Post Capital

POST CAPITAL

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WHAT WILL THE FUTURE OF JAVA LOOK LIKE?

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Post Capital Master of Architecture Research Studio Semester 2 2020 RMIT Architecture Studio Leader: Dr John Doyle Students: Jonathoan Antonello, Kithinji Munene, Howard Ka Ho Fok, Yaoming Li, Hepeng Miao, Alezander Moorrees, Lucy Gipson-Stratton, Jack Heatley, Emma Goodieson, Yan Yan, Xiaoxiao Wei, Niamh O’hara.

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Contents 1. Introduction and Key Research Themes 2. Mapping Java’s Built Up Area (Red) 3. Mapping Java’s Green Landscape (Green) 4. Mapping Java’s Waterways (Blue) 5. Digital Mapping Processes and Tools 6. Collective Urban Design Propositions 7. Digital Urban Simulation Processes and Tools

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Chapter 1 Introduction and Key Research Themes This studio will explore the future of Jakarta and the future capital of Indonesia.

In 2019 President Joko Widodo announced that the capital of Indonesia would be moved away from its present location to East Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo. Jakarta is experiencing major infrastructural and environmental problems. During the 20th and 21st Century the city experienced a surge of population growth, with rapid migration of people moving to the city in search of economic opportunity. There is a shortage of adequate and affordable housing, leading to vast sprawl which places extreme pressure on the city’s transit network which is frequently gridlocked. The city is prone to flooding, experiencing frequently catastrophic deluges. At the same time the city is located extremely close to sea level, and as a consequence of its geomorphology and haphazard infrastructure is sinking below sea at an alarming rate (17cm per year). When combined with a projected sea level rise of at least 800mm through the 21st Century, it is possible that the city will become unliveable in its current form.

The solution to move away from an existing capital and start afresh is not a new one. Throughout history there have been numerous examples of sovereigns uprooting the seat of power for political, military and other strategic justifications. During the nation building era of the 20th Century, the creation of a new capital became a mechanism by which (in particular) new or emerging countries could assert themselves as sovereign nations. In

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the era of modernist and proto-modernist planning, these schemes were invariably conceived as complete insertions into a virgin landscape, as autonomous entities that denied the particularities of the natural environment, indigenous cultures and often the practicalities of distance and access – with a similar stultified approach to the functional programming of the city.

If this brute force approach characterises the creation of new cities in the 20th Century, how might we propose an alternative or more nuanced approach to city building in the 21st Century. This studio will explore alternate forms of city making and urbanisation for the future capital city of Indonesia. At a time when travel has become almost impossible, and the use of digital communication platforms has become the norm, is a new centrally located capital city even necessary? If people can be sentenced to death via Zoom, is a physical civic domain relevant? More broadly, how should we design a capital for an archipelago, in which people can’t travel and if they are able to travel in the future – should they? What happens to Jakarta if it is no longer the capital?

Finally, how do we begin to conceive of a city that is fully embedded in its environment?

Like many cities in South East, Jakarta is in close relationship with the natural environment that surrounds it. While the present discourse frames this as an existential battle, this studio will explore an alternate model of ecological urbanism in which the challenges of the city are reframed as its greatest strength. Rather than resisting nature, or even entering into a circular system of environmental management, a future urbanism might consist of a state of total liminality between green (biomass), blue (water) and red (hardscape) within a total concept of integrated urbanisation.

While it is arguable that all cities are in some form of dialogue with these elements, Jakarta and similar emerging cities in the global south provide a valuable example through the extreme proximity and extreme density of all three of these conditions.

The studio will be a partnered studio working Dynamic City Foundation (Shanghai) and other organisations on a broader comparative research project analysing strategies of rapid urbanisation in delta landscapes.

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Since the 1970’s, the city has been sinking at a rate of about 25cm a year. By 2050, 95% of Jakarta’s north is anticipated to be under the sea. This is not to mention other areas along the coastline of Java.

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FLOODING FLOODING JAKARTA IS SUBMERGED

JAKARTA IS SUBMERGED LARGE POPULATION BECOMES DISPLACED

LARGE POPULATION BECOMES DISPLACED

FLOODING + AGRICULTURE

FLOODING + AGRICULTURE

LUCY FLOODING STATS ETC. no. people displaced maps etc.

62,453 people displaced 400,000 fled their homes 62,453 people displaced 400,000 fl ed their homes (Flood in Jakarta, January 1st 2020) 45,000 refugees in (Flood in Jakarta, January 2013), 590,000 left homeless 450,000 displaced, 70% city underwater (Flood in Jakarta, 2007).

(Flood in Jakarta, January 1st 2020)

45,000 refugees in (Flood in Jakarta, January 2013), 590,000 left homeless 450,000 displaced, 70% city underwater

(Flood in Jakarta, 2007).

Workers attempt to clean up a flooded dental clinic in Jatinegara district, Jakarta Beawiharta/Reuters

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JAKARTA’S 2050 SCENARIOS: FLOODING

FACTORS: SLR, GROUND SUBSIDENCE, OCEAN TIDES UNEXPECTED HIGH SEA LEVELS CAUSED BY THE ENSO EVENT OR COASTAL-TRAPPED LONG WAVES

JAKARTA IS SUBMERGED (95% NORTH JAKARTA)

LARGE POPULATION BECOMES DISPLACED HUMANTIARIAN CRISIS?

FLOOD EXTENT IS ESTIMATED

23 MILLION PEOPLE IN COAST-

TO INCREASE BY 110.5KM2

AL CITIES IN INDONESIA RISK

1

LOSING THEIR HOMES. SEA LEVEL RISE OF 35CM = 12.9KM2

1.8 MILLION RESIDENTS DISPLACED (NORTH JAKARTA)

LAND SUBSIDENCE

4-5 MILLION RELOCATED

88% RESPONSIBLE

PROBLEM

SOLUTION

PROBLEM

(CITY PUMPS 630 MILLION CUBIC METRES OF WATER FROM GROUND)

“.. IF WE DON’T PROTECT (JAKARTA) WITH A SEAWALL OR OTHER MEANS, THEN JAKARSTOP CITY GOING UNDERWATER HOW: STOP ALL GROUND WATER EXTRACTION (TOKYO) PIPED RIVER WATER / RAIN

TA WOULD BE INUNDATED BY SEA WATER”

Jakarta’sGREAT 2050GARUDA Scenarios: Flooding SEA WALL HALTED - GIANT TOXIC BAY / CORRUPTION DAM IN CIAWI, LAGOONS BUFFER RIVER FLOWS

PROBLEM OF POLLUTION AND INTERPLAY WITH FLOOD PROTECTION MEASURES - UNSOLVED WATER QUALITY OF CILIWANG VERY POOR, NO2, BOD, HEAVY METALS, FAECAL POLLUTION https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212095516300281,

LACK PUBLIC ACCESS TO WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS (1/2) Factors: slr, ground subsidence, ocean tides CREATED unexpected AQUIFERS high sea levels caused by the ENSO event or coastaltrapped long waves

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-06-24/jakarta-is-running-out-of-time-to-stop-itself-sinking/11190928?nw=0 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670715300354

Flood extent is estimated to increase by 110.5km21 Land subsidence 88% responsible (city pumps 630 million cubic meters of water from ground) Sea-level rise of 35cm = 12.9km2 9

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RESPONSE The studio believes that moving the capital is an inadequate response. We think this proposal is completely void of the nuances of Indonesian urbanity, is a solution that leaves the majority of the Java population behind, is incredibly non-dense and environmentally detrimental. As the most populous island in the world, and with a density which is greater than that of the most dense ‘city’ in Australia. We believe that a solution to Indonesia’s sinking capital is to reconsider the island of Java as a single metropolis.

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We believe that a solution to Indonesia’s sinking capital is to consider the island of Java as a single metropolis. ​To do this the various urban cores spread across the island will be explored to further uncover the potential of Java behaving as a polycentric city.

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DESAKOTA

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It has been well noted, that the rural-urban dichotomy found in western cities is not replicated in Asian cities, particularly in Indonesia. Terry McGee’s concept of desakota, a word invented from the combination of two words meaning village and city, provides great insight into the spatial variability found on the island of Java.

As McGee describes, the ‘Desakota’ accommodate and sustain a relatively complex mix of land uses and infrastructures. Rural villages may coexist with emergent gated suburbs, pre-existing cottage industries, newly arrived malls and golf courses, alongside industrial complexes and rice fields. These features we have identified as intrinsic to Indonesian urbanism.

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Chapter 2 Mapping Java’s Built Up Area (Red)

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URBANISATION The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the

FORMAL SETTLEMENT (URBANISM) 2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and

The population in Indonesia hasaround been growing rapidly.

AccordingThe to the 2010 census, 20%urban in the urban conglomerate Jakarta: Jabodetabek. number of 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants 1 in 1950 significantly, to 10 in 2010, theincluding Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1). increased fromincluding 1 in 1950 tofour 10 in in 2010, four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1).is There is a correlation between levelof of urbanization urbanization (percentage of urban population) There a correlation between level (percentage of urban and the level of economic (gross regional domestic in the provpopulation) and the leveldevelopment of economic development (gross product/capita) regional domestic inces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 product/capita) in the Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and period.

However, the rateprovinces. of annual population growth has declined significantly.

2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

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railway power line highway roads province borderline formal settlement

% e ts an) v0

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RURAL DEVELOPMENT Rural Development Some 119.3 million people, or 47.6% of the population, RURAL DEVELOPMENT

live in rural areas, where agriculture is the main source of income.5 Poverty is increasingly concentrated in these areas: 16.6% of the rural population is Rural Development Some 119.3 million people, or 47.6% of the population, live in rural areas, poor compared 9.9%source of theof urban population.

Millions ofconcentrated smallholderin these where agriculture iswith the main income.5 Poverty is increasingly areas: 16.6% of the rural population is poor with 9.9% of the urban population. farmers, farm workers, and fishers arecompared materially and financially unable to tap Millions of smallholder farmers, farm workers,by and fishers materiallygrowth. and financially unable to tap into into the opportunities offered years ofare economic They are often the opportunities offered by years of economic growth. They are often geographically isolated geographically andextension lack access tomarkets, agricultural extension services, and lack access toisolated agricultural services, and financial services. markets, and financial services.

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cha

aquaculture artificial forest

aquaculture

bareland

artificial forest bush

bareland bush

dryland agriculture mangrove

drylandmining agriculture

mangrove mixed garden miningnatural forest mixed paddyfield garden naturalsettlement forest swamp paddyfield

waterbody settlement

swamp waterbody

change of landuse in jakarta

in rural areas, trated in these ulation. Millions able to tap into hically isolated s. s,

change of landuse in jakarta

e ns o d

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POPULATION DENSITY The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the

POPULATION 2010 census, 86%DENSITY of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and

The population in Indonesia hasaround been growing rapidly.

AccordingThe to the 2010 census, 20%urban in the urban conglomerate Jakarta: Jabodetabek. number of 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants 1 in 1950 significantly, to 10 in 2010, theincluding Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1). increased fromincluding 1 in 1950 tofour 10 in in 2010, four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1).is There is a correlation between levelof of urbanization urbanization (percentage of urban population) There a correlation between level (percentage of urban and the level of economic (gross regional domestic in the provpopulation) and the leveldevelopment of economic development (gross product/capita) regional domestic inces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 product/capita) in the provinces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

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mos

highway

highway

roads

roads province borderline province borderline formal settlement formalformal settlement settlement formal settlement

most populated cities in java

0 census, 86% onglomerate n inhabitants ek region (Ta%population) n a) e in the provhe ts 1990–2000

most populated cities in java

an) v0

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TRANSPORTATION Throughout the 90s Java Island, the 5th largest island in Indonesia, was making

TRANSPORTATION a pronounced transition from an agricultural to a manufacturing industry

amou

and service based economy, resulting in the rapid socioeconomic growth

Throughout the 90s Java Island, the 5th largest island in Indonesia, was making a pronounced and development of the region.

In 1998 Eastindustry Java, one of the based six Indonesian transition from an agricultural to a manufacturing and service economy, resultprovinces on socioeconomic Java Island, had a GDP US$ 25 billion; one ofInthe ing in the rapid growth and of development of the region.

1998highest East Java, one of the six on Java Island, had a GDP of province’s US$ 25 billion; one ofrate the highest GDPs of Indonesian Indonesia’sprovinces provinces.

Between 1990-1995 the growth GDPs of Indonesia’s provinces. Between 1990-1995 the province’s growth rate remained above remained above the national average, reaching GDP growth of 7.8% in real the national average, reaching GDP growth of 7.8% in real terms in 1995, with the building and terms in 1995, with the building and construction construction sector maintaining double digit growth rates.sector maintaining double

digit growth rates.

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railway highway railway roads highway province borderline roads

province borderline

amount of passengers over years

amount of passengers over years

pronounced nomy, resultast d Java, one f the highest tained above e building and

st e d

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PROVINCE MAP The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the

PROVINCE MAP 2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of

The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the 2010 census, 86% megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate 1 in 1950 to 10Jabodetabek. in 2010, including four in Jabodetabek region around Jakarta: The number of the megacities with more than (Table 1 million2.1). inhabitants increased frombetween 1 in 1950 to 10 inof 2010, including four(percentage in the Jabodetabek region (TaThere is significantly, a correlation level urbanization of urban ble 2.1). There is a correlation between level of urbanization (percentage of urban population) population) and the level of economic development (gross regional domestic and the level of economic development (gross regional domestic product/capita) in the provproduct/capita) provinces.

Urbanization in Indonesia between inces.

Urbanizationininthe Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend2000 as theand 1990–2000 2010 shows thethe same as population the 1990–2000 However, the rate of period.

However, rate trend of annual growthperiod. has declined significantly.

annual population growth has declined significantly.

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% e ts an) v0

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RAL DEVELOPMENT

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

al Development Some 119.3 million people, or 47.6% of the population, live in rural areas, ere agriculture is the main source of income.5 Poverty is increasingly concentrated in these as: 16.6% of the rural population is poor compared with 9.9% of the urban population. Millions mallholder farmers, farm workers, and fishers are materially and financially unable to tap into opportunities offered by years of economic growth. They are often geographically isolated lack access to agricultural extension services, markets, and financial services.

Rural Development Some 119.3 million people, or 47.6% of the population, live in rural areas, where agriculture is the main source of income.5 Poverty is increasingly concentrated in these areas: 16.6% of the rural population is poor compared with 9.9% of the urban population. Millions of smallholder farmers, farm workers, and fishers are materially and financially unable to tap into the opportunities offered by years of economic growth. They are often geographically isolated and lack access to agricultural extension services, markets, and financial services.

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URBAN POPULATION

URBAN POPULATION

The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the 2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from 1 in 1950 to 10 in 2010, including four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1). There is a correlation between level of urbanization (percentage of urban population) and the level of economic development (gross regional domestic product/capita) in the provinces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the 2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from 1 in 1950 to 10 in 2010, including four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1).

There is a correlation between level of urbanization (percentage of urban population) and the level of economic development (gross regional domestic product/capita) in the provinces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

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FORMAL SETTLEMENT The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the FORMAL SETTLEMENT

2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20%urban in the urban conglomerate around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. number of 86% The population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly.

AccordingThe to the 2010 census, of the urban with population Indonesia is located in Java and 20% significantly, in the urban conglomerate megacities more of than 1 million inhabitants increased from around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants 1 in 1950 to 10 in 2010, including four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1). increased significantly, from 1 in 1950 to 10 in 2010, including four in the Jabodetabek region (TaThere a correlation between level (percentage of urban ble 2.1).isThere is a correlation between levelof of urbanization urbanization (percentage of urban population) and the level and of economic (gross regional domestic in the provpopulation) the leveldevelopment of economic development (gross product/capita) regional domestic inces.

Urbanizationininthe Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend2000 as the 1990–2000 product/capita) provinces.

Urbanization in Indonesia between and period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

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% e ts an) v00

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Settlement in West Java

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Registered substantial buildings in West Java

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Government registered office buildings in West Java

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Registered buildings and flood affected areas in West Java

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Populated places in East Java

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Settlement in West Java

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Population density in Java

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Settlement in East Java

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Jakarta Waterways and Green Land

WATERWAY

GREE

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JAKARTA CBD

GREEN LAND ZONE

RAILWAY

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Jakarta highways and major roads

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HIGHWAY SYSTEM

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Jakarta road system

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JARKATA ROAD SYSTEM

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Jakarta population and registered buildings

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POPULATED AREA IN CBD

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Jakarta metropolitan area

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JAKARTA METROPOLITAN AREA

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INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS: 1. areas where groups of housing units have been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal claim to, or occupy illegally; 2. unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in compliance with current planning and building regulations (unauthorized housing).

Source Publication: Glossary of Environment Statistics, Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 67, United Nations, New York, 1997.

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REASONS FOR INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS - rapid urbanisation and population growth in urban areas lead to informal settlements - population growth leads to increased demand for housing, which means that low income people are unable to access housing due to increased housing costs, and a lack of supply.

- political and civil instability can also lead to increased informal settlements CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS: - deteriorating housing - lack of appropriate infrastructure, sewerage and drainage - settlements do not comply with building regulation in the city - often the land built upon is dangerous, subject to flooding, industrial plants or landfills - the urban fabric is often an irregular pattern - building materials vary, depending on access. Commonly wood, bricks, concrete, tin and even cardboard are used source: Alzamil, Waleed. (2018). Evaluating Urban Status of Informal Settlements in Indonesia: A Comparative Analysis of Three Case Studies in

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“

”

SAPOLA (INDONESIA SLUM ALLEVIATION POLICY AND ACTION PLAN) - Latest report and data collected 2015 - Reports show that around 12.1% of Indonesia’s population live in urban slums.

- There is a lack of spatial data on slums across the country - no thematic maps for local governments to identify slums and related demographic, social and economic information - Indonesia aims to develop a geo-referenced database of informal settlements using satellite imagery, surveys and other sources source: DKI JAKARTA: INFORMAL SETTLEMENT MAPPING Cities Alliance Project Output, 2015

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POVERTY MAP The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the 2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from 1 in 1950 to 10 in 2010, including four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1). There is a correlation between level of urbanization (percentage of urban population) and the level of economic development (gross regional domestic product/capita) in the provinces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

POVERTY MAP

The urban population in Indonesia has been growing rapidly. According to the 2010 census, 86% of the urban population of Indonesia is located in Java and 20% in the urban conglomerate around Jakarta: Jabodetabek. The number of megacities with more than 1 million inhabitants increased significantly, from 1 in 1950 to 10 in 2010, including four in the Jabodetabek region (Table 2.1).

There is a correlation between level of urbanization (percentage of urban population) and the level of economic development (gross regional domestic product/capita) in the provinces. Urbanization in Indonesia between 2000 and 2010 shows the same trend as the 1990–2000 period. However, the rate of annual population growth has declined significantly.

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source: Alzamil, Waleed. (2018). Evaluating Urban Status of Informal Settlements in Indonesia: A Comparative Analysis of Three Case Studies in North Jakarta. Journal of Sustainable Development. 11. 148. 10.5539/jsd.v11n4p148.

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Village Development Levels Vector

IDM VILLAGE LEVELS 2018 HIGHLY UNDERDEVELOPED VILLAGES UNDERDEVELOPED VILLAGES DEVELOPING VILLAGES

IDM VILLAGE LEVELS 2018

FORWARD VILLAGES

HIGHLY UNDERDEVELOPED VILLAGES INDEPENDANT VILLAGES

UNDERDEVELOPED VILLAGES

NO DATA OR CITY

DEVELOPING VILLAGES FORWARD VILLAGES INDEPENDANT VILLAGES NO DATA OR CITY

IDM DEVELOPMENT 2015-2018 IN JAVA Maps the village development levels between 2015 and 2018.

Building village index (IDM) generated from average Social Resilience Index, Economic Resilience Index and Environmental Resilience Index.

Map shows the overall village development levels across Java. It would be assumed that the least deloped areas high a high population of informal settlements. These areas are mainly found in the west of the island, as well as the north east. source: https://gis-portal.kemendesa.go.id/portal/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=baca91dc3a424846bd4f7df177838237

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SLUM AREAS IN BANDUNG Bandung one of the largest cities in Indonesia - population of 2.5 million - density 1400 people per km2 - 454 slum areas, 8.7% of total area Slum areas categorised: - infancy stage: patches of land become available to slum dwellers (eg. on river banks, hazardous areas) 50% of land used as housing - consolidation stage: land filling up with buildings, about 80% of land used as housing - saturation stage: additional construction is primarily vertical development, land is filled up. High overcrowding and low living standards source: F K Maula et al 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 385 012035

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SLUM AREAS

BUILDINGS IN SLUM AREAS

PHASES OF SLUM AREAS - high levels of saturation indicate poor living conditions and overcrowding

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JAKARTA Capital of Indonesia, largest city in South-East Asia Population: 10.7 million Density (metro area): 4383 people/sq km

- 118 of 267 subdistricts contain slum areas - most of the slums are located near waterways or commercial areas.

This image is taken from the Tambora slum, located in West Jakarta. 260,000 people live in 5 sq km, one of the most populated areas in South East Asia. The area is entirely slums, no high rise build71

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SLUM AREAS IN JAKARTA SEVERE SLUM AREA SLUM AREA LIGHT SLUM AREA NATURAL WATERWAYS

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BANDUNG Capital city of West Java Population: 2.5 million Density: 1400 people per sq km Area: 1876 sq km

Slum areas categorised: - infancy stage: patches of land become available to slum dwellers (eg. on river banks, hazardous areas) 50% of land used as housing - consolidation stage: land filling up with buildings, about 80% of land used as housing - saturation stage: additional construction is primarily vertical development, land is filled up. High overcrowding and low living standards source: F K Maula et al 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 385 012035 73

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STAGES OF SLUMS IN BANDUNG INFANCY CONSOLIDATION SATURATION RIVER

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YOGYAKARTA Capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta Population: 4 million Density: 1900 people per sq km Area: 2159 sq km - an important cultural and arts centre in Indonesia - home to Indonesia’s largest student population - the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy - one of Indonesia’s most developed cities INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS: 8% of the city is classified as slum area 90% of slum areas occur along rivers

- typical informal settlements building up on the river’s edge

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INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN YOGYAKARTA INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS RIVER

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SEMARANG Capital city of Central Java Population: 3 million Density: 1900 people per sq km Area: 1643 sq km - since 2014, the Central Java administration reduced 57% of the total slum areas in the province (which includes Semarang)

Kampung Pelangi - a village in Semarang that transformed itself into bright colours and designs in 2017 - this was in an effort to get rid of it’s image as a degraded slum - government spend around $29000 for the makeover

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INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN SEMARANG INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS RIVER

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SERANG Capital city of Banten Population: 666,000 Density: 2499 people per sq km Area: 266 sq km

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INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS IN SERANG INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS RIVER

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66,507 ensity: 3,975/km2 3 Sq.km

KEDIRI Landsllides and surface run off Population: 266,507 make some of the areas and cause Density:innaccessible 3975 people per sq km damage.

Area: 63 sq km

With lack of planning in Kediri for informal settlements, The people are at risk of loosing their property and life to damage by the nearby Mount Kelud.

Slums Major Road.

Minor Road.

surface run off he areas nd cause Landslides and surface run off make some of the areas inaccessible and cause damage.

nning in Kediri for ments, The people sing their property age by the nearby

With the lack of planning in Kediri for Informal Settlements, the people are at risk of losing their property and life to damage by the nearby Mount Kelud

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KEDIRI Population: 266,507 Population Density: 3,975/km2 Total Area: 63 Sq.km

Landsllides an make some o innaccessible damage.

With lack of p informal settl are at risk of and life to da

des and surface run off ome of the areas essible and cause e.

Mount Kelud

ck of planning in Kediri for l settlements, The people sk of loosing their property to damage by the nearby

Kelud.

Slums Major Road.

Minor Road.

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SURABAYA Population • City: 3,009,800 • Density: 8,600/km2 (22,000/sq mi)

SURABAYA Capital city of East Java

Permanent structures.

Semi permanent structures.

Temporary structures.

Not recorded.

Population: 3,009,800 Density: 8600 people per sq km -26% of the population in Area: 350.5 sq km

Slum structure.

Surabaya live in informal settlements.

-The informal settlement is either in slum areas or as squatters.

Informal settlement area River Administrative boundary

Permanent structures.

Semi permanent structures.

Temporary structures.

Not recorded.

Slum structure.

-26% of the the population population 26% of in in Surabaya live Surabaya live in informal in Informal Settlements. The Informal settlements.

Settlement is either in slum areas or as -The informal settlement is either in slum areas or as squatters.

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SURABAYA Population • City: 3,009,800 • Density: 8,600/km2 (22,000/sq mi)

Permanent structures.

Semi permanent structures.

Temporary structures.

Not recorded.

Slum structure.

-26% of the population in Surabaya live in informal settlements.

-The informal settlement is either in slum areas or as squatters.

Informal settlement area River Administrative boundary

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(36,000/sq mi)

BEKASI Lo rem i

Population: 2,931,897 Density: 14,000 people per sq km Burangkeng disposal site seen spilling over into Area: 210 sqisslum km area.

The lack of public amenities and adjacent activities then contaminates the water ways that the people depend on.

Slum area.

Major Road.

ngkeng disposal site en spilling over into keng disposal site area. spilling over into ea.

Minor Road.

Burangkeng disposal site is seen spilling over into slum area

ack of public amenities adjacent activities k of public amenities contaminates the djacent activities r ways that the people end on. ontaminates the ways that the people The lack of public amenities and adjacent activities then contaminates the waterways that the d on. people depend on

Slum area.

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Major Road.

Slum area.

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Minor Road.

Road.

Major

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Slum area.

Major Road.

Minor Road.

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ARTA

:499,337 5.6762 sq.Km 46 Sq.km

SURAKARTA Population: 499,337 Density: 11,729 people per sq km Area: 46 sq km There are 40,000 people living in 13,000 condemned houses.

The program is aimed at those who own the houses and land they stand on. Illegal settlements built on state land will not be part of the program

Slum Squatters

There are 40,000 people living in 13,000 condemned houses.

There are is40,000 living in 13,000 The program aimed atpeople those who own the houses conand land they stand on. settlements built on demned houses.

TheIllegal program is aimed atstate those land will not be part of the program

who own the houses and land they stand on. Illegal settlements built on state land will not be part of the program Slum Squatters

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SURAKARTA Population:499,337 Slum Area: 5.6762 sq.Km Total Area: 46 Sq.km

There are 40, The program and land the land will not There are 40,000 people living in 13,000 condemned houses.

The program is aimed at those who own the houses and land they stand on. Illegal settlements built on state land will not be part of the program

Slum Squatters

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BOGOR INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

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Chapter 3 Mapping Java’s Green Landscape (Green)

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Agriculture and plantations are crucial contributors to Indonesia’s economy, representing nearly 17% of its GDP in 2011. However, this sector is also the largest contributor of the country’s greenhouse gas emissions, notably through forest clearing and peat land drainage for agricultural activities. In 2009, Indonesia pledged to significantly reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.

At the same time, it aims to double production of key commodities, such as palm oil, by 2020 and to increase its GDP by 7% annually. These goals can be achieved simultaneously through innovative approaches such as prioritizing forest-free lands for agricultural development.

Recognizing the domestic and international importance of its tropical landscape and the people in it, the Indonesian government has made encouraging decisions; it has voluntarily committed to a minimum 26% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 and developed a strategy for land use and forestry emissions, extended a moratorium on new clearing of primary forests and peat lands from 2 to 4 years (20132015), and increasingly recognized the rights of forest communities and indigenous peoples. Indonesia must balance these environmental and social goals with a rapidly growing economy based on natural resources and corporate interests.

Much of the standing forest has already been parceled out to plantation and logging firms and can be cleared at any time. Pulpwood logging concessions hold 2.92 million hectares (7.22 million acres) of natural forest, and oil palm plantations have 1.44 million hectares (3.56 million acres).

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Indonesia is the third largest country in terms of global rice production, however they still have to import rice almost every year due to non-optimal production techniques being used by the farmers and their large per capita rice consumption of about 150 kilos of rice per person per year.

Small holder farmers account for about 90 % of Indonesias rice production with each farmer holding an average land area of 0.8 hectares.

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Urban areas are home to more than half the world’s population, with some predicting this will be closer to 68% by 2050. Over two thirds of this increase is expected to occur in the Global South, where there are particularly pronounced legacy issues of environmental inequity [2,3].

With cities so closely tied to the human experience, there is a growing recognition of the need for urban landscapes to provide equitable access to green spaces so that all can enjoy their multiple benefits.

Many studies on disparities in the distribution of urban green space (UGS) focus on the quantity and accessibility of designated open spaces. However, when all types of UGS, including unmanaged green areas, are accounted for, claims of green space distributive injustice become more complicated. A research team of architecture students from the university of Singapore conducted a preliminary investigation questioning the common Global North assumption that the poor have less access to the benefits of green space, using the cities of Mumbai and Jakarta as case studies as, in their respective countries, wealth inequality has grown at a higher rate than in other Asian countries.

We employed four sets of geospatial data to analyze green space distribution patterns and probe the relationship with UGS inequity in different land value districts. We found that the lower land value districts had more vegetation coverage with a higher vegetation density, mainly due to a large quantity of unmanaged greenery. The relationship between the status of urban development and the land values in a district is not necessarily reflective of the UGS distribution once unmanaged vegetation is considered. We conclude by discussing ways to optimize the use of unmanaged UGS as a socioecological asset for poorer districts, and we point to the practical consequences of incorporating the study’s findings into policy and planning towards the creation of ecologically inclusive cities.

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From 2003-2006, Java lost approximately 2,500 hectares a year (10,000 hectares of forest in total) according to the Forestry Ministry.

The montane tropical rainforests of West Java are home to a large number of endemic species that are threatened by rapid habitat loss and human exploitation.

Only about 5 percent of the original habitat of this ecoregion remains.

There are thirty-three protected areas that cover 3,045 km2 (7 percent), but most of the protected areas (twenty-eight) are small (less than 100 km2)

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Comparative analysis

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Vegetation Fraction Map Many unmanaged UGSs and the larger UGSs are scattered in the outskirts, and the smaller UGSs are in the city; the highest population densities appear in the central district where the total UGS is limited.

While many managed UGSs are represented as small and broadly scattered patches, there is a trend whereby larger unmanaged patch agglomerations appear on the peripheries of the city. These include mangrove and urban forests and meadow/nature reserves, all with relatively higher vegetation cover . For both, there is an overall correlation between larger UGSs and higher vegetation cover

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Urban Green Space Urbanization is only one the of many pressures on land availability in Jakarta. Another is that almost half of the city, especially the northern part, is below sea level. Both conditions require the constant negotiation of land allocated for development and for natural landscape; built-up land represented 69.9% of the total in 2017. The ensuing conflict is apparent in the current land use planning map; the local government has only been able to deliver 7.61% of the total city area as green open space, but the land policy stipulates 30%. Even with investment, the average green space per person in Jakarta has only slightly increased, moving up from 2.21 m2 per person in 2008 to 2.73 m2 per person in 2014

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Tree Plantations in Java Given that the cutting pressure on natural forests in Indonesia must now be reduced, it is vital that the forest industries adjust accordingly and shift their resource base from natural forests to plantations.

In Indonesia, two main approaches to tree plantation development can be recognized : i) industrial tree planting (HTI) and ii) far tree planting (or tree plantations grown on private or customary lands).

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Tree Cover in Java Tree cover displays tree cover with a canopy density of >30% In this data set, “tree cover� is defined as all vegetation greater than 5 meters in height, and may take the form of natural forests or plantations across a range of canopy densities.

Tree cover loss may be the result of human activities, including forestry practices such as timber harvesting or deforestation (the conversion of natural forest to other land uses), as well as natural causes such as disease or storm damage. Fire is another widespread cause of tree cover loss, and can be either natural or human-induced.

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Primary Forests in Java This data shows natural humid tropical forest that has not been completely cleared and regrown in recent history.

Primary forests are among the most biodiverse forests, providing a multitude of ecosystem services, making them crucial to monitor for national land use planning and carbon accounting. This data set defines primary forests as “mature natural humid tropical forest cover that has not been completely cleared and regrown in recent history.�

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Protected Areas.

These areas that are legally protected according to various designations (e.g., national parks, state reserves, and wildlife reserves) and managed to achieve conservation objectives.

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Mangrove Forests in Java This data shows natural humid tropical forest that has not been completely cleared and regrown in recent history.

Primary forests are among the most biodiverse forests, providing a multitude of ecosystem services, making them crucial to monitor for national land use planning and carbon accounting. This data set defines primary forests as “mature natural humid tropical forest cover that has not been completely cleared and regrown in recent history.�

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Agriculture More than two-thirds of the island’s land area is under cultivation, and the primary food crop is wet rice. An elaborate irrigation network of canals, dams, aqueducts, and reservoirs has greatly contributed to the island’s rice-growing capacity over the centuries. Other crops, also mostly grown in lowland areas on small peasant landholdings, are corn (maize), cassava, peanuts (groundnuts), soybeans, and sweet potatoes. Terraced hillslopes and irrigated rice paddies are familiar features of the landscape. Kapok, sesame, vegetables, bananas, mangoes, durian fruits, citrus fruits, and vegetable oils are produced for local consumption. Tea, coffee, tobacco, rubber, and cinchona (the source of quinine, and grown in the highlands of western Java); sugarcane and kapok (raised in the eastern part of the island); and coconuts are exported. Several of these cash crops at a time are usually grown on large family estates.

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Threats The reasons for plundering rain forests are mainly economic. Wealthy nations drive demand for tropical timber, and cash-strapped governments often grant logging concessions at a fraction of the land’s true value. “Homesteader” policies also encourage citizens to clear-cut forests for farms. Sustainable logging and harvesting rather than clear-cutting are among the strategies key to halting rain forest loss.

Logging, land-clearing and conversion activities are considered to be the greatest threats to the forests of Java. Of particular concern is the conversion of natural forests to oil palm and timber plantations.

One of the biggest drivers of deforestation in Java is the growth of oil palm plantations in response to global demand for palm oil, the most important tropical vegetable oil in the global oils and fats industry. Within Indonesia, oil palm production expanded from 600,000 hectares in 1985 to over 6 million hectares by 2007.

Opportunities Parts of those concession-bound forests are considered of high conservation value (HCV) and/or high carbon stock (HCS), and are therefore by law prohibited from being cleared. But even if they are conserved, there’s another 6.14 million hectares (15.2 million acres) of forest that falls within areas earmarked by the government for its social forestry program. This land is to be demarcated and the titles awarded to local communities.

The government also has to determine a threshold for carbon stock that must be conserved, he said. Some companies have adopted the HCV and HCS approach, undertaken in conjunction with sustainability schemes such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).

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Threats to Natural Forest cover

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Green Pixel Map The pixel map generator used the provided and available GIS data to map out the different intensities of “Green” and assign a shade of green proportional to the intensity. The Darkest pixels have the most area of green space regardlessof the whether it is natural or managed.

This gave us an understanding of Java island and an analytical tool in our study of the context in which urbanisation would occur.

Further along, the studio was able to come up with a tool that designated colour to the the different forms of “green” that formed a deeper analysis and inventory of the island.

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Chapter 4 Mapping Java’s Waterways (Blue)

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PIXEL SIMULATION 1. EXISTING CITY/VILLAGE AS NUCLEUS

PIXEL SPECULATION Urbanisation growth along the centre of waterbodies on the island of Java

Post-Capital Mid-Semester

PIXEL MAP OF WATERWAYS Based off earlier research, informal settlements gravitated towards water bodies for sustenance of industry and livelihood. This informs the nodes around which the cluster is based.

Post-Capital Mid-Semester

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AREA

cation and varying intensity of naturally ng waterbodies across the island .

Blue Area (Waterway) Blue denotes waterways, natural and artificial. Analysing water’s course through Java allows us to speculate on future urbanisation, as proximity to water is an essential component of human consumption and agriculture.

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Hydro-System in Java Island 123

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Hydro-System in Java Island 125

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Chapter 5 Digital Mapping Processes and Tools The Pixel Map Generator

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GIS layers in Rhino (Left) and Screenshot of Pixel Map Generator User Interface (right)

Screenshot of Pixel Map Generator as extruded percentages (right)

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The Pixel Map Generator User Interface The Pixel Map Generator User Interface includes various options for controlling the produced pixel maps. The user has the option to choose, from a list of pixel grid dimensions ranging from 1km to 16km, from a list of 30+ GIS data layers, and between a red, green or blue colour gradient.

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Pixel Map Generator User Interface

A toggle enables/disables the map generator loop to allow the user to make changes to the above settings without having to wait for the loop to finish each time. Below this are three buttons, two for creating and setting the map boundary using rhino curve geometry and a reset loop button. The User Interface contains a large 3D viewport for viewing the produced pixel maps. This view can be set as flat or extruded. Finally, beneath the viewport there is a bake map button to place the mesh geometry of either the flat or extruded pixel map into the rhino document, and a refresh view button that resets the viewport to ensure the geometry is visible.

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Human UI Grasshopper Definition

The Pixel Map Generator script uses the Human UI plugin to create the external User Interface for the tool. The benefit of this approach as opposed to running the script directly within grasshopper is that even those who don’t have much experience with grasshopper are still able to operate and utilise the Pixel Map Generator effectively. The portion of the script shown above, is responsible for creating the UI and integrating the options within the UI with the rest of the script. The UI itself went through much development to reach this point and was even further developed alongside the rest of the script beyond this point for more specific utilisation by the studio in work after mid semester.

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Example of 10km by 10km Red, Green and Blended Pixel Maps

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The Pixel Map Generator Grasshopper Definition The following pages describe the grasshopper definitions for the development of the Pixel Map Generator and how this was used to create RGB and blended pixel maps.

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This was the initial, fully functional grasshopper definition for the Pixel Map Generator.

The maps produced could then be displayed as flat or extruded geometry which could be baked into the rhino window.

More specialised versions of the script were developed during the semester, however this version was capable of producing pixel maps of any size and shape at pixel dimensions from 1km to 16km for 30+ GIS polygon, polyline or point data layers.

This version also included the portion of script required to produce the blended pixel map from three red, green and blue maps for a single map boundary.

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This portion of the Pixel Map Generator script contains the parse meerkat file component where the meerkat file corresponding to the GIS data layer selected within the UI is imported into grasshopper as geometry.

This geometry is checked to see whether it is polygon, polyline or point data and is then filtered into the appropriate path for that geometry type.

The three pink blocks of script correspond to a single geometry type, meaning that only one of these groups is receiving data for any one map.

In the grey group, the grid curves at the pixel dimension selected are filtered down to select those which are within the map boundary created by the user.

The purple group contains the anemone loop in which the area percentage (polygon), curve length (polyline), or point count (points) of the data is calculated for a single pixel and recorded in the loop output.

The loop then repeats moving on to the next pixel in the list until all of the pixels within the map boundary have been assigned a value between 0 and 1.

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These blocks are shown in the viewport instead if the display mode is set to ‘extruded’. This portion of the script is also responsible for baking the map geometry into rhino while retaining the colour attributes. This receives a button pulse from the UI to activate the bake component, placing the flat or extruded geometry into the rhino document.

After the anemone loop has completed, the values for the pixels are used to assign a single colour, within the specified colour gradient. The pixels as a list of basic meshes are then either directly displayed in the 3D viewport with their respective colour if ‘flat’ display mode is selected, or the meshes are extruded into blocks with a height determined by the value calculated for that pixel.

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The final part of the script is responsible for producing the blended pixel maps. This portion isn’t accessible through the UI as it requires the production of multiple pixel maps (usually red, green and blue) to create the blended map. To blend the pixel maps, the pixel values for the same map boundary of the full red, full green and full blue data layers needs to be internalised into the grasshopper definition.

These values are then used as weights for a weighted average component.

The weighted average between 0,1 and 2 as a result of these weights would be used in a tween through the colour gradient component to find the appropriate blended colour for that pixel. For example, a pixel with a value of 0.50 for both red and green and 0.00 for blue would average halfway between 0 and 1, resulting in a colour halfway between the colour from the red map and the green map.

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Java Elevation Extruded Pixel Map

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Pixel Map Examples Java Island The following pages provide examples of pixel maps which were generated using the digital mapping tool the studio developed.

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Java Settlement Area Pixel Map

Java Major Roads Pixel Map

Java Railways Pixel Map

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Java Agriculture Pixel Map

Java Rice Fields Pixel Map

Java Forest Pixel Map

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Java Flood Risk Pixel Map

Java Detailed Rivers Pixel Map

Java Combined Waterways Pixel Map

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Java Full Red Pixel Map

Java Full Green Pixel Map

Java Full Blue Pixel Map

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Java Blended RGB Pixel Map

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Chapter 6 Collective Urban Design Propositions

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Preliminary Propositions Proposition #1 Java will require its cities to be more mixed

Proposition #2 Java will urbanise alongside its transportation network

Proposition #3 Java will be polycentric

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Preliminary Proposition #1: “Java will require its cities to be more mixed.”

The urban phenomena of ‘desakota’ observed in asian cities around the world, especially Indonesia, provide insight into the possibilities of a mixed/integrated urbanism. This means that agriculture will be brought into greater proximity with higher density urban environments and reduce transportation requirements by increasing amenity (i.e. access to employment, services, education and public space). The cities will become ambiguous through a rural-urban hybridity.

Preliminary Proposition #2: “Java will urbanise alongside its transportation network.”

The Linear form of human settlements is widespread in the history of urbanisation. Villages along a road symbolise the linear urban form.

The road is the village backbone along which habitation, manufacturing, storage and trade are located. Linear urban development is often a spontaneous response to local building conditions (roads ,waterways).

Through analysing the linear cities that are starting to reach out from the transport network of Java, we could start to hypothesise the consolidation of growth along a series of corridors, then create a network from end to end.

Preliminary Proposition #3: “Java will be polycentric.”

Decentralised cities offer a pattern for smart density. A central business core surrounded by rings of decreasing density is no longer sustainable with growing cities. Cities that are best positioned for the future are evolving along a polycentric, multi-nodal model.

Equally as important as the centres themselves is the infrastructure that connects them. Providing well planned transit-oriented development along side and between the course of the natural evolution of “centres” or “nodes”, leads to polycentric city-building.

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352326,7,21 352326,7,21

If Java urbanise successfully, agriculture need to be strongly maintained. f Java is is to to urbanise successfully, agriculture willwill need to be strongly maintained.

Considering urban phenomena of ‘desakota’, proposal prioritises managed green space (agriculture) Considering thethe urban phenomena of ‘desakota’, thisthis proposal prioritises managed green space (agriculture) in in urban development of Java.

At present, more than two-thirds of the island’s is under cultivation, hethe urban development of Java.

At present, more than two-thirds of the island’s landland areaarea is under cultivation, primary food crop is wet rice. ineffi cency of current growing methods suggest a need for agriculndand thethe primary food crop is wet rice.

TheThe ineffi cency of current growing methods suggest a need for agricultural reform integration of sustainable practices infrastructure to foster social equity, environmental ural reform andand thethe integration of sustainable practices andand infrastructure to foster social equity, environmental health, economic prosperity in these communities. sustainable maintenance of agriculture will require ealth, andand economic prosperity in these communities.

TheThe sustainable maintenance of agriculture will require greater support local community including informal settlements by increasing amenity leading to less strain reater support for for local community including informal settlements by increasing amenity leading to less strain urban areas. n on urban areas.

Proposition #4 If Java is to urbanise successfully, agriculture will need to be strongly maintained

2020 2020

` ` 2030 2030 increase in urbanisation increase in urbanisation higherhigher density populations density populations designated agriculture land maintained designated agriculture land maintained

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Preliminary Proposition #4: “If Java is to urbanise successfully, agriculture will need to be strongly maintained.�

This proposal prioritises managed green space in the urban development of Java. At present, more than two-thirds of the island’s land area is under cultivation, and the primary food crop is wet rice. The inefficiency of current growing methods suggest a need for agricultural reform and the integration of sustainable practices and infrastructure to foster social equity, environmental health, and economic prosperity in these communities. The sustainable maintenance of agriculture will require greater support for local community including informal settlements by increasing amenity leading to less strain on urban areas.

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The Speculations Strategy #1 Java will urbanise as a single mega-city

Strategy #2 Java will urbanise along its transit corridor

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The studio set out to speculate ways in which urbanisation will take shape in Java. These could be taken as proposals as well as speculative abstractions of our analysis using the pixel map generator. The future of Java is inextricable from the future of Indonesia and these strategies put forward could then be scalable to the larger context or even more detailed smaller scales of development.

Strategy 1- Java will urbanise as a single mega-city Growing in-situ urbanisation has been taking place in Java since the end of the twentieth century with changes of rural localities becoming urban localities, indicating a rapid rural– urban transformation in Java. Mega-urban regions continue to grow not only in the largest urban agglomeration Jab-odetabek, but also in secondary cities including Surabaya and Bandung.

Strategy 2 - Java will urbanise along its transit corridor The physical development of the Bandung Metropolitan Area and the Jakarta Metropolitan Area was marked by the formation of an urban belt from Bandung to Jakarta City of about 200km, characterised by a mixture of socio-economic activities, including industrial, residential, and agricultural activities, which blurred the rural-urban distinction in these areas. Urbanisation has been developing along Java’s transit corridors and it could be hypothesised that with the growing population, people will continue two urbanise alongside Java’s transit corridor. This linear urbanisation could follow the major transit modes, road or railway.

These urban strategies were discarded as we believe they do not offer a nuanced approach to urbanism in Indonesia. The following Cluster Strategies are how we imagine urbanism could unfold across the island of Java.

Therefore our proposal is that Java will urbanise as a series of clusters.

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Java will urbanise as a series of clusters 1. City/village as nucleus

2. Bodies of water as nucleus

3. Railway intersection as nucleus

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Rather than separating economic centres from villages, we propose a framework where the entire island of Java develops from a highly mixed use desakota model. This defines a framework where the entire island of Java starts from a model of highly mixed use desakota frameworks which include small production, manufacturing, agricultural, civic + cultural, and living spaces and extends that beyond the urban and Peri-urban regions in the Island using different nodes to define the urbanisation.

1. City/village as nucleus The first model looks at cities and villages as cluster centres. Urban areas have greatly expanded and radiated far beyond administrative boundaries in almost all directions from the core of the cities/villages. This sets a precedent and an existing frame work for urbanisation that the future could naturally be accommodated into. It’s cognizant of the complexities present in the rural-urban socio-economic balance of Java which could be continued and improved.

2. Bodies of water as nucleus The second model looks at bodies of water as cluster centres. In many villages in Desakota area, the residents’ need for water involves all aspects of life. Domestic water and agricultural irrigation are the two most essential parts. The construction of residential areas along the water body can maximize the utilization rate of the water body and reduce unnecessary waste. At the same time, forest land, cultivated land, residential areas and water bodies also form an excellent ecological cycle system at the residential area scale.

3. Railway intersection as nucleus Urban areas grow from major transit termini as a result of the economic activities that are both primary and ancillary in these locations. This provides a historically tried node to urbanisation.

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Chapter 7 Digital Urban Simulation Processes and Tools The Speculative Map Maker

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This part is some speculation charts of Speculative Map Tools via UI in grasshopper. The Speculative Map maker could generate simulations in terms of different existing database.

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Railways in Java

Speculation of existing cities and villages in Java

Speculation of railways in Java

Speculation of waterways in Java

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Pixel map simulator The simulator tool can process different data simultaneously and add them up to the final result.

At the same time, the database can be positively or negatively influenced by different parameters. For example, in the analysis of road traffic at the same altitude, by adjusting the parameters of the railway, farmland and water system, the positive or negative influence of these elements on the traffic can be obtained.

Base map( settlement area)

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Ele1000For0.30_Road+1_x1_Agr+25_x1_10rep

Ele1000For0.30_Road+10_x1_Rail+10_x1_10rep

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Ele1000For0.30_Road-10_x1_WaterD+10_x1_10rep

Ele1000For0.50_Road+1_x1_Rail+1_x1_10rep

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Ele1503For0.50_Road+1_x1_Agr+25_x1_10rep

Ele1503For0.50_Road-5_x0.25_WaterD+25_x1_10rep

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Ele1503For0.50_Road-5_x1_WaterD+25_x1_10rep

Simulated Blend map

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