REFLECTIONS: Canadian Social History on Television by robynne.healey

edit W

Editor

elcome to our digital magazine project! This project is a summative, collaborative undertaking of the students in the Fall 2023 course HIST 435 and HIST 535—Canadians at Home, Work, and Play, a senior seminar in Canadian social history. Where political history focusses on affairs of state, social history is the branch of history that examines social structures and the interaction of social groups. When the field emerged in the 1960s, social historians focussed on ‘common folk’, often those who were marginalized in the past and present. For those reasons, the approaches or methods of social history have often been termed “history from below,” or “bottom-up” history. As the field developed, its focus came to include examinations of the middle and upper classes, but its roots in the study of the lived experience of everyday folks has shaped the questions that social historians continue to ask in their research.

Robynne Rogers Healey, PhD.

Creative Director Alan A. Silva de Oliveira, MA.

Authors: Samuel Shoma Danika Dool Haley Molenaar Adriana Wardrope Kaylea Barrow Sophie Nazareno Kyler Hoffman Atefeh Afshar Will Taylor Leah Binns

The articles in this magazine investigate the ways that Canadian social history is represented on television. Each student has reviewed the first season of a television program or limited series that focuses on an aspect of Canadian history. The reviews do not measure the production value of each series but focus specifically on the strengths and weaknesses of each program in portraying aspects of Canadian social history in a particular period. In selecting programs for this magazine, we were pleasantly surprised to see a number of newly or recently released programs that highlight aspects of Canadian history that have not re-

torial ceived significant attention in popular culture. Nine of the ten programs under review have been released in 2014 or later, an indication of the level of interest in Canadian stories.

Significantly, the recent programming that students studied focuses on some challenging topics in Canadian history. The Porter (2022) tells of the story of Black sleeping car porters in Montreal who formed the first Black union. Bones of Crows: The Series (2023) and Little Bird (2023) relate the painful stories including generational trauma that resulted from Indian Residential Schools and the Sixties Scoop. While the fur trade is a well-known story in Canadian history, programs like Frontier (2016) offer alternative insights into an Indigenous perspective of the fur trade wars of the late eighteenth century. And Canada’s little-known role in espionage during World War Two gets attention in X Company (2015). The willingness to address grittier aspects of Canadian social history is also evident in more recent programming. Consider Alias Grace (2017), which probes the experience of impoverished and disenfranchised Irish immigrant girls through the life of Grace Marks. Similarly, Anne with an E (2017) takes on the beloved Anne of Green Gables series of novels, offering an interpretation of the story that is probably more representative, even while it is not as faithful to the novel as the 1985 and 1987 versions of Anne of Green Gables and Anne of Avonlea were. The interpretations offered in these more recent series suggest that the work of academic historians is beginning to influence the ways

Canadian social history is represented in popular culture, and the ways that Canadians are approaching the complexities of their history. Still, some representations remain anachronistic as appears in programs like Frankie Drake Mysteries (2017) or unrealistically nostalgic as is evident in a long-running series like When Calls the Heart (2014). The fact that programs that relate some of the more challenging histories have not been renewed, while programs that present Canadian history in highly stereotypical ways remain popular says something about the work that remains in reflecting Canadian social history. The students who participated in this project are part of the future-oriented work of reflecting Canadian social history in ways that will address the past honestly and work towards reconciliation in positive ways. I am incredibly grateful for the collective efforts of wonderful students who willingly ventured into this learning experience. Their thoughtful and committed engagement throughout this process, despite the stresses of extra work, has been inspiring. A special note of gratitude must go to our Creative Director Alan de Oliveira. He stepped in at the last minute and has given generously of his talents to help produce this final product. Robynne Rogers Healey, PhD. Editor Professor of History, TWU

content Frontier (2016) by Samuel Shoma

Alias Grace (2017) by Danika Dool

Anne of Green Gables (1985) & Anne of Avonlea (1987) by Haley Molenaar

Anne with an E (2017) by Adriana Wardrope

When Calls the Heart (2014) by Kaylea Barrow

Frankie Drake Mysteries (2017) by Sophie Nazareno

The Porter (2022) by Kyler Hoffman

Bones of Crows: The Series (2023) by Atefeh Afshar

X Company (2015) by Will Taylor

Little Bird (2023) by Leah Binns

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

Frontier (2016) by Samuel Shoma

Hudson’s Bay Comany

rontier takes place in the late eighteenth century around James Bay and Montreal. It follows the story of Declan Harp, a mixed-race fur trader and head of the Black Wolf Company. Harp, who had been raised by Archibald Benton, the governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC), then turned on the HBC and Benton because he was offended by the treatment of his Cree mother’s people. When Harp begins selling furs to HBC’s competitors, the company began to lose profits. Benton punishes Harp by killing his wife, son, and unborn child, resulting in Harp swearing revenge on Benton and the HBC for the murder of his family. This powerful revenge story takes place during the fur trade and focusses on the conflicts and struggles of both the Hudson’s Bay Company fur traders and the Indigenous people they traded with. The creators of this show wanted to show the history of the fur trade through the lens of the First Nations people presented in the show such as the Cree.

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REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

Frontier was co-created by Rob and Peter Blackie. In making the show, the Blackies said that “Frontier aims to take a different perspective on Canadian history and shows the fur trade more as an ‘invasion’ of First Nations territory by the companies vying for a piece of the lucrative pelt business.”1 Told from a First Nation’s perspective, Frontier’s creators were determined to portray events and Indigenous participants in the trade, like the James Bay Cree, as accurately as possible, even though the program is historical fiction.2 This suggests that the Blackies approached this program from a Canadian social history background. They are concerned with portraying First Nations people and those they interacted with during the James Bay fur trade. Markus Schwabe’s interview with the Blackies on Morning North gives insights

Rigobert Bonne (1727–1794)

into their vision for the show. In a segment of the interview, Rob said he and his brother “kind of got together and looked at the fur trade as a whole and kind of zeroed in a couple of big ways; specifically, the time frame of like the late 1700s because of the kind of turmoil and the transition that was happening in Canada specifically with the Hudson’s Bay Company and all the competing smaller interests that were in the process of beginning to amalgamate leading ultimately to the North West Company that was a really activated violent dramatically interesting time in history.”3 This era of fur trade history, then, was perfect for dramatization. Because the Blackies were determined to provide an Indigenous perspective, they insisted on including Cree advisors in the production. Those advisors provided important insights into Cree culture and language.4

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

There are several things that Frontier does well. Edward Cavanagh has offered some unique insights about the Hudson’s Bay Company during the period 1670–1763. Cavanagh reviews issues of the sovereignty of the Hudson’s Bay Company and its martial and diplomatic functions within Rupert’s Land, the area governed by the company with almost state-like power. Understanding the role of armed conflict in the Hudson’s Bay State provides an insight into the English, French, and Indigenous peoples’ role in improving or deterring the Hudson’s Bay Company. As Cavanagh argues, “Before the thorough application of settler law (whose components included white magistracies and their patchwork jurisdictions, and a few totalizing proclamations and treaties, among other things) from the late eighteenth century onward, sovereignty in the English New World was impermanent, shiftable, and highly contested. During this period, the nature of both imperium (legitimacy of rule) and dominium (security over property) remained largely contingent upon the effective armament of establishments and their defence from challenges by other Europeans and natives.”6 The rules surrounding legitimacy of rule and security over property is shown clearly with the efforts that the Hudson’s Bay Company soldiers invested to capture Declan Harp. With someone like Harp stealing from the Company and killing British soldiers, the authority of the whole operation was called into question, delegitimizing Benton’s grip on the area’s trade. This becomes evident with the loss of money and men in the Company.

Jason Momoa who plays the central character of Declan Harp, was also an executive producer on the show. In an interview with Tom Power on CBC’s Q, Momoa provided several insights on how he got into Declan Harp’s mindset and some personal stories of growing up as a mixed-race individual in the United States. Asked, “What about Frontier that made you want to do it?,” Momoa said that he was interested in the period and wanted to embody the character of Declan Harp. He said that he imagined the pain and suffering of losing his own family the way Harp’s character did. Going to that dark place was something he had not done before, and he was interested in exploring that concept. In response to a question about how he approached the role as an individual of mixed ancestry himself, Momoa shared the struggles associated with being mixed race in the United States. He grew up in a small town in Iowa and was the only person with Indigenous ancestry in his town. He felt alienated by his peers and did not feel like he belonged. When he visited his father in Hawaii, he said that the Hawaiian Natives did not see him as one of them either. He mentioned that he was called Ha’ole, meaning “without the breath of life” in Hawaiian. As a mixedrace man, he felt isolated. He was too Indigenous to fit in with white Americans and too white to fit in with Native Hawaiians.5 This is well-portrayed in the program in the ways Declan Harp was talked about by the Cree, some of whom referred to him as a European who was not a “real” Native. Alfred Jacob Miller

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

The militarization of the Hudson’s Bay Company is in line with the portrayal of British soldiers ready for action in Frontier. Viewers watch Benton and his men trying to kill Declan Harp. To kill a person or a group of people, the Hudson’s Bay Company had to be armed and ready for battle, an aspect of fur trader society that was prevalent before widespread settlement in Rupert’s Land, the area of modernday Canada governed by the HBC.

no “home guard Indians” seen living or working as soldiers at the forts? The show examines the intensive alliance the Hudson’s Bay Company made with individual First Nations people, but does miss the opportunity to show the extent of Indigenous involvement in the forts by neglecting this important aspect of fur-trade society.7

Frontier does not do a good job of portraying the First Nations men and their families who lived around the Hudson’s Bay Company forts. These Indigenous groups were called the “home guard Indians,” and were First Nations who worked with the HBC to protect against the HBC’s enemies. Their families lived with them near the forts. They provided security, helped with hunting, and were a valuable asset to the HBC trade posts. This is important to mention because Declan Harp’s being raised by Benton in the ways of the Hudson’s Bay Company is reflected in this type of Indigenous-settler relationship. Edward Cavanagh contends that 150 to 200 Indigenous people would live around the fur trading posts during the mid-eighteenth century. If the Frontier show takes place in the 1780s, why are

by Duncan De Young

In Frontier, two characters, Captain Chesterfield and Grace Emberly, work together to steal from Hudson’s Bay Company. Drunkenness and sloth as depicted in the character of Father Coffin were viewed historically with less contempt than stealing. “Disciplinary problems related to ‘the internal threat of sloth and drunkenness’ were highly important but variously policed over this period, whereas others associated with an illicit trade, tantamount to stealing from the Company, were considered especially treacherous and treated with contempt.”8 This suggests that Grace and Captain Chesterfield were in great danger if they were caught stealing from the Hudson’s Bay Company. And since Benton was ruthless, they could easily expect to be killed for their theft of company property. Having a drunkard priest at Fort James and having no operating Church would have been unusual for the values of the HBC

by Duncan De Young

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

generals and soldiers. This could explain why Captain Johnston was surprised that Fort James did not have a church. It is worth mentioning that it would have been unusual for a fort operating around the 1780s to be non-religious.

dangerous voyage through Hudson Strait, the position of harbours in the Bay, and methods of trade with the Indians, were carefully hidden from outsiders. Instructions from the London Committee to the Bay factors laid down that ‘none of our servants do send any intelligence to, or carry on any correspondence with any person whatsoever in London or elsewhere relating to the affairs of the Company.9

An element of Frontier that is historically accurate is the importance of secrecy, as is shown in the work of Glyndwr Williams: One of the Company’s main defences against potential rivals was secrecy, an obsessive guarding of the knowledge and expertise accumulated by its servants over the years of living, trading and navigating in the sub-Arctic conditions of the Bay region. Details of the timing and route of the

Viewers see the role of secrecy unfold on Frontier in several ways. Declan Harp worked for the HBC before he turned on the Company. He must have had a lot of secret information about the trade routes and other sensitive information. He stole

Transcontinental fur trade routes of the Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company, circa 1820

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

furs from the HBC and sold them to their French competitors. He killed many HBC British Soldiers, and his theft of furs resulted in lost profits for the HBC. As the show implies, he knew the land well and was almost impossible to catch. Because Benton raised Harp, he learned a lot about how the fur trade worked. Declan Harp was also a master at extracting secrets from people through torture. This is depicted in the opening scene of episode 5 when Benton is informed that his soldiers had been brutally tortured to death by Harp who wanted information on the whereabouts of Benton.

some of the dangers of the trade: “The season began inauspiciously. Both Nelson and the elder François Richard had been laid low by their injuries from the gunpowder explosion. Nelson was recovering, but Richard, whose wounds must have become infected, soon died. The Indigenous people planning to trade with Nelson at Dauphin River had been badly treated by John McDonald, ‘le Borgne,’ the NWC partner in charge of Fort Dauphin departments, to the west.”10 The events described in this letter can be linked with events portrayed in Frontier. The attempted theft of a keg of gunpowder from the HBC by Michael Smyth, Clenna Dolan, and Clenna’s brother Tom Dolan was a very dangerous thing even to attempt. If thieves were not killed by the HBC soldiers, as Clenna’s brother was, handling gunpowder itself was extremely dangerous. This scene shows the desperation of impoverished characters like

An interesting primary source about the mistreatment of First Nations fur traders and the dangers of gunpowder explosions offers an interesting insight to the context and events of the program. In the early 1800s, George Nelson, a trader who worked as a clerk for the XY, North West, and Hudson’s Bay Companies recalled

Map showing the northern sea trade route (in red) used by the Hudson’s Bay Company ships sailing to and from England

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

Michael and Clenna who were willing to take this kind of a risk. They were so poor and destitute in London that they were willing to try and steal an explosive material that they hardly had any knowledge about to make money.

trade society. Declan Harp’s character is portrayed as emotionally complex and changing. His life and the way he interacted with others help paint a picture of the type of man he is. It can be hard to strike a balance between storytelling and historical accuracy, but the Blackie Brothers did an excellent job. Showing emotional complexity in characters based on a historical time and place is vital for understanding the social lives of people who lived in that same historical time and place. Even fictional events can give good insights into the lives of real people. Although a single story cannot be compared to a fictional show, a collection of events and people can prove a sense of validity to fictional events. Looking at a show through the lens of history and the social context of the creators of that show can provide powerful insights into social history, as shown in this project.

The letter from George Nelson highlights how a group of Indigenous people were mistreated and had their things taken away from North West Company fur traders. Even though Frontier focusses on the HBC, similar things must have happened in the HBC’s relations with Indigenous people. This is central to the storyline of Frontier in that it is what motivated Harp to turn on the Company. Overall, Frontier does a good job conveying the historical period of the James Bay fur trade during the late 1700s and early 1800s. All the episodes provided the viewer with powerful experiences of the people’s social lives in this fictional story set in a historical time and place. Although Peter and Rob Blackie came at this show from a storyteller’s perspective, not so much a historian’s perspective, Frontier gives viewers insights into the types of interactions that would have taken place in fur-

Samuel Shoma Bachelor’s Student at TWU History Major ENDNOTES

Sabrina Lantos | NETFLIX

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

Alias Grace (2017) by Danika Dool

lias Grace is a TV miniseries based on Margaret Atwood’s 1996 novel Alias Grace. It follows the story of Grace Marks, an Irish immigrant who spent her life working as a domestic servant in the mid-1800s who became notorious for being convicted of the 1843 murder of her employer Thomas Kinnear and his housekeeper Nancy Montgomery. The series studies Grace’s life through the eyes of Dr. Simon Jordan, a psychiatrist sent to evaluate Grace’s mental state. As he investigates, the viewers gain a better understanding of Grace’s story, one full of trouble, sexual abuse, discrimination and finally, murder. Following the true events of the trial of Grace Marks, the psychiatrist must decide who he trusts: his stereotypical understanding of the violent abilities of women in this era, or the facts of the case that indicated that Grace and fellow servant James McDermott did truly murder their employer and his mistress. Through this series, viewers gain a cinematic perspective into the lives of nineteenth-century immigrants, domestic workers, patients in insane asylums, and criminals. Mostly, Alias Grace outlines the unique difficulties faced by women in Upper Canada (modern day Ontario) in the 1800s. As Grace Marks rises in position, she finds her way to the homestead of Thomas Kinnear in Richmond Hill, north of Toronto. The program portrays Grace’s 1843 murder conviction, which was a capital crime, and her evasion of execution on the basis of insanity. After fifteen months in an insane asylum, Grace was sent to Kingston Penitentiary where she served a life sentence. It was while she was in the penitentiary that Dr. Jordan, a psychiatrist, interviews her. After many sessions, the psychiatrist and viewers begin to trust Grace only to find out in the end that she does indeed claim to have taken part in the murders of Thomas and Nancy.

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REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

Special Collection Toronto Public Library

The main voice that tells this story is that of Margaret Atwood and she created this series following her book, Alias Grace. Atwood was born in Ottawa in 1939. She grew up with a keen interest in the way that society views male and female criminals differently.11 This interest was piqued when Atwood read Susanna Moodie’s 1853 book, Life in the Clearings, in which Moodie recounted aspects of the 1843 double murder case in Upper Canada that had people puzzled for decades.12 Although Atwood was frustrated that the facts of the case were ignored, she was fascinated by the case itself. Atwood further studied the case and chose to write her book as accurately as she could. As Atwood looked at Canadian society in the 1990s, she believed it had many characteristics in common with Victorian-era Upper Canada. She wanted to bring attention to what she considered a backwards slide and did so by writing Alias Grace. In an interview on the CBC radio program, Midday, Atwood said “the maddening thing about history is that it can leave out the things you want to know most”;13 in her case, Atwood wished to know whether Grace Marks was guilty or innocent. Atwood is also famous for her dystopian series, The Handmaid’s Tale, which also uses a feminist lens to examine the lives of a small group of young girls who are the last remaining fertile women in a dystopian society. Atwood writes about her passions; in comparing The Handmaids Tale and Alias Grace, readers understand Atwood’s perspective and her bias, which bleeds into the television program. Atwood wrote Alias Grace series alongside producer Sarah Polley and director Mary Harron. Both women are also Canadians who are recognized as feminist activists. Polley in particular is considered avidly leftist and known for her sensitive portraits of wounded and conflicted young women in independent films.14 Despite a seemingly feminist perspective, critics like Jana Cattien argue that Alias Grace is a critique of feminism itself.15 She argues that a feminist lens portrays Marks as innocent, yet throughout the series, one becomes more and more alarmed at the possibility that Marks may be very much guilty.16 Though these writers are all trying to produce a series that is true to history, they cannot help but input their own views because feminist or not, their focus is Grace Marks as the protagonist. The information contained in the trial documents17 provides little to no information into what life was like for either Grace or James, so many details had to be assumed. Overall, it is clear that Atwood and her colleagues were keenly interested in two things: first, the portrayal of the unique hardships faced 16

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

by female domestic workers in Canada during the nineteenth century, and second, the ways in which society then, and now, continues to view and treat male and female criminals differently.

labourers. Further reading does indicate that Alias Grace accurately portrays the struggles and societal pressures female domestic workers faced during the early nineteenth century. The series highlights the rape, abuse, lack of workers rights, and overall poor treatment of domestic workers. This is seen in the way that Mary Whitney is taken advantage of by her employer’s son and the way that Grace faces sexual violence in nearly every workplace at the hands of someone in a position of authority. However, even more insightful is the way that Alias Grace conveys the sexual expectations of men and women at this time. This is most obvious in the sexual promiscuity of the son of Grace’s first employer. He gets Mary Whitney pregnant but then proceeds to go on with his life; at the same time, Mary Whitney had no choice but to seek out

Alias Grace as a whole sticks closely to the timeline and events described in the original documents of Grace Marks’s and James McDermott’s double murder trial. This can be seen in the changing narrative around the details of the murder told by both Marks and McDermott. They gave multiple contradicting statements during their questioning and the series conveys this sense of inconclusiveness through Grace’s interviews with Dr. Jordan.18 Even so, there are only snippets of information in the trial documents to indicate what life was like for impoverished nineteenth-century Irish immigrant

Special Collection Toronto Public Library

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

Special Collection Richmond Hill Public Library

an illicit abortion. Because women were expected to stay pure until marriage, the double standard Mary Whitney faced led to her death, one that few people mourned because she was ‘just a maid’. Jane Errington notes that in the early nineteenth century, “While men sought ‘pleasure in variety’ and found being confined at home ‘wearisome,’ women had ‘a happy knack of making themselves contented at home’ which was ‘their little world.”19 This belief perpetuated an ongoing societal taboo that did not align with reality (if men were deemed fit for variety, then ‘variety’ was – non-white, nonmiddle-class women).

than rational,” thus any criminal behaviour was attributed to mental disturbance.21 Alias Grace shows this in Grace Marks’s more lenient sentence and extended time in a mental asylum whereas James McDermott is hanged. This does not place a verdict on Grace but rather illustrates the paternalistic attitudes that dominated the views of the public and medical staff, such as Dr. Jordan, involved in this trial. These attitudes were evident in the state of nineteenth-century asylums. Russel Smandych notes that the separate confinement of the insane was “indispensable if they were to be saved from the vice and debauchery which transpired in district jails” in Upper Canada.22 During the nineteenth century, Canadian asylums were facing pressure to become places of moral reform (though they often failed to do so).23 Alias Grace accurately demonstrates some of the horrors, such as sexual abuse, that took place in asylums while simultaneously showing the leniency of medical professionals towards Grace on the basis of her being “young and lost.” It is paternalism that saved Grace from harsher criminal charges, but patriarchal pressures that threw her into a den of gender-based violence in the asylum. While the facts of Grace’s personal experience in the asylum are hard to come by, there is sufficient evidence from other accounts of asylum residents that can be used to understand her experience through informed speculation.

Victorian expectations were not just found in class and sexual expectations; they pervaded society’s view of criminal activity as well. This was what interested Margaret Atwood so much about the case of Grace Marks. Nineteenth-century attitudes included a belief that it would be impossible for a woman to commit crime this heinous without the manipulation of a man. Although court cases in nineteenth-century Canada were grounded in patriarchal values, the repercussions of these attitudes were mixed. In the case of Grace Marks, Murray Greenwood and Beverly Boissery comment that leniency is a consequence of male chivalry to protect those perceived as defenceless.20 They add that “chivalrous attitudes, usually based on stereotyping, viewed most women frail but of pure mind […], easily disturbed mentally rather

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

Alias Grace also shows class structures and the expectations of each class. Ruth Bleasdale sums up the situation for poor immigrants in Upper Canada at this time: “The only option open to most southern Irish was to accept whatever wage labour they could find.”24 This would have been all too true for Grace and her family. As poor immigrants they could not afford land and would have had to scrounge what meager wages they could. Alias Grace paints this exact picture – a family of Irish immigrants with few options but to send their child into the workforce.

history of multiple personalities and hypnosis shows that both gained global attention in the 1840s. Dr. Elliotson’s 1840 textbook of physiology mentioned double consciousness and hypnosis as treatment and in the “early 1840s, James Braid coined the term Neuypnology.”25 The findings were rapidly put into affect both in Europe and North America as success grew during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century.26 At the time of Thomas Kinnear’s murder, and definitely by the time of Grace’s pardon, there would have been increasing interest in the realm of psychology not only around hypnosis but also states of altered consciousness. Atwood accurately represented public uncertainty in these discoveries in contrast to the excitement of psychiatrists such as Dr. Jordan, a fictional character represents the very real theories about Grace’s innocence at the time of her trial.

Sabrina Lantos | NETFLIX

Alias Grace also conveys an accurate sense of the growing interest in hypnosis and an understanding of “double consciousness” or what is now identified as multiple personality disorder. There was much apprehension around the topics, as society was largely religious and often viewed anything of the sort as demonic. Eric Carlson’s

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

Sabrina Lantos | NETFLIX

What Alias Grace fails to do from a historical perspective is show how young servants could be at this time. Grace Marks was sixteen at the time of the murders, meaning that in her other jobs, she would have been between the ages of fourteen and fifteen. This would have been a very normal age for poor servant girls in Upper Canada and is not clearly depicted in the series. Even though Grace’s age mentioned in the series, her youth is not portrayed in any way except for snippets of scenes in which she plays with Mary Whitney. In the same way, even James McDermott would have been very young when he started working but he is consistently painted as a predator. Although age expectations would have been different at the time (when children were essentially mini adults27), Alias Grace fails to bring attention to this crucial piece of information, one that would have played a major part in the sentencing of Grace Marks. This is a missed opportunity.

Alias Grace also falls into the Hollywood trap of over fictionalizing. Alias Grace has many side characters that represent relevant aspects of society at the time, without representing social norms. For example, Dr. Jordan is portrayed as having a sexual relationship with his landlady (someone way beneath him in class and thus very unlikely). There is also romantic tension between him and Grace Marks, something that was added to make the series more enticing but did not represent a historical likelihood. Lastly, while women were constantly seeking marriage because that was the best way to provide for themselves, it would have been unlikely that after her pardoning, a former neighbor of Thomas Kinnear would be anxiously awaiting his moment to propose to Grace to offer her a good life. Crime and insanity were stigmas at the time and were considered to represent an individual’s morality.28 20

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

An engraving of emigrants departing Ireland | World History Archive

What Alias Grace lacks most is a male perspective. As mentioned above the writers and producers of the show intentionally take a feminist approach to filmmaking, yet in doing so they neglect the male perspective of this time in history. Life for men was also difficult in different ways. They faced the same patriarchal expectations, and their labour was often dangerous. Throughout the series there is very little insight into the experiences of men such as James McDermott, Dr. Jordan, or Thomas Kinnear. Historically Dr. Jordan and Thomas Kinnear would have held the power but that did not exclude them from hardship and pressure too maintain societal standards. James McDermott would have held power in his family; however working-class men in Upper Canadian society held little social power. Moreover, James McDermott would have been a social pariah because he was an Irish immigrant. All of these factors played key roles in his execution, yet they were not emphasized in the series. In her focus on the differences of public opinion on male and female criminals, Atwood appears to have paid little attention to the lived experiences of men.

hypnosis and the early beliefs around multiple personality disorders as well as the treatment faced by patients in mental asylums. The series portrays beliefs about female criminals through the patriarchal and paternalistic lens that would have existed at the time. This program helps audiences to understand a niche but very real, corner of Canadian history, one that would have been the reality for countless women. Above all, this program transports the viewer into the live re-enactment of a double murder that shook Canadians to the core. By remaining close to the trial, Atwood brings the viewers into the ambiguity of this trial, giving them a sense of how countless people throughout Canada’s history have pondered Grace Marks’s innocence or guilt. While the program fails to offer a male perspective, incorporates unlikely romances, and obscures the ages of the characters, it remains steadfast in its tight relationship to the historical record. Tensions between class and gender become clear as do the challenges of early psychology and institutional reforms. Significantly, the trials faced by domestic workers are highlighted in this gripping mystery that leaves viewers unsure of what to think, just as Upper Canadians would have felt in 1843.

Overall, this program is a window into the unseen world of female servants in nineteenth-century Upper Canada. It highlights the unique struggles they faced such as abuse, discrimination, and lack of agency. Alias Grace paints an accurate picture of the medical discoveries of the time such as

Danika Dool Bachelor’s Student at TWU General Studies Major 21

ENDNOTES

www.anneofgreengables.com

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

Anne of Green Gables (1985) & Anne of Avonlea (1987) by Hayley Molenaar

nne of Green Gables and Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel are Canadian television mini-series that were released in 1985 and 1987, and were shown on CBC, The Disney Channel, and PBS.29 The television mini-series are adaptations of Lucy Maud Montgomery’s novel Anne of Green Gables, and were produced and directed by Kevin Sullivan.30 The productions were Emmy Award winning,31 and were the “among highest rated dramatic productions to air in Canadian television history.”32

Set on Prince Edward Island, the television mini-series chronicles the life of the young Anne Shirley who is adopted by siblings, Marilla and Matthew Cuthbert. While the Cuthberts initially wanted to adopt a boy who would provide physical labour on their farm, Green Gables, they are quick to realize that it is Anne who makes their family complete. The television mini-series follows the growth and development of Anne, and documents how she impacts the lives of the residents of the fictitious town of Avonlea and matures into an accomplished and spunky young woman. Audiences are immersed in beautifully constructed sets and lush costumes that bring the story to life, and the television mini-series provides viewers with a glamourized version of life in a farming community on Prince Edward Island at the turn of the century.

Servitude, Orphanages & Adoption When the audience is first introduced to the young heroine, they learn that Anne has been living in servitude with various families, such as the Hammonds, and has been returned to the orphanage when she was no longer wanted or the family’s circumstance had changed. While the television mini-series briefly acknowledges Anne’s backstory, the Sullivan productions do not delve deeper into the trauma of this upbringing or fully address the conditions that Anne has been forced to live in while never having a steady place to call home. WATCH TRAILERS

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

Historically, servitude and orphanages were common in Canada, particularly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and children were casually placed with families and expected to provide labour in exchange for meals and board. As Rooke and Schnell have argued, “dependent children in early nineteenth-century British North America were viewed as part of the general pauper population and treated without differentiation.”33 Canada modelled British “institutional patterns and ideals” in relation to orphan asylums, which embodied the “principles of protection, separation and dependence that are intrinsic to child rescue.”34 The eighteenth century charity school movement was preoccupied with character development, particularly in relation to lower-class children who were seen as a possible threat to the religious and civil stability of British society.35 A key component of the charity schools and houses of industry was religious training and useful employment, which were seen as necessary elements in the rescue of children and adults.36 The charity schools and houses of industry were viewed as an “educational cure for pauperism,”37 and education focused on reading, writing and arithmetic, and moral and religious training.38 In colonial Canada, the care of children who were abandoned, neglected or destitute fell under the “general provision” of the poor.39 Nova Scotia had a multitude of private institutions and societies that provided aid, and New Brunswick mirrored Britain’s system of poor relief and utilized orphan asylums that had religious affiliations.40 The rural population of Prince Edward Island differed as the “parsimonious ruling class resembled a rural English parish.”41

into their care, and typically received “custodial cases for nominal fees” in favour of “full orphans.”44 The Protestant Orphans’ Homes seldom admitted the “chronic poor” or “the most alarming or desperate situations,” whereas the Roman Catholic orphanages operated under an open-door policy.45 Returning to our heroine, Anne, prior to being adopted by the Cuthberts, Marilla initially planned to return Anne to the asylum as she did not feel

that Anne would be a good fit for Green Gables, while Matthew disagreed, stating “well we might be of some good to her.”46 Marilla discusses with Mrs. Spencer (the woman who is responsible for bringing Anne to Prince Edward Island from Hopetown Asylum) about the possibility of Anne being returned to the asylum as the Cuthbert’s require a boy, and Mrs. Spencer suggests that Anne’s care can be transferred to Mrs. Blewett who requires domestic help for her large family. The manner in which this interaction unfolded is telling as adoption practices were informal in the nineteenth century.

Problematic male youths were sent to reformatory schools whereas challenging female youths were typically placed in segregated areas of an almshouse.42 Protestant Orphans’ Homes were amongst the first institutions that provided care for orphaned and dependent children, and many facilities were established between 1830 and 1860 in Montreal, Toronto, Halifax, Kingston, Victoria, Winnipeg, Ottawa and London.43 The Protestant Orphans’ Homes were selective in who they admitted

Prior the nineteenth century, it was not uncommon for many cultures to bring orphaned children into 24

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In Canada, adoption was not regulated until 1921, and provincial laws were created to “oversee the welfare of its children.”53 Historically, adoptive children were considered “lower class” in relation to their adoptive parents who were seen as “inherently superior.”54 Policy makers felt that the child’s origins should be kept secret, and the identity of the birth parents were concealed from the adoptive family and the child themselves.55

their families; however, “the attitude that a child had rights and needed both the protection of the law and the love of a permanent family evolved more slowly.”47 As an example, in 1867 French Quebecois families accepted Irish children whose parents had perished due to typhoid during the Atlantic crossing.48 Legal adoptions were rare in the late nineteenth century, and typically were secured by wealthy families. Children from poor backgrounds

The Cuthbert family unit consists of siblings, Marilla and Matthew and their adoptive daughter, Anne Shirley. While this family unit may seem unorthodox by modern standards, historically, family households in Canada, particularly amongst colonists and pioneers, often consisted of two or three generations of kin living together, and this structure persisted well into

Mount Herbert Protestant Orphanage | THE GUARDIAN FILE PHOTO, 14 May 2016

the nineteenth century.56 The family unit would vary, and the structure could be influenced by aging, marriage, death and economic changes, including booms and recessions.57 The family household consisted of relatives and non-related persons such as servants and extended family members.58

were often subjected to being placed as “indentured servants and domestics,” and business practices were profitable in transporting British children to Canada.49 Between 1860 and 1948, one hundred thousand British children were “distributed across Canada.”50 These children came from families that did not possess the financial means to care for them or were too ill to do so, and only two percent of these children were orphans.51 Many of the children’s backgrounds were inadequately documented as they were not deemed important, and “the children’s memories were their only tie to their past and their history.”52

Early twentieth century Canadian families were “flexible, expanding and contracting,” and the core unit would make room for newlyweds, older relatives, boarders and orphans if required.59 In addition to the traditional family unit, unwed men and women, childless couples, single parents and

Arthur Taylor, Photo courtesy of his granddaughter, Moira Taylor.

Family Households

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common-law unions also existed in Canadian society; however, these units typically resulted from “uncontrollable circumstances,” including poverty, obligations to aging parents, death of a spouse, rather than individual choices.60

The general store “catered to a local clientele,” and connected the rural communities to the outside world.62 General stores were key components of “exchange networks,” and were instrumental in the export of country goods, the important of luxury and exotic goods, and providing credit, so rural shoppers, particularly farmers could purchase goods.63 Credit typically was provided for upwards of a year to accommodate the harvest.64 The general store was where consumer goods could be purchased by the community, and was the “centre of social activity, a place to go to meet others, to hear the latest gossip, and to pick up useful information.”65 The storekeeper had to have an understanding of the needs of the community as they were responsible for importing the necessary goods into the general store throughout the year.66 General stores essentially was a one-stop shop, and provided dry goods, groceries, butter, cheese,

The General Store

Anne & Matthew | www.anneofgreengables.com

One of the most iconic scenes in Anne of Green Gables occurs at the Avonlea General Store that is run by the Lawson family. Matthew in his shyness tries to covertly purchase a dress with puffed sleeves for Anne to wear to the Christmas ball. However, he ends up purchasing a garden rake, twenty pounds of brown sugar, before finally coming out and quietly informing Miss Alice Lawson that “I need a dress … with puffed sleeves… for Anne.”61 The television mini-series effectively captures the role of the general store in rural Canadian communities.

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eggs, housewares, hardware, textiles, clothing, footwear, sewing supplies, farm supplies, and wood products.67 The stock of a general store varied, and was dependent on the season. We see this portrayed in Anne of Green Gables where Matthew is able to secure a garden rake that was retrieved from storage, despite it being December; however, is informed by Miss Alice Lawson that “we don’t carry hayseed till Spring, Mr. Cuthbert.”68

Lack of Diversity A glaring omission in Anne of Green Gables and Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel is the lack of diversity in both television mini-series, which speaks volumes for how diversity was considered by Canadian society in the late 1980s. Prince Edward Island’s first inhabitants were the Mi’kmaq First Nations peoples, and their ancestors can be traced back 10,000 years.69 Recreated Interior of a General Store Jacques Cartier was the first European explorer to record seeing Prince Edward Island during his excursions in 1534; however, French settlement did not begin until the 1720s.70 During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries British immigrants, particularly English, Irish and Scottish people, arrived in Prince Edward Island.71 Other ethnic groups have immigrated to Prince Edward Island over the past fifty years,72 and documentation is rather sparse in relation to historical accounts. One of the minority groups that was present on Prince Edward Island during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was the African people who lived in small communities. However, between 1810 and 1900, approximately one hundred residents primarily lived in the Bog, which was a Black neighbourhood in Charlottetown.73 The Black population on Prince Edward Island “grew almost entirely from the arrival of enslaved people,” and their descendants, under the leadership of Samuel Martin, or “Black Sam” as he was also known, lived in the Bog.74 The Bog’s residents were typically of a lower socio-economic status; however, the Bog School, which was built in 1848, was “one of the most progressive schools in the area,” was non-segregated and free to attend.75 As the school was well-attended, a larger school was commissioned in 1868 to accommodate more students, and renamed as the West End School.76

Conclusion Anne of Green Gables and Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel hold a place in Canadian cinematic history, and provide a sense of nostalgia for viewers who grew up watching the television mini-series. While both television mini-series are pleasing to behold, and director and producer Kevin Sullivan was diligent in recreating lavish sets and fetching costumes, rural life in a farming community is shown to be idyllic, and the harsher realities of life on Prince Edward Island at the turn of the century is not adequately explored. Hayley Molenaar Bachelor’s Student at TWU English Major, History Minor ENDNOTES

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Anne with an E (2017) by Adriana Wardrope

nne with an E is a Canadian television series that reimagines the original story of Lucy Maud Montgomery’s 1908 novel Anne of Green Gables, giving a fresh and deeper perspective into the life of the novel’s main character, Anne Shirley. Season 1 of Anne with an E tells of Anne’s arrival to Green Gables and demonstrates how the arrival of one girl has the potential to impact the social landscape of an entire town. The setting is Prince Edward Island (PEI) and begins with two aging, unmarried siblings, Matthew and Marilla Cuthbert. The pair are discussing their decision to adopt a boy from an orphanage in Nova Scotia to help them with farm chores. Matthew travels to the train station to pick up the boy, but realizes a mistake has occurred when he finds a young girl waiting for him. The girl is Anne, and she immediately charms Matthew with her stories and imagination. Matthew wants to keep the girl, but Marilla is determined to have her sent back to the orphanage. They agree to give Anne a trial at Green Gables, and Matthew and Marilla officially adopt her at the end of Episode 2. As the episodes continue, Anne undergoes many experiences, such as starting school, making friends, and dealing with the effects of her traumatic past. There are many familiar scenes from the original Anne of Green Gables books and the 1980s portrayal, such as Matthew’s shopping adventure to buy Anne a dress with puffed sleeves, Anne’s grown-up tea with Diana, and Anne’s rivalry with Gilbert Blythe. In addition to these nostalgic moments, there is added depth and darkness that show Anne’s history of being abused, Matthew and Marilla’s pasts, and social challenges of the period. The season finishes in Episode 7, with a financial crisis causing the Cuthberts to take drastic measures. Anne with an E tells the story of Anne Shirley with a lens that is darker and more complex than its original version.

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The producers of Anne with an E created the program with a specific goal: to retell a beloved classic with a greater sense of historical accuracy. Television entertainment editor Amy Wilkinson interviewed the producer of Anne with an E, Moira Walley-Beckett. In this interview, Walley-Beckett said that she was captivated by Montgomery’s written version of Anne, feeling as though she herself related to Anne’s awkward tendencies, passionate spirit, and desire to fit in. She reflected on this fondly, saying that “[Anne] gives one permission to be an oddball and to be unique and to be passionate and different.”77 Walley-Beckett partnered with Miranda de Pencier, and the two women discussed how they could retell the popular story of Anne Shirley. Walley-Beckett shared that “[de Pencier and I] started talking about if we were going to do it now, how it would be, what it would look like, how would we make it relevant, and in what ways was it relevant to us and the current conversations in the world…It was instantly apparent that it was absolutely timeless, timely, and topical.”78 This was the context in which Anne with an E was constructed: two women wanting to retell a classic in a way that was relevant to the modern world.

Walley-Beckett was determined to portray the social contexts of the late nineteenth century, including the period’s dark social and emotional aspects. For example, Walley-Beckett wanted to uncover what it would have been like to be an orphan at this time, discovering that this would have been a frightening experience because orphans were perceived as being “distasteful” and “unlovable.”79 Walley-Beckett stated: “I’m not actually reinventing the wheel; I’m just taking us there…I wanted you to know exactly what [Anne’s] origin story was so that we could understand her original wounding and the stakes that were at play…It was all there, I just dug it out.”80 She believes that the original book had these dark themes, though they had not been elaborated on, and she chose to extrapolate these moments by asking the question “What if ?” and then letting characters such as Matthew and Marilla tell their own stories.81 Overall, Anne with an E was created to retell classic moments that Canadians have come to cherish, with a new reimagining of details and character development to shed light on the orphan experience in nineteenth-century Canada.

Image from page 45 of “Prince Edward Island : Garden Province of Canada its history, interests, and resources with information for tourists, etc” (1899) | FLICKR

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Anne with an E has many aspects that are historically valid, as well as portions that are inaccurate to the late nineteenth century. The portrayal of rural Canada, gender roles, class differences, and the female experience in this television program generally align with academic research about this period, though some details are misrepresented. The feminism depicted in Anne with an E, aspects of Matthew’s character, and the lack of ethnic representation are inaccurate illustrations of the period.

to Diana’s. The Barries’ Aunt Josephine insists on getting a doctor for Minnie Mae, but Anne replies by saying: “It will be an hour at least, if they come at all.”82 Anne was fortunately familiar with how to care for someone with croup, but the general lack of medical care could have resulted in a tragic outcome. In addition, Gilbert Blythe, one of Anne’s peers at school, is shown as one of the primary caregivers for his dying father. These scenes align with historian Nadine Kozak’s research, who said that the geographical distances between farms and medical professionals resulted in a higher likelihood of tragedies.83 Despite distances between homes, there was often a strong sense of community between families who lived in early rural Canada. For example, Ruby Gillis’s home catches on fire in Episode 4, and the entire community comes together to rescue the family and help rebuild the home; responding to a tragedy as a community was consistent to the time. This is shown in an 1886 article of the Examiner newspaper from Prince Edward Island, which reports a story of a frightful fire. Community connections are clear, as the “[stable keeper] was attracted by cries to

The portrayal of turn-of-the-century rural life in Canada in Anne with an E is accurate to rural life at the time. For example, Green Gables is located a considerable distance away from neighbours and services. This is shown by the journeys Anne, Matthew, and Marilla partake in as they walk and travel by horse to the Barry and Blythe homes, school, and other locations. In addition, going into town or to the train station was a day’s journey that required planning and preparation. In Episode 6, Diana Barry’s young sister Minnie Mae is sick with croup. As there were no telephones at this time, Diana sprints through the night to Anne’s house, and the two hurry back

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

the house of one of his men…He took prompt measures to extinguish the flames, calling for help at the same time…The brigade was summoned to extinguish it.”84 Overall, the portrayal of rural Canada in Anne with an E is accurate to the years the producers wished to explore. While geographical distances between locations and lack of medical support created challenges, neighbours wanted to be connected with one another.

to create more opportunities for their daughters through improving curriculum and encouraging post-secondary schooling. These conversations allow Marilla to examine her own past, and she gradually realizes that she did not get to choose a future for herself; society had limited her and she had not thought to challenge these restrictions. Marilla wants Anne to have more opportunities than she did. These educational reforms were integral aspects of first-wave feminism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These reforms were not welcomed by all. For example, a concerned citizen wrote to the 1886 Examiner with his thoughts on “The Choice of a Wife”:

The gender roles and type of feminism described in Anne with an E is generally consistent with realities of the early nineteenth century. Matthew and Marilla represent the classic roles of the men and women of this period, as they both perform specific duties and remain within social boundaries. Matthew works very hard on the farm despite his age and declining health, and he handles the family finances. This is shown in Episode 7 when he mortgages Green Gables without Marilla’s knowledge. When he suffers a heart attack, Marilla and Anne are left to sort out the interest rates and debt, and Marilla seems to be unfamiliar with these systems. While Matthew is head of the farm, Marilla is the head of the home, and she works hard at performing domestic chores. Their ideas of gender roles are challenged with the arrival of Anne who is very frustrated that the Cuthberts do not seem to believe she could fill the role of a boy on the farm. Anne said: “I’m strong and prefer outdoors…Do you consider yourself to be delicate and incapable? Cause I don’t. I can milk a cow, split wood, wash clothes…so many other things. There is no end to what I can accomplish.”85 Gender roles were very strict in the Victorian era, with men and women each having their own areas of concentration that were best suited to their biology and nature. This period was defined by what is known as the “doctrine of separate spheres”86 and this is clearly shown by Matthew and Marilla’s lifestyle. When Anne begins to attend school, Marilla is invited to join a committee of mothers who believe that a girl’s education should be just as valuable as a boy’s. The mothers wish

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This statement shows that feminine and domestic qualities were expected by men and the majority of society during this period. First-wave feminism included a desire for women’s suffrage, and it strove for equality in political rights and education. In addition, most Canadian women advocated for their rights with people of similar socioeconomic status as themselves. Therefore, those who advocated for education tended to primarily be white, middleclass women. While this pressing urgency increased educational opportunities for many women, this discourse maintained a baseline that placed white, middle-class women above lower-class men of colour. Although rural and individuals of colour attempted to have their own voice, middle-class women assumed they knew what was best for everyone.88 These conversations have been described as “infused with the language of domesticity.”89 This is shown in Anne with an E, as a collection of middle-class women gathered together to explore possible social reforms which benefited their own demographic but no other groups. While the feminist attitude of the period is correctly portrayed, it is unlikely that rural women on Prince Edward Island would gather in a feminist book club, as shown in the series. It would have been more likely for feminist meetings to occur in urban settings through official unions and activist meetings.90 Anne with an E explores the early Canadian female experience by addressing menstruation and involuntary motherhood, a topic that would never have been openly included in Montgomery’s 1908 novel. In Episode 5, Anne gets her period for the first time and is very frightened because she does not know what is happening to her. Marilla aggressively tries to hide the situation from Matthew, and Anne’s friends at school discuss that “a woman’s cycle is a shameful thing.”91 This negative stigma regarding women’s menstrual cycles is an accurate representation of nineteenth century Canadian attitudes. Historian of medicine Wendy Mitchinson explained that despite the never-ending tasks that rural women performed, there was a persistent

The world never owned such opulence of womanly character, or such splendour of womanly manners, or multitudinous instances of wifely, motherly, daughterly, sisterly devotions as it owns today...During the last twenty years through the increased opportunities opened for female education, the women of the country are better educated than the majority of men; and if they continue to advance in mentality…before long the majority of men will have difficulty in finding, in the opposite sex, enough ignorance to make appropriate consort.87

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belief that women were significantly more frail than men.92 She said: “Although Victorians could appreciate the strength and endurance of women in their dayto-day lives, they could still argue that, relative to men, women did not work as hard or exhibit the same kind of endurance.”93 In addition to this belief, there was an overall lack of education about the female body during the Victorian era, and hysteria was considered to be a common condition of women. Hysteria was believed to be caused by the uterus and the control that the uterus had over all female behaviour.94 There was a sense of shame associated with menstruation, as “[t]he secrecy surrounding menstruation, and the fact that many young girls experienced their first period without knowing what was happening, could leave an indelible mark on them throughout life.”95 This is precisely Anne’s situation: despite a traumatic past that exposed her to sexual traumas, she did not know about menstruation, and her first experience was one of fear and shame. Anne with an E also correctly portrays the realities of involuntary motherhood. For example, Anne reflects on the family she worked for, observing that Mrs. Hamilton kept having children, despite not being able to afford them and already having more children than she wanted. Mitchinson explored this Victorian reality, referencing a family in which “the mother and father were down in the dumps because they were going to have a sixth child, while the other five don’t have enough to eat.”96 These female experiencse are explored accurately in the television series.

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working-class family, lived in a small home that was not large enough for their many children, had few belongings, and the children were hungry. These class differences were a reality of the period, and Anne with an E demonstrates this well. While most characters in Anne with an E are developed with nuances that are different than their original versions, Matthew is an example of one whose character has been changed to the extent that the additions create historical confusion. In Episode 7, viewers learn that Matthew and Marilla had an elder brother who died as a young child. The program suggests that it was his death that prevented Matthew and Marilla from marrying, as they had to take care of their mother and work on the farm to support her. It was not necessary to add this brother to the storyline, as it would not have been uncommon for an unmarried brother and sister to live together. Additionally, Matthew’s stress about finances lead to him to a suicide attempt in Episode 7. Although suicides would have occurred occasionally in nineteenth-century Canada, Matthew’s drastic measures

Class differences in relation to the social realities of the late nineteenth century are depicted well in Anne with An E. Viewers are made aware of upper-, middle-, and lower-class families who are characterized through clothing, housing, and workload. The Barrys, an upper-class family, wear finer clothes, the women’s dresses feature the latest fashion of puffed sleeves, they live in a large home that includes servants, and emphasize ‘proper’ manners. The Cuthberts, a middle-class family, wear practical clothes that are neutral in colour, they work hard to keep a clean home, and they have a single hired farmhand, Jerry. The Hammonds, a 34

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descent existed during the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries.98 Therefore, Prince Edward Island was an ethnically diverse province, contrary to the simple version shown in Anne with an E. However, the effort to include diverse characters in later seasons does make Anne with an E the first adaptation of Montgomery’s work to include non-white characters, and this does move the series in a more accurate direction.99 In conclusion, Anne with an E is a darker yet more realistic portrayal of the beloved classic, Anne of Green Gables. This new version of Lucy Maud Montgomery’s novel, unlike the 1980s television series, addresses aspects of Anne Shirley’s story that would have been part of a young orphan girl’s experience. The original stories were idealistic, with dark themes mentioned but not developed, and realities of social contexts assumed but not explained. In these ways, the new series allows its audience to gain a greater understanding of rural Canadians in the late nineteenth century. It should be noted that the challenging of social norms in Anne with an E is too progressive for the period the show is set in, as it was not until the twentieth century that feminist social reforms gained momentum. Furthermore, there are some additions to the storyline that are unneeded, create historical confusion, and have caused uneasiness in long-time Anne of Green Gables fans. Journalist Vivienne Pearson summed up the validity of the show well, saying that “[t]he series remains set in the late 1800s, making its new storylines perhaps too progressive for strict historical accuracy, but they work nevertheless, and serve as a reminder that current struggles for equality are not unique to our generation.”100 With this perspective, Anne with an E provides a modern take with realistic depth on the original classic. The show can be criticized for addressing themes outside of the specific years the story takes place; however, one can learn a tremendous amount about the social experiences of early rural Canadians by viewing Anne with an E.

depict a seemingly hopeless financial situation, whereas in reality, there would have been more church support to help those in the Cuthberts’ situation. Overall, these added plot points are unnecessary because they misrepresent social realities of the period and are not faithful to Montgomery’s original characterization of Matthew, leaving many viewers unhappy.97 The first season of Anne with An E lacks diversity. All characters are white; the only character of a different background is Jerry, who is Acadian, but still white. While it should be recognized that there is an African American character introduced in Season 2 and a storyline involving Indigenous people in Season 3, these characters are not included in any of Season 1. There would have been a diverse Maritime population in the late nineteenth century. The first residents of Prince Edward Island were the Mi’kmaq people, having lived on the island for several thousand years while British and French exploration and settlement increased. Furthermore, immigration of Acadians and people of both Scottish and Irish

Adriana Wardrope Bachelor’s Student at TWU General Studies Major ENDNOTES

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When Calls the Heart (2014) by Kaylea Barrow

his series starts by showing the story of Elizabeth Thatcher who is a teacher going to a settler town called Coal Valley in the 1910s. Ms. Thatcher is from a prominent middle-class family in the city, and we quickly see that she does not have the necessary skills to live on the frontier. She no sooner moves into the teacherage when burns it down because she was drying her dress too close to the wood fire. She then moves in with a widow named Abigail Stanton who helps her. In Ms. Thatcher’s class, which is being held in the saloon, she meets daily obstacles and challenges, and she learns of a tragic accident that killed forty-seven coal miners in a mining explosion. One of the challenges within the first eight episodes of season one was that the widows of the men who died in the explosion were faced with being evicted from their company homes in order to make room for more miners to come into work. Under the threat of eviction, the widows make a deal with the company mine manager Henry Gowen. If they can clear the blocked tunnel, work that was being postponed because of the collapse and loss of the workers, they could keep their houses. So, the women go to work in the mines and, when it looks like they are not going to meet their end of the deal, all of Coal Valley’s women help the widows make the deadline so that they can keep their homes. The second big challenge the town faces is an investigation from Royal North-west Mounted Police officer named Jack about the burnt-down church. During this investigation, Jack accuses one of Elizabeth’s friends of starting the fire, which upsets Elizabeth. Despite early disagreements between Jack and Elizabeth, the overarching theme of season one is a developing romance between Elizabeth and Jack.

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About the Creators Michael Landon Jr. and Brian Bird were the producers and writers of When Calls The Heart. It was inspired by Janette Oke’s book of the same title and started airing in 2014.101 The film directors are both white males who wrote the series and they started producing it in their fifties. Their ethnicity might have played a factor in their casting of the show as there were no people of colour in season one, even when that would have been more historically accurate. That also might have been caused by not having proper research on the topic. It seems to be a lack of knowledge or care for this show not to have cast or shown any part of settler life outside that of a white Anglo-Saxon Protestant settlers.

This program shows a beautiful heartfelt town of hardworking people who care about each other. One of the things it does very well is show the resourcefulness of settlers. One of the prime examples of this is when the town used the saloon as a school in the show because they would not be able to rebuild a school right away. It also shows one of the ideals of always helping your neighbour and the importance of community because without them it is more difficult to survive. This program also showed the constant care that a household needed. Being in charge of the house, children, and food would be the mother’s responsibility and the father’s focus would be to make money to support the family. Lastly, one of the things that this show depicts well is the constant dread and anxiety that mining towns would have had about accidents, in particular the wives or mothers of the men who were working in dangerous conditions within the mines. Even when the women went into the mines themselves, viewers saw the challenging conditions that the women faced for a period, but that the men faced every single day.

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What the Show Does Well

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The program portrays the experience of many widows due to the mining accident, highlighting the point that survival on the frontier was not always a guarantee, especially for those who worked in the dangerous conditions of the mines. The high rate of deaths in mining accidents created many widows. For them to survive working or remarriage was essential. This also shows how “Widows in particular (...) were apt to be poor and vulnerable. Their survival strategies more frequently involved entering the workforce than remarrying.”102 This is done well in the first season. One of the mining widows starts to date a newcomer and viewers see the challenges that were part of remarriage, and Abigail starts up her own bakery. These storylines show the need for the women to find some way to survive. Historically, coal mining was very dangerous work, especially with the constant risk of explosion. One woman who was a Black Diamond pioneer, Regina Marckx Whitehill, recalled the Lawson Mine Disaster of 1910, an explosion that killed sixteen foreign workers: “Dad had worked every Sunday for weeks and weeks, but that particular Sunday, he said, ‘I’m just not going to work today. I’m going to rest for a day.’”103 The man who took her dad’s place was never found. This shows the dangers of the coal mining job in real life; it was a constant threat throughout history for miners. In the program we are shown the story of Regina’s father, through Wendell Backus, both of whom were supposed to work on a day of a mining disaster, and both had others cover their shift. Due to the mining disaster the men who covered the shifts never came out of the mine. In the series, we see Wendell Backus turn to alcohol because his friend was the one to cover his shift on the day of the tragic mining accident. These representations give viewers some insights into the challenges of daily life and work in a coal-mining town.

Historical Inaccuracies As accurate as some parts of the program are, there are a number of historical inaccuracies, which range from minor to major. One of the most common inaccuracies is the way the people dress, which does not match the time 39

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diverse settlers than depicted in When Calls the Heart, and it adds to the erasure of their stories by not including them. This source even talks about how “Spanish speaking women were some of the first to establish families in the mining district”105 showing their importance at least within Comstock, so it is surprising that the show failed to include these people and their narratives.

and setting. Additionally, most of the town would not be dressed as nicely as they were due to the cost of clothes and the type of work that the characters were doing. This is a minor inaccuracy. One of the bigger issues in the first eight episodes is the lack of people of colour, or anyone who was not an Anglo-Saxon Protestant settler. Mining towns in western Canada would have had non-white and non-British settlers, and it is a missed opportunity to portray Coal Valley as a town of only white Anglo-Saxon Protestant settlers. Also missing from the town and the story are Indigenous people that would have been present. There is a loss of this interaction, which hinders people from seeing Indigenous people’s agency and erases Indigenous people from the story of western Canadian settlement. There is not much talk of minorities that would have been present. Within the settlement of Comstock, Nevada, historians have shown that “there were even fewer African American women in most of Comstock history, and like their counterparts from Mexico and South America, little survives in the written record to document their lives,”104 but this still shows that there were more

One of the biggest inaccuracies depicted in When Calls the Heart is allowing women in the mines. Women working underground was widely looked down upon or even banned in some places during the time. In the United States, “Women in the early 1900s were barred from working underground in the coalmines.”106 As common as this was, the storyline of the women mining to save their homes seems to be an implausible solution as having them in the mines would be not only taboo but also not allowed most places. This series also seems to avoid any portrayal of Indigenous people, either erasing them from the narrative or hiding their historical presence.

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Leaving out Indigenous voices diminishes the authenticity of the portrayal of settler life. Indigenous communities had an important role in shaping the land, history, and culture of these places, and their interactions with settlers were complex and historically there would have been trade relationships. The series seems to not acknowledge or explore the relationships between settlers and Indigenous peoples, which is not what would have been the historical reality during the

time. Not only does it show a lack of understanding not having indigenous people present in the show it also dismisses the fact that “mining activities in British Columbia have cumulatively and adversely affected the environment, health, and cultures of First Nations communities.”107 This would be due to the work in the mines from the pollution to the noises which would of impacted to resources of the land which would directly impact Indigenous people’s livelihoods.

Conclusion This show, although entertaining, is not beneficial as a lens to look at the social history of resource towns. It allows the impacts of non-white and Indigenous people on the frontier to be forgotten about and almost erased from history. It does show the hard times of frontier life but shows them through a more attractive, or nostalgic, lens, having the women wearing makeup and gorgeous gowns when most women would not have been able to be that presentable. The storyline about the mining accident and the threat of collapse and death for the miners is realistic and demonstrates the dangers coal miners had to face every day. When Calls the Heart does do a good job of showing some of the challenges and hardships that people who were living on the frontier would have had to face in their everyday lives. While the show sheds light on the struggles of the settlers, it inadvertently neglects the rich narratives of immigrants, such as the Chinese and Japanese populations, who contributed significantly to the development of these frontier towns. These communities are often overlooked in historical narratives and were definitely not addressed by When Calls the Heart. By hiding these narratives, the series misses an opportunity to present a more comprehensive and inclusive depiction of the frontier experience, that would have been beneficial and more historically accurate depiction. Overall, this show is beautiful and heart warming but not historically accurate and can be appreciated as art but not one that hold its script to the real history of the time it was set in.

Kaylea Barrow Bachelor’s Student at TWU General Studies Major ENDNOTES

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

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Frankie Drake Mysteries (2017) by Sophie Nazareno

his review assesses the historical accuracy of the television series Frankie Drake Mysteries by examining the portrayal of societal norms, gender roles, and racial dynamics. The analysis is grounded in specific accurate and inaccurate points identified in the show. Frankie Drake Mysteries is set in the 1920s, chronicling the adventures of the first female private detectives in Toronto. The series follows the adventures of Frankie Drake and her partner Trudy Clarke at Drake Private Detectives, the city’s only all-female detective agency, as they find themselves fighting crime in the city. Characters also include Mary Shaw who is a morality officer, Flo Chackowitz who is a morgue attendant, and Moses Page who is Frankie’s boyfriend. While the show attempts to capture the essence of the era, certain elements deviate from historical accuracy. Factors that capture this era well include the presence of morality officers, some racial discrimination, and some female inferiority. Factors that are not accurate include the lives of middle-class women, and societal and gender norms of the time.

Accurate Depictions: Morality Officers and Societal Norms Accurate depictions include the representation of morality officers, an all-female force enforcing societal norms such as measuring skirts and reprimanding unaccompanied women at night. In this period, women were not meant to walk through the city on their own once the sun was down, this is something that a morality officer would often enforce. One of the main characters, Mary, is a WATCH TRAILER

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

morality officer who helps Frankie and Trudy get insider information from the police station. Her job is to enforce moral laws within the city of Toronto, and she strays from this by helping her two detective friends. However, having a morality officer depicted in the series does create an accurate realm of information about the laws surrounding morals during the 1920s in Canada. Morality laws included dancing with a man, flirting with the same sex, working or participating in entertainment on a Sunday, and immoral theatrical performances.

perspective adds depth to the series’ exploration of the challenges faced by women, illustrating the escalation of arrests for morals offenses and the disproportionate impact on men. Through episodes 1to 5, Mary often pulls out her morality officer badge when trying to help her friends investigate a crime. She tries to gather information from townspeople, so she shows them her badge and threatens to find a moral offense to arrest them for if they do not comply, but she is not seen going through with an actual arrest. Historian Carolyn Strange also explains that “women who found themselves endangered could not rely on unqualified support in the criminal justice system,”109 further emphasizing the vulnerability of women in the face of societal and legal injustices during this era, enriching the series’ portrayal of the historical struggles faced by women in various facets of life. Women encountered many threats within the city, sometimes facing violence on the streets or violence within their marriage, and the criminal justice system often could not

The show also delves into societal norms and legal challenges, reflecting the broader historical context outlined in Toronto’s Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, “in fact, as US and Canadian urban historians have shown, arrests for morals offenses escalated sharply from the late nineteenth century, and men comprised the majority of arrestees.”108 Although the show does not depict Mary making any arrests based on a breach of morals, this historical

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help them. Furthermore, women were expected to follow strict rules and behave a certain way. Laws on women walking alone as night would have affected different women in different ways. Women, like sex workers, who made their living on the streets would have been affected by this. In a different sense, working-class women who may have needed to walk between their workplace and home might have been negatively affected by this sort of law as well. By having a morality officer be a main character of the series we can see that the producers did their research, however they did not dive into the specifics of this role.

In essence, Frankie’s character disrupts the narrative of women confined to the domestic sphere, providing a fictional but compelling representation of a woman who defies societal expectations, embracing independence and agency in a way that challenges the historical constraints imposed on women in Canada during that era. In the 1920s, a transformative shift in societal norms was encapsulated by the evolving expressions of women’s autonomy and identity. As young women had already embraced changes like “bobbed hair, [wearing] makeup, and discard[ing] corsets”112 before the war, it was during this era that such choices took on profound significance, symbolizing the burgeoning freedoms women were asserting and the newly embraced moral values.113 This cultural metamorphosis not only marked a departure from the constraints of traditional norms but also gave rise to a novel image of womanhood. This emergent image wielded considerable influence in shaping public perceptions and understandings of women’s roles within society. Rabinovitch-Fox further emphasizes that the era witnessed a pivotal moment for “white middle-class women’s growing opportunities for work, education, and engagement with consumer culture.”114 Consequently, these shifts not only altered the outward manifestations of femininity but also contributed to a redefined

Inaccurate Depictions: Societal Norms

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

The lives of women—especially middle-class women like Frankie— in the 1920s was often shaped by societal expectations and traditional gender norms. Sarah Carter articulates these expectations well: “British femininity, functioned to confirm these norms, attesting to the value and sanctity of traditional domestic arrangements that implied little freedom or independence for women”110 and the belief that married family units contributed more to the country than unmarried Canadians111 underscore the prevailing belief in rigid gender roles and the idealization of traditional domesticity. However, the show deviates from this historical representation in certain aspects. Anachronistic elements, such as Frankie frequently wearing pants, riding a motorcycle, and practicing boxing, are inconsistent with the fashion and societal norms of the time. These aspects challenge the expected role of women by presenting Frankie as a private detective in Frankie Drake Mysteries, engaged in solving crimes and navigating a world traditionally dominated by men. This departure challenges the conventional limitations placed on women during the 1920s and stands in contrast to the ideals associated with British femininity that emphasized traditional domestic arrangements.

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

narrative surrounding women’s agency and engagement in various facets of societal life.

by individuals in interracial relationships during the 1920s, providing additional context to the incongruity between the show’s representation and the historical realities of the time.

The series portrays the main characters frequently engaging in active crime scenes and physical altercations, which is unrealistic for females during that era. The assertiveness of female characters, particularly in their interactions with male suspects, is exaggerated, deviating from the societal norms of the period. While the show attempts to address racial dynamics, the depiction of Frankie’s interracial relationship with Moses, a coloured man, lacks a realistic portrayal of the challenges such relationships would have faced in the 1920s. A CBC overview of rules and regulations in the 1920s in Canada states that “illegal acts [included] being in an interracial relationship,”115 emphasizing the harsh societal norms and legal barriers that characterized the era. This quote further underscores the gravity of the challenges faced

Women in the Workforce and Economic Realities The series effectively explores the challenges faced by women in the workforce, but only in episode 2, particularly in a factory setting where issues such as unequal pay and exploitation are addressed. The show aptly captures the harsh economic realities of the time, aligning with historical data that “even the poorest-paid labourer earned more than female women workers, and young men could fall back on a much wider range of semiskilled occupations in hard times.”116 In episode 2, a factory full of women discusses unfair work rights and stand up to their boss who also has been taking advantage of one young lady.

Bell Telephone Magazine, 1945 | WIKIMEDIA

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In the 1920s in Canada, a period characterized by profound social and economic changes, the power differential in the workplace was pronounced, especially for women. Women were increasingly entering the workforce, albeit in limited roles and facing systemic discrimination.

where women were not so employed before the war.”118 The writing in this newspaper shows how women stepped up in work during the war, but that they were expected to go back to domestic ways once life was back to normal post-war. A conversation between Frankie and Trudy in episode 2 aligns with this. Frankie explains “you made half the amount that a man did” and Trudy replies, “yea, and then try being black.” Although this conversation does not delve into the logistics of what it was like to be a working woman in this time, some conversations throughout episode 2 and the factory women highlight the struggles they may have faced. By 1920, the boards were utilizing a consistent definition while fulfilling their legal obligation to assess whether the wage scale within an industry was lacking, unjust, or inadequate. Consequently, all Canadian boards had the discretion to determine whether women should be regarded as independent adults, possibly with dependents, or as part of a family relying on a male provider.119 Additionally, the wage differentials depicted in the series are underscored by historical research like that of Carolyn Strange: “the wage differential between male and female printing and bookbinding employees was typical: men earned an average of $448 annually, while women earned $185.”120

The prevailing gender norms of the time often positioned men in authoritative roles, and this power imbalance created an environment where sexual harassment could thrive. Women, who were striving for economic independence in the workforce, found themselves in vulnerable positions. Many had to endure inappropriate advances or harassment from male superiors or colleagues to retain their jobs or secure promotions. The fear of repercussions, combined with limited legal protections and societal norms that often blamed the victim, meant that women frequently had to tolerate harassment to maintain their employment. The economic disparities between genders and the limited occupational options available to women created a tough environment for women to thrive in, emphasizing the financial hardships they endured. One of the factory workers in episode 2 states that she came to Toronto to find work, and the factory offered that to lots of young women who traveled to the city to earn money. A newspaper from 1920 in Toronto writes a piece on women’s work during the war stating that “many women and girls, who, during the war, undertook and successfully carried out many kinds of engineering work, showed such surprising skill in the various complicated and delicate operations they were entrusted with and evinced such an intense enthusiasm for their jobs.”117 Although the paper highlights the engineering work that women took up during the war, it also states that “they are no longer wanted in the engineering world, and that, in fact, the passing of the restoration of pre-war practices bill has made it illegal for a woman to be employed in any engineering trade

Women’s Inferiority, Suffragette Movement, and Societal Challenges The show sensitively portrays women’s inferiority and racial discrimination, shedding light on the prevailing prejudices of the time. As touched on in the previous section, middle-class women were just beginning to be employed outside the home, and it was not likely for two women to run their own successful business during this time. The concept of Frankie and Trudy running their own private detective agency challenges historical norms, as does Trudy’s role as a coloured co-owner. A newspaper article from The Toronto World in 1920

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

Suffrage Societies, June 1908 | WIKIMEDIA

notes that women wanted proper recognition: “It was also decided that a request go to the directors of the National Exhibition asking that women’s work be represented on a larger scale on women’s day in 1921 and that an enlargement of the board be made by adding women to its membership.”121 The women of the 1920s were working hard to be recognized for their work and seen by government. In 1917, the federal government provided restricted suffrage to certain women during wartime, and in 1918, extended full suffrage to all women on equal terms with men. However, until 1960, specific races and statuses were excluded from voting in federal elections. In tandem with these societal challenges, episode 2 delves into the suffragette movement, illustrating women gathering to discuss rights at work and the desire for societal change. The show depicts groups of women meeting in private to discuss their rights. The series does not name this as the suffragette movement, but it aligns with the time period, and we can assume that this was part of the movement. This aligns with Joan Sangster’s conclusion that “a concern for women’s rights had not vanished from Canadian political life, for in the 1920s and 1930s newly formed communist and socialist parties debated and promoted the cause of women’s equality.”122 The Toronto World also reported that a woman “pointed out that although the question of women in the senate had

been discussed and rejected, two prominent men in addressing the delegates of that same evening had advocated the presence of women in that same venerable body.”123 The television series does not show Frankie, Trudy, Mary, or any other women struggling to be recognized for their work. In fact, Frankie and Trudy are often sought after for their crime-solving skills. Based on historical evidence, women would not have had it as easy as these characters did in the workforce. They would not have been trusted by men to solve crimes, and they would not have had their own independent business as women.

Racial Dynamics, Discrimination, and Prejudice The series touches on racial dynamics, presenting segregated spaces, prejudiced assumptions, and discriminatory encounters reflective of the 1920s. In episode one, when Mrs. Amori first meets Trudy, she assumes she is Frankie’s servant. Trudy goes undercover as a new employee at a factory, she tries to shake the employer’s hand and he refuses, possibly because she is coloured. When Trudy asks a factory worker to go out with her, she replies, “I try to be a proper gal.” She also references that she doesn’t hang around “Jews, Chinese, or Colored.” Segregation based on racism was very much a part of Canadian history. As Natasha Henry-Dixon has said, 48

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The New Orleans Rhythm Kings in 1922 | WIKIPEDIA

“Black men and women were historically relegated to the service sector – barbers, waiters, janitors, sleeping car porters, general labourers, domestic servants, waitresses, laundresses – regardless of their educational attainment. White business owners and even provincial and federal government agencies did not traditionally hire or promote Black people.”124 Although Trudy’s role in the show highlights the abilities of a Black woman in the 1900s, it is not accurate that she would have been welcomed with open arms to help solving crime. In episode five, when solving a crime on a movie set, all the actors and actresses on set are white. When Trudy enquires about being an actress, she is told she doesn’t have a chance because of her skin colour. This series does touch on the complexities of identity and freedom that were created for colored people through jazz, “they articulated stories of self, freedom, and the identity of the New Negro through jazz culture and dance.”125 By intertwining these narratives, the show not only sheds light on the racial dynamics of the time but also recognizes the agency and cultural influence that jazz had in the 1920s.

depth to the series’ portrayal, emphasizing how the contributions of Black women were commodified and used to market jazz as a commercialized product within the entertainment industry. This highlights the multifaceted role of black women in shaping and contributing to the cultural and artistic landscape of the 1920s. But watching the show without further research, we would not gain this perspective. With the benefit of extra research, the portrayal of black women in the show gains added significance, aligning with historical perspectives such as “black women dancers played a significant role in the success of jazz shows.”127 In episode four, the characters visit a jazz club, and it shows all the staff, singers, and band as black. The guests were white. This acknowledgment underscores the vital contributions of black women to the cultural landscape, particularly in the realm of jazz performances.

In episode five when Trudy is turned away from being an actress, we can see some historical accuracy, she was not allowed on a movie set, but she was welcomed to sing and perform in a jazz club. The series’ depiction aligns with historical realities where “black women’s bodies and art were later crystallized into images that further served to sell jazz as a product of show business.”126 This historical perspective adds

Conclusion In conclusion, Frankie Drake Mysteries provides a nuanced glimpse into historical contexts while balancing accuracy with creative storytelling elements. While each episode’s mystery might allude to some historical events in 1920s Toronto, overall, the program does not provide viewers with strong insights into the social history of Toronto’s women in the 1920s. Sophie Nazareno Bachelor’s Student at TWU General Studies Major ENDNOTES

Oscar Peterson with his sister, Daisy | Library and Archives Canada/e011073127

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

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The Porter (2022) by Kyler Hoffman

he Porter (2022) is a dynamic television show that revolves around four main characters with a great host of active and dynamic supporting characters. Junior Massey and Zeke Garrett are two Black porters from Montreal in the service of the Cross-Continental Railroad in the 1920s. While friends and working for the same employer, their paths diverge in wildly different directions. Junior becomes involved in rum-running across the AmericanCanadian border via his job, however his life takes a different turn when he is caught by Queenie, a gang boss in Chicago, forcing him to pay back his “debt” for “stepping on her turf.” In time, Junior forges a partnership with Queenie that stands the test of gang rivalry and backstabbing. Zeke takes a different approach and strives to take a higher road, trying to improve the working conditions of Black porters through unionization. After one of the porters, Henry, dies while hauling ice (a job he should have never done), Zeke is devastated and drums up support for a black porters’ union. Junior’s wife, Marlene, supports her local church and is a burgeoning nurse with the Black Cross Association. Conflict arises between Marlene and both her superiors and nursing partner, Gwen, over efficiency in house visits versus fully caring for the people they encounter. Marlene’s superiors and partner want ‘efficiency’ while Marlene is more committed to whole-person care. Marlene visits a brothel and meets Fay, and the two form an unlikely friendship which lasts until the end. The fourth main character is Lucy Conrad, a girl who desires stardom. She eventually lands a position at the Club Stardust and gains a boyfriend in the form of Franklin Edwards, a White man and son of the Cross-Continental magnate William Edwards. Through this relationship, Lucy is able to rise in the ranks until a family feud between William and Franklin Edwards brings it all crashing down. In the final episode, Lucy moves on to her own life, Zeke’s union movement nearly succeeds but fails (until he forms the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in Club Stardust), Marlene witnesses Fay’s death and mourns her friend, and Junior ties up loose ends and prepares for the future with his family.

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REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

The Porter has a predominantly Black cast, with some white supporting characters. A key element was the all-black crew, which brought the series home as highly focused on the Black-Canadian community. As a production it was a first in Canada. The show was a great hit and was positively reviewed upon its release. Marsha Greene was one of the show writers, along with Annmarie Morais. Morais recalled in an interview,

the railway-related scenes. Most of the scenes were filmed in the passenger car interiors, with some shots of the locomotive and numerous shots in VIA Rail’s Union Station in downtown Winnipeg. Using the city was a useful location for railway scenes as many of the heritage railways that exist in Canada do not use 1920s or earlier historic equipment. Railway details are one area where The Porter does miss the mark. While all of the characters are meant to be generalized, certain aspects of the railway do not show historical accuracy. The “Cross-Continental Railroad” is a fictional railway meant to represent the Grand Trunk Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway; however, it is very generalized and does not tell any particular railway story. However, the flip side means that many types of people and characters are able to fit within the few depicted in the show, giving a much rounder

“At its heart, it is a show about the formation of a Black union and really a struggle for respect and autonomy and equality on the rails, but we wanted to broaden the lens of that story because the community itself has a character.”128 The Porter was specifically geared to air during Black History Month in February 2022. Many Black issues, including Black Lives Matter had been in the news for some time especially with injustices coming to light many years after the heyday of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. However, many strides have been made since that time, and The Porter explores Black history in Canada which has often not been brought to light. Piggybacking on the awareness of Black issues made the show a success amongst many Canadians and gave better historical context for the current issues. The Porter crew hired a historical consultant for the duration of the show: Sarah Jane (Saje) Mathieu, who supervised many of the minute details.129 Mathieu is author of North of the Color Line: Migration and Black Resistance in Canada, 1870–1955 and this had inspired the original writers of the show. Mathieu was consulted for many of the scenes on the show, with historical check-ups occurring as the filming progressed. Greene and her compatriots wished to explain this period of history to the public with the goal of encouraging them to do their own research on the time period (with many of them being events that are unknown in Canadian history). Winnipeg was chosen as the main filming location, as this was where the union had been formed and originated.130 Some locations of the city were converted to appear as Montreal, where the majority of the action in the show takes place. The Prairie Dog Central, a tourist railway in the city was also used for

CPR Glen River “Glen” Series Sleeping Car, 1925

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goods and unpaid overtime.131 Due to the high level of historical interest in the show’s production, this helped to ensure many of the little period details were accurate, from the physical objects characters interacted with to the clothing they wore.

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

look in the 8-episode constraint of 1920s Black Canada. Dates are another area where the series shifts in order to fit their own timeline. The Order of Sleeping Car Porters was formed in 1917 in Winnipeg, not in the 1920s in Montreal. This is fit in to the penultimate episode to provide a major plot point, but is inaccurate, especially since the union already existing by this time would have drastically changed the storyline. Jim Crow laws found their way from the United States into Canada and Canadian railways. This is shown well, and the overall historical validity is quite accurate. The working conditions for the porters shown is accurate – low pay, augmented by tips (shown at several points in the show, as well as the illegal gambling racket), racism with both passengers and co-workers (e.g. Dinger the conductor), and replacement fees for stolen

The Porter certainly helps to show the audience a lesser-known perspective of Canadian history, and especially one that has not often been told. The story of the Canadian Railway Porters has been examined in historiographical studies and journals, but this TV show is one of the first times it has appeared in popular fiction, television, and in a modern telling. The show covers nearly all aspects of employment in the Montreal Black community—firstly with work on the railway, nursing, and show business. Play or leisure time is seen as well, with insights into the world below of brothels, speakeasies, and the more above-ground clubs of various types. Home life is also represented with Junior and Marlene, as they navigate the toughness of life especially with their mentally challenged son Teddy. Queenie as a mob boss always holds herself quite aloof, but her compassion for Junior and his family (especially with giving them a piano) is quite evident and shows softer spots of the hardness of society. Marlene becoming close with Fay and even joining in with the frivolity of the brothel (to some detriment in a raid) shows a massive cross-cultural exchange—that of the improving Christian nurse with the easygoing prostitute. People were not always in the same space, and the culture of the time led more to care for one another in their own community rather than shun them (as Gwen and Brother Eli did). 53

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

The railway culture is quite accurate, especially the montage scenes of the porters at their work. The wages the porters received was not enough to cover living expenses, and tips were an important part of making a living as a porter. The way this is depicted in the show is a reference to the importance of tips in making up a living wage; at the same time, viewers see the ways tips imbue continuous power dynamics: On the one hand we obtain a sensation of power and patronage, and on the other we have a possibility of obsequiousness and dependence. white and often imbued with a spurious sense of racial superiority, while the man tipped belongs to a race that is even now struggling to a recognized social status, we aggravate all the inherent social evils of the tipping system. The Brotherhood feels that it must be clear why it asks for the porters and the maids, a living wage and no tips.132

The Pullman Porter’s Kick - Puck Magazine, Sept. 4, 1901

But when to this we add the fact that the man tipping is usually

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This was not entirely common, however, as most conductors were indifferent or (later on) more sympathetic to the Black cause, although not willing to concede to them. Dinger the conductor is more of an anachronism, but he sums up general themes against Black Canadians in the workplace at this time. An interesting element is the portrayal of White characters. Nearly all of them are racist to some extent, apart from Franklin Edwards. His unique relationship with Lucy and the fact that he physically assaults his comrade for a racist comment shows that he does not see her colour as a problem for advancement in the show world. By contrast, all the other white characters have varying levels of racism, even with Moschel, a Jewish character on the Labour Board. This does not define the black characters at all (in terms of their interactions) but instead informs the greater historical context in which the black characters live. Even though the series is focused on

by George T. Nicholson

The comradery shown is also highly accurate where each porter looks out for another and works as a team, both immediately on the job, in the location, and in the community. Zeke’s and Junior’s friendship is a prime example of this, to say the least. Zeke making sure that his union project also is attempting to run smoothly shows this element as well, especially when all the porters contribute to help him go to Ottawa for the Labour Board. The feeling of being inferior from the passengers and even the conductor is very strong and the show depicts it well – “The porter exists, for most people, only when he’s visible.”133 The racism of White conductors is played up in the ways Dinger interacts with the porters when he is in a position of legal power compared to his behaviour when he is in a position of physical inferiority, particularly in his last scene where he meets his untimely (or timely?) end.

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

them and they work within their community, they cannot help but interact with the wider racist white community and feel the consequences and benefits (if any). This is particularly true when Franklin lets Lucy down and she moves on by herself. William Edward’s private investigator, Queenie’s deals and misdeals, and Marlene’s query into the underworld show darker sides of the “Roaring 20s” that many do not consider.

on socio-economic status. The near poverty of the porters and their families is in sharp contrast with the high class and opulence of the Edwards family, and even the middle working class of the other white workers. There is a shift with Queenie’s wealth, however this is gained through smuggling and rum-running, implying through the show that the only way Blacks could gain power and wealth at this time was through illegal means. The simple life of Pastor Haynes is always shown as a contrast, with him being a solid voice in and for the community. Haynes provides comfort for many of the characters, and direction for others like Zeke and Marlene. It is truly unfortunate when the community garden “mysteriously” catches on fire, implying that good

Often flappers, jazz, and new liberalism are associated with this period, but it was also a time of great hardship especially for those on the margins. The show does a great job of showing the massive disparity of race-based relations, especially its focus

56 By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

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The Porter is a fascinating show depicting a wellknown period from an unknown lens. This show is a great way to understand the past of Black Canadians, and how they worked, played, and functioned in the home. Social history is extremely evident with little emphasis placed upon any political history (apart from when the Prime Minister makes an appearance). The Porter is a solid show which overall brings a whole new chapter of history to light. It is truly a shame that the planned second season was never produced, as further exploration of the Black-Canadian experience is sorely needed in Canada.

will still suffers under the racist system no matter how Christian-like it is. None of the white characters are shown as Christians or operating with a sense of Christian morals, particularly with the specific recurring police officer. The Christian contrast is shown between most starkly Marlene and Junior. While Junior leads a life in the underworld of rumrunning and violence (particularly to those who stand in his or Queenie’s way), Marlene embodies Christ’s message, to the point of turning away the Negro Improvement Association and the Black Cross in order to become as Jesus did with the prostitutes. Even though Marlene is landed in jail, she continues to show love for and care for Fay to the point of death.

Kyler Hoffman Bachelor’s Student at TWU History Major ENDNOTES

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

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Bones of Crows: The Series (2022) by Atefeh Afshar

“

God takes one thing away and gives another,” the Priest says to Aline. “Your God just keeps taking,” Aline responds in her Cree language to the priest after being beaten by a nun at the infirmary in the residential school.134

ones of Crows is a Canadian mini-series that reveals the profound effects of loneliness, discrimination, and sexual and physical abuse experienced by Indigenous children at residential schools. This mini-series portrays the struggle of individual survivors in their daily lives. Although the survivors of residential schools experienced trauma generally, the type of trauma that survivors face is different depending on their gender age, personality, and gender role. Bones of Crows shows life through the eyes of Aline Spears, who is a survivor of Canada’s residential school system. Aline and her family struggle to fight with systematic violence and generational trauma that they experienced at the residential school. She and her three siblings are taken to a residential school in Manitoba as children in the 1930s, and the series shows the effects of this system throughout her long life—from the sexual and physical abuse that she suffered at the hands of those who were supposed to take care of her, to the mental health issues suffered by her family members as they grew up. The TV show depicts the different traumas that each member of this generation experiences, including addiction, depression, suicide, systematic sexual abuse, and prostitution. Although this program could be hard for some to watch, it gives us a way to start a conversation between the survivors and the audience. Moreover, Aline’s daughter, Taylor Wallach goes through the process of seeking justice for her family

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and her mother. Her determination takes her all the way to the Vatican in 2009, to tell the truth and reveal her mom’s abuser and make him face the consequences. Moreover, Taylor seeks an apology from the Pope and bravely exposes a long-time abuser in the clergy. Through her advocacy, she finally understands the extent and nature of her mother’s pain.

“I’m sorry for everything.” While Aline goes on to have other children with the man she married, her son also gets molested by a priest in a church, which starts her son’s deep depression and mental illness. Here we see the impact of generational trauma compounded by ongoing sexual abuse. The experience of sexual abuse is different for each character. It is important to note that the impact of sexual abuse has deep gender dimensions.

Residential schools were essentially a boarding school system that isolated children from their parents to “Christianize” and “civilize” them through education, but it ended up using children as manual labor and caused huge damage to Indigenous identity. According to one study about residential schools, “At about the turn of the century, it was estimated that 50% of the children, who passed through these schools did not live to benefit from the education they had received therein.”135 Long before Europeans came to Canada, First Nations had their own educational system. First Nations education was an informal process within a natural environment and teaching often took place through storytelling. The traditional Indigenous peoples’ view of education was as “a natural process occurring during everyday activities… ensuring cultural continuity and survival of the mental, spiritual, emotional and physical well-being of the cultural unit and its environment.” Each First Nation had its own legacy and learning program. For instance, in Cree and Ojibwa nations, rabbit snaring was a common skill that children acquired. Bones of Crows portrays the impact of sexual abuse experienced by survivors and their family members at residential schools. the nun tells Aline, “I’m sorry for everything.”136 This TV show does a perfectly detailed and comprehensive job of depicting individuals and their post-traumatic lives. Aline was raped by the priest who was her piano teacher at the school, and she got pregnant. In the last episode, we figure out that her child was taken away from her and adopted by a White family. After Aline gives birth, the nun tells Aline,

60 By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

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Survivors’ responses to this trauma can be widely different according to their sex. As the TV show demonstrates, Aline’s and her son’s experiences of childhood sexual abuse affect them differently according to their different gender. However, Aline and her sister, though both women, deal with posttraumatic life in different ways. Aline becomes a sacrificing mother who is trying to protect her children, while her sister struggles with drug

addiction and is trapped in prostitution. Aline’s brother faced his trauma in a different way— in the shape of silence and denial of the past. Garnet Angione, a survivor of a residential school who experienced sexual abuse when he was a little boy talks about how he tried to forget his experiences: “When I left the school in 1969 at the age of twelve, I buried the memories and feelings of my time there and rarely spoke about them again until many years later. I began drinking to dull the pain and anger I felt.”137 Bones of Crows is successful in depicting different stories of individuals. In episode two, when Aline’s sister goes to prison, viewers see the way that events can trigger memories of residential school, which was like a prison for Indigenous kids. These moments showing individual PTSD are traumatic memories that can exacerbate suffering according to the different situations each character experiences. The consequences of flashbacks to overwhelming traumatic moments can cause mental illness and severe depression. A “flashback can be described as a sudden, unexpected, incapacitating feeling of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual pain that involves ‘seeing, hearing, feeling as if the trauma is happening right now.’”138 Bones of Crows perfectly captures the hierarchical power of the Catholic church. Viewers see that priests and nuns who abused children in different ways in school got promoted in the Catholic church. Alternately, those who became repeat offenders were moved around to different parishes, rather than being removed from their positions. As they were promoted, they had more authority, and as they changed schools, more parishes and more victims were exposed to being abused by the abuser. In Bones of Crows, Aline is raped by one of the priests in the school and gets pregnant by him. After many years, he became a cardinal, a very high-ranking position in the Catholic hierarchical system. One survivor recalls the ways that many

REFLECTIONS: TWU HISTORY MAGAZINE

religious staff treated the children: “In many instances, our role models were the same priests and nuns who were our sexual predators and perpetrators. To be absolutely certain, not all the religious staff committed such sexual atrocities. To their credit, many appeared pure and conscientious in their duties.”139 Although Bones of Crows shows Aline’s faith in Catholicism even after what she has been through, they don’t mention the positive aspects of the individuals in the Catholic Church including nuns and priests. Trauma gives a sense of powerlessness for oneself and society as well. History can help us to understand the relationship between the victims’ mindsets and their traumatic experiences as adults. Marie Clement, the Director of Bones of Crows, has a positive impact on connecting historical facts to the ongoing trauma of Indigenous people. Producing this type of show is a sign of paying attention to the individuals and finding a way for reconciliation. By telling true stories based on history, we can identify historical trauma and a way of healing it. The notion of “historical trauma” is a recent idiom of distress. “It has yet to complete the transition (or transmission) from specialist knowledge to a ‘grassroots’ form of contextualization and expression of personal suffering.”140 One might look to the past of their generation and find the source of trauma. This type of trauma is common among countries and individuals who have experienced colonialization. “Historical trauma is based on the simple observation that standard diagnostic categories such as post-traumatic stress disorder capture only some of the symptoms experienced by victims of colonial domination and mass violence and their descendants.”141 For instance, the Holocaust survivors and the history of slavery in America have been subject to collective violence and intergenerational trauma. The impacts of trauma began to spread through generations as former victims who were damaged by emotional neglect and often by abuse, themselves became

parents. Ronald Niezen has summarized the destructive legacy of the Indian Residential School system: “Family and individual dysfunction grew, until eventually, the legacy of the schools became joblessness, poverty, family violence, drug and alcohol abuse, family breakdown, prostitution, homelessness, high rate of imprisonment, and early death.”142 As we see in Aline’s family and her generation, each individual struggles with a different mental illness all related to their time in residential school. Her husband has severe PTSD after World War II, and he ends up ending his own life. However, the transmission of trauma from person to person within families and communities is different

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feel connected to my parents or anybody. I wasn’t told anything, I wasn’t told anything about how to raise, raise my children.”144

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

Another trauma that affected the survivors and the following generations was the denial of association with their parents. Bones of Crows captures the traumatic moment of separation from parents but doesn’t match the different aspects of the posttraumatic consequence of separation from parents at a young age. The foundation of boarding schools was day schools in the 1800s, which were abandoned in favor of residential schools. One of the inspectors of schools in the mid-1800s writes, “The child who goes to day school learns little and what he learns is soon forgotten, while his tastes are fashioned at home, and his inherited aversion to toil is in no way combatted.”145 Residential schools were often located many miles away from a child’s community. The schools removed children from their parents and their community. “However, parents protested to the local Indian agent of the William Lake District that they wish to have their children released for a month during the summer to allow them, to spend time with their families.”146 Officials in the Department of Indian Affairs refused the request. Thus, they did not have a normal family in their childhood, and “The result was a tragic interruption of culture. The legacy of the residential school was one of cultural conflict, alienation, poor self-concept, and lack of preparation for independence, for jobs, and for life in general.”147

according to gender practice. One of the survivors relates the damage wrought by sexual abuse: “In fact, there was no such thing as a healthy sex education. Sex was dirty, and even thoughts about sex were sins. Touching a girl in any way would lead ultimately to ‘one dirty act’ said the nuns invariably. The psychological damage was done. Many fathers to this day are unable to express their love to their children, especially to their daughters. Personally, I was not able to hug or kiss my mother until she was seventy- three, the final year of her life.”143 Another survivor writes about the skills of motherhood that she was never taught: “I didn’t know anything. I was sixteen when I had my first child. No one ever told me what to expect. I didn’t

One of the important subjects that was not covered enough in this TV show is the content of the curriculum and school life for Indigenous children. Celia Haig-Brown recalls, “We spent over an hour in the chapel every morning” and “The first hour of classroom time was devoted to religious training.”148 Viewers are not shown this level of religious education. Compared to religious instruction, academic instruction was limited to two hours a day, according to Haig-Brown’s recollections. The academic subjects they covered included “basic reading, arithmetic, and writing, combined with a few other subject areas such as art and social studies.”149 63

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This atmosphere was received differently by each student in the classroom. Some students found it comfortable, but many found the time in class threatening and unpleasant.

Another response that was seen among survivors was abandoning the Christian faith because of the traumas that they experienced and observing the oppressive acts against their friends and siblings. In this show, some characters maintain their commitment to Catholicism, but some survivors are connected to their Indigenous spiritual practice. Aline’s son seeks healing by connecting to his father’s descent. One of the survivors writes:

Significantly, the residential school system was determined to stop children from speaking their Indigenous languages. Language is a way we understand the world and define the world around us. The issue of language in Bones of Crows is shown metaphorically. In residential schools, their language, “Cree,” was called by priests and sisters, the “Devil’s language” and prohibited from talking in their language. Missionaries tried to understand their language, and then they concluded that this language was incapable of explaining principal concepts in Christianity like the Trinity and the Incarnation. “Many Jesuits complained that Indian languages were incapable of expressing Christian truths. They argued that verb structure and the lack of abstract nouns made it impossible to discuss all the nuances of Christian doctrine in native idioms.”150 Although the aim was to eliminate Indigenous languages, Aline maintained her language as did some other Cree speakers who were then used as code makers for the Canadian military during WW2.

It was not God that hurt generations of innocent children, but the human beings in the churches who undertook to deliver Christianity and inflicted the sorrow in his name…. Because of them and the Creator, the ways of my people are alive and in them, I have found my answers I gratefully proclaim that I am a dedicated adherent of the traditional spirituality of the Anishinaabe. I am a born-again pagan.

151

Marie Clements, the director-writer, and producer of this program describes the moment Aline shares a terrible secret about the trauma she experienced at residential school, and it is a story her daughter is hearing for the first time. Clements says, “There

Boarding school in the Northwest Territories, shown around 1936 | Library and Archive of Canada

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Fall Institute, Saskatoon, SK

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

were so many survivors who held their trauma inside them.” Bones of Crows shows the chapters of Canadian history that have been overlooked, including the Indigenous contributions to WW2, the ongoing cases of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Colonialization is a large stain on Canadian history. The residential schools were just a different shape of colonization and caused the disempowerment of people. “Aboriginal communities from their ‘savage’ state to that of ‘civilization’ and thus to make in Canada but one community - a non-Aboriginal. At the core of the policy was education.”152

trauma of colonization. Once the damage is done, even the guilty people, if we can find them, don’t have the power to bring back what was taken from a survivor. But Truth and Reconciliation is about accepting the consequences of your actions. Now we may help survivors and help them to carry the pain of trauma which they have borne alone for many years. Watching the Bones of Crows can help the audience to feel the pain that may not be their own, but for which we should be responsible.

The tears that normally come from your grief in historical trauma do not undo the survivor’s trauma, so the current generation of survivors should dig into the historical past to understand the source of generational pain, which is deeper than just crying. The roots of some pains that cause tears from the eyes should be found outside the essential aspect of self. Bones of Crows is one of the ways of finding the grassroots of grief in Canadian history which is full of the stains of colonialism. However, it is notable to mention that healing does not mean that survivors can recapture what they were before the

Atefeh Golabkesh Afshar MAIH Student History Stream ENDNOTES

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

CANADIAN SOCIAL HISTORY ON TELEVISION

X Company (2015) by William Taylor

he Canadian TV show X Company follows the story of a Canadian espionage group who conducts operations within occupied France during World War Two. The group’s members include Alfred Graves, who has synesthesia, Neil Mackay, who is a hot-tempered fighter, Harry James, a quirky electronic guru, Tom Cummings, a sensible decisive member, and Aurora Luft, the only woman and leader of the group. Throughout the program, the characters use their own special skills to accomplish their mission. The series of episodes takes place in two general locations, Camp X, in Oshawa Ontario, which serves as a relay point for important communications between the United States, the United Kingdom, and occupied France. The group travels to and from occupied France, and Camp X remains the muster point through which intelligence comes back to the higher-ranking officials through the team. One of the high officials that the group often has meetings with is the camp commander Duncan Sinclair. On the first operation portrayed in episode one, the team leader is killed. This prompts Duncan Sinclair, the head of Camp X, to promote Aurora Luft to be team leader. Aurora leads the group throughout the next eight episodes of the show and makes calls based on her observations within the field. Aurora’s skillful moves manages to kill some high-ranking Nazi officials and subvert any suspicion on the group away. The group works as a single unit, and in order to achieve an objective, their loyalty, trust, and teamwork are put to the ultimate test in a series of thrilling, “on edge” moments throughout the first season. Overall, X Company portrays Canadian history largely as historical fiction, with an inconsistent number historical accuracies threaded throughout the program to provide foundation for the main purpose, which is entertainment.

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Context/Influences

Furthermore, X Company also demonstrates the humanity of war from Canadians’ perspective. It shows how young teenagers’ lives were flipped upside down and they were forced to accept the reality of a war-torn world. The series shows how young Canadians began to have an increased role in society compared to their predecessors, and how they were able to work alongside experienced individuals to reach a common goal. The show also demonstrates the relationships that are formed within the team as well—holding each other accountable, experiencing sadness, happiness, and perhaps some romance. For example, in episode one, when introducing the character Harry, Duncan Sinclair quotes “Harry, three months ago was trying to get home before curfew, now he is a trained operative, and is extremely innovative.”153 Having such an important role outside of the home proved to be a responsibility Canadians wished to undertake, some of the potential causes for this could be to escape the past memories of the Depression, to forge their own way, or to obtain more independence. X Company also shows how Canadians began to perceive themselves internationally, as Canadians were hosting British and Americans on their soil, and training major powers’ recruits.

X Company was first released in 2015, and it highlights various elements of how Canadians want to interpret history today. In a world that is increasingly dominated by the United States, Canada hopes for their cause in the Second World War to be remembered, including Canada’s contribution to espionage and the creation of Canada’s Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), and notable aspects of the United States, such as elements of the modern-day Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Furthermore, around this time, there is an increasing market for World War Two stories, such as Tom Hanks’s Band of Brothers, The Pacific, Unbroken, and Fury. These TV shows/movies are very personalized stories and often demonstrate humanity in such horrible situations. The creators of X Company are Canadians Mark Ellis and Stephanie Morgenstern. Both play a crucial role in the narrative presented during the show, and although it is impossible to say for certain what both of their motivations were, some general comments about Canadian society during this time can suggest why they conveyed their particular message. The narrative of the show suggests that a multicultural Canada had a large role to play in espionage in World War Two, and that Canada should have national pride over their achievements in that war. But X Company, regardless of influencing modern Canadian identity, certainly influences the way Canadians view past national identity. Thus, it can be argued that X Company’s purpose was to invigorate a sense of pride and passion for Canada’s role in World War Two, regardless of gender or age. Furthermore, it is also extremely noticeable from a social history perspective that life for young Canadians was changing. Young Canadians, who did not experience a lot of independence in the Depression had a very important duty to fulfill during the war. Furthermore, social boundaries were being broken down in society and on the battle front. The show demonstrates that regardless of whether Canadians were French Canadians or English, they could work together without social boundaries. However, the show does not break racial boundaries as nearly every character is white.

Historical Accuracy X Company explores the realities of espionage from a Canadian perspective. It captivates the viewer, drawing them into the story where Canadian spies were trained, and promptly sent to conduct field work in the occupied territory of France. However, the show portrays Camp X poorly compared to its actual role in Canadian espionage development. To

The communications centre at Camp X | Whitby Archives Photograph

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Camp X spy school on the shores of Lake Ontario in 1943 | Wikimedia, unknown photographer

understand Camp X’s role, some history about the camp itself is necessary. The creation of Camp X was multifaceted, with various factors contributing to its inception. This complexity arises from several key factors,. Firstly, the United Kingdom, in total war with Germany, having already established their Special Operations Executive (SOE) program, wanted to expand their recruitment to the Western hemisphere, and recruit Canadians and Americans.154 This would not only allow Britain to gain manpower for their espionage services from Canadian spies, and also introduce a program to the Americans, who severely lacked any knowledge as to how secret warfare was done. X Company makes a playful jab at this point when Krystina Breeland, Duncan Sinclair’s secretary, takes the American recruits to their lodging and returns to reveal all the important information that the American soldiers divulged to her. But the American recruits learned fast, and America was quickly on par with Britian’s SOE program. Scholars have pointed to Camp X as the birthplace of the modern CIA, and expertise in secret warfare.155 Indeed, Camp X trained American recruits, but it also served a propaganda purpose. Bill Brooker, who worked at Camp X during the war, states that Camp X’s purpose was “To make a firstrate impression on the Americans.”156 Therefore, Camp X provided America an opportunity to gain espionage skills they would need to provide more Allied support, or even join the war. The United States got an opportunity to train its own recruits, and to see firsthand the size of the fight in British and Canadians.157 Viewers see this in the character

of Tom Cummings, an American operative who works alongside the Canadians in the spy program. The show also has some extremely inaccurate aspects regarding the purpose of Camp X. In the show, recruits are sent directly from Camp X into occupied territory. Understandably, this makes it easy for the viewer to understand the setting of the show. In reality, Camp X was an “A School,” which served the purpose of educational and physical training only. Recruits were simply identified as potential candidates for further, more specific training in “B Schools” in much more advanced locations, such as Beauleiu and Scottland.158 In other words, there would have been no spies meeting with the camp director, going over details from the missions at Camp X, as shown when the recruits return from occupied France to Camp X and recount details of their mission, and discuss their next target. Open discussions with Commander Duncan Sinclair, as seen in episode two were also unlikely. In this case, the team has cracked the codes for bombing runs into England and Sinclair discusses with the team whether or not they should prevent all bombing runs, and risk the Germans knowing that they broke their code, or letting some bombing runs through into England to prevent the Germans from understanding they cracked the code. This moral dilemma would have been decided without the spies’ input. Discussing this moral dilemma with the spies may make for strong television, but it is not historically accurate. The location of Camp X was one was chosen for its conditions that recreated field conditions. The show 69

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does a good job of demonstrating the remoteness and the simplicity of the camp. It demonstrates how the camp was built very quickly out of log houses and framed to look like a farm.159 The shabby lights and open windows, and number of windows in some locations makes it seem unlike a typical military facility. The spies are walking around Camp X’s exterior which contains little pathways, and only green nature. Additionally, the brick buildings are dimly lit and the boards up around the buildings seem to be very transmuted.

to only portray white operatives represents the reality of military departments and Canada generally, as the government policy blocked minorities from accessing jobs on the home front. Canadian governmental policy unfortunately reflects, and legitimized racist views held in Canadian society.160 This is not to say that minority racial groups did not contribute to the war effort, because they certainly did, but this is not evident in X Company.

The show also represents the various backgrounds of recruits. All of the recruits are white, and although they come from different backgrounds, such as French Canadian, and German backgrounds, the program does a good job of showing the ways that the Canadian government viewed race at the time, considering white operatives best suited for field work within the occupied territories. Although one may argue that due to the Nazi’s extreme racial policies they chose white operatives, but notably there were several racially diverse spies in occupied France, such as a popular black jazz singer that the show demonstrates. But overall, the shows decision

Furthermore, X Company promotes Aurora Luft to command the group during its operations within occupied territory. While this makes a statement about the modern-day decreasing gender roles in our society, it also serves as a form of historical fiction. While women were employed widely on the home front, and some fifty thousand employed into military services, one in nine Canadian enlisted women served overseas, which Susan Rafuse considers to be a small percent. This is due to the fact that even Newfoundland was classified as an overseas posting for the Canadian military.161 In Canada at the time, there was fear of women in uniform. There was fear of them becoming sexually independent beings, which created a moral panic that it may end existing gender divisions within society.162 Indeed, there was a great concern in the military not only for gender barriers to end, but also the military was unwilling to send women into hazardous situations that would result in harm, injury, or death.163 Therefore, it is unlikely that women would be allowed to take on the task of entering the field, and the ones who did, such as Aurora, would certainly not be promoted to lead a group of men within the field.

Camp X’s Bill Hardcastle on VE Day, he took this photo of himself using a delayed shutter flash

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On several occasions we see Aurora and the team acting out of their own will to accomplish a plan that was not relayed back to the Allied secret intelligence services, and instead the team, under Aurora’s command makes some spontaneous decisions. For example, in episode 3, “Kiss of Death,” Aurora is caught by a high Nazi officer who chooses to invite her to dinner, instead of exposing her and capturing her. At this point, Aurora could have chosen to leave immediately, but instead she agreed to dinner, and then acting spontaneously, Aurora manages to kill the Nazi commander through the “kiss of death” by inserting a suicide pill into his mouth through a kiss. The team is then forced to walk the dangerous streets of occupied France to locate Aurora and bring her back safely. Aurora’s behaviour put her and the entire group in a position of extreme danger. It is unlikely Allied secret service operations would have been planned in this way. Although one can make the argument that these spies would be trained to interact with their surroundings spontaneously, a great deal of knowledge would have been required for this to be the case. For example, SOE operatives would have to have firsthand knowledge of the physical and human geography of the operational area.164

back from the true reality of being a spy, which is much more methodical, and mellow compared to the scenes that are presented in the actual show itself. This all helps make great TV, but takes away from the program’s authenticity of planning operations and conducting missions. Lastly, the show presents the idea of the “saviour Canadian,” which is evident in a few scenes such as the scene where Harry supports a French woman while she gives birth, and whilst the woman dies in childbirth, Harry takes responsibility for this baby, delivering it to people who can care for it. Another example is when the team encounters a French family whose father collaborates with the Nazis even having killed the wife’s first husband. The son finds out about this through the team who convinces the boy that his reality is not what he thinks it is and is being tricked by the Nazis and his new stepfather.

Conclusion Overall, X Company reminds Canadians that they have a lot to feel passionate about for Canadian participation in World War Two, but the way this was dramatized in this production lacks historical accuracy, especially considering CBC’s claim that the events in the show are “inspired by true events.” While Canadians are drawn into the social history that is presented in personalized, individual stories of the group that works behind enemy lines and the idea that all Canadians worked towards a common goal, there is little substantive presentation of the actual experience of being a subversive agent in the occupied territory. Viewers are led to believe that the entire Canadian war effort had no gender barriers, that only white Canadians contributed to the war effort, and that there was very little preparation and planning for major operations taking place in the occupied territory.

Another factor that the show is weak in is that many of the characters have outlandish behavioral qualities, and research shows that one of the most important qualities an operative was the ability to control their emotions and keep a cool temper. However, on multiple occasions we see the opposite. This is particularly noticeable in Neil Mackay, who has a very bad temper. In one case he nearly kills a captured German, before being pulled off by Tom Cummings. And in the very first episode when the team plans to blow the bridge and a young girl runs out onto the bridge, Aurora, who is dressed in bright coloured clothing, starts waving her arms and begins trying to shout at Harry, who is right under the bridge with the fuse, to stop and not blow the bridge. The realities of being a spy in wartime are withheld for the sake of entertainment. This all holds the story

William Taylor Bachelor’s Student at TWU History Major ENDNOTES

By Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

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Little Bird (2023) by Leah Binns

ittle Bird is a Canadian tv program created by Jennifer Podemski and Hannah Mosovitch. It premiered on Crave on May 26, 2023. The series focuses on a storyline about an Indigenous woman named Bezhig Little Bird / Esther Rosenblum who is studying law. The series flips between the 1960s and the 1980s. It begins with Bezhig and her siblings getting kidnapped from their home by the police. Her mother, Patti Little Bird, hides Bezhig’s youngest sibling under the floor to prevent the police from finding her, but she was discovered. All while this is happening her father and oldest brother Leo are out hunting. When the husband comes home, he gets beaten so badly that he is hospitalized and dies. The mother then leaves her eldest son in the hands of his grandfather and aunt, while she hunts to find her children who have been adopted by White families. At the end of the series, as news of Niizh’s death is announced on the radio, their birth mother returns home and finds Dora and Bezhig, the daughters who had been taken from her. The series ends with Dora having given birth to a baby, but Child Protective Services (CPS) visits and expresses concerns about the child’s safety due to Dora’s traumatic past and her work as a sex worker. This terrifies Dora, as she has already experienced abuse at the hands of others. Bezhig steps in and offers to represent Dora legally, hoping to prevent further harm from occurring. This series brought to light the harsh realities of the sixties scoop, showing the varied impacts of generational trauma and the removal of children from their birth families.

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The Program’s Creators

On May 28, 2018, the Albertan government apologized to the sixties scoop survivors168 and Scott Moe, the premier of Saskatchewan apologized to the sixties scoop survivors on January 7, 2019.169 Significantly, and likely helping to shape the production of this program, the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada was released and it included a total of 94 calls to action which are policies to help guide the process of healing Canada to a more harmonious society and embracing the sovereignty of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.

Jennifer Podemski was twenty-five when she started her own production company, and she has been producing programming for twenty-five years. She was born in Toronto; her father is Jewish, and her mother is Indigenous. While the sixties scoop is not her personal experience, she felt that it was an important experience to share. Podemski was briefly taken from her mother by the government when she was a child, and, when she saw the paperwork later in life, she thought the events were described in a very transactional way. Podemski was aware that telling the story of the sixties scoop could be traumatic for those on the set. To that end, she provided those involved in the production a medicine tent and therapist on set because of the heavy topics. She wanted to create a safe place to share some dark history about Canada.165

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Program Survivors’ stories of this period show that the sixties scoop was a form of cultural genocide building on that of residentials school. The Canadian government was “adhering to the assimilationist colonial model that assumed Aboriginal people were culturally inferior and unable to adequately provide for the needs of their children. Children were apprehended by the thousands, in questionable circumstances, with economic incentive rather than neglect or abuse emerging as the motive for removing children from their homes.”170 In the program they show this in the first episode when the authorities claim they need to take the Little Birds’ children because they lived in a home with no running water or electricity, even though their mother was still able to provide her children with their basic needs. The only reason why they did not have those amenities was because they lived in a rural area on a reserve that was government run. One paper by Sylvia Olsen mentions that “by the mid 1970s many houses still had no plumbing; people used outhouses and got their electricity by way of a rogue wire strung up from a neighboring house.”171

The head writer, executive producer, and cocreator of the series was Hannah Moscovitch. For her work in this series, Moscovitch leaned on her background as a Jewish woman. She recalls living “in a shadow of genocide” as a child, attending synagogues with numerous Holocaust survivors. 166 Ernest Webb, a well-known Indigenous producer, director, executive producer, and storyteller in the globe also participated in the production. He grew up in the Cree village of Chisasibi, Quebec, after being born in James Bay, Ontario. Webb has invested a great deal of time and energy developing connections and creating a large network around him, which has earned him a reputation for sharing stories with authenticity. He has led Rezolution Pictures for about twenty years, and during that time he has developed relationships and earned the trust of various First Nations communities, who have welcomed and trusted him to tell their tales to the world.167

The next thing the program did well was showing how the children were being advertised in the newspaper. The main company that advertised Indigenous children for adoption was the AIM

Podemski mentioned that she first discovered the story of Little Bird in 2015. This was a time that apologies were slowly rolling out in Canada from provincial governments for Sixties Scoop survivors. 74

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Centre which stands for Adopt Indian Métis. Their main purpose was for Indigenous children to be adopted by white middle-class families. I would appreciate further elucidation on the organizational intricacies and funding sources of this establishment, particularly noting its ties to the Canadian and Saskatchewan governments.

The program provides an accurate portrayal of children getting adopted into abusive families. Little Bird portrays how Esther was adopted by a nice family; however, she discovers that her siblings were not adopted into loving families. Her twin brother Niizh was adopted by a family that wanted to use him for work and made him sleep in the barn. Her younger sister Dora was adopted by a family who was oblivious to the fact that their son sexually assaulted their adoptive daughter. And, when they discovered the sexual assault, they blamed Dora instead of their son, and they kicked Dora out of the house. Raven Sinclair writes about a recent doctoral research study on adult Aboriginal adoptees. Some endured abusive and traumatic adoption experiences. Other studies also suggest that many adoptees are satisfied with their adoptive experiences.175 Additionally included in the news clip of Scott Moe apologizing is a small testimony of Rod Belanger, a sixties scoop survivor. He tells us that he was also placed in an abusive family.176

According to Raven Sinclair, Aboriginal children were taken from their homes and communities without their families’ or bands’ knowledge or consent.172 The marketing of Aboriginal children ceased in the 1960s and 70s, but it was still done discreetly to avoid highlighting the government’s assimilation policy. Instead, adoption was promoted as a means of offering a caring and stable environment for a “disadvantaged child.”173 This was depicted in the program, as it shows Patti Little Bird at the beginning of the episode one on edge about her children being taken away from the government at any time. Below is an example of what an ad for one of these stolen children looked like.174 The TV program shows these photographs and ads being taken at the time, and Esther’s mother recalls seeing her adopted daughter’s photo in the paper and felt moved to adopt her.

Adele, the social worker featured in the show, exemplifies a reflective person through her feelings of sadness and empathy towards the children she

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takes under her care. These sentiments continue even after two decades when she meets Esther and assists her in reconnecting with her family. She is at first hesitant to help of fear of losing her job, however, she ultimately changes her mind and provides Esther with some of the information she asked for. This was similar to a real story in the accounts of social worker Johnston, who recalls being deeply moved by a fellow social worker in British Columbia. The emotional encounter, described as the BC social worker shedding tears, revealed the regret and realization that the common practice of separating newborns from their mothers on reserves in the mid-sixties was a profound mistake. 9 This inability to share birth records at the time further underscores the significance of the emotional connection to the children.

Jewish upbringing with her Indigenous spiritual practices, gradually embracing a new sense of identity. Sinclair touches upon the repatriation process that many transracial adoptees from the Sixties Scoop have undergone.177 As adults, these adoptees often encounter Aboriginal child welfare agencies while attempting to reunite with their birth families. It is noteworthy that a significant number of former adoptees first connect with addiction services and street agencies highlighting the challenges they face in terms of identity due to their socialization within a middle-class “white” society. For transracial adoptees, the quest for identity is further complicated by the various factors discussed.178 The show portrays the harsh reality of families living separate lives without any knowledge of each other. Esther’s reunion with her sibling in her twenties highlighted the challenges they faced in getting to know each other again after years apart. It was a slow process, and their initial interactions were not always harmonious due to being essentially strangers. This dynamic was particularly evident in the relationships Esther developed with her sister

The storyline’s most impactful element revolves around Esther’s struggle with her own identity. The portrayal of her constant feeling of displacement and not truly being herself is exceptionally well done, leading up to the moment when she finally discovers her birth family. Even in the face of her brother’s passing, she manages to blend her

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Dora and her twin brother. Several videos, including one I recently watched, depict similar instances of birth families reuniting as adults. However, I had the opportunity to personally speak with elders from indigenous communities a couple of years ago. During our conversation, an anonymous woman shared her experience of discovering she had four siblings whom she knew nothing about besides their whereabouts. They are currently in the gradual process of building a relationship, but it has been challenging due to their vastly different upbringings. This firsthand account resonated deeply and served as a poignant reminder that many Indigenous Peoples and survivors of the sixties scoop face similar circumstances.

Manitoba twins Alyson and Debra ended up in Pennsylvania and they said they were valued at $10,000 as a pair. Wayne Snellgrove calls it human trafficking.” This interview puts it into perspective and solidifies the idea that these children were not being put into better homes.179

Conclusion Overall Little Bird did a fantastic job at conveying the dark truth of the sixties scoop. The program successfully captures historical realities in a compelling and authentic manner. The storyline reflects the impact this event had on Indigenous families and individuals. The series does not shy away from addressing difficult subjects such as identity crisis, the repatriation process, and the disconnect experienced by separated families. It carried an aspect of effectiveness in raising awareness and shedding light on the impacts of the Canadian sixties scoop.

As mentioned earlier, the program did not go in depth about the financial transactions between the organization and the adoptee’s families, as well as the underlying narrative that Canada was executing a form of cultural genocide against Indigenous Peoples. CBC news reported some of the prices that white families paid for the children they adopted: “Carla Williams, also from Manitoba, was adopted by a family in Holland for $6,400.

Leah Binns Bachelor’s Student at TWU General Studies Major ENDNOTES

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Endnotes Frontier

27. Cynthia Commachio, The Dominion of Youth: Adolescence and the Making of Modern Canada, 1920 to 1950 (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2006), Ch. 6. https://twu.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://canadacommons.ca/artifacts/1868652/the-dominionof-youth/2617583/ 28. Smandych, “The rise of the Asylum.”

1. Erik White, “Historical drama Frontier tells story of ‘invasion’ in Northern Ontario ,” CBC, November 17, 2016, https:// www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/frontier-james-bay-northern-ontario-1.3855245#:~:text=Rob%20Blackie%20said%20it%27s%20 fair,of%20the%20lucrative%20pelt%20business November 19 2023. 2. White, “Historical Drama.” 3. Morning North interview “New drama series Frontier focuses on northern Ontario fur trade of the 1780s” https:// www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/frontier-james-bay-northernontario-1.3855245#:~:text=Rob%20Blackie%20said%20it%27s%20 fair,of%20the%20lucrative%20pelt%20business November 19 2023 4. Morning North interview 5. YouTube Video “Game of Thrones star Jason Momoa embarks on the Frontier” on “Q with Tom Power” YouTube channel https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zm3p8vUdKyE 6. Edward Cavanagh, “A Company with Sovereignty and Subjects of its Own? The Case of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1670—1763,” Canadian Journal of Law and Society / La Revue Canadienne Droit Et Société 26, no 1 (2011): 28–29. 7. Cavanagh, “A Company with Sovereignty,” 32. 8. Cavanagh, “A Company with Sovereignty,” 36. 9. Glyndwr Williams, “The Hudson’s Bay Company and Its Critics in the Eighteenth Century.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 20 (1970): 151. 10. Harry W. Duckworth, ed., Friends, Foes and Furs: George Nelson’s Lake Winnipeg Journals, 1804–1822. (Rupert’s Land Record Society Series, 2019), 61–62.

Anne of Green Gables (1985) & Anne of Avonlea (1987) 29 “Anne of Green Gables: Official Site for the Original Series.” 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 “Anne of Green Gables (1985 Film).” 33 Patricia Rooke, and R. L. Schnell, “Childhood and Charity in Nineteenth-Century British North America.” Social History 15, no. 29 (1982): 157. 34 Ibid., 157. 35 Ibid., 159. 36 Ibid., 159. 37 Ibid., 160. 38 Ibid., 161. 39 Ibid., 162. 40 Ibid., 162. 41 Ibid., 162. 42 Ibid., 163. 43 Ibid., 165. 44 Ibid., 165. 45 Ibid., 165. 46 Kevin Sullivan, dir. Anne of Green Gables. 1985; Ottawa, ON: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 47 Marion Crook, “History Lessons.” Adoptive Families Association of BC, June 27, 2023. https://www.bcadoption.com/resources/ articles/history-lessons. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Emily Nett, “Canadian Families in Social-Historical Perspective.” The Canadian Journal of Sociology 6, no. 3, (1981): 243. 57 Ibid., 243. 58 Ibid., 244. 59 Anne Milan, “One Hundred Years of Families .” Statistics Canada, 2020. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/11-008-X19990044909. 60 Milan, 2. 61 Sullivan, dir. Anne of Green Gables. 62 Beatrice Craig, Backwoods Consumers and Homespun Capitalists: The Rise of a Market Culture in Eastern Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), 113. 63 Craig, Backwoods Consumers, 113. 64 Douglas McCalla, Consumers in the Bush: Shopping in Rural Upper Canada. (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015), 23. 65 Craig, Backwoods Consumers, 114. 66 McCalla, Consumers in the Bush, 23. 67 McCalla, Consumers in the Bush, 23–25. 68 Sullivan, Anne of Green Gables. 69 H. T. Holman, Andrew Robb, and Jacqueline McIsaac,

Alias Grace 11. CBC archives, “Margaret Atwood on writing her historical novel Alias Grace” interview on Midday, 1996. https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/962339395894 12. CBC archives, interview. 13. “Six things that inspired Margaet Atwood’s Alias Grace,” CBC, September 25, 2017. https://cbc.ca/books/6-things-that-inspired-margaret-atwood-salias-grace-1.4302863#:~:text=The%20writings%20of%20Susanna%20Moodie,book%2C%20Life%20in%20the%20Clearing. 14. “Alias Grace” Episode guide IMDb accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1034007/ 15. Jana Cattien, “When ‘feminism’ becomes a genre: Alias Grace and ‘feminist’ television”. Feminist Theory 3, vol. 20 (2019): 322 https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700119842564 16. Cattien, “When Feminism becomes a genre,” 335. 17. “The Trials of James McDermott and Grace Marks at Toronto,” Reported by George Walton, Upper Canada, November 3rd and 4th 1843. http://archive.org/details/cihm_67883 18. “The Trials of James McDermott and Grace Marks,”1843. 19. Jane Errington, Wives and Mothers, School Mistresses and Scullery Maids: Working Women in Upper Canada, 1790-1840 (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1995), 26. 20. Murray Greenwood and Beverley Boissery. Uncertain Justice: Canadian Women and Capital Punishment 1754 -1953. (Toronto: Dundun Press, 2000), 218. 21. Greenwood and Boissery, Uncertain Justice, 218. 22. Russel Smandych, “The rise of the Asylum in Upper Canada 1830-1875: an analysis of competing perspectives on institutional development in the nineteenth century,” (MA, diss., Simon Fraser University, 1982), 140. https://summit.sfu.ca/_flysystem/ fedora/sfu_migrate/3977/b12529771.pdf 23. Smandych, “The rise of the Asylum,” 139. 24. Ruth Bleasdale, “Class Conflict on the Canals of Upper Canada in the 1840s”. Labour/Le Travailleur, no. 7(1981): 10. 25. Eric Carlson, “Multiple Personality and Hypnosis: The First One Hundred Years,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25, no. 4 (1989): 319. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(198910) 26. Carlson, “Multiple Personality and Hypnosis,” 320.

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ination in Netflix’s Reworking of LM Montgomery Classic,” The Guardian (September 13, 2021), https://www.theguardian.com/ culture/2021/sep/13/anne-with-an-e-scope-for-the-imaginationin-netflixs-reworking-of-lm-montgomery-classic (date accessed: November 8, 2023).

“Prince Edward Island.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, April 8, 2009. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prince-edward-island. 70 Ibid. 71 Ibid. 72 Ibid. 73 Marishana Mabusela, “The Bog.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, March 30, 2022. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ the-bog. 74 Ibid. 75 Ibid. 76 Ibid.

When Calls the Heart 101 When Calls the Heart, IMDb, January 11, 2014, https://www. imdb.com/title/tt2874692/. 102 Melanie Buddle, “The Business of Women Marriage, Family, and Entrepreneurship in British Columbia, 1901–51,” 2010, https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzQ2MzcwMl9fQU41?sid=f6c37b67-82f3-4fca-b234-1c5f9ecda670@ redis&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1. 103 Ken Jensen , “Black Diamond Historical Society | Remembering the 1910 Lawson Mine Disaster | Slide Show,” Covington-Maple Valley Reporter, November 5, 2010, https://www. covingtonreporter.com/life/black-diamond-historical-society-remembering-the-1910-lawson-mine-disaster-slide-show/. 104 Ronald M. James and Elizabeth Raymond, Comstock Women: The Making of a Mining Community (Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press, 1998), 201. 105 James and Raymond, Comstock Women, 201. 106 “Women in the Mine Towns | American Experience | PBS,” www.pbs.org, n.d., https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/ features/minewars-women/. 107 Bonnie Docherty, “Viewing Mining’s Effects on First Nations through the Lens of Aboriginal Rights,” www.wcel.org, October 30, 2011, https://www.wcel.org/blog/viewing-minings-effects-first-nations-through-lens-aboriginal-rights#:~:text=Second%2C%20the%20 widespread%20mining%20activities.

Anne with an E 77 Amy Wilkinson, “Anne with an E”: How Creator Moira Walley-Beckett Reimagined “Anne of Green Gables.” EW. com, May 11, 2017 (date accessed: November 5, 2023). 78 In Wilkinson. 79 In Wilkinson. 80 In Wilkinson. 81 In Wilkinson. 82 Moira Walley-Beckett, “Anne with an E.” Whole. 1. Netflix, 2019. Episode 6, 3:45. 83 Nadine I. Kozak, “Advice Ideals and Rural Prairie Realities: National and Prairie Scientific Motherhood Advice, 1920-29.” Edited by S. Carter, L. Erickson, P. Rooms, and C. Smith. Unsettled Pasts: Reconceiving the West through Women’s History (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2005), 192. 84 “Frightful Accident,” The Daily Examiner. (March 2, 1883) Examiner:18830303-02 (date accessed: November 8, 2023). 85 Moira Walley-Beckett, “Anne with an E.” Whole. 1. Netflix, 2019, Episode 1, 35:40. 86 Andrea Eidinger, “History of Gender Roles in Canada,” The Canadian Encyclopedia, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/ en/article/history-of-gender-roles-in-canada, (last edited October 21, 2020). 87 “The Choice of a Wife,” The Daily Examiner (January 11, 1886), Examiner:18860111-02 (date accessed: November 14, 2023). 88 Veronica Strong-Boag, “Early Women’s Movements in Canada: 1867–1960.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2020. https:// www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/history-of-gender-roles-in-canada, (last edited August 15, 2016). 89 “Maternal Feminism.” Manitoba Historical Society, August 27, 2009. 90 Strong Boag, “Early Women’s Movements in Canada.” 91 Walley-Beckett, “Anne with an E,” Episode 5, 8:20. 92 Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of their Bodies: Women and their Doctors in Victorian Canada, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), 53. 93 Mitchinson, The Nature of their Bodies, 53. 94 Mitchinson, The Nature of their Bodies, 89. 95 Mitchinson, The Nature of their Bodies, 90. 96 Mitchinson, The Nature of their Bodies, 125. 97 Joanna Robinson, “Anne of Green Gables: Netflix’s Bleak Adaptation Gets It All so Terribly Wrong,” Vanity Fair (May 12, 2017), https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2017/05/anne-ofgreen-gables-netflix-review-anne-with-an-e-bleak-sad-wrong, (date accessed November 8, 2023). 98 H.T. Holman and Andrew Robb, “Prince Edward Island.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prince-edward-island, (updated by Jacqueline McIsaac December 2, 2021). 99 Anne Nation, “Diversity, Inclusion & Anne with an E,” (May 12, 2020). 100 Vivienne Pearson, “Anne with an E: Scope for the Imag-

Frankie Drake Mysteries 108 Carolyn Strange, Toronto’s Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City (University of Toronto Press, 1995), 145 109 Strange, Toronto’s Girl Problem, 145 110 Sarah Carter, “Britishness, ’Foreignness’, Women and Land in Western Canada,” Humanities Research 13, (2006): 57.

111 Carter, “Britishness, ’Foreignness’,” 56. 112 Einav Rabinovitch-Fox, “New women in early 20th-century America,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History (2017). https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.427 113 Rabinovitch-Fox, “New women in early 20th-century America” 114 Rabinovitch-Fox, “New women in early 20th-century America” 115 “A look at the 1920s laws you may be breaking everyday,” CBC/ Radio Canada, October 15, 2019. https://www.cbc.ca/television/a-lookat-the-1920s-laws- you- may-be-breaking-every-day-1.5261147#:~:text=%22Their%20job%20was%20to%20enforce,city%27s%20first%20two %20female%20officers.

116 Strange, Toronto’s Girl Problem, 24 117 The Toronto World, 1920, 12 118 The Toronto World, 1920, 12 119 McCallum, 1986, 32 120 Strange, 1995, 25 121 “Engineering as a career for women” The Toronto World, Sept 11, 1920, 6 122 Sangster, J., “The Communist Party and the Woman Question”, Labour / Travail, 15, (1985): 25 123 “Engineering as a career for women”, 6 124 Natasha Henry-Dixon, “Racial segregation of black people in Canada” The Canadian Encyclopedia, . https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/racial-segregation-of- black-people-in-canada (last updated May 28, 2019). 125 Emilie Jabouin, “Black Women Dancers, Jazz Culture, and “Show Biz”: Recentering Afro-Culture and Reclaiming Dancing

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Black Bodies in Montréal”, Canadian Journal of History, 56, no. 3 (2021): 1. 126 Jabouin, 1 127 Jabouin, 1

Missions: Studies in Cultural Conflict, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 81. 151 Rogers, Speaking my Truth, 71. 152 John S. Milloy. A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System, (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1999), 3.

The Porter 128 Sherlyn Assam, “The Porter” Showcases Black Canadian Train Workers’ Historic Fight for Equality,” Broadview Magazine (February 18, 2022), https://broadview.org/the-porter-cbc/#:~:text=She%20says%20the%20creative%20team,amalgamation%20of%20 Black%20union%20forerunners (accessed December 1, 2023). 129 Randall King, “Getting Details Just Right,” The Winnipeg Free Press, (June 12, 2021), https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/arts-andlife/2021/06/12/getting-details-just-right (accessed December 1, 2023). 130 Ibid. 131 Mathieu, Sarah-Jane (Saje). “North of the Colour Line: Sleeping Car Porters and the Battle against Jim Crow on Canadian Rails, 1880-1920.” Labour / Le Travail 47 (2001): 15. https://doi. org/10.2307/25149112. 132 Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, The Pullman Porter (New York, NY, 1927), 12. 133 Richard Thruelsen, “Pullman Porter,” Saturday Evening Post, (May 21, 1949). https://eds-s-ebscohost-com.twu. idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=82415bfb-8fc6-4ad1-aabb-1bd13d4bc12b%40redis (accessed December 1, 2023).

X Company X Company (2015), episode one “Pilot,” CBC Gem, 25:30. David Stafford, “School for Spies.” World War II 24, no.6 (2010): 36–43. 155 Stafford, “School for Spies,” 36. 156 Stafford, “School for Spies,” 6. 157 David Stafford, “‘Intrepid’: Myth and Reality.” Journal of Contemporary History 22, no. 2 (1987): 311. 158 Stafford, “School for Spies,” 3–4. 159 Stafford, “School for Spies,” 36. 160 Carmela Patrias, “Race, Employment Discrimination, and State Complicity in Wartime Canada, 1939-1945,” Labour / Le Travail 59 (2007): 15. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25149753. 161 Susan Rafuse, “Pushing the boundaries: Canadian women’s experiences in World War II,” (MA Thesis: University of Toronto, 2004), 12. Accessed November 18, 2023. https://tspace.library. utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/122513/1/MQ91589_OCR.pdf. 162 Rafuse, “Pushing the boundaries,” 4. 163 Rafuse, “Pushing the boundaries,” 38. 164 W. G. V. Balchin, “United Kingdom Geographers in the Second World War: A Report.” The Geographical Journal 153, no. 2 (1987): 159–80. https://doi.org/10.2307/634869. 153 154

Bones of Crows: The Series 134 Marie Clements, Bones of Crows, Canada, CBC, 2022, Episode 1. 135 Verna J Kirkness and Sheena Selkirk Bowman, First Nations and Schools: Triumphs and Struggles. (Canadian Education Association/Association canadienne d’éducation, 1992), 10. 136 Clements, Bones of Crows, Episode 5. 137 Shelagh Rogers, Mike DeGagné, Jonathan Dewar, and Glen Lowry, eds. “Speaking My Truth”: Reflections on Reconciliation & Residential School, (Scholastic edition. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2012), 16 138 Ronald Niezen, Truth and Indignation: Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission on Indian Residential Schools, (Teaching Culture: UTP Ethnographies for the Classroom. University of Toronto Press, 2013), 105 139 Niezen, Truth and Indignation, 113. 140 Niezen,Truth and Indignation, 113 141 Niezen, Ronald. Truth and Indignation, 114. 142 Niezen, Truth and Indignation, 115. 143 Rogers, DeGagné, Dewar, and Lowry, eds. “Speaking My Truth,” 68 144 The Survivors Speak, A Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, (Ottawa: Library and Archives Canada, 2015), 98. 145 Kirkness and Selkirk Bowman. First Nations and Schools, 10 146 Elizabeth Furniss, Victims of Benevolence: The Dark Legacy of the Williams Lake Residential School (Arsenal Pulp Press, 1995), 53. 147 Kirkness and Selkirk Bowman. First Nations and Schools,12 148 Celia Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School. Updated ed. (Arsenal Pulp Press, 1991), 62. 149 Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, 64–65. 150 Henry Warner Bowden, American Indians, and Christian

Little Bird 165 Julia Jamieson, “In Conversation with Jennifer Podemski,” YouTube, September 27, 2023, https://youtu.be/G1dPPua2PZM?si=MSswlPKcL0N9NcCw. 166 Shelley Cook, Little bird – cast and crew biographies - APTN, accessed November 1, 2023, https://www.aptn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Little-Bird-Press-Kit.pdf, 1-3 167 Shelley Cook, Little bird – cast and crew biographies - APTN, accessed November 1, 2023, https://www.aptn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Little-Bird-Press-Kit.pdf, 1-3 168 TELUS Storyhive, “Sixties Scoop: More than Sorry,” YouTube, July 15, 2019, https://youtu.be/XW_jPg-2aTU?si=DEGwrvfT8kYXSYnj 169 CBC news: The National, “Saskatchewan’s Apology for Sixties Scoop Leaves Survivors with Mixed Feelings,” YouTube, January 8, 2019, https://youtu.be/GteT6MsfzBM?si=XsYLH94eZ5B9aylc 170 Sinclair, R. “Identity Lost and Found: Lessons from the Sixties Scoop.” First Peoples Child & Family Review 3, no. 1 (2007): 67. 171 Olsen, Sylvia. “Making poverty: A history of on-reserve housing programs, 1930-1996.” (PhD diss: University of Victoria (2016), 21. 172 Sinclair, R. “Identity Lost and Found: Lessons from the Sixties Scoop.” First Peoples Child & Family Review 3, no. 1 (2007): 66. 173 Wharf, B (Ed.) (1993). Rethinking Child Welfare in Canada. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. 174 Finding Cleo Team, “Saskatchewan’s Adopt Indian Métis Program | CBC Radio,” CBCnews, March 21, 2018, https://www.cbc. ca/radio/findingcleo/saskatchewan-s-adopt-indian-m%C3%A9tis-program-1.4555441. As cited in Sinclair, “Identity Lost and Found,” 67 175 Nuttgens, S. (2004). Life Stories of Aboriginal Adults Raised on Nonaboriginal Families, Unpublished dissertation. Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, University of Alberta. Edmonton, Alberta. Spring, 2004. As cited in Sinclair, “Identity Lost and Found,” 75. 176 CBC news: The National, “Saskatchewan’s Apology for Six-

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ties Scoop Leaves Survivors with Mixed Feelings,” YouTube, Jan. 8, 2019. 177 Sinclair, “Identity Lost and Found,” 65. 178 Sinclair, “Identity Lost and Found,” 66. 179 Donna Carreiro, “‘They Owned Me’: Sixties Scoop Adoption Survivors Say They Were Sold to U.S. Families | CBC News,” CBC news, September 29, 2016, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/sixties-scoop-americans-paid-thousands-indigenous-children-1.3 781622

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Mabusela, Marishana. “The Bog.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, March 30, 2022. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/the-bog. McCalla, Douglas. “Places, Stories, and People: Village Stores and Their Customers.” In Consumers in the Bush: Shopping in Rural Upper Canada. McGill-Queen’s Rural, Wildland, and Resource Studies Series. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015. Milan , Anne. “One Hundred Years of Families.” Statistics Canada, 2020. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/11-008-X19990044909. Nett, Emily. “Canadian Families in Social-Historical Perspective”. The Canadian Journal of Sociology 6, no. 3, 1981. Rooke, Patricia, and R. L. Schnell. “Childhood and Charity in Nineteenth-Century British North America.” Social History 15, no. 29, 1982. Sullivan, Kevin, dir. Anne of Green Gables. 1985; Ottawa, ON: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Sullivan, Kevin, dir. Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel. 1987; Ottawa, ON: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.

Anne with an E (2017) Primary Sources: “Frightful Accident.” The Daily Examiner. March 2, 1883. Examiner:18830303-02 “The Choice of a Wife.” The Daily Examiner. January 11, 1886. Examiner:18860111-02 Walley-Beckett, Moira. “Anne with an E.” Whole. 1. Netflix, 2019. Wilkinson, A. “Anne with an E”: How Creator Moira Walley-Beckett Reimagined “Anne of Green Gables.” EW. com, May 11, 2017. https://ew.com/ tv/2017/05/11/anne-interview-moira-walley-beckett/ Secondary Sources: Anne Nation. “Diversity, Inclusion & Anne with an E.” newest awae site, May 12, 2020. https://www.annenation.com/post/diversity-inclusion-anne-with-an-e. Eidinger, A. “History of Gender Roles in Canada.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, October 21, 2020. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ history-of-gender-roles-in-canada. Holman, H.T., and A. Robb. “Prince Edward Island.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, April 8, 2009. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ prince-edward-island. Kozak, Nadine. “Advice Ideals and Rural Prairie Realities: National and Prairie Scientific Motherhood Advice, 1920-29.” Edited by S. Carter, L. Erickson, P. Rooms, and C. Smith. Unsettled Pasts: Reconceiving the West through Women’s HiIstor, n.d., 179–204. “Maternal Feminism.” Manitoba Historical Society, August 27, 2009. http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/features/timelinks/reference/db0015.shtml. Mitchinson, W. The Nature of their Bodies: Women and their Doctors in Victorian Canada, 1991. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442681811. Pearson, V. “Anne with an E: Scope for the Imagination in Netflix’s Reworking of LM Montgomery Classic.” The Guardian, September 13, 2021. https:// www.theguardian.com/culture/2021/sep/13/anne-with-an-e-scope-for-the-imagination-in-netflixs-reworking-of-lm-montgomery-classic Robinson, Joanna. “Anne of Green Gables: Netflix’s Bleak Adaptation Gets It All so Terribly Wrong.” Vanity Fair, May 12, 2017. https://www.vanityfair. com/hollywood/2017/05/anne-of-green-gables-netflix-review-anne-with-an-e-bleak-sad-wrong. Strong-Boag, V. “Early Women’s Movements in Canada: 1867–1960.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, August 15, 2016. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia. ca/en/article/early-womens-movements-in-canada.

When Calls the Heart (2014) Acland, F. A. “Labor Conditions in Canada as Affected by the War.” Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 4, no. 6 (1917): 828–34. https://www. jstor.org/stable/41823422?seq=2. Buddle, Melanie. “The Business of Women Marriage, Family, and Entrepreneurship in British Columbia, 1901-51,” 2010. https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/ ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzQ2MzcwMl9fQU41?sid=f6c37b67-82f3-4fca-b234-1c5f9ecda670@redis&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1. Docherty, Bonnie. “Viewing Mining’s Effects on First Nations through the Lens of Aboriginal Rights.” www.wcel.org, October 30, 2011. https://www.wcel. org/blog/viewing-minings-effects-first-nations-through-lens-aboriginal-rights#:~:text=Second%2C%20the%20widespread%20mining%20activities. Gagnon, Erica. “Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914 | Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21.” Pier21.ca, 2021. https:// pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/settling-west-immigration-to-prairies. Hinde, John R. “‘STOUT LADIES and AMAZONS’: Women in the British Columbia Coal-Mining Community of Ladysmith, 1912-14 .” BC STUDIES no. 114 (1997). IMDb. “When Calls the Heart,” January 11, 2014. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2874692/.

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James, Ronald M., and Elizabeth Raymond. “Comstock Women : The Making of a Mining Community.” University of Nevada Press, 1998. Jensen, Ken. “Black Diamond Historical Society | Remembering the 1910 Lawson Mine Disaster | Slide Show.” Covington-Maple Valley Reporter, November 5, 2010. https://www.covingtonreporter.com/life/black-diamond-historical-society-remembering-the-1910-lawson-mine-disaster-slide-show/. Ladysmith. “Ladysmith & District Historical Society.” Accessed November 16, 2023. https://www.ladysmithhistoricalsociety.ca/page/2/?s=miners+. Muise, Delphin A., and Robert G. McIntosh . “Coal Mining in Canada: A Historical and Comparative Overview.” publications.gc.ca, 1996. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/mstc-cstm/NM97-2-1-5-eng.pdf. Stewart, Ethelbert. “Workmen’s Compensation.” Monthly Labor Review 27, no. 5 (1928): 70–82. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41813441?seq=10. “When Calls the Heart - Season One Photo Gallery,” n.d. https://www.hallmarkchannel.com/when-calls-the-heart/season-one-photo-gallery. www.history.alberta.ca. “Women in Early Alberta Mining Culture - Coal - Alberta’s Energy Heritage.” Accessed November 17, 2023. http://www.history. alberta.ca/energyheritage/coal/the-early-development-of-the-coal-industry-1874-1914/coal-town-formation/women-in-early-alberta-mining-culture. aspx. www.pbs.org. “Women in the Mine Towns | American Experience | PBS,” n.d. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/minewars-women/.

Frankie Drake Mysteries (2017) Baltimore Afro-American 9 Sep 1980 h1ps://books.google.ca/books?id=ea4lAAAAIBAJ&lpg=PA3&dq=1920s%20canada%20colored%20people&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q=1920s%20canada%20colored%20people&f=false Strange, C. (1995). Toronto’s Girl Problem : The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880- 1930. Carter, S. (2006). Britishness, ’Foreignness’, Women and Land in Western Canada. Humanities Research, 13(1), 43–60. https://doi.org/10.22459/ hr.xiii.01.2006.05 CBC/Radio Canada. (2019, October 15). A look at the 1920s laws you may be breaking every day | CBC television. CBCnews. https://www.cbc.ca/television/alook-at-the-1920s-laws- you- may-be-breaking-every-day- 1.5261147#:~:text=%22Their%20job%20was%20to%20enforce,city%27s%20first%20 two%20female%20officers. Jabouin, E. (2021). Black Women Dancers, Jazz Culture, and “Show Biz”: Recentering Afro- Culture and Reclaiming Dancing Black Bodies in Montréal, 1920s– 1950s. Canadian Journal of History, 56(3), 229–265. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjh.56-3-2021-0030 McCallum, M. E. (1986). Keeping Women in Their Place: The Minimum Wage in Canada, 1910-25. In Labour / Travail (Vol. 17, pp. 29–58). Athabasca University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/25142592 Sangster, J. (1985). The Communist Party and the Woman Question, 1922-1929. Labour / Travail, 15, 25–56. https://doi.org/10.2307/25140552 The Toronto World Sept 11, 1920: Engineering as a career for women h1ps://books.google.ca/books?id=hE7AAAAIBAJ&lpg=PA5&dq=1920s%20toronto%20women ‘s%20work&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q=1 920s%20toronto%20women’s%20work&f=false The Toronto World 22 Sep 1920: Women want equal rights h1ps://books.google.ca/books?id=NUpLAAAAIBAJ&lpg=PA6&dq=1920s%20toronto%20 wom en’ s%20work&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q=1920s%20toronto%20women’s%20work&f=false Henry-Dixon, N. (2019, May 28). Racial segregation of black people in Canada. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ racial-segregation-of- black-people-in-canada Nancy Forestell, & Maureen Moynagh. (2014). Documenting First Wave Feminisms : Volume II Canada - National and Transnational Contexts: Vol. [CEL version]. University of Toronto Press. Rabinovitch-Fox, E. (2017). New women in early 20th-century America. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.427

The Porter (2022) Assam, Sherlyn. “The Porter” Showcases Black Canadian Train Workers’ Historic Fight for Equality.” February 18, 2022. Broadview Magazine. https:// broadview.org/the-porter-cbc/#:~:text=She%20says%20the%20creative%20team,amalgamation%20of%20Black%20union%20forerunners. (accessed December 1, 2023). Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. The Pullman Porter. New York, NY, 1927. King, Randall. “Getting Details Just Right.” June 12, 2021. The Winnipeg Free Press. https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/arts-and-life/2021/06/12/getting-details-just-right (accessed December 1, 2023). Mathieu, Sarah-Jane (Saje). “North of the Colour Line: Sleeping Car Porters and the Battle against Jim Crow on Canadian Rails, 1880-1920.” Labour / Le Travail 47 (2001): 9–41. https://doi.org/10.2307/25149112. Mussett, Ben. “Railway Porters Make History.” Knowledge.ca – British Columbia: an Untold History. https://bcanuntoldhistory.knowledge.ca/1940/railway-porters-make-history. (accessed December 1, 2023).

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Thruelsen, Richard. “Pullman Porter.” Saturday Evening Post, May 21, 1949. https://eds-s-ebscohost-com.twu.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=82415bfb-8fc6-4ad1-aabb-1bd13d4bc12b%40redis (accessed December 1, 2023). Toth, Mel. “How the Black Sleeping Car Porters Shaped Canada.” Cranbrook History Centre. https://www.cranbrookhistorycentre.com/how-the-black-sleeping-car-porters-shaped-canada/ (accessed December 1, 2023). Webb, Ross. “‘I Am Voting For Myself, My Children And My Race This Time’: Black Labour, Community Mobilisation And Civil Rights Unionism: The Brotherhood Of Sleeping Car Porters In The 1920’s.” Australasian Journal of American Studies 31, no. 1 (2012): 42–52. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23264153. Williams, Dorothy W. “Little Burgundy and Montreal’s Black English-Speaking Community.” February 10, 2020. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www. thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/little-burgundy-and-montreal-s-black-english-speaking-community. (accessed December 1, 2023).

Bones of Crows: The Series (2023) Primary sources: Rogers Shelagh, Mike DeGagne, Jon`athan Dewar, and Glen Lowry, eds. “Speaking My Truth”: Reflections on Reconciliation & Residential School, Scholastic edition. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2012. The Survivors Speak, A Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Ottawa: Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication, 2015. Secondary sources: Bowden, Henry Warner. American Indians and Christian Missions: Studies in Cultural Conflict Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05965a&AN=alc.13051& site=eds-live&scope=site Furniss, Elizabeth. Victims of Benevolence: The Dark Legacy of the Williams Lake Residential School. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1995. https://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=cat05965a&AN=alc.162859 &site=eds-live&scope=site. Haig-Brown, Celia. Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School. Updated ed. Arsenal Pulp Press, 1991. https://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=cat05965a&AN=alc.161154 &site=eds-live&scope=site John S. Milloy. A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1999. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=497461&si te=eds-live&scope=site. Kirkness, Verna J., and Sheena Selkirk Bowman. First Nations and Schools: Triumphs and Struggles. Canadian Education Association, Association canadienne d’éducation, 1992. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05965a&AN=alc.55067& site=eds-live&scope=site. Niezen, Ronald. Truth and Indignation: Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission on Indian Residential Schools. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013 https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05965a&AN=alc.768227 &site=eds-live&scope=site. Mosby, Ian, and Tracey Galloway. “‘Hunger Was Never Absent’: How Residential School Diets Shaped Current Patterns of Diabetes among Indigenous Peoples in Canada.” Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ) 189, no. 32 (2017): E1043–45. doi:10.1503/cmaj.170448. Stout, Madeleine Dion. Aboriginal People, Resilience, and the Residential School Legacy. Edited by Gregory D. Kipling. [Expanded ed.]. The Aboriginal Healing Foundation Research Series. Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2014. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05965a&AN=alc.631966 &site=eds-live&scope=site.

X Company (2015) Balchin, W. G. V. “United Kingdom Geographers in the Second World War: A Report.” The Geographical Journal 153, no. 2 (1987): 159–80. https://doi. org/10.2307/634869. Canada, Veterans Affairs. “Irene Maria Armstrong.” My Grandmother’s Wartime Diary - Second World War - Diaries, Letters, and Stories - Remembering those who served - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada, February 14, 2019. https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/those-who-served/ diaries-letters-stories/second-world-war/my-grandmother/armstrong. Canada, Veterans Affairs. “Nanny’s Piano.” Sue LeMaistre - My Grandmother’s Wartime Diary - Second World War - Diaries, Letters, and Stories - Remembering those who served - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada, February 14, 2019. https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/thosewho-served/diaries-letters-stories/second-world-war/my-grandmother/lemaistre. Canada, Veterans Affairs. “Ellen Blanche (Landry) Bennett.” My Grandmother’s Wartime Diary - Second World War - Diaries, Letters, and Stories - Remembering those who served - Remembrance - Veterans Affairs Canada, February 14, 2019. https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/thosewho-served/diaries-letters-stories/second-world-war/my-grandmother/bennett. Ferguson, Sue, and Hazel Willis. 2003. “Forgotten Truths about Camp X.” Maclean’s 116 (15): 48. https://search-ebscohost com.twu.idm.oclc.org/login.asp x?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9464145&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Globerman, Steven. “Technological Change and Its Implications for Regulating Canada’s TV ...” Fraser Institute, 2016. https://www.fraserinstitute.org/

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sites/default/files/technological-change-and-its-implications-for-regulating-canadas-tv-broadcasting-sector.pdf. Museum, Canadian War. “Proclamation of War.” WarMuseum.ca - Democracy at War - Canada and the War. Accessed November 18, 2023. https://www. warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/canadawar/canadawar_e.html. Museum, Canadian War. “Chronology of World War Two Newspaper (1945).” WarMuseum.ca - Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War: The History of World War 2. Accessed November 18, 2023. https://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/intro_e.html. Museum, Canadian War. “Total Effort Newspaper (1939).” WarMuseum.ca - Democracy at War - Canada and the War. Accessed November 18, 2023. https://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/canadawar/canadawar_e.html. Museum, Canadian War. “The War Reviewed Newspaper (1945).” WarMuseum.ca - Democracy at War - Canada and the War. Accessed November 18, 2023. https://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/canadawar/canadawar_e.html. Museum, Canadian War. “Background to Victory (1939). .” WarMuseum.ca - Democracy at War - Canada and the War. Accessed November 18, 2023. https://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/newspapers/canadawar/canadawar_e.html. Patrias, Carmela. “Race, Employment Discrimination, and State Complicity in Wartime Canada, 1939-1945.” Labour / Le Travail 59 (2007): 9–41. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/25149753. Rafuse, Susan. “Pushing the Boundaries: Canadian Women’s Experiences in World War II.” TSpace. Accessed November 19, 2023. https://tspace.library. utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/122513/1/MQ91589_OCR.pdf. Stafford, David. “‘Intrepid’: Myth and Reality.” Journal of Contemporary History 22, no. 2 (1987): 303–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/260934. Stafford, David. 2010. “School for Spies.” World War II 24 (6): 36–43. https://search-ebscohost-com.twu.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&A N=48077112&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Stafford, David, “Camp X.” https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/camp-x.

Little Bird (2023) Carreiro, Donna. “‘They Owned Me’: Sixties Scoop Adoption Survivors Say They Were Sold to U.S. Families | CBC News.” CBCnews, September 29, 2016. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/sixties-scoop-americans-paid-thousands-indigeno us-children-1.3781622. CBC news: The National. “Saskatchewan’s Apology for Sixties Scoop Leaves Survivors with Mixed Feelings.” YouTube, January 8, 2019. https://youtu.be/ GteT6MsfzBM?si=XsYLH94eZ5B9aylc. Cook, Shelley. Little bird – cast and crew biographies - APTN. Accessed November 1, 2023. https://www.aptn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Little-BirdPress-Kit.pdf. Finding Cleo Team. “Saskatchewan’s Adopt Indian Métis Program | CBC Radio.” CBCnews, March 21, 2018. https://www.cbc.ca/radio/findingcleo/saskatchewan-s-adopt-indian-m%C3%A9tis-program-1.4555441. Jamieson, Julia. “In Conversation with Jennifer Podemski.” YouTube, September 27, 2023. https://youtu.be/G1dPPua2PZM?si=MSswlPKcL0N9NcCw. Lytwyn, Dan. “Canada ‘Sixties Scoop’: Indigenous Survivors Map out Their Stories - BBC News.” YouTube, December 20, 2020. https://youtu.be/UCxBRad2_3U?si=3nyFQq3hCPlnhgHc Olsen, Sylvia. “Making poverty: A history of on-reserve housing programs, 1930-1996.” PhD diss., 2016. Sinclair, Niigaanwewidam James , and Sharon Dainard. “Sixties Scoop.” The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Article published June 21, 2016; Last Edited November 13, 2020. Sinclair, R. “Identity Lost and Found: Lessons from the Sixties Scoop.” First Peoples Child & Family Review 3, no. 1 (2007): 65–82. https://www.erudit.org/en/ journals/fpcfr/2007-v3-n1-fpcfr05299/1069527ar.pdf TELUS Storyhive. “Sixties Scoop: More than Sorry.” YouTube, July 15, 2019. https://youtu.be/XW_jPg-2aTU?si=DEGwrvfT8kYXSYnj. Toronto Star. “Adoptees of Sixties Scoop Tell Their Stories.” YouTube, October 15, 2019. https://youtu.be/qJHR1STq_-s?si=nmHNVpZibw1U3qIx.

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Editor Robynne Rogers Healey, PhD.

Creative Director Alan A. Silva de Oliveira, MA.

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“We look like a geography but just scratch us and we bleed history” Miriam Waddington, “Canadians”