howard et al (2017) Present and past glaciation on Pluto (Icarus)

16 SUMMER 2019

Climate change: the role of observations from space Paul Fisher, Knowledge Transfer & Communications Manager, European Space Agency

From your wrist, a fitness tracker is possibly monitoring your everyday activity, helping you to alter habits and lead a healthier life. From hundreds of kilometres above the Earth, satellites play a similar role on a planetary scale, monitoring and gathering data across the entire globe to arm governments with the information to address the 21st century’s most pressing environmental challenge – climate change.

synthesise scientific evidence into information for policy and decision-makers.

These satellite data have improved the understanding of climate in several ways. For example, scientists tracking sea level, a prominent indicator of climate change, using 25 years of data from satellite altimeters, estimate an average 3.1mm per year global rise, and a recent acceleration in this rate. The rate of change in Greenland ice sheet elevation and the amount of Antarctic ice have been shown to also be accelerating, while earlier this year satellite data helped to estimate a loss of nine trillion tonnes of ice from the world’s glaciers, contributing 27mm to sea level rise.

“The Agency receives 150 terabytes of accurate, high-quality information on the environment and climate each day.”

At a time when global warming has never appeared more threatening, these ‘eyes in the sky’ are providing the clearest picture yet of the planet’s health. Without them, information about the oceans, atmosphere and land would be far less complete, and make it harder to combat and adapt to a changing climate.

The first Earth observation satellite launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) was the Meteosat, in 1977. Today, the Agency has 26 operational Earth observation satellites in orbit and receives 150 terabytes of accurate, high-quality information on the environment and climate each day.

In science and policy circles, Earth’s climate is composed of just over 50 variables – officially recognised as Essential Climate Variables – with most exclusively, or largely, monitored from space. Long-term datasets, spanning several decades, are required to be useful for climate research and are incorporated into the computer models that simulate the climate’s evolution. Yet, the lifespan of satellite missions is typically much shorter than this, at around ten years. To address this, the ESA instigated the Climate Change Initiative (CCI) in 2010. Involving 450 climate, Earth observation and data engineering experts across Europe, CCI research merges data from multiple historic satellite missions going back four decades, with today’s current satellites, including the Copernicus Sentinels.

Twenty-two climate variables are tackled through the CCI, from greenhouse-gas concentrations and land cover to ice sheets and sea level rise, and the resulting data products are used to support the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the UNFCCC, the bodies which assess and

Atmospheric and ocean data have helped to investigate Earth’s carbon cycling processes: observing ocean colour can determine the distribution of phytoplankton, tiny marine organisms that remove large quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere; while global datasets able to detect subtle variations in global atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide and methane have helped modellers investigate the location and strengths of both sources and sinks of these greenhouse gases.

In 2018, nine new projects were added to the CCI, one of which will focus on mapping global biomass, a major carbon store, and further improve our knowledge of the carbon cycle.

Spotlight on biomass: an essential variable for climate In 2018, the ESA CCI began a new project to map aboveground biomass.

Forests, which account for the large majority of biomass, play a large role in the Earth’s carbon balance, removing carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and releasing it back to the atmosphere following deforestation and fire events. Significant changes in the amount of biomass can have profound effects on climate.

The Biomass CCI project is working towards providing global above-ground biomass maps (Mg ha-1) and quantifyING how it changes over time. The maps will provide a key input to carbon and climate models used to determine the atmosphere/land surface exchange of carbon dioxide, resulting in improved predictions of the future climate, and informing and evaluating appropriate mitigation and adaptation actions.

The project will look at above-ground biomass over four time periods (mid 1990s, 2007-10, 2017-18 and 201819) and make use of multiple Earth Observation missions.

Combined, these data provide the information to quantify the amounts and distribution of foliage and woody plant material.

Artist’s impression of Satellite Copernicus Sentinel-1B which, along with its twin Sentinel-1A, is used to map above-ground biomass, an Essential Climate Variable.

The Biomass_cci team comprises 12 organisations from across Europe. The Science Lead is Professor Shaun Quegan (Sheffield University) and the project is managed

by Professor Richard Lucas (University of Aberystwyth).

See cci.esa.int/biomass for more information.

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SUMMER 2019

Dangerous Debris Madeleine Finlay, science journalist

Fifty years ago the world watched as a bizarre craft with its foil patchwork glinting in the sun, looking as if it had been jumbled together in a garden shed, landed for the very first time on the surface of the Moon. This historic event marked the start of the space age; humanity had proved it was no longer confined to the limits of Earth and was about to launch itself outwards.

In the intervening years probes have been sent to Mars, Jupiter, and even beyond the edge of our Solar System. Yet, the vast majority of activity has been in what might be regarded as our own backyard. Since the first satellite was placed in orbit in 1957, around 8,650 have followed, along with boosters, nuts and bolts, and even astronauts’ gloves. Today, despite there being less than 2,000 operating satellites in orbits around the Earth, more than 22,000 bits of space debris are regularly tracked. There’s also plenty more junk floating above our heads that can’t be monitored – items of 5-10cm or less, such as flecks of paint, materials fallen from degrading satellites, or dust residues from rocket engines.

© ESA

As is the case here on Earth, long-term, structural changes are required to transform how pollution is generated. The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination (IADC) committee’s guidelines, for example, ask operators to ensure that their satellites burn up in Earth’s atmosphere within 25 years of their end-of-life. Both ESA and NASA are combining this with Design-for-Demise strategies, in which crafts are manufactured to fully ablate when re-entering Earth’s atmosphere, avoiding anything making it back down to the ground.

“Debris poses a difficult, dangerous, and growing problem.”

For the satellites we depend on for communication, Earth and weather observations, or navigating new cities, debris poses a difficult, dangerous, and growing problem. Even seemingly small objects are a serious risk. A collision with debris around the volume of a coffee mug would result in a catastrophic fragmentation of a satellite. A Legobrick-sized piece could easily disable a spacecraft.

Those who have seen the 2013 thriller Gravity will have a sense of what this looks like. In the film, a Russian missile strike on a defunct satellite causes a chain reaction of debris collisions that eventually rip through the protagonist’s shuttle, destroying it and leaving her stranded. For a Hollywood movie it is troublingly prescient. Over the past decade, scientists have become increasingly concerned about the Kessler syndrome, a cascading effect where each collision generates more debris and further encounters. Many believe we are now on the brink of this scenario, which could leave orbits perilous and unsafe for future use.

With the prospect of several private companies launching mega-constellations composed of thousands of satellites, countries and their space agencies are alive to the pressing need to deal with debris and declutter orbits. As the greatest threat comes from the biggest objects, the focus of technological efforts is on deorbiting and destroying defunct satellites. Recent tests of junk-catchers by the RemoveDEBRIS consortium based at the University of Surrey have included nets and harpoons. Eventually these should drag captured debris back into the Earth’s atmosphere for a fiery death. More explosive options include lasers and anti-satellite missiles, although as the Chinese anti-satellite missile test in 2007 proved, by blowing more than 3,400 fragments into orbit, such methods can end in disaster.

Yet, more needs to be done to enforce mitigation regulations.

According to Saadia Pekkanen, Professor of International Studies and Adjunct Professor of Law at the University of Washington, “solutions to the orbital debris problem cannot just be technological.” In fact, the increasing militarisation of space, exemplified by numerous anti-satellite missile tests, means that the next space race may already be happening under the guise of debris removal. Certainly, the politics of space and technology adds another complex layer to an already challenging problem. “Diplomacy is a big part of it,” says Saadia. “We don’t need to create more treaties – we need to make sure that everyone has the same understanding of what is a peaceful use of space. We have to work on trust between countries. This is the right time to take these conversations forward.”

Half a decade on from the first mission to the Moon, it is worthwhile reflecting on what lies ahead for our future off-Earth. There is no doubt that debris is a problem that desperately needs fixing. But with substantial effort in the proper places, we may yet be able to take a small step towards sustainability in space.

18 SUMMER 2019

“Sri Lanka remains a beautiful and remarkable island, and a wonderful place to visit.”

Sri Lanka: fragile jewel in the Indian Ocean Mike Robinson, RSGS Chief Executive Sri Lanka is a country in turmoil. The recent attacks in churches and hotels in three of its cities, that killed more than 250 people and injured hundreds more, have left people in complete shock, and promise to have repercussions for some time to come.

This country, still rebuilding itself after 26 years of a terrible and selfdestructive civil war, had managed to move on in the decade since, building a seemingly peaceful and religiously tolerant society in this ‘emerald jewel’ of the Indian Ocean. Tourism is its fastest growing industry, and is vital to the success of the country as it rebuilds itself.

Lonely Planet rated Sri Lanka as the best country to visit in 2019, citing its beautiful landscapes, exceptional wildlife and stunning variety. And it has an incredibly warm and friendly people.

These recent attacks could in theory have happened anywhere, and were largely, it seems, the doing of a single ‘radicalised’ family, but in Sri Lanka they have certainly caused huge damage to an already fragile people and economy.

Sri Lanka remains a beautiful and remarkable island, and a wonderful place to visit. If it is to recover, it needs people to see beyond this latest set of atrocities, and to keep visiting. For everyone’s sake, I hope tourists do still seek it out, and that it can bounce back quickly.

Otherwise its instability is only likely to grow further.

See the RSGS website for a longer version of this article.

Images © Mike & Jamie Robinson

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SUMMER 2019

20 SUMMER 2019

Beresheet : first privately-funded Moon mission Professor Monica Grady, Professor of Planetary and Space Sciences, The Open University

It came so close. It even took a selfie. But with only a few kilometres left to descend, something went wrong and the spacecraft Beresheet veered out of control, taking one final photograph just before it hit the surface.

On the face of it, Beresheet was a dismal failure, once again showing that space exploration is a high-risk, difficult enterprise that often ends in disappointment. But this is not the right way to think of it. The Israeli mission will be remembered as a pioneering achievement that helped to change the way the space industry operated. The story behind Beresheet (Hebrew for genesis, or beginning) is one of determination and drive.

Three engineers got together to try for the Google Lunar XPrize, an international competition that challenged groups to design, build and fly a spacecraft to the Moon and land it safely. The company they formed, SpaceIL, attracted backers and funding, and made it all the way to the final, but they were not ready to launch before the challenge deadline. Even so, they persevered, with further donations from backers and the general public, and made it to the Moon. The spacecraft is a world first: a privatelyfunded, non-governmental vessel launched by a privatelyfunded, non-governmental launch company.

To design and build a space mission through a national space agency takes decades. Public money is involved, and there has to be a fair and transparent process of mission selection to ensure that all scientific communities get the opportunity to advance their subject, almost always against a background of shrinking budgets. The SpaceIL experience demonstrated that a small group of people with a specific aim in mind can succeed in getting their project, literally, off the launch pad, without

having to go through countless (science) review processes.

“To design and build a space mission through a national space agency takes decades.”

But why has such a mission not taken place sooner? The growth of the space industry has expanded dramatically over the past decade, to service the continual need for Earth-orbiting satellites. Technological advances have led to cost savings, and we now have independent companies that can supply rockets and launchers to deliver vehicles into space.

It may seem that the loss of Beresheet will put back development of private space missions. But I don’t think so.

Now we know what is possible, I think that there will be a more open discussion of how space agencies and private enterprise can work together, taking advantage of each other’s strengths.

Beresheet’s science goals were modest: to take some photographs of its landing site, and make magnetic measurements that could be coupled with the surrounding geology and landscape. On balance, lunar science will probably get by without these results. But Beresheet’s contribution to space and lunar exploration is so much more than its science instruments. It is the future possibilities that Beresheet represents, bringing our ability to explore beyond the Earth just that little bit closer to home.

This article was first published in full on The Conversation (theconversation.com/beresheet-first-privately-funded-missioncrashes-on-moon-but-its-significance-is-huge-115404).

Prospecting for water on the Moon Dr Simeon Barber, School of Physical Sciences, The Open University

Fifty years ago, the first space race ended. Now, a new race is underway, to find lunar water: water that could help us understand our place in the Universe; water that could lead to a new, more sustainable mode of space exploration through harvesting it in situ on the Moon for producing rocket fuel and to provide life support for a new cadre of astronauts.

Meanwhile, scientists had been continuously honing their analytical techniques in the laboratory, performing ever more sensitive and exquisite analysis on those precious Moon soil and rock samples. Their findings suggest that the Moon not only contains water as a surface veneer, further concentrated in cold traps, but also within the interior of the Moon itself.

So why is everyone excited about lunar water now, when we could see that the Moon walked upon by the astronauts was a dry barren place – and this seemed to be backed up by the analyses performed on lunar rock and soil samples?

The Open University is at the forefront of a new wave of missions to the Moon. I lead a team working with the European Space Agency (ESA) to develop new instruments to prospect for lunar water.

The first project is building for ESA a miniature science laboratory called ProSPA which will land near the south pole in 2024. Samples drilled from on and below the surface will be analysed in situ, and ProSPA will take close-up photos of these new, icy samples and use mass spectrometers to measure their water content along with other ices, organic materials and gases. These data will provide ground truth to help interpret the bigger picture as seen by orbiting spacecraft. We will find out not only how much water is there, but how it is distributed and even where it might have come from.

“The Moon still holds many mysteries.”

Following a hiatus in the 1980s, lunar exploration resumed with a number of spacecraft missions, which revealed the lunar poles to be in stark contrast to the mainly equatorial regions visited in the 1960s and 1970s: vast regions lay in permanent shadow from the Sun and surface temperatures were 200 degrees or more below zero Celsius – amongst the coldest in our Solar System. These areas act as vast ‘cold traps’: many chemical substances such as water, other ices and organic compounds delivered to the Moon by asteroid and comet impacts would migrate to the poles and accumulate there in a permanent deep freeze. Our Moon may therefore be witness to billions of years of history of water and other important molecules in the vicinity of Earth.

The last 50 years of lunar science have taught us that the Moon still holds many mysteries, and that the most complete understanding must be built up from multiple complementary measurements made across various landing sites.

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SUMMER 2019

The Moon over Mount Teide: astronomy in a volcanic landscape Dr Alan Cayless, physicist and astronomer, The Open University in Scotland

“In 1856 Piazzi Smyth established an observing site on the eastern slopes of Mount Teide.”

Caught in the first rays of the rising Sun, the volcanic slopes of Mount Teide provide a stunning backdrop to the setting full Moon.

At 3,718m above sea level, the peak of Mount Teide is the highest point in Spain and indeed in the Atlantic. A shield volcano, Teide is only slightly lower than Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea in Hawaii, both of which are over 4,000m.

Visitors to the island of Tenerife can easily ascend the volcano by means of the cable car, or Teleférico, which rises to within 200m of the summit, providing panoramic views of the surrounding caldera. Although Mount Teide is presently considered dormant following its last significant eruption in 1909, wisps of escaping gas and recent deposits of sulphurous rocks are very much in evidence along the trails that lead from the cable car station. Ascent to the very summit (Pico del Teide) is possible only on foot, and requires a special permit obtainable through the Teide National Park website. The approach road to the cable car base station winds thorough an astonishing terrain composed of stunning volcanic outcrops, some of which are reminiscent of a Martian landscape and would in all probability be ideal for testing a Mars rover.

In common with the Hawaiian islands, Tenerife is home to an astronomical observatory. The Observatorio del Teide, which includes two telescopes owned by the Open University, is situated on a volcanic ridge approximately 13km to the east of the main peak. The observatory’s altitude of 2,400m, while lower than the peak itself, still places it above a significant portion of the Earth’s atmosphere, providing clear views of the night sky.

Scotland has strong historical links to the use of the island for astronomy. Tenerife was the location originally chosen by Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Royal for Scotland 184688, who was looking for an observing position free from the turbulence of the atmosphere. In 1856 Piazzi Smyth established an observing site on the eastern slopes of Mount Teide. At 3,300m, the Alta Vista observatory was above the most turbulent layers of the atmosphere, providing Piazzi Smyth with the crystal-clear images of stars that he had been unable to obtain through the often unstable skies of Edinburgh. For these very same reasons, Tenerife continues to be an ideal site for astronomical observations.

At the present-day observatory, the twin domes of the Open University’s PIRATE and COAST telescopes sit alongside larger telescopes and other astronomical installations operated by institutions from all over the world. Forming part of the University’s innovative OpenScience Laboratories, these

two telescopes are used to investigate phenomena such as variable stars and supernovae, following up alerts from the European Space Agency’s Gaia satellite. Undergraduate and postgraduate Open University students also use these telescopes in projects which include characterising star clusters and investigating eclipsing binary stars.

Although astronomers typically prefer the dark skies provided by moonless nights, the observatory at night can be very atmospheric by moonlight. The clear conditions that are so important for astronomical imaging also make the Moon’s light brighter and clearer. On a recent visit, the PIRATE telescope silhouetted against the cloud layer illuminated by the full Moon made a truly inspiring sight.

While the observing conditions at a truly dark site such as Tenerife are required for studying the fainter and more distant objects in the Universe, stunning views of brighter objects such as the Moon can be obtained from much closer to home in Scotland – all that is needed is a crisp clear night when turbulence is low and the air is still. In these conditions, an incredible amount of detail can be seen on the Moon’s surface with even a small telescope.

Scotland is leading the way in opening up the use of the OpenScience telescopes to the next generation of astronomers. Pupils from Denny High School have recently played a crucial role in the developmental testing of a new eight-week course, Astronomy with an online telescope, operating the COAST telescope remotely to obtain their own stunning images of distant galaxies. This free course will be available shortly through the University’s OpenLearn website.

While a visit to experience Tenerife’s breath-taking volcanic landscape in person is thoroughly recommended, remote operation over the internet makes it possible to make use of the telescopes in Tenerife from anywhere in the world. In doing so, the astronomers of the future will be following in the footsteps of Scotland’s intrepid Astronomer Royal from 150 years ago.

Dr Alan Cayless is a member and former chairman of the Stirling Astronomical Society, which preserves and operates a 130-year old observatory in the centre of Stirling’s historical Old Town and is active in outreach projects in the local area.

22 SUMMER 2019

Astronomical photography Mark Thompson DSc, astronomer, presenter and author

Capturing an image of the night sky may at first sight seem easy; after all, modern cameras can automatically adjust exposure, leaving you to worry about composition. Sadly, astronomical photography is not quite that simple. The objects are usually quite faint and small in the sky, and when you add into the mix that they are moving – or rather the Earth is turning, causing them to slowly drift across the sky – you might realise that the seemingly simple task of photographing the night sky has become more complicated.

nice and high (around 3200 works well for me), set the aperture as wide as you can, and set an exposure of ten seconds. Now point the camera at a bright star and take a shot.

Look at the image and use the camera’s zoom feature to home in on a star. Look closely at it and see if it is a pinpoint or more like a small disk. If it’s a pinpoint, then you are lucky and move on to the next step. If it’s a disk, adjust your focus and take another image. If it’s getting smaller, you are going the right way so continue until it’s a pinpoint; if it’s getting larger, go the other way!

One of the most rewarding and simplest forms of astronomical photography is star trail photography. In its most simple form, a DSLR camera attached to a tripod can be exposed to the night sky for 30 minutes or more and, as the Earth spins, the apparent movement of the stars overhead will be captured, revealing colourful star trails above a more familiar foreground. Yet even this can be fraught with the challenges of focus, exposure, composition and technical failure. The good news is that there are a number of things you can do to make things easier for yourself to get a great picture.

4. Compose – For the best results, point the camera northeast or north-west. Pointing it south will result in straight lines, but to the north-west or north-east you will get nice curves. Try and get something interesting in the foreground too.

“One of the most rewarding and simplest forms of astronomical photography is star trail photography.”

1. The Kit – To capture star trail images you will need your DSLR camera attached to a good sturdy tripod. A wide-angle lens will give you the best results; I like to use 28mm or wider.

Finally, you will need a method of capturing lots of pictures automatically; for this, I use an intervalometer. Mine allows me to capture a maximum of 399 pictures of a defined duration, allowing me to kick off the series of pictures and go indoors to warm up and have a cup of tea.

2. Timing – Wait for a clear moonless night for the best star field photographs. The Moon is quite bright and can ruin your result, so is best avoided. Wait until the sky is good and dark; in the summer this can be quite late!

3. Focus – The first step is to get the thing focused. Most lenses have an ‘infinity’ setting, but I have yet to find a camera/lens that focuses on infinity at this point. Set your lens to infinity as a starting point, set camera sensitivity (ISO)

5. Settings – With your camera lined up and focused, keep the ISO at around 3200, keep the lens aperture nice and wide, and set the exposure to 30 seconds. Take an image and check you can see lots of stars with a nice foreground that is not over exposed. Now set up your intervalometer to take 120 images of 30-second duration and, when you are ready, hit the start button on your intervalometer. Now you can go in for a cup of tea, leaving it running. This will give you 120 images of 30 seconds each, which will equate to a final image one hour long.

6. Finish – Once complete, that’s you finished outside. Take your camera in, and download an application called StarStax. It has a great tutorial, but first you point the software at your 120 images, and then you tell it to stack them all together. Before your very eyes you will see your first star trail image build into something beautiful.

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SUMMER 2019

The world’s best skies for stargazing, eclipses and more Jamie Carter, science and travel journalist

Astro-travel is on the rise. From shadow-chasing and aurorahunting to hanging out on mountaintops and under dark skies, stargazers and astronomers are always searching for new places to stand and stare at the sky. With light pollution rapidly increasing across the globe, stargazers have to travel ever further into the wilderness for a glimpse of the Milky Way. That’s something barely 1% of humans have ever seen.

The same goes for the polar lights, and total solar eclipses, which are great reasons to follow lines on maps to the ends of the Earth to glimpse something incredible. Here’s why, when, and where to go.

Eclipse-chasing

“Perhaps the most perfect celestial sight for any geographer is a total solar eclipse.”

Perhaps the most perfect celestial sight for any geographer is a total solar eclipse. They occur when the Sun is blocked by the Moon (which by sheer coincidence appear to be the same size in our sky), and for a few mesmerising minutes observers in a 100-mile-wide ‘path of totality’ Moon shadow get to glimpse the Sun’s corona with the naked eye. Ice white and spewing into space, the Sun is momentarily revealed as what it is, a star alone in space. It’s a humbling sight to behold and has spawned a whole industry of meteorologists, cartographers, astronomers, and nature-lovers who are hooked on the sight, and preparing expeditions to see them.

The next eclipse is on 2 July 2019, and visible only from the South Pacific, Chile’s Elqui Valley, and the High Andes of western Argentina. The next one after that is on 14 December 2020, when it again slides across Chile and Argentina. Then it’s the turn of Antarctica (2021), Western Australia (2023) and North America (2024). The next total solar eclipse in the UK won’t occur until 23 September 2090, along the south coast of England. Scotland has to wait until 7 October 2135.

Dark sky destinations Rampant light pollution has led to the establishment of International Dark Sky Parks, Dark Sky Preserves (in Canada), and Starlight Reserves (mostly in Spain). Not surprisingly, many of these places are already national parks, protected areas or wilderness regions, so make for wonderful trips in themselves.

They’re easiest to find between September and March purely because the nights are longest, with Iceland, northern Scandinavia, northern Russian, Alaska, and northern Canada the best locations. Aurora australis, the southern lights, are far more elusive simply because they’re visible largely across ocean, though they’re frequently seen between March and September from South Georgia Island, and less so from the Falkland Islands and the most southerly parts of New Zealand’s South Island.

Observatory tours To get the best possible views of the night skies, astronomers build their ever bigger telescopes and mirrors above the clouds where the air is at its clearest, driest and thinnest.

Most of the world’s biggest, such as the creatively-named Extremely Large Telescope at 3,046m, are in the Atacama Desert in Chile, with two other important sites being the 4,200m high summit of Hawaii’s Mauna Kea and the 2,396m high Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in La Palma in the Canary Islands, but there are dozens of other high altitude peaks across the globe hosting observatories. All have spectacular views, and some do tours.

Planetary transits Every so often, the inner planets Venus and Mercury appear to ‘transit’ the Sun’s disk, passing as a small shadow across the face of the Sun. It was Captain James Cook’s noting of the start and end times of a transit of Venus in 1769 while in Tahiti that gave astronomers data to calculate the distance to Venus and thus the size of the Solar System.

The next transits of Venus are not until 2117 and 2125, so forget about seeing that, but the next transits of Mercury (and the last until 2032) will occur on 11 November 2019. It will be visible from 12:37pm in the UK and still be ongoing when the Sun sets about 4:00pm. To see the whole thing, which requires using a telescope fitted with a solar safety filter, visit an observatory in North or South America.

Wishing you wide eyes and clear skies.

In Scotland, the most famous is Galloway Forest Dark Sky Park, though Tomintoul and Glenlivet – Cairngorms Dark Sky Park was officially recognised in November 2018 as having almost no interference from light pollution. Elsewhere around the globe are geographical hotspots such as Arches National Park and Death Valley in the USA, NamibRand Nature Reserve in Namibia, Great Barrier Island in New Zealand, and the Pitcairn Islands in the South Pacific. If you want to see the Milky Way arcing across the sky after sunset, visit any dark sky destination between September and October.

Polar lights Another great reason to indulge in astro-travel is to see the aurora borealis or northern lights. The results of interaction of space weather with Earth’s magnetic fields, finding the bright green lights that occur frequently at 64° and 70° North latitudes is, like eclipse-chasing, largely about cloud-dodging.

The Northern Lights as seen from Iceland’s Snæfellsnes Peninsula. © Jamie Carter

Jamie Carter is a science and travel journalist for Forbes, The Sky At Night, Sky & Telescope and Travel+Leisure, editor of WhenIsTheNextEclipse.com, and author of A Stargazing Program for Beginners: A Pocket Field Guide.

24 SUMMER 2019

SPRINT for space: how the OU is helping the UK space industry Martine Harvey MPhys MSc, Regional Space Innovation Manager, The Open University Space is one of The Open University’s priority research areas, and the OU has been involved in many high-profile space missions. With growing interest and investment in space in the UK, including space ports and the Space Growth Partnership, there are great opportunities for collaboration in the space sector.

Changing landscape of the space sector

The SPRINT funding is part of an investment of £67 million through Research England’s Connecting Capability Fund in new collaborative projects to drive forward world-class university commercialisation. The five SPRINT core partners are the Universities of Edinburgh, Leicester, Southampton, Surrey and The Open University. SPRINT is supported by funders, government, investors and innovation companies such as UK Space Agency, Seraphim Space Camp, UK Space Tech Angels, and the Satellite Applications Catapult.

“There are great opportunities for collaboration in the space sector.”

For some time, large companies have dominated the space sector, with smaller companies having to secure their place in the supply chain with little opportunity to influence the sector. The growth of ‘New Space’ over the last couple of decades has changed this, and now space start-ups are becoming commonplace. Smaller cheaper satellites are being developed, and machine learning is opening up new opportunities for the use of Earth Observation data. The barriers to entry for smaller companies have been lowered because it is easier and cheaper to gain access to space.

There is also a growing amount of space data available, some of which is free, leading to new applications and generating a diverse set of customers.

Another important factor is the focus on private sector funding, with venture capitalists looking for companies to back, and business incubation centres investing in space start-ups. The increasing investment by the private sector means that there is less of a reliance on government involvement. Small to Medium size Enterprises (SMEs) can now play a more strategic part in the space sector, driving new applications for space data and providing faster lowercost access to space.

The SPRINT programme UK universities offer a breadth and depth of expertise in the space sector, as well as facilities and laboratories, and so helping SMEs (who often lack all the expertise or facilities they need) clearly makes sense. Universities benefit from real-world applications and data, while SMEs can access world-class expertise or facilities on a bespoke basis. University-Industry collaboration has the potential to unlock innovation for economic benefit and it can also build new areas of research.

When academic expertise is applied in the commercial arena, it can often be the missing piece of the jigsaw that allows a breakthrough in product development or a significant reduction in costs. It is exactly for these reasons that the SPace Research and Innovation Network for Technology (SPRINT, sprintnetwork.space) came about. The three-year programme aims to speed up the development of space-related technology in the UK by funding access to university expertise and facilities.

The £4.8 million SPRINT programme engages SMEs in the UK and provides support. SPRINT will allow UK SMEs to access a university knowledge-base and work with SPRINT partners to innovate, accelerate technologies and develop novel products and services. The programme also supports space and space-enabled businesses to scale up through the development of links with funders and investors.

The Open University’s part in SPRINT

The Open University is enthusiastic about being part of the SPRINT programme, and the opportunity to use decades of expertise involved in space research to help SMEs improve their products and services.

The Open University has had significant impact on space research, with involvement in high-profile programmes such as the Rosetta Mission, where they developed the Ptolemy space instrument that determined that the building blocks of life are present on a comet. Space research includes the remote use of telescopes for Situational Awareness, fluid-rock interactions, characterisation and optimisation of sensors for space imaging and microgravity. The engineering research groups also have an important part to play in the SPRINT programme, by using their expertise in Diffusion Bonding, Engineering Design, Materials Characterisation, and Stress Measurements.

Two SPRINT projects have already been awarded to The Open University, and there will be many more SPRINT projects to come as new SMEs come onto the programme.

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SUMMER 2019

Lift-off: the UK’s ambitions for small satellite launch Claire Barcham, Commercial Space Director, UK Space Agency

From instant credit card authorisation to mapping the depths of the world’s oceans, small satellites support a wealth of applications that we rely on every second of every day. And as our demand for data increases, so too will demand for small satellite launch. Indeed, launching small satellites commercially is estimated to be worth up to £3.8 billion to the UK over the next decade.

The UK is well placed to host new commercial launch and sub-orbital flight services. We have the right geography to access a range of valuable polar and sub-synchronous orbits, the right business environment in which to develop new launch services, and the right industry ready to support and exploit new launch opportunities. To harness this, the Government’s £50 million Spaceflight Programme aims to kick-start small satellite launch and sub-orbital spaceflight from UK spaceports, as part of government’s wider ambition to grow the UK’s share of space activity to 10% of the global market by 2030.

Why launch from the UK? The UK’s long coastline and island location make it suited to launch into a range of valuable polar and sun-synchronous orbits. These orbits are popular for hosting communications and imaging satellites which we rely on for everything from remote internet connection to weather forecasting. Government will work with any location interested in developing a commercial spaceport, and there are a number of potential sites in the UK from as far afield as Llanbedr in Wales to the Shetland Islands.

establish the environment for safe and responsible commercial operations from UK spaceports.

We have legislated to allow for the regulation of a wide range of new commercial spaceflight technologies, including traditional vertically-launched vehicles, air-launched vehicles, and sub-orbital spaceplanes and balloons.

What will be the impact on the environment?

Government has always been clear that spaceflight activities must not unduly impact on the environment, and we take this commitment very seriously. Due to the type of launches that will take place in the UK, any proposed spaceport is likely to have a relatively small footprint, comprising an assembly building, a launch pad, some office space, and facilities for storing fuel.

“The UK is well placed to host new commercial launch and sub-orbital flight services.”

Each location has its own unique geography and local infrastructure, lending the UK a capability to host a variety of different types of spaceflight activity, including both horizontal and vertical launch.

As part of our Spaceflight Programme and the Government’s Industrial Strategy, in July 2018 we announced £31.5 million in grant funding to support small satellite launch from a new spaceport in Sutherland, Scotland.

Government has also announced a £2m fund to support locations interested in developing a horizontal spaceport, such as Prestwick and Newquay, to progress their plans.

The Space Industry Act contains a requirement for potential licensees to produce an assessment of environmental effects of their proposed activity. No spaceport or operator licence will be granted without this assessment. This is on top of complying with existing environmental and planning legislation. Ultimately, if the impact on the environment is deemed too significant by the regulator, then a licence will not be granted.

How will spaceports benefit the UK and local communities?

When will the first launches take place?

Our Spaceflight Programme will help develop skills, capabilities and supply chains to grow the UK share of the global commercial launch market. This will create high skilled jobs and local opportunities around UK spaceports, and allow our thriving space industry to compete in more areas of the space economy. For example, Highlands and Islands Enterprise anticipate the proposed spaceport in Sutherland could create 400 jobs across Scotland in areas such as construction as well as highly skilled jobs at the site itself. It is likely that spaceport locations will receive a boost to tourism from the additional interest generated by the spaceport, and that there will be new opportunities for local businesses to directly support the site.

Our aim is for the first UK launches to take place from the early 2020s. This is an ambitious timeline, but we have already put in place the Space Industry Act, a flexible high-level regulatory framework, and are working closely with industry to

The space sector is growing fast, and we’re going to need an additional 30,000 people to join it over the next decade to meet our ambitions for growth. Satellite launch from the UK, and indeed the potential to work in Scotland’s first rocket factory, presents a huge opportunity to inspire children and young people to take up careers in science, engineering or even as space entrepreneurs – helping to ensure the ongoing growth of the UK’s space industry.

26 SUMMER 2019

Of microbes and men

EnVision Venus

Professor Charles Cockell FRSE, UK Centre for Astrobiology, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh

Dr Philippa J Mason, Department of Earth Science & Engineering, Imperial College London

The question of whether there is life elsewhere in the Universe probably ranks as one of the most interesting questions in science. However, there is the equally interesting prospect of humans moving beyond the home planet and themselves becoming life elsewhere in the Universe.

This summer, we are launching to the International Space Station an experiment on which our lab has been leading for a number of years. With miniature bioreactors (Biomining Reactors or BMRs) containing slices of basalt rock, the BioRock experiment will investigate how good microbes are at extracting economically useful metals from rocks. Microbes are widely used on the Earth in biomining to help break up and extract valuable metals from ores. The apparatus will be the first prototype biomining reactors to be launched into space.

“We are interested in how microbes form biofilms across surfaces in space.”

We are interested in how microbes form biofilms across surfaces in space. Biofilms on the Earth foul industrial plants and grow in medical instruments; in space, they eat the plastics aboard space stations. We want to know how gravity affects the growth of biofilms and whether we could use this to our advantage by encouraging microbes to grow in rocks and soils on distant worlds as part of our own space settlement. Microbial biofilms could be used to transform basalt on the Moon and Mars into soils.

During the spaceflight, microbes will be grown in microgravity (essentially gravity-free), at Martian gravity (0.38 g), and simulated Earth gravity (1 g) using the on-board KUBIK centrifuges. The samples will be fixed using chemicals and returned to the Earth. We will investigate how the microbes grew across the rock surfaces, what elements they leached from the rock, and how space conditions changed their growth. Of the three microbes we plan to test, our Edinburgh focus is Sphingomonas desiccabilis, a desiccation resistant microbe that lives naturally in desert soil crusts and is a particularly enthusiastic biofilm-former.

The BioRock project is just one initiative that sits in the UK Centre for Astrobiology, a virtual centre that we established at the University of Edinburgh in 2011. Our overarching interests are in life in extremes and what that might tell us about the habitability of other planetary bodies. Over the last eight years, we have led a number of projects. Two years ago, we led a microbiology study of the Chicxulub crater, the site of the asteroid collision that killed the dinosaurs and 75% of animal life at the end of the Cretaceous. What influence did this catastrophic impact have on the deep subsurface biosphere? Astrobiology takes us into extreme environments on the Earth and out into space.

© NASA / JPL

Venus should be the most Earth-like of all our planetary neighbours: its size, bulk composition and distance from the Sun are very similar to those of Earth. Its early atmosphere was probably similar to that of early Earth, with abundant water that would have been liquid under our young Sun’s weaker output. With its global cloud cover, the surface of Venus currently receives less solar energy than we do on Earth, so why did a moderate climate ensue here, but a catastrophic runaway greenhouse on Venus? At some point in time it all went wrong for Venus, and we believe there are lessons to be learned about the life story of terrestrial planets in general. If Earth were just a little closer to the Sun, would it have evolved to become like Venus? Or do internal dynamics, geological activity, volcanic outgassing and weathering also play an important part in its story? Most geoscientists would believe the latter.

ESA’s Venus Express mission answered some important questions about Venus and discovered tantalising hints of current volcanic activity, including tenfold changes in mesospheric sulphur dioxide, anomalously dark lava surrounding volcanoes, and surface temperature anomalies that all point towards activity which had not been expected from NASA’s Magellan mission of the early 1990s. Magellan showed us that Venus has abundant volcanic and tectonic features, but did not have the resolution or technology necessary to detect whether that geological activity was current or historic.

“At some point in time it all went wrong for Venus.”

EnVision is a medium-class ESA mission proposed by a team of scientists from across Europe and USA, to determine the nature and current state of geological activity on Venus and its relationship with the atmosphere, to better understand how and why Venus and Earth could have evolved so differently. Envision will be launched on an Ariane 6.2 from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana in 2032. Once EnVision arrives in its final quasi-polar slightly elliptical low Venus orbit, it will continue to orbit the planet for at least four cycles (one cycle equals one Venus sidereal day of 243 Earth days). The total mission duration is expected to be between five and six years.

The EnVision mission takes advantage of Europe’s worldleading position in Venus research and in interferometric radar, to address universally relevant questions about the evolution and habitability of terrestrial planets. In doing so, it will provide a range of global image, topographic, and subsurface data at a resolution rivalling those available from Earth and Mars, inspiring public imagination and the next generation of European scientists and engineers.

All the latest information on the mission, including its science team and a video impression of what EnVision will look in deployment at Venus, is on the website envisionvenus.eu. Science team activity is usually reported on Twitter @envisionvenus.

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SUMMER 2019

Space weather: northern lights and technology hazard Dr Alan Thomson, Head of Geomagnetism, British Geological Survey

The Sun’s light and heat drive the Earth’s weather systems.

However, the Sun is also important as a source of space weather, a natural hazard of the space environment that is increasingly significant to society. We rely on satellites in space for global communication and for navigation systems such as the US Global Positioning System. Whilst it might not be a surprise that space-borne equipment could be damaged by space hazards, it is also the case that we depend on closer-to-home technologies that are also affected by space weather.

Space weather can broadly be defined as changes in particle and electromagnetic radiation throughout the solar system, including around the Earth, beyond the lowest layers of the atmosphere. Variations in space weather, and longer-term space climate, depend on how the Sun’s magnetic field changes over time. Rapid magnetic changes over several tens of minutes can result in solar eruptions, in the form of coronal mass ejections and solar flares. Both of these phenomena can throw million-ton clouds of electrically charged particles into the solar wind, at speeds readily in excess of hundreds of kilometres per second and on scales that dwarf the Earth. The Sun’s evolving magnetism can also lead to open channels in its outer atmosphere. These coronal holes allow faster solar wind to stream from the Sun, often persisting for several months at a time.

Solar particle clouds and streams arriving at the Earth deposit energy and particles into the planet’s protective magnetosphere. The magnetosphere is a consequence of the Earth’s own magnetic field, which resists the magnetic field carried in the passing solar wind. The Earth’s field effectively creates a cavity within the solar wind. On the inside of this cavity, electrical currents circle the planet within the ionosphere, at a height of around 100km. Currents also connect the ionosphere to the magnetosphere’s boundary with the solar wind, at tens of thousands of kilometres altitude. Populations of particles largely trapped within the magnetosphere, between the ionospheric and the solar wind boundaries, lead to a radiation hazard to satellites and spacecraft, whilst creating the visible Aurora within the upper atmosphere at high latitudes. Electrical currents created by these populations of charged particles also generate magnetic fields. Magnetospheric magnetic fields are weak, close to the Earth, in comparison with the magnetic field of the Earth. However, rapid changes in these magnetic fields have consequences, even to ground level.

by severe space weather. Rapidly changing magnetic fields produced by space weather generate an electric field at the Earth’s surface, causing electrical currents with certain characteristics to flow through the power transmission network. During significant space weather, these currents may permanently damage electricity transformers or trip protective relays, leading to power blackouts. This same electric field changes any voltage difference between oil or gas pipelines and the ground. This can lead to enhanced corrosion of pipeline steel, shortening the pipe’s lifetime.

“Variations in space weather, and longerterm space climate, depend on how the Sun’s magnetic field changes over time.”

Recent episodes of severe space weather, which persisted for several days and that resulted in documented impacts on infrastructures, occurred in 1982, 1986, 1989, 2001 and 2003. Over nearly 40 years that equates, if somewhat unevenly, to around one or two severe space weather incidents per decade. A particularly significant historical event was the Carrington Storm of September 1859, which badly affected the instant communication technology of the time: the telegraph. The Carrington Storm, recorded by newly automated instruments measuring the magnetic field, remains, for governments, industry and scientists, the benchmark for a worst-case scenario. From the measurements made in 1859 and from other indirect evidence, this event appears to have greatly exceeded anything observed in recent decades. If a Carrington-like event occurred today, the impact on modern technologies could be profound. For that reason, many nations are developing research programmes to understand space weather better. The UK Natural Environment Research Council recently funded a £3M, four-year project to study space weather impacts on ground-based systems. Led by the British Geological Survey, project ‘SWIGS’ involves ten UK institutes and university groups, in association with industry stakeholders and international science partners.

Many nations and industries are also developing emergency management plans to prepare for severe space weather.

Applications of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are nowadays ubiquitous, for precise positioning and navigation, for timing of financial transactions, and for control of unmanned agricultural ploughing and driverless cars. Significant space weather acts to make GNSS positioning less precise and navigation less predictable.

Increased atmospheric radiation occurs at commercial aircraft altitudes, over transpolar routes and following severe space weather – a concern for international air traffic control.

Radiation in space, from electrical particles energised by space weather, can deposit electrically charged particles in satellite electronic circuits and surfaces, resulting in faulty operation of integrated circuits or static discharge between conductors. On the ground, high frequency radio communications can be interrupted or even enhanced Coronal mass ejection. © ESA / NASA / Soho

28 SUMMER 2019

Interview with Helen Sharman CMG OBE Jo Woolf, RSGS Writer-in-Residence

In May 1991, Helen Sharman became the first British astronaut when she launched on a Russian Soyuz spacecraft and spent eight days orbiting Earth on board the Mir Space Station. In preparation, she underwent 18 months of rigorous training at Star City in the Soviet Union, acquiring Russian to the highest technical standard before learning how to live and work inside a space capsule. In this exclusive interview, Helen shares some of her experiences and her hopes for the future…

In 1989, while working as a research chemist, you responded to a commercial for Project Juno which would send a Briton to work on Russia’s Mir space station, and were selected from over 13,000 applicants. The training particularly appealed to you – what were the easiest and most difficult aspects?

The training appealed because it was like a job with many different parts. To be able to combine physical and language training with technical and scientific learning was perfect for me. Learning Russian was the hardest, not just because the language was new, but because of everything else that was happening: I had four days’ notice before I arrived in the USSR, and I had to get used to living in a military base where life was very controlled. Learning about the experiments that I’d be doing in space was the easiest aspect, because I could understand the background. And the best part was the weightless training, during parabolic flights inside an aircraft. Everybody looked forward to that!

We only had direct radio contact when we were over the USSR, but actually Mission Control can be quite demanding and it was quite nice not to have them pestering all the time! It might be perceived as isolation, but I didn’t find it a problem, and I was with the other astronauts, of course. The biggest challenges were practical ones. Like any scientific laboratory, the space station was crammed with stuff.

Things were held in elastic straps, or stored in basket-type containers, or fixed to the walls with Velcro. I was supposed to find bits of an experiment or equipment to work on, but sometimes actually finding it was a big deal!

You operated a radio link with some British schools during the mission…

This was lovely! It was set up by a teacher at Harrogate Ladies’ College, and supported by the Radio Society of Great Britain. They issued me with a temporary licence to operate amateur radio. The programme involved nine schools across the UK, from Aberdeen to Cornwall. The schools worked out the orbit, and when I was over the UK I would try to contact them. I was able to talk to children sitting at amateur radio stations! They could ask questions, and I could tell them what it was like being in space. It didn’t always work perfectly, but I made some great contacts and it was a joy to be able to do it.

What lasting impressions of the Earth did you bring back with you?

Every astronaut loves to look at the Earth. I don’t know if it’s because our emotions are back Please tell us more about the here, or if it’s beautiful because experiments that you conducted we’ve evolved on it, and therefore on Mir. that is what beauty means to I was looking at our physical us… or is blue just beautiful? adaptations to weightlessness It’s one tiny oasis amongst that and the ramifications such as vastness of space. Looking back osteoporosis. When we start Helen Sharman on her return from MIR in 1991. at the Earth made me realise to feel weightless, body fluids how interconnected every part migrate towards the upper chest and head because they are of the environment is. Political borders make no difference no longer being pulled down to our feet by gravity. It takes to smoke from fires or a weather pattern. And I never about two days for the brain to get used to that. Eventually thought about any material object that I owned. On Mir I had the kidneys excrete two litres more urine than you would everything that I needed: security, food, warmth, company. As normally do in space, and you lose a lot of minerals. Taking we flew over certain parts of the Earth, we thought of people blood samples, I studied potassium loss from muscles and we knew who were living down there – it’s those human calcium loss from bones. We were also looking at how plants relationships that astronauts miss most. Your material stuff grow… although we’ve managed to grow salad from seed, we doesn’t matter, but we need to take care of the people we need to grow fruit or vegetables in space if we’re going to be know and love on Earth. living there for longer. For me as a chemist, it was interesting to grow crystals in space. Protein crystals grow bigger and better formed, and we can bring them back to Earth and analyse them by x-ray diffraction, allowing us to design drugs because we better understand the protein itself.

The crew’s contact with Earth was limited to a few hours per day, and power failures were fairly common. What were the biggest challenges of life on board?

Could we improve primary or secondary education to inspire astronauts of the future?

At primary level, for teachers who don’t feel fully confident in science, I’d love to see some support, perhaps in the form of peripatetic science teachers. After all, teachers are not expected to be budding clarinettists, so that’s why we have peripatetic clarinet teachers! I think we should inspire people

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SUMMER 2019

“Looking back at the Earth made me realise how interconnected every part of the environment is.”

Helen Sharman at the National Waterfront Museum, Swansea.

to take an interest in science, engineering, medicine – not just at school and university but in life, because science is part of everyday life. Politicians who are not scientists are making decisions on our behalf, and if the public don’t properly debate science, we can’t influence them to do the right thing. By having better qualified people, we’ll end up with a better quality of life in the future. If we get some good astronauts out of it as well, that of course would be fine!

New missions are being planned by NASA and other space agencies. What types of mission do you find most exciting?

© Chemical Engineer.

It’s all exciting, isn’t it? Every space probe tells us more about the Universe or the Solar System or a particular planet. I particularly like the idea of returning samples from asteroids. There are a couple of missions out at the moment: one is Hayabusa2, a Japanese mission bringing a sample from an asteroid called Ryugu, and a NASA mission is going to asteroid Bennu. These asteroids are remnants of planets and they can tell us more about how the Solar System was created. Also, magnetism has always fascinated me, and how it impacts the solar wind. Earth’s magnetic field protects us from space radiation but Mars has none, so when we go there we will get cancer and cataracts from radiation damage if we don’t find a way to protect ourselves.

Is there anybody, past or present, who has particularly inspired you during your career?

I’ve always admired people who stick up for what they believe in, however famous they are. Charles Darwin had immense social and religious pressure to retract what he was

saying about evolution, and the fact that he refused I think is amazing. If I could send a message back to my younger self, it would be to not let people put you off what you want to do… always have a backup plan, of course, but remember that you are unique. It’s more about being confident as an individual than being inspired by one particular person.

Do you have any current or forthcoming projects?

I’m taking part in a number of science festivals, and I’ve recently taken up a new position at Imperial College, encouraging students to continue in science after they leave school. I’m also in the middle of writing a children’s book about what it’s like in space! I’ve been so privileged to have had this opportunity and to be able to talk about it afterwards, hopefully inspiring more people to take an interest in science.

Helen Sharman CMG OBE is President of the Institute of Science of Technology. She works in the Department of Chemistry at Imperial College University, London.

Helen is giving several public talks this summer: Liverpool River Festival, Liverpool Cathedral, Sunday 2 June; Cheltenham Science Festival, Cheltenham Town Hall, Saturday 8 June; Birmingham Town Hall, Saturday 22 June; Bluedot Festival, Jodrell Bank, Friday 19 July; Latitude Festival, Suffolk, Saturday 20 July. Details and tickets are on the websites of these festivals and venues.

Contact Helen through DBA Speakers, 01932 228544, www.dbaspeakers.com, info@dbaspeakers.com.

30 SUMMER 2019

River Etive hydro schemes Andrew Bachell, Chief Executive, John Muir Trust

In one of the most memorable scenes from the James Bond blockbuster Skyfall, Dame Judi Dench and Daniel Craig stand together at the side of a single-track road gazing over a dramatic mist-shrouded mountain landscape. Overnight, the image helped transform the 15-mile long Glen Etive from a peaceful, secluded offshoot of its famous neighbour Glen Coe into an international visitor attraction in its own right. So, when a local landowner and a developer submitted an application for seven run-of-the-river hydro schemes along the River Etive, it was perhaps inevitable that the resulting controversy would generate significant media attention.

it by investing in hydro than you would on interest in a bank.”

The Glen Etive applications were finally approved by Highland Council just days before the deadline for the end of feed-in tariffs on 31st March 2019. According to one estimate, these projects could now generate earnings of up to £3.5 million for the developer and the landowner, out of which just £34,000 – around 1% – might be returned to the local community.

It has also been calculated that the seven schemes combined will contribute less renewable energy than a single offshore wind turbine.

“We are now faced with serious questions about how to meet climate change targets without inflicting damage to worldrenowned landscapes that are key to economic development.”

Scotland’s fast-flowing rivers have long been harnessed to generate power, especially since the middle of the 20th century when the government embarked on a programme of large-scale hydro construction to bring electricity to the Highlands. Glens were flooded, new reservoirs created and some settlements submerged. But there was also great care taken, especially in the later stages of the programme, to harmonise the structures with the surrounding landscape. A proposal for a hydro scheme in Glen Nevis was rightly rejected on the grounds that it would have destroyed an area of spectacular natural beauty.

As the hydro programme proceeded, initial hostility began to evaporate, not least because it was clearly driven in the public interest. As the Act of Parliament establishing the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board stated, any profits generated would be “used for the economic and social improvement of the North of Scotland.”

While individual run-of-the-river hydro schemes have less concentrated environmental impact, they also lack any clear public benefit. Since 2010, they have been driven mainly by the availability of feed-in tariffs. As one expert told the BBC a few year ago, ”If you’ve got the money, you’ll get more return on

The John Muir Trust does not have a blanket opposition to development on wild or scenic areas. We have only opposed around 6% of wind farm applications in Scotland over the past decade, and have actively supported small-scale renewable projects, including wind turbines and hydro schemes, on community-owned land. We also recognise the need for well-designed, affordable housing in some of our most sparsely populated areas, and for suitable infrastructure to accommodate the upsurge in tourism in some of our most attractive landscapes.

In Glen Etive, we took a measured approach, engaging with the developer around landscape restoration and vehicle tracks. Ultimately, we accepted that five of the applications could be accommodated without fundamentally altering the character of the wilder and more scenic parts of the glen. Two of the schemes, however, we judged would have a detrimental impact on a beautiful and accessible landscape where not just hardened hillwalkers and mountaineers, but elderly and disabled people, and young families, can experience close-up the wildness of the Scottish mountains.

With the end of feed-in tariffs, it is unlikely that the approval of the seven Glen Etive applications will open the floodgates, so to speak. But it does, in our view, demonstrate the need for a wider public debate. We are now faced with serious questions about how to meet climate change targets without inflicting damage to world-renowned landscapes that are key to economic development. How do we spread the benefits of tourism while protecting the sense of awe that these landscapes inspire?

How can our wild rivers and mountains meet the needs of local communities and visitors, and our need for natural resources?

There are no easy answers, but it is clear that a case-by-case approach will only deliver a rather random result, benefitting neither local communities nor visitors. Landscapes will always change (and people do get used to change eventually). But where the landscape is the paramount economic resource, there should surely be a more effective way of making sure that we can sustain the values that make our wild areas a source of such delight to many.

Allt a’ Chaorainn at night, January.

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Coul Links: the triple-protected wildlife site at risk of becoming a golf course Scott Leatham, Policy Specialist, Scottish Wildlife Trust; Aedán Smith, Head of Planning and Development, RSPB Scotland Just north of the Dornoch Firth in East Sutherland, Coul Links is a rich mosaic of well-connected, ancient and dynamic dune habitats, home to numerous species of national and international concern. Remarkably undisturbed, the area retains a unique wildness and wilderness quality with species assemblages and habitat types of recognised international importance. It forms a breathtaking part of the Dornoch-Golspie stage of the John O’Groats Trail.

and the advice of their own officials, the Highland Council approved the golf course development in June 2018. Scottish Ministers ‘called in’ the proposals for consideration in August 2018, initiating a local public inquiry.

The public inquiry heard how the plans for the 18-hole golf course and associated infrastructure would extend across 140ha of Coul Links and directly destroy 14.9 hectares of habitat, including swathes of rare dune habitat. The proposals include mitigation for some of the impacts, including translocating some rare dune heath habitat to another location on the site. But this hasn’t been tested before in a similar context. In evidence at the inquiry, lichen expert Dr Brian Coppins commented that “one of the most important dune heath habitats in northwest Europe” should not “be sacrificed for an experiment.”

“The area is host to an incredible array of species.”

However, the site has become a contentious battleground after plans were revealed in 2015 for an 18-hole golf course – what would be the seventh golf course within ten miles. The proposals are being opposed by the Save Coul Links Conservation Coalition, a group of NGOs comprising the Scottish Wildlife Trust, RSPB Scotland, Plantlife, Butterfly Conservation, Buglife, National Trust for Scotland, and Marine Conservation Society Scotland. Also opposing are local group Not Coul, Scottish Natural Heritage, Ramblers Scotland, and ScotWays.

The area is host to an incredible array of species.

Birds include waders and waterfowl, from curlews and oystercatchers to widgeons and teal, while breeding populations include skylarks, cuckoos and whinchats. Little blue butterflies share the dunes with the elusive Fonseca’s seed fly, one of the UK’s rarest endemic invertebrates, found only on a short stretch of coastline in East Sutherland. Coralroot orchid, variegated horsetail, Baltic rush, purple milkvetch, rue-leaved saxifrage, moonwort, frog orchid, rock rose, and rare species of lichen and moss mix with colonies of coastal juniper – a rapidly declining species in Scotland.

Coul Links is protected by international, European and national designations. It is part of the Dornoch Firth and Loch Fleet Ramsar site, designated under the international Ramsar Convention. It is also designated as a European Special Protection Area (SPA) and a national Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). As well as its designations, Coul Links is home to four EU Priority Habitats under the Habitats and Birds Directives.

Development proposal Coul Links Ltd, the golf course developer, submitted its full planning application in September 2017. By December, over 1,000 objections had been lodged, including by statutory agencies. Despite the array of opposition and evidence,

The proposals echo those of the highly contentious Trump golf course at Menie, Aberdeenshire, built on a protected rare dune system amid promises of nationally significant jobs and investment, and that there would be net environmental gains.

These promises remain unfulfilled.

What happens next Scottish Ministers have pledged to make Scotland an international leader in implementing the UN Sustainable Development Goals, where the conservation and restoration of wetlands such as Coul Links is part of specific targets. The Scottish Government’s 2020 Challenge for Biodiversity clarified that “Protected areas offer many benefits beyond caring for nature, and provide enhanced ecosystem services, create jobs… extend recreational opportunities… and contribute to tourism and our quality of life.” We need assurances that protection means protection.

Because the proposals were ‘called-in’ by the Scottish Ministers on grounds of nationally-important natural heritage issues, the final decision will rest with them and it will be at their discretion as to whether to abide by any recommendations of the public inquiry. There is no fixed timescale in which Scottish Ministers must make their decision on Coul Links. One thing is for certain: local and national conservation organisations and recreational access groups, alongside thousands of individuals from across the local area, Scotland, the UK, and beyond will be continuing to passionately make the case to save this fantastic place.

© Craig Allardyce

32 SUMMER 2019

Monitoring global change using machine learning Dr Lukas Mandrake, Dr Kiri Wagstaff, Dr Gary Doran, Steven Lu, Erik Langert, Jimmie Young, Machine Learning & Instrument Autonomy Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology Right now, a spacecraft called Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is taking pictures of the Martian surface exactly when and where scientists back on Earth request. Human-in-the-loop systems such as this have found potential water-ice on the Moon, mineral compositions revealing Mars’s wet past, active plumes erupting from Saturn’s moon Enceladus, and many other discoveries about our Solar System.

However, when science targets move or are unpredictable, humans on Earth may not be able to guess in advance where to point the cameras. Events like these are called transients: events (often short-duration) that are expected but which may be in motion or appear at unpredictable times. Examples of dynamic Martian surface features include twisting dust devils, and polar ice evolution that creates shapes such as ‘Swiss Cheese Terrain’ that are unknown on Earth. Studying these transient features illuminates the processes that are active on Mars, teaches us about how Mars got to where it is today, and directly supports future human habitability exploration.

“The system can generate a tiny, efficient alert message to scientists back home.”

One way in which scientists are addressing the need for transient detection and monitoring at a global scale is by creating COSMIC (Content-based Onboard Summarization to Monitor Infrequent Change). Rather than commanding the spacecraft to take pictures at a handful of pre-specified locations, COSMIC would collect all images continuously and flow them through powerful new flight computer systems.

Machine learning algorithms summarize the content of these images, such as “there are five craters and one gully at these locations,” and COSMIC stores the salient contents on board the spacecraft. Upon returning to the same location later, the system might report “there are now six craters and one gully…” which implies the discovery of a new crater. By aligning the old with the new, the system can generate a tiny, efficient alert message to scientists back home announcing the discovery along with how certain it is of the finding. In the end, Earth scientists are still in control of what gets sent back from the spacecraft; yet rather than just getting back only what they requested, they also receive a ‘menu’ of new change-related findings to select from. By modifying its algorithm parameters, scientists can dynamically retune COSMIC to look for new science targets or impose constraints on their size or location. Machine learning solutions like COSMIC enable scientists to pose higher-level questions about the Martian surface without first downloading that data. For example, “Find me at least four craters within 10km of each other near the equator.” The spacecraft acts as a sort of Google search engine for a growing, onboard database of Mars surface features.

Our curiosity and direct human control of spacecraft have brought us to the very edges of our Solar System and profoundly informed our place in the Universe. What will we discover in these most distant of places with the help of autonomous partners like COSMIC keeping an ever-vigilant eye for these most elusive of phenomenon?

Is there life on Mars?

Dr Jorge L Vago, ExoMars Project Scientist, European Space Agency NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers were conceived as robotic geologists seeking to demonstrate the past existence of wet environments. But it was Mars Express 2003 and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2005 that revealed many instances of finely layered deposits containing phyllosilicate minerals that could only have formed in the presence of liquid water.

Conditions on the surface of Mars four billion years ago were similar to those on Earth when life appeared on our planet. This realization boosted the European science community’s interest in pursuing a search-for-signs-of-life mission: the ExoMars rover.

The molecular record of ancient Martian life, if it ever existed, is likely to have escaped radiation and chemical damage only if trapped in the subsurface for long periods. Studies suggest that a subsurface penetration of ~2m is necessary to recover well-preserved organic biosignatures from the very early history of Mars. So it was decided that the ExoMars rover be equipped with a novel suite of instruments tasked with performing the required geological and organic chemistry investigations.

The ‘Pasteur payload’ on board the rover will produce comprehensive sets of measurements capable of providing reliable evidence for, or against, the existence of a range of biosignatures. It contains panoramic instruments including cameras and a ground-penetrating radar; contact instruments for studying rocks and collected samples; a subsurface drill capable of reaching a depth of 2m and obtaining specimens from bedrock; a sample preparation and distribution system; and the analytical laboratory.

“The ExoMars rover is very well suited to search for signs of life.”

ExoMars 2020 will land in Oxia Planum. To maximize our chances of finding signs of past life, the mission must target the ‘sweet spot’ in Mars’ geologic history, and look for large areas preserving evidence of prolonged, low-energy, water-rich environments, able to receive, host, and propagate microbes.

Finding signs of their possible existence would be a very important discovery, although ultimately we would want to understand to what extent their biochemical nature was similar to ours: did Mars life have an independent genesis, or do we share a common ancestor?

The ExoMars rover is very well suited to search for signs of life. Nevertheless, the ultimate confirmation of a collection of potential biosignature detections may require more thorough analyses than can be performed with our present robotic means. Even a tentative finding would constitute a powerful catalyst for a Mars Sample Return mission. Because of the ExoMars rover’s special ability to explore the third dimension, depth, its discoveries will contribute immensely to determining what types of samples we should bring to Earth. © NASA / JPL-Caltech

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Planets and poles Dr Patrick Harkness, Kevin Worrall, and Ryan Timoney, University of Glasgow; Julius Rix and Dr Robert Mulvaney, British Antarctic Survey

Mars’s surface shows dried-up riverbeds and coastlines, and even today patterned terrain suggests that there is still moisture just below the surface. Discovering what happened to the rest of the water, and how the old, warm and wet Mars turned into today’s cold and largely dry planet is of vital importance as we try to understand how solar effects can affect planetary climates.

Our project will be facilitated by sampling the subsurface of Mars and bringing the samples to Earth, but the task is technically difficult. Several light-minutes from Earth, it is practically impossible to tele-operate systems, particularly drill systems that can seize downhole in a matter of seconds.

The low gravity means that the Martian terrain must be penetrated with low forces; the poor surface adhesion means that drilling torques must be kept low; and the practicalities of transportation to Mars require that the surface package be as small and lightweight as possible.

To this end, the University of Glasgow and several European partners embarked on the EU-funded Ultrasonic Planetary Core Drill (UPCD) programme. The objective was to build an ultrasonic drill that could use vibrations to cut through rock with low overhead forces. The Martian subsurface likely consists of bonded permafrost in a cold and dry atmosphere.

The drill system was tested in one of the most Mars-like places on Earth – the cold Antarctic desert – in an expedition facilitated by the British Antarctic Survey in 2016. This

demonstrated the functionality of many of the key systems.

Applications for UPCD and UPCDinspired technologies are now being found in space, and closer to home.

“It is vital that we understand how glaciation reacts to atmospheric forcings.”

As we try to weigh the balance between human development and our impact on the environment, it is vital that we understand how glaciation reacts to atmospheric forcings. The most effective way would be to recover and analyse samples from underneath the ice sheet. However, this is also technically difficult. So we embarked on a programme of technology transfer to convert the UPCD into the Percussive Rapid Access Isotope Drill. This device was shipped to the Antarctic in early 2019 for testing, and will hopefully deploy again in 2020 to attempt the recovery of a subglacial rock sample from an ice-covered island in the Abbot Ice Shelf. If successful, a more extensive series of operations to take subglacial samples from across the continent will be proposed. The long-term advance and retreat of the entire ice sheet will ultimately be mapped and compared to the atmospheric compositions of the time.

Both Mars and Earth have experienced swings in climate, and both swings are probably due to a combination of solar, orbital, and local factors. Unpicking what effect has been driven by what stimulus will allow us to learn more about what can happen to our planet in the future.

Characterizing exoplanets Nicola Rando, CHEOPS Project Manager, European Space Agency

The first planet orbiting a star other than the Sun (an exoplanet) was discovered by ground-based observations in 1995. Now, after only two decades of effort, almost 4,000 exoplanets have been identified, making this field one of the most active and fast-progressing scientific domains. The European Space Agency (ESA) is contributing significantly to this challenge.

Exoplanet investigations are conducted using both groundbased and space-based observations; the most frequentlyused techniques are the ‘transit’, ‘radial velocity’ and ‘astrometry’ methods. Although the first exoplanets were identified by ground telescopes, the advantages of space-based observations became rapidly evident: long uninterrupted observations, large visibility of the celestial sky, and high stability, all contributed to boost investigation efficiency, increasing the pace of exoplanet discovery.

The CNES (French National Centre for Space Studies) and ESA mission CoRoT (Convection, Rotation and planetary Transits) was the first space mission dedicated to and designed for exoplanetary research by transit photometry.

Operating from December 2006 to November 2012, in a polar orbit at an altitude of ~900km, it led to the discovery of many new exoplanets. In 2009, NASA launched Kepler; it operated in an Earth-trailing orbit until October 2018, observing more than 500,000 stars and detecting thousands of exoplanets. The ESA’s Gaia mission, launched in 2013, is now performing an all-sky survey of the position, brightness

and motion of over one billion stars in our Milky Way galaxy, providing a large dataset to search for exoplanets. Scientists expect that Gaia will detect tens of thousands of exoplanets out to 500 parsec (around 1,600 light-years) from the Sun.

“Almost 4,000 exoplanets have been identified.”

CHEOPS, the Characterizing Exo-planets Satellite, is another ESA mission dedicated to exoplanets; it is planned to be launched on board a Soyuz rocket by the end of 2019.

Carrying a 30cm diameter telescope, its objective is to characterize already known exoplanets, performing highly accurate measurements of their radius. The mission’s main science goals are to measure the bulk density of superEarths and Neptunes orbiting bright stars, and to provide suitable targets for future in-depth characterisation studies of exoplanets in these mass and size ranges.

The ESA is already working on future missions. PLATO, scheduled for launch in 2026, will study extrasolar planetary systems, with emphasis on the properties of terrestrial planets in the habitable zone around solar-like stars. ARIEL, targeting launch in 2028, will study what exoplanets are made of, how they formed and how they evolve, by surveying a diverse sample of c1,000 extrasolar planets; it will be the first mission dedicated to measuring the chemical composition of hundreds of exoplanets, enabling planetary science far beyond the boundaries of the Solar System.

34 SUMMER 2019

Cyclone Idai Julia Fairrie, Regional Media & Communications Advisor, Christian Aid

Almost three million people were affected and more than 961 killed when Cyclone Idai hit Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe earlier this year. Heavy rain and winds left a trail of destruction, with houses, bridges, schools, health facilities and roads destroyed and much of the agricultural land submerged. The World Bank have estimated repair costs of over $2billion.

As flood levels recede, work to clear debris, reopen roads and reconnect electricity and water supplies is underway. Some people who fled their homes as flood waters rose are returning home, but some 217,000 remain displaced and are living in communal sites such as schools and churches across the three countries. A growing number of cholera cases (6,506) have been confirmed, and there is a high risk of outbreaks of other waterborne diseases as supplying clean water remains a significant challenge.

organisations in Malawi are particularly focusing on those who need urgent nutrition; in particular, children under five, lactating mothers and pregnant women. With funds received from the Irish government, a three-month project is supporting 1,000 households with multi-purpose cash, as well suppling 450 pregnant and lactating women and 750 children with the specialised nutritious food made from soy and corn. The project has been rolled out in six displacement camps in the district of Chikwawa.

“412 households were protected from having their crops washed away due to the installation of solar irrigation systems.”

In Zimbabwe, Chimanimani and Chipinge were the hardest-hit districts with an estimated 250,000 people impacted. In Malawi, flooding caused by the Idai weather system left 731,000 people in need of humanitarian assistance. Christian Aid have been working with longterm partners on the © Diarmuid Mitchell ground in Zimbabwe and Malawi to provide food, water, sanitation and hygiene kits, with a special focus on children, women, the disabled and the elderly.

Christian Aid Malawi Country Manager Pansi Katenga said at the time, “The scale of the devastation is enormous. In Malawi, the whole village of Mwalija has been submerged in water. 423 households have been displaced, meaning that thousands of men, women and children have been forced to flee their homes and leave almost everything behind. They have escaped with their lives but now they need help to stay alive.” She went on to say, “Malawians are resilient people – they are not crying, they are trying to be normal, but they are sharing their fears out loud. It’s devastating to see people who I’ve been working with over the years to improve their livelihoods lose everything.”

In the aftermath of the cyclone, more than 1,000 refugee families arrived in Malawi from Mozambique, with NGOs helping care and look after them. Christian Aid partner

Thanks to funding from the Scottish Government through the Climate Justice Fund in 2016, 412 households were protected from having their crops washed away due to the installation of solar irrigation systems, which enabled farmers to cultivate their crops higher inland, away from the dangerous river. The solar irrigation system means that farmers do not need to farm close to the river to access water for their crops.

It also means that 3,317 households have access to fresh water and do not have to rely on river water, which can be contaminated.

This is an example of good disaster risk reduction, as well as long-term development work funded by Scottish Government funds in Malawi.

In Zimbabwe, Christian Aid is working with the Apostolic Women Empowerment Trust and with Padare to register and target 1,500 households in Manicaland, Chipinge and Buhera provinces. Distributions of food, cooking utensils, dignity kits and shelter are part of the initial response.

Dependent on the local economy, Christian Aid will be looking at local markets and consulting communities about moving our support to cash payment, rather than distributing items.

This would enable us to reach even more families and provide more choice to affected households to identify what it is that they most need.

“We now have a good understanding of the extensive damage caused by cyclone Idai. Unfortunately, some people are still unaccounted for. We have responded to the immediate needs of the affected communities in Chipinge and Buhera, mainly in the form of food and non-food items. Christian Aid and our partners will work tirelessly with these communities to ensure they get the relevant support to recover from this devastating event,” said Nicholas Shamano, Zimbabwe Country Director.

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We’re all fae somewhere Selina Hales FRSGS, Founder and Director, Refuweegee

I felt completely overwhelmed and useless when watching and reading about people being forced to flee their homes because of the war in Syria. Ashamedly I think it was the first time I’d properly paid attention to the atrocities that happen all too frequently around the globe. Whether it’s the result of war, persecution or climate change, forcible displacement is a huge problem and a horrendous experience.

Whilst it was predominantly news of Syrian displacement that instigated the creation of Refuweegee, there was never the intention of it being exclusive. We have worked and always will work with people from all over the world, priding ourselves on being here for everyone, with no questions asked.

The feeling of overwhelm turned into a need to do something after I caught the end of a news clip about the closure of the Hungarian border. A father stood with a baby that was only weeks old; having fled a war, he was now faced with tear gas and water cannons, unable to decide whether to clean his burning eyes or his baby’s first. That wasn’t a world I felt comfortable sitting back in. I used to think that it was because I was a mother that I found that news piece so difficult to watch, but it has nothing to do with my children and everything to do with opening my eyes. I realised then how much I’d been avoiding news, both on the screen and in writing. It’s too easy now to switch off when you feel overwhelmed, stunned into inaction.

I also recognised that I didn’t have to travel far to do something, and that there were most likely other people close by who felt the same overwhelm and need to do something as me. I wanted to try to make sure that when people arrived in Glasgow and Scotland, they were made to feel welcome and connected with the existing community. With no real knowledge of how many people came to Glasgow or who they connected with when they did, I decided that communitybuilt welcome packs would be a good way to send a gesture of kindness from the existing community to the new, and the name Refuweegee came soon after.

Without the name we wouldn’t have what we have today. It instantly resonated with people in Glasgow and Scotland; both those who were already aware of refugee welcome campaigns and those who were proud of the place they call home as a welcoming space. Because of those people, we are

now able to provide around 120 welcome packs each month, pass on between 30 and 40 prams and pushchairs to recently arrived families each month, and run two large pop-up events each month that help us distribute clothing, household items, books and toys in a dignified way.

Refuweegee asked and people in the community answered. We are able to do what we do because of the kindness shown by the people who respond to our never-ending asks. Whether writing a welcome letter to be included in a welcome pack, volunteering in the donation centre, fundraising on our behalf, or sharing our posts on social media platforms, people are making a huge difference to those arriving in Scotland. And by sharing the difference that these small acts of kindness make, I really hope that we inspire more. Social media is a phenomenal tool when used for good.

As well as meeting the need for welcome and for essential items, we also want to make sure we open up events, activities and Scotland to those newest to arrive. And with the support of some amazing organisations we have been able to do just that. We’ve taken people to gigs and festivals; we’ve climbed Ben Nevis with ten recently arrived friends; we’ve opened up the Scottish Highlands to families and individuals through Rabbie’s Tours; and of course we’ve ceilidh’ed!

Our responsibility has also always been to ensure that the platform and narrative is given as often as possible to those who have lived experience of forcible displacement.

This summer we have a photography exhibition launching on World Refugee Day (20th June 2019) in the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. The exhibition is a collection of photographs taken by refugees now living in Glasgow, sharing their experiences of their lives now rather than what is often focused on in the past.

We can’t stop displacement, but we can positively change people’s experience of the place they have been forced to now call home; we can help raise awareness and we can challenge misconceptions; we can educate and inform people through stories; and we can all make a difference.

Please visit us at www.refuweegee.co.uk or on Facebook / Refuweegee, Twitter @Refuweegee, or Instagram @ Refuweegee, for more information and to find out how you can make a difference.

“I decided that community-built welcome packs would be a good way to send a gesture of kindness.”

36 SUMMER 2019

Touchdown on the Moon: the cool-headed brilliance of Neil Jo Woolf, RSGS Writer-in-Residence

On the morning of 20th July 1969, about 60 nautical miles above the surface of the Moon, the three-man crew of NASA’s Apollo 11 mission prepared to make history. Bidding farewell to Michael Collins, the pilot of the Columbia command module who would stay in lunar orbit, Neil Armstrong and Edwin ‘Buzz’ Aldrin climbed into a landing module called the Eagle and sealed the hatch behind them. A couple of hours later, the two spacecraft separated: with his nose pressed against a window, Collins watched his comrades drift away.

Although the eyes of the world were upon them, the two prospective moon-walkers were calm and confident. Both had made space flights before, during the Gemini program; 39-year-old Aldrin hailed from New Jersey and had served in the US Air Force, while Ohio-born Armstrong, then 38, had flown with the US Navy before becoming a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. A supremely capable aviator and engineer, he was a man of few words and decisive action. As the Mission Commander of Apollo 11, he knew that this landing would define the rest of his life.

Landmarks started flowing past with increasing speed.

While Armstrong remained largely silent, Aldrin, by his own admission, chattered “like a magpie,” calling out computer readings and confirming instructions. Armstrong was calm, but mildly concerned: an impact crater known as Maskelyne had passed beneath them a few seconds earlier than planned.

Every second equated to roughly a mile of distance, meaning that the Eagle would over-shoot its pre-arranged landing spot.

This was not a major setback; as Armstrong rightly observed, “There wasn’t going to be any welcoming committee there, anyway.” He began to turn the Eagle into a face-up position, which would angle the landing radar towards the lunar surface; as they came out of the roll the Earth appeared over the Moon’s limb, breathtakingly blue and luminous.

“We’ve got the Earth right out our front window,” remarked Aldrin. Armstrong looked up briefly from the controls. “Sure enough,” was his only comment. The Earth would have to wait.

A few seconds later, a yellow alarm light came on in the Eagle’s control panel.

What, in heaven’s name, was a 1202?

This was the alarm code specified by the computer. Out of the hundreds of possibilities that had been run past the Some 56 minutes after astronauts on their exhaustive training, separation, and while both it was so obscure that it sent Mission spacecraft were at the ‘back’ Control into a suppressed frenzy of of the Moon and out of contact enquiry. Was it serious? Should they with Earth, the descent engine abort? Armstrong already had the answer was fired in order to take the to that question, and it was no. He could module down to around 50,000 see that the core systems were working feet. Armstrong and Aldrin, who Neil Armstrong received the Livingstone Medal from RSGS President properly, and there was no cause for Lord Balerno. were in a standing position to concern. Fifteen seconds later, the code operate the controls, were orbiting the Moon feet first and was identified as an overload of incoming data, a relatively face down at the time. For about 28 seconds, the dust-grey minor problem which would not jeopardise the landing. In lunar surface seemed to rise up to meet them and then Mission Control, breathing recommenced. At 3,000 feet above the engine was cut, leaving them on track for the landing. the surface, Armstrong prepared for the final approach. Then They now had numerous equipment checks to make before another alarm lit up: a 1201. committing to the final powered descent. If all went well, they Since, by this time, all the conversations between the might touch down in 30 minutes. If not, there was still plenty astronauts and Mission Control were being broadcast live of time to abort. to the world, it was just as well that the world scarcely While the Eagle’s computers were capable of estimating its understood the significance of what was going on. On US velocity, position and course, the astronauts had to calculate television, CBS anchorman Walter Cronkite reassured viewers their exact altitude before initiating powered descent. If they that these terms were “space communications, simply for started this too soon, they risked running out of fuel before readout purposes.” Once again, the cause of the alarm landing. Traditional altimeters that relied on barometric turned out to be trivial: more data overload. Meanwhile, pressure were useless, as the Moon has no atmosphere; and the module was dropping below 2,000 feet and would land the module’s radar altimeter had been pointed away from the within minutes. But a crater was looming up in front of them, the width of a football pitch. Surrounding it was a bouldersurface during the first descent. Thousands of miles away field strewn with car-sized rocks. It took only a second for in Houston, ground control could not calculate it with any Armstrong to decide that he did not want to land there. He accuracy. As an engineer who loved mathematics, Armstrong would fly over it and find somewhere safer. At 500 feet, he was already working it out with a stopwatch: gazing at the switched the landing system to manual control. lunar surface, he pinpointed visible landmarks and measured how long they took to move between two points on a vertical In all of Armstrong’s white-knuckle landings as a test pilot, line that was drawn on his window. From this, he deduced and during the many simulations which he had undergone the spacecraft’s angular rate of descent. Then, knowing its in the security of his home planet, nothing fully prepared velocity, he calculated its altitude using his own formula him for the physical reality of piloting this tiny four-legged (ʊ = r Ω where ʊ is the velocity, r is the altitude, and Ω is the craft down onto the alien landscape of the Moon. To sharpen angular rate of descent) which he dismissed modestly as the urgency, at just under 100 feet Aldrin reported that ‘barnyard math’. A few minutes later, with the go-ahead from only 5% of their fuel remained; in effect, they were running Houston, Armstrong and Aldrin were heading for the surface on ‘empty’. As the seconds ticked by, Armstrong was still seeking a suitable spot. This was made more difficult by the of the Moon at a rate of 30 feet per second.

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Armstrong clouds of lunar dust that were blowing up as they passed, radiating out in all directions and obscuring any potential hazards. The shadow of the landing module appeared on the dust cloud, confirming at least that the landing legs were fully extended. Gently but steadily, Armstrong guided the spacecraft downwards. At Mission Control, an eerie silence had fallen.

Touchdown, when it happened, was so soft that it was almost imperceptible. Although the astronauts saw the contact light come on, the moving sheet of dust continued to deceive their eyes into thinking they were moving, and Armstrong was still flying by ‘feel’. “We copy you down, Eagle,” came the indescribably relieved message from Mission Control.

Armstrong was quick to respond. “Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.”

The Apollo 11 lunar module, seen from the command module. © NASA

“‘We’ve got the Earth right out our front window,’ remarked Aldrin.”

Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin. © NASA

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– In an article published in Life magazine in 1969, Armstrong shared his hopes about how the Moon landing would be viewed in decades to come. He felt it would be presumptuous of him to pick out one single thing that history would identify as a result of the mission, but hoped that “it was a big enough step to give people a new dimension in their thinking – a sort of enlightenment.” He compared the Earth to a spacecraft cruising in an orbit around the sun – an odd kind of spacecraft, one that carries its crew on the outside.

“If you’re going to run a spaceship, you’ve got to be pretty cautious about how you use your resources, how you use your crew, and how you treat your spacecraft… The atmosphere of the Earth is a small and valuable resource. We’re going to have to learn how to conserve it and use it wisely.”

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– On 9th March 1972, Neil Armstrong gave a lecture to the RSGS in Edinburgh and was awarded the Livingstone Medal. During his visit to Scotland he also delivered the Mountbatten Lecture at Edinburgh University, and celebrated his Armstrong ancestry with a warm welcome in the south of Scotland, where he was formally declared the first Freeman of Langholm.

The Apollo 11 lunar module, having landed safely on the Moon. © NASA

FURTHER READING

First Man: The Life of Neil Armstrong by James R Hansen Magnificent Desolation by Buzz Aldrin www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo-11.html

BOOK CLUB

38 SUMMER 2019

The Oxford Illustrated History of the World

50th Anniversary Edition Ordnance Survey (March 2019) Ordnance Survey have created this map of the Moon using height data made available

by NASA, captured by the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter and the Kagyuga Terrain Camera, and shaded to show the heights.

The map covers a large section (1,350km by 1,000km) of the near surface of the Moon, centred on the Apollo 11 landing site at the edge of Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Tranquillity). Larger, named craters are shown, along with the landing site itself; the crater names have been taken from the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Measuring 100cm x 89cm, it is available as both a rolled poster and a folded map.

The Tribal Code Timeless Lessons in Survival and Success Jo Owen (Auvian, September 2018) Tribes have survived far longer, with far fewer resources in far harsher environments than most modern firms. So maybe we can learn something from these great survivors. This book is based on 20 years of original research with tribes around the world, and reflects work with over 100 of the best (and a couple of the worst) firms on our planet. With inspiring stories and lavish pictures, you will discover timeless lessons of survival and success.

Reader Offer – 20% discount + free UK p&p Offer ends 30th September 2019

only

£16.00

Hello, Is This Planet Earth?

(RRP £20.00)

My View from the International Space Station Tim Peake (Century, November 2016) This is the first book by astronaut Tim Peake, and includes over 150 of his stunning photographs (many not seen before) taken during his inspirational six-month Principia mission.

This lavish collection showcases the beauty of Earth from above, and is the perfect visual time capsule of Tim’s remarkable trip, which captured the imaginations of millions of children and adults across the world. It includes a personal commentary from Tim, who said, “It’s impossible to look down on Earth from space and not be mesmerised by the fragile beauty of our planet. I may have been 400km up, but I have never felt closer to Earth than when I was on board the International Space Station.”

Readers of The Geographer can buy Hello, Is This Planet Earth? for only £16.00 (RRP £20.00) with FREE delivery to one UK address. To order, please call The Book Service on 01206 255777 and quote ‘RoyalScottishGeographic2019’.

RSGS: a better way to see the world Phone 01738 455050 or visit www.rsgs.org to join the RSGS. Lord John Murray House, 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU Charity SC015599

Felipe Fernández-Armesto (OUP Oxford, January 2019) Imagine Earth as a galactic observer might see it, from an immense distance of time and space.

Encompassing the whole span of human history, this book brings together some of the world’s leading historians to tell the 200,000-year story of our world, from the emergence of homo sapiens through to the 21st century: the environmental convulsions; the interplay of ideas (good and bad); the cultural phases and exchanges; the collisions and collaborations in politics; the successions of states and empires; the unlocking of energy; the evolutions of economies; the contacts, conflicts, and contagions that have all contributed to making the world we now inhabit.

The Moon A History for the Future Oliver Morton (Economist Books, May 2019) Every generation has looked up from the Earth and wondered at the beauty of the Moon. This short but wide-ranging book explores the history and future of humankind’s relationship with the Moon. A counterpoint in the sky, it has shaped our understanding of the Earth from Galileo to Apollo. Advanced technologies, new ambitions and old dreams mean that men, women and robots now seem certain to return to the Moon. What will they learn there about the Universe, the Earth, and themselves? And, this time, will they stay?

Who We Are and How We Got Here Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past David Reich (OUP Oxford, February 2019) The past few years have seen a revolution in our ability to map whole genome DNA from ancient humans. With the ancient DNA revolution, combined with rapid genome mapping of present human populations, has come remarkable insights into our past. This important new data has clarified and added to our knowledge from archaeology and anthropology, helped resolve long-existing controversies, challenged long-held views, and thrown up some remarkable surprises. Reich brings an important message: that we should celebrate our rich diversity, and recognize that every one of us is the result of a long history of migration and intermixing of ancient peoples, which we carry as ghosts in our DNA.

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Map of The Moon