Jdmse vol 3 no 2 july 2013 by Vivekananda University, Coimbatore Campus

ISSN 2229-5143

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

DM SE

ournal

RAMAKRISHNA MISSION VIVEKANANDA UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION ISSN : 2229-5143 Volume 3

Number 2

July 2013

CONTENTS Editorial board

iii

Instruction to authors

Editorial

Sri Ramakrishna, the Educationist: Swami Abhiramananda 1-8 Preliminary Try-Out & Validation of Problem Behavior Survey Schedule for Children with Developmental Disabilities : Prof. S. Venkatesan

9-22

Impact of Socio-Economic Status, Education & Gender on Parental Expectations of Children with Cochlear Implant : Ravi Kumar and Dr. Rajeev R. Jalvi

23-32

The Self-assessment of Self-determination of the Persons with Mild Intellectual Disabilityâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; Is it Reliable? : Saumya Chandra

33-41

Current Practices in Inclusive Education of Children with Intellectual Disability : R. Shilpa Manogna

42-53

An Error Analysis of Mathematical Achievement in Primary school Children with Hearing Impairment : Prof. T. Geetha and Prof. A.T. Thressiakutty

54-64

Analysis of Errors in the Tamil Writings of Primary School Students : K. Ranganathan, K. Anil Kumar and S. Venkatesan

65-74

Effect of Uni-Nostril Pranayama on Developing Span of Attention Among Students with Mild Intellectual Disability : Rohnika Sharma and Prof. A.T. Thressiakutty

75-83

Is there one Sign Language all over India? : G. Poongothai

84-85

Success Story : Strong Will in a Stone Deaf

86-88

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION Journal of Disability Management and Special Education (JODMSE) is a bi-annual publication of the Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Univeristy (RKMVU). The journal publishes original articles in the area of Disability Management and Special Education. It includes research articles, book reviews, success stories of persons with disability, news about conferences, letters to the editors and forthcoming events. The purpose is to promote research in the area of disability rehabilitation. The subscription rates are given below: Single copy: ` 200/-

One year : ` 400/-

Three years: ` 1000/-

Mode of payment: Payment should be made by cheque or Demand Draft drawn in favour of the “Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University” payable at Coimbatore FORM: IV Statement about ownership and other particulars about Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

1. Place of Publication : Coimbatore 2. Periodicity of Publication : Bi-annual 3. Printer’s Name : Vidyalaya Printing Press Nationality : Indian Address : Ramakrishna Vidyalaya Printing Press, SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore 641 020 4. Chief Editor’s and Publisher’s Name : Dr. A.T.Thressiakutty Nationality : Indian Address Ramakrishna Mission Vivekanada University, Faculty of Disability Management and Special Education, SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore 641 020 Tel: 0422 2697529, Mobile: 76392 66343 5. Name and addresses of Individuals & : Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, shareholders holding morethan 1% of Faculty of Disability Management and the total capital Special Education, SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore 641 020 Tel: 0422 2697529 e-mail: jodmse@gmail.com, fdmedu@gmail.com I, Dr. A.T. Thressiakutty, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. ii

JOURNAL OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION ISSN : 2229-5143 Volume 3

Number 2

July 2013

EDITORIAL BOARD CHIEF ADVISOR Swami Atmapriyananda

Vice-chancellor, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University

ADVISORS Swami Abhiramananda

Administrative Head, FDMSE, RKMVU

Br. Pradeep

Asst. Administrative Head, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

Dr. M. Chandramani

Dean, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

CHIEF EDITOR Dr. A.T. Thressiakutty

Professor, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

EDITOR Abhishek Kumar Srivastava Asst. Professor, RKMVU, FDMSE, Coimbatore

EXPERT MEMBERS Dr. Jayanthi Narayan

Dr. N. Muthaiah

Principal, College of Education, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Coimbatore

Former Deputy Director, NIMH, Secunderabad

Dr. Asmita Huddar

Dr. S. Venkatesan

Principal, Hashu Advani College of Special Education, Mumbai

Professor, Clinical Psychology, AIISH, Mysore

Ms. M. Annakodi

Sri N. Narendiran

Asst. Professor, FDMSE, RKMVU, Coimbatore

Audiologist & Speech Pathologist

iii

Instructions for Author(s) The chief editor invites original, scholarly articles and research papers within the aim and scope of the journal, that have not been published previously or submitted elsewhere, and that are not under review for another publication in any medium (e.g. printed journal, conference proceedings, electronic or optical medium) should be submitted to the Chief Editor, Journal of Disability Management and Special Education (JODMSE). A declaration by the author(s) that the paper(s) has/have not been sent elsewhere for publication/presentation is also required. Copyright clearance for material used in the article should be obtained by the author(s). It will be assumed that submission of the article to this journal implies that all the foregoing conditions are applicable. All articles and correspondence related to contribution should be addressed to the Chief Editor, JODMSE on the following e-mail: jodmse@ gmail.com

an Abstract of not more than 150 words, stating the purpose of the study, the methods followed, main findings (with specific data and their statistical significance if possible), and the major conclusions. Main body of the text: Articles must be concise and usually follow the following word limitations: 1 Research Papers (3000-5000 words normally, 6000-8000 words in exceptional cases) 2 Short communication (1000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3000 words) on new ideas/new areas work/innovation/ action research/ ongoing investigations/ conference and seminar and work shop outcomes. 3 Book reviews (1000-2000 words) Organization of the text: The general organization of research papers should be as follows: 1. Introduction should include important review of relevant studies which leads to the need, scope and objectives of the study. 2. Methodology should include sampling techniques, tool(s)/tool development and details of validation, data collection procedure and scheme of data analysis. 3. Results and discussion. 4. Conclusion. 5. Appendices may be used to amplify details where appropriate. Tables: Tables/figures should be typed at their apt position in the text. There should not be duplication of information by giving tables as well as graphs. Footnotes: Footnotes to the text should be avoided. References: References should be indicated in the text by giving the name of author(s) with the year of publication in parentheses. References should be alphabetically listed at the end of the paper. References should also be in tune with APA style.

Copyright: The authors are responsible for copyright clearance for any part of the contents of their articles. The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the authors, and do not reflect the objectives or opinion of RKMVU, FDMSE. Peer review: All Contributions submitted will be subjected to peer review. Format: The whole text manuscript must be typed in double space on one side A4 paper (including references) and should have oneinch margin at three sides and wide margin to the left side of the text. Every page should be numbered correctly including the title page. The article should confirm to APA style. Soft copy of the article should be attached and submitted to the above-mentioned e-mail. Title page: This should contain the title of the manuscript, the name of the author and at the bottom the address for correspondence including email ID, the number of authors should not exceed three. Abstract: The second page should contain iv

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Editorial

ISSN: 2229-5143

Quality Indicators and Evidence-Based Practices for Research in Special Education In the previous issue, the importance of qualitative research in special education was discussed. As a continuation, it has been found appropriate to provide brief information on quality indicators and evidence-based practices for research in special education especially for three types of research designs namely: Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Group Designs, Single subject design and Correlational Research referring the article published by Division of Research, Exceptional Children (2004, fall).

1. Quality Indicators for Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research: Quality indicators for experimental and quasi-experimental group design specified features of research that include a) conceptualization of the research study, b) participant description, c) implementation of treatment and comparison conditions, d) outcome measures, and e) data analysis. In their paper, Gersten et al. also provide a checklist that translates these indicators into questions. Separate sets of questions were developed for evaluating research manuscripts (for journal reviewers) or research proposals (for grant reviewers), given that the interpretation of the quality indicators changes slightly depending on how they are used. Evidence-Based Practice for Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research; To guide practitioners and researchers in the identification of evidence-based practices, Gersten et al. propose two sets of guidelines. One set of guidelines specify the level of evidence necessary to clearly support a practice as being evidence-based. For evidence based practices, two or more high quality studies, or at least four acceptable quality studies, with mean weighted effect sizes significantly different from zero, must support the effectiveness of the practice. 2. Quality Indicators for Single Subject Designs Horner et al. specify quality indicators for seven features of single subject design studies: description of participants and setting, dependent variables, independent variables, baseline, experimental control/internal validity, external validity, and social validity. These indicators are like the concept of external validity, such evidence for individual practice occurs through systematic replications in studies that possess the indicators of high quality. Evidence-Based Practice for Single Subject Designs Horner et al. proposed guidelines for the types of evidence that are necessary for a practice to be documented as evidence-based using single subject design literature. For a practice to be established as evidence-based, it must be supported by five high quality studies published in peer reviewed journals. The studies must have been conducted by three different researchers in three different geographical locations, and include a total of at least 20 participants (i.e., across the five studies). v

Thressiakutty / Editorial

3. Quality Indicators for Correlational Research In addition to specifying quality indicators about specific features of research design, the correlational research subcommittee extended their identification of quality indicators to features of outcome reliability and statistical interpretations of studies. Quality indicators were proposed for measurement, practical and clinical significance, macro-analytic interpretations of outcome, use of confidence intervals for reliability, and effect size estimates. Evidence-Based Practices for Correlational Research Although experimental group designs, quasi experimental designs with sufficient controls, and single subject designs are experimental (i.e., they actively “manipulate” an independent variable while document changes in the dependent variable, infer causal relationships), some research questions are not amenable to active manipulation. In such situations, sophisticated correlational designs, such has structural equation modeling or hierarchical linear modeling, may be used to make causal-like inferences. Thompson et al. proposed that this may be done in two ways— through statistically testing rival hypotheses and by logically discounting rival hypotheses. Conclusion An attempt has been made to briefly explain the quality indicators and evidence based practices for research in special education especially, Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Group Designs, Single subject design and Correlational Research. Ever since UGC has made mandatory to publish two research papers before submitting PhD thesis, many PhD scholars come forward with research articles. I do hope this information would help to determine if a study is of high quality and whether it provides evidence of the effectiveness of practices in special education. References: Gersten, R., Fuchs, L., Compton, D., Coyne, M., Greenwood, C., & Innocenti, M. (in press). Quality indicators for group experimental and quasi-experimental research in special education. Exceptional Children Horner, R. D., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S. L., & Wolery, M. (in press). The use of single subject research to identify evidence-based practices in special education. Exceptional Children Thompson, B., Diamond, K. E., McWilliam, R., Synder, P., & Synder, S. (in press). Evaluating the quality of evidence from correlational research for evidence-based practice. Exceptional Children Odom, S.L. (Chair), Brantlinger,E., Gersten,R., Horner,R.D., Thompson,B. & Harris,K (2004) Quality Indicators for Research in Special Education and Guidelines for Evidence-Based Practices: Executive Summary, Exceptional Children (fall)

A.T. Thressiakutty, PhD Chief Editor, JODMSE vi

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Sri Ramakrishna, the Educationist * Swami Abhiramananda Holistic Education

India’s spiritual ambrosia flowing from his lips. Sri Ramakrishna complemented these college youths with the glory of spiritual wisdom to fulfil the lacuna in their learning system.

When Swami Vivekananda prayed to Saraswati, the Goddess of learning, and addressed the audience in the Chicago Parliament of Religions with the words, Sisters and Brothers of America, ‘hundreds rose to their feet with shouts of applause. . . For full two minutes, he attempted to speak, but the wild enthusiasm of the audience prevented it’.1

While Narendranath and the other young disciples represented the acme of secular education, Sri Ramakrishna symbolized the wisdom of ancient India. The system of education imparted in the Ramakrishna Mission institutions is designed to reap the benefits of these two types of education. This brings home to us several truths, namely,

Later, Swamiji noticed the benefits that education had showered on the westerners and returning to India, he spoke a lot on the degraded condition of the Indian masses and how they can be raised through education. He was convinced that the right type of education was the only panacea for all the evils plaguing the Indian society. By the right type, he meant a judicious blend of the Indian spiritual and the western technical aspects of education. He was certain that such an education alone would be holistic and comprehensive.

a) Education becomes complete when knowledge rises to the level of wisdom. Mere knowledge without wisdom can be dangerous. Educated people with evil propensities can do more harm to the society than uneducated people with the same qualities. b) In the Indian context, secular and spiritual education have always been complementary and never contradictory; the two have always marched together. It is only in the background of the western religious traditions that sacred and spiritual aspects of education have been at loggerheads.

During his college days, Swamiji had mastered all the modern western subjects including the sciences, history and literature. From his mother, he had also imbibed the spiritual and cultural traditions of India. But the highly learned youth had to go to the ‘illiterate’ Sri Ramakrishna and sit at his feet for five years to complete his education! Around the same time, several other youths also approached Sri Ramakrishna and eagerly drank the ancient

c) The journey of the secular to the sacred is continuous and spontaneous. As Swamiji says, physics merges with metaphysics in the higher stages.

* Secretary, Ramakrishna Mission, Vidyalaya, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu This article is republished with special permission from the author and the publisher of Vedanta Kesari (Dec. 2011)

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The Need for Values

be incorporated in the curriculum of educational institutions.

In the present day scenario, where all the indicators related to the social and economic development of our nation are showing an upward trend, one has to be warned that these achievements should not be at the cost of our culture and values. India has a long history of imparting secular education with a spiritual base. In 1835, Lord Macaulay advocated the policy of stopping grants to schools teaching in Sanskrit and regional languages, and started providing grants only to schools teaching in English. The idea was to impose western culture on the Indians. As if in protest to this major policy reverse, Sri Ramakrishna incarnated in the very next year and challenged the western method of education. His brother himself started a Sanskrit school in the heart of Kolkata, the then Capital of India. Sri Ramakrishna abhorred the idea of ‘bread winning education’2 and emphasized on ethical and spiritual elements in it. As child Gadadhar, he spent most of his days in spiritual activities such as making images of deities out of clay, listening to the narration of shastras, serving wandering monks and enacting dramas on the lives of great spiritual souls. In the independent India all our policy makers on education have endorsed the views of Sri Ramakrishna. They have consistently and assiduously highlighted the importance of spiritual and ethical elements in the curriculum as a strong foundation for secular education. To quote the relevant passages from a few reports on our educational policy:3 Y

The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53): Religious and moral instructions do play an important role in the growth of character.

Sri Prakasa Committee on Religious and Moral Education (1959): Many ills that our world of education and our society as a whole are suffering today, resulting in wide-spread disturbance and dislocation of life are mainly due to the gradual disappearance of the hold of the basic principles of religion on the hearts of people. The only cure, it seems to us, is in deliberate inculcation of moral and spiritual values from the earliest years of our lives.

Education Commission Report (1964-66): In a rapidly changing world of today, one thing is certain: moral education and inculcation of a sense of responsibility must be stressed in the educational system. . . Modern- isation does not mean—least of all in our national situation—a refusal to recognize the importance of or to inculcate the necessary moral and spiritual values and self discipline. There should be a search for the knowledge of the self, of the meaning of life, of the relationship of man to other human beings and the ultimate Reality. In the situation that is developing, it is equally important for us to give a proper value orientation to our educational system.

The University Education Commission (1948-49): Spiritual training should 2

Committee of Members of Parliament on Education (1967): The most important and urgent reform needed is to transform the existing system of education in order to strengthen national unity, promote

Swami Abhiramananda / Sri Ramakrishna, the Educationsit

social integration, accelerate economic growth and generate moral, spiritual and social values. Y

National Policy on Education (1968): The educational system must produce young men and women of character and ability committed to national service and development.

National Policy on Education (1986): Our country’s rich and varied cultural traditions need to be bridged. The present preoccupation with modern technologies should not be allowed to sever our new generations from the roots of India’s history and culture. Deculturisation, dehumanization and alienation must be avoided at all costs. Education must and can bring about a fine synthesis between change-oriented technologies and the country’s continuity of cultural tradition.

Acharya Ramamurti Committee (1990): Education must provide a climate for the nur- ture of values, both as a personalized set of values, forming one’s character and including necessarily social, cultural and national values, so as to have a context and meaning for actions and decisions, and in order to enable persons to act with conviction and commitment.

National Implementation Committee to celebrate 150th Birthday of Swami Vivekananda (2010): Introduce Swami Vivekananda’s life and teachings in the school curriculum and create Vivekananda chairs in Indian universities.

educational system until today, probably due to political and other compulsions. Sri Ramakrishna likened all our life’s achievements to zeroes which have no value unless the integer ‘one’ is placed before them; the digit ‘one’ symbolises the moral and ethical aspect of education.5 Sri Ramakrishna’s Method Let us now see the remarkable methods of teaching adopted by Sri Ramakrishna. It is amazing how an illiterate person from a rustic background could speak in the language of the modern policy makers on education. No wonder, more and more schools and colleges are being dedicated in his hallowed name! Methods of teaching employed by Sri Ramakrishna: Sri Ramakrishna possessed a scientific temperament and never accepted anything without proof. He forbade his disciples to accept anything without repeated verification. He made his own body and mind a great spiritual laboratory and tested the veracity and validity of the ancient scriptures to this age by practicing them one by one. He vigorously pursued each of the paths for just three days and attained realisation through every one of them. His own life was an open book on spiritual and moral values. Yet he strenuously taught his disciples the subtleties of spirituality through certain methods which have now been recognized as effective means for imparting value education by policy thinkers on education. Some of the methods which he intuitively followed are given below.

Swami Vivekananda himself said that he believed religion to be the innermost core of education.4 But very little has been done to translate these policies into our national

1. Conceptual Method In this method, a concept is introduced and a number of illu- strations are used to 3

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explain it. Sri Ramakrishna is adept in this method of teaching. He introduces the difficult concepts of Brahman with and without form, Maya, Bhakti, Jnana, harmony of religions, etc., and explains them in such a lucid way through simple examples that everyone can easily understand them.

scriptures like the epics and the Puranas. Here, the story of a spiritual role model is narrated to bring home the applicability of the abstract spiritual principles into practice. The availability of a concrete symbol to personify the abstract spiritual concepts makes it very easy for the student to grasp the content. Sri Ramakrishna often used to ask the devotees to read aloud from the stories of saints like Dhruva, Uddhava,9 Vilvamangal10 , Krishna, Rama, Harischandra,11 etc. He even asked his disciple and famous dramatist, Girish Chandra Ghosh, to dramatize some of these stories in the theatre and himself witnes- sed the dramas on Chaitanya12 and Prahlada13 .

For instance, to resolve the dilemma of how God with form and God without form can co-exist, he compares God with form to a block of frozen ice and God without form to an ocean. Just as the block of ice melts into the ocean with the dawn of sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rays, God with form merges into formless God with the rise of knowledge.6

3. Group Discussion Method:

Describing the superiority of Bhakti over Jnana, Sri Ramakrishna likens Bhakti to a woman who can enter into the inner apartments of her friendâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house, whereas Jnana is like a man who cannot venture beyond the drawing room.7

This method employs an exchange of ideas and views to widen understanding, thinking and reasoning. It ideally brings forth the best answer to a question. Sri Ramakrishna used to ask some of his learned disciples like Narendranath, Mahimacharan Chakravarty, Mahendranath Gupta and Girish Chandra Ghosh to discuss about the philosophy of the Hindu schools14 . When some devotees felt that these discussions were useless, Sri Ramakrishna objected to their intervention by saying that these do have a meaning and so should be continued. In most of such debates, differences of opinion used to arise among the participants in their interpretations and invariably Sri Ramakrishna would finally reconcile their differences.

To illustrate the concept of harmony of religions, he uses the example of four people drinking water from the same pond, yet each one of them calling it by different names such as vari, aqua, pani, jal, etc. The experience of the thirst getting quenched, however, is the same for all the four people. In the same way, though God is called by different names, He is One in His quintessence.8 To explain the most difficult concept of Maya he compares it to a veil or screen held in between the Jivatman and the Paramatman. The moment the veil is removed, the Jivatman is able to realize the Paramatman.

4. Multi-level, Multi-grade Teaching It is a concept promoted zealously nowadays by prominent national educational bodies like the NCERT (National Council for Educational Research and Training). Multi-

2. Biographical Method This has been a very effective method employed right from the ancient days in 4

Swami Abhiramananda / Sri Ramakrishna, the Educationsit

level indicates the different levels of entry into an educational institution. Multi-grade means the different methodologies used to teach the above different levels of students—to each one according to his ability. This concept bears a striking resemblance to the Delors’ Report published by the UNESCO as an Education Document for the 21st century, which reads in part:

tively. He identified and took each one from the level where he or she stood and raised them from there. The result was, at the end of his teaching, all the disciples became holistic personalities in their own unique ways and contributed to the welfare of the society. Thus, viewed from the perspective of the modern trends in education, Sri Ramakrishna was a teacher par excellence.

Education should be pursued in terms of flexibility, diversity and availability at different times and different places. Not only must it adapt to changes in the nature of work, but it must also constitute a continuous process of forming whole beings—their knowledge and aptitudes as well as critical faculty and the ability to act. It should enable people to develop awareness of themselves and their environment, and encourage them play their social roles at work in the community.15

5. Inductive and Deductive Methods of Learning and Teaching Deductive method of learning is that in which we assume the final result hypothetically and then prove it through a self-discovered process. Child prodigies who excel in various fields by a stroke of genius without proper teacher and training belong to this group. Inductive method is deriving the results from the first principles, i.e, start without assuming the conclusion and logically arrive at the final result step by step. This is the normal, traditional method by which a vast majority of people learn.

In the case of Sri Ramakrishna, we find people of multi-levels—householders, pros- pective sannyasins, women disciples, etc.— coming to him for spiritual learning. Again, among the householders there are highly evolved souls like Naga Mahasaya, socially rich and influential people like Mathur, bohemians like Girish Chandra Ghosh and normal sadhakas like many of the rest. Among the sannyasin disciples, again, there are very highly learned ones like Narendra, intensely contemplative aspirants like Hari and Rakhal, illiterate persons like Latu and born yogis like Kaliprasanna. Sri Ramakrishna received each of them with open arms and taught them individually and wherever possible, collec-

In the case of Sri Ramakrishna, we first find that he experienced God without the help of scriptures or Guru, i.e., he followed the deductive method. Afterwards, he took up different Gurus and strictly followed the injunctions enjoined by his Gurus, i.e., he followed the inductive method. It is a wellknown fact that for one’s own learning and versatility, deductive method is enough, whereas to attain sustainability and teach others, one should have preferably undergone both the inductive and deductive methods of learning; in the characteristic, simple words of Sri Ramakrishna, ‘One needs a sword and shield to kill others; but to kill oneself, a needle 5

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or a nail- knife suffices’16 . We see in the life of Sri Ramakrishna that he attained remarkable success through both the inductive and deductive methods of learning and teaching.

The above-quoted Delor’s Report further states that ‘education must be pursued throughout one’s life; there is a need to rethink and broaden the notions of education on a lifelong basis.’

Significance of the above incident in the field of special education: Special education means education and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities. It is estimated that all over the globe, nearly a whopping 10% of the population are disabled in one way or the other—blind, deaf and dumb, orthopaedically handicapped, mentally ill, mentally retarded, autistic, dyslexic, leprosy-cured and so on. In the last few centuries, the outlook of the society upon this section has evolved in three stages:

This is another way of expressing Sri Ramakrishna’s oft-repeated statement ‘As long as I live, so long do I learn.’17

i) First Stage: Their deformity was thought to be as a result of God’s curse on them. So they were shunned and discarded.

Sri Ramakrishna and Special Education

ii) Second Stage: Today we are passing through this phase. At this stage, the disabled are tolerated by the society, but have separate schools, academies, training centres, etc., such as the school for the blind, vocational centres for the deaf and dumb and so on. They live separately without much contact with the main society.

6. Life-long Process of Learning and Teaching

We find an interesting incident in the life of Sri Ramakrishna when he was a young priest in the temple of Dakshineswar. One day, a priest by name Kshetranath was carrying the image of Lord Govinda when he slipped and fell down. As a result the leg of the deity broke. The owner of the temple, Rani Rasmani and her son-inlaw Mathur Nath were worried because as per scriptural injunctions the worship could not be continued on a broken image. They invited all the famous scholars of Kolkata for a meeting to ascertain the procedure to be adopted. The unanimous verdict of the learned assembly was ‘Let the broken image be immersed in the Ganga and a new one installed in its place’. When Sri Ramakrishna was consulted, he said in a state of ecstasy, ‘If Rani Rasmani’s son-in-law’s leg is broken, would she abandon him and bring in another son-in-law? Or make proper arrangements for his treatment? Let the same be done in the case of this image also.’ According to his advice, the image was mended and replaced.18

iii) Third Stage: The disabled are integrated into the main society. For example: Two to three blind students are put in a classroom with 50 normal boys. Their special needs are supplemented through facilities outside the school hours. This method has been proved to be very successful in enhancing their confidence and making them useful members of the society. This latest concept is called ‘inclusive education’. Viewed in the background of these developments, the above quoted incident of Sri Ramakrishna gains enormous significance. 6

Swami Abhiramananda / Sri Ramakrishna, the Educationsit

Brushing aside the unanimous verdict of the entire scholastic community of Kolkata, Sri Ramakrishna

disabled person has a right to live in the society with grace and dignity. This idea seems like reframing the utterance of Sri Ramakrishna: ‘Compassion for all beings? How foolish to speak of compassion! Human beings are as insignificant as worms crawling on the earth— and they are to show compassion to others? That is absurd. It must not be compassion but service to all. Recognise all as manifestations of God and serve them as such’.19

i) Disapproved the throwing away of the damaged image ii) Disapproved the idea of even keeping the broken image aside and worshipping another in its place, and iii) Strongly recommended that the broken image be mended, which he himself did, and the daily worship be continued with it.

Conclusion We c o n c l u d e w i t h w h a t S w a m i Vivekananda said on Sri Ramakrishna:

Drawing a parallel from this for the disabled section of the society, the implication is evident:

The man at whose feet I sat all my life—and it is only a few ideas of his that I try to teach—could hardly write his name at all. All my life I have not seen another man like that, and I have travelled all over the world. When I think of that man, I feel like a fool, because I want to read books and he never did. That is why he was his own book.20 †

i) The disabled should not be discarded like the people of olden days used to do with the socially stigmatized categories. In the olden days people with diseases like leprosy were thrown into a huge pit, and food, water, etc. were also lowered into it by their relatives. ii) The disabled should not even be iso- lated from the society, as is being done now.

References 1. The Life of Swami Vivekananda by His Eastern and Western Disciples, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, Vol- I, p.417

iii) The disabled should be educated, rehabilitated and treated like any other normal person by absorbing them into the main stream of the society, which is in line with the presently emerging and progressive concept of ‘inclusive education’.

2. Sri Ramakrishna and his Divine Play, Swami Saradananda, Vedanta Society of St. Louis, p.175 3. Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, see website http:// www.education.nic.in

In recent days, international welfare organizations have recommended ‘human rights approach’ in contrast to the compassion backed ‘charity approach’ of the olden days for solving the problems of the disabled persons. Educating and rehabilitating the disabled is no more considered a charitable act. Rather, every

4. Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, 5:231 [hereafter CW] 5. See The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai, p.672 6. Ibid., p.148 7

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7. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai, p.221 [hereafter Sayings]

15. Education: The Treasure Within, UNESCO’s Education Document for the 21st century, ‘The Necessary Utopia’ by Jacques Delors, p.21

8. Ibid., p.130

16. Thus Spake Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai, p.71

9. The Gospel, p.227 10. Ibid., p.916

17. Sayings, p.289

11. Ibid., p.226 12. Ibid., p.551

18. Sri Ramakrishna and His Divine Play, p.201

13. Ibid., p.677

19. Ibid., p.852

14. Ibid., p.725 to730

20. CW, 6: 64

Vol. 3. No. 2 July 2013

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

ISSN: 2229-5143

Preliminary Try-Out and Validation of Problem Behavior Survey Schedule for Children with Developmental Disabilities * S. Venkatesan

Abstract The identification of problem behaviors is an integral part of any comprehensive behavioral remediation program for children with developmental disabilities. Available literature on the subject in the Indian scene shows paucity of standardized tools to identify problem behaviors in clinical populations. This study seeks to develop and standardize an instrument for screening, identification or listing of problem behaviors in children with developmental disabilities to arrive at measurable comparable indices or interpretable norms. The sequence of details on formation of item pool, pilot study, field survey by data collection and casting the final tool for ascertaining its psychometric strengths in terms of establishing coefficients of reliability and validity are detailed before recommending its use with tentative norms for evaluation and behavioral remediation of children with developmental disabilities. Key Terms: Challenging Behaviors – Maladaptive Behaviors – Behavior Assessment Abbreviations: BASIC-MR: Behavior Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation; BASAL-MR: Behavior Assessment Scale for Adult Living-Mental Retardation; FCS: Frequency Count Score; I/SCS: Intensity/Severity Count Score; PBSS: Problem Behavior Survey Schedule;

The presence of problem behaviors in children with developmental disabilities is frequently shown to be 4-5 times higher than in matched controls of unaffected children (Mazzucchelli & Sanders, 2011; Crnic et al. 2004; Baker et al. 2002). Irrespective of behavior problems being attributed to biological or constitutional factors, family stress, and/or the children’s developing self regulatory capacities (Vrijmoeth et al. 2012), their objective identification is an integral part of any comprehensive behavioral remediation program for children with developmental disabilities.

the term problem behaviors are negative, undesirable, maladaptive, or challenging behaviors. Hewitt and Jenkins (1946) classified problem behaviors as ‘over inhibited’, ‘under socialized aggression’, and/or ‘socialized delinquent’. Achenbach (1982) distinguished ‘externalizing’ and ‘internalizing’ behavior disorders. Internalizing problem behaviors are inner directed maladaptive actions distressing to the person manifesting them. For example, head banging or biting oneself is an inner directed self injurious internalizing behavior. Sometimes, internalizing behaviors are covert or not externally observable, such as anxiety, fears, depression, eating and sleeping or psychosomatic disturbances. Externalizing

Despite occasional distinctions being made, the commonly used synonyms for

* Professor in Clinical Psychology, All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Mysore: 570 006. Email: psyconindia@gmail.com or psyconindia@aiishmysore.in

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Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

problems are, by contrast, outer-directed maladaptive actions disturbing others more than the person who is showing that behavior. For example, when a child turns violent and hits others or throws things, it poses danger and stress on others. Such behaviors are overt and easily discernable, such as, Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity, Conduct Disturbances, Substance Abuse, etc. Studies have shown that internalizing type of behavior disturbances are short lasting compared to long lasting effects on personality of the individual for externalizing behavioral disturbances (Campbell, Shaw & Gilliom, 2000).

Part B) (Peshawaria & Venkatesan, 1992) and its derivative ‘Behavior Assessment Scale for Adult Living-Mental Retardation’ (BASAL-MR, Part B) (Peshawaria et al. 2000) is considered to be popular. Nonetheless, they can be faulted for being archaic, focused on merely children with mental retardation, providing only severity scores (without frequency scores) of problem behaviors, not giving interpretable norms, domain wise or group comparisons, etc. Many of these scales use parent/teacher ratings or estimations of problem behaviors in their children with an acceptable measure of congruence between such respondents (Glaser, Kronsnoble & Forkner, 1997; Peshawaria, Venkatesan & Menon, 1990; 1988). However, the utility of such scales is optimized only if they are periodically updated, revalidated, rendered ecologically or culturally valid and made relevant to the special populations for which they are meant for use (APA, 1999). Additionally, in Indian context, issues involving parent informants or respondents from diverse linguistic and sub-cultural backgrounds, and transgenerational validity become critical rationale, justification and need for periodic reinventing of such existing scales in the country (Venkatesan, 2010).

Problem behavior assessment in children with developmental disabilities is carried out by using several procedures, protocols or techniques, such as, parent interviews, standardized behavioral observations of parent-child interactions, use of checklists, rating scales and other objective parent report data, etc. There are many standardized psychometrically valid and reliable tools to appraise, both, skill/positive as well as negative/problem behaviors in children (Table 1). Among the listed scales in our country, the ‘Behavior Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation’ (BASIC-MR,

Table 1. Summary List of Problem Behavior Checklists & Rating Scales S. Nos.

Title of Scale

Author/s & Year of Publication

Walker Problem Behavior Identification Checklist

Walker, 1983

Aberrant Behavior Checklist

Aman, Singh, Stewart & Field, 1985a; 1985b

Child Behavior Rating Form

Aman et al. 1996

Becker Behavior Rating Scale

Becker, 1960

Conduct Problem Scale

Patterson & Fagot, 1967

Behavior Disturbance Scale

Leudar, Fraser & Jeeves, 1987

Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory

Boggs, Eyberg & Reynolds, 1990 10

S. Venkatesan / Problem Behavior Survey Schedule

S. Nos.

Title of Scale

Author/s & Year of Publication

Behavior Rating Profile

Brown & Hammill, 1990

Revised Behavior Problem Checklist

Quay & Peterson, 1993

Checklist of Challenging Behavior

Harris, Humphreys & Thomson, 1994

Developmental Behavior Checklist

Einfeld & Tonge, 1995

Conner’s Rating Scale

Connors, 1997

Child Behavior Checklist

Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000; 2001

Behavior Problems Inventory

Rojahn et al, 2001

Behavior Assessment System for Children

Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004

Burks Behavior Rating Scale

Burks, 2007

Behavior Disorder Checklist

Mishra, 1976

Problem Behavior Checklist

Arya et al, 1990

Behavior Assessment Scale for Children with Mental Retardation, Part B

Peshawaria &Venkatesan, 1992a

Behavior Assessment Scale for Adult Living- Mental Retardation, Part B

Peshawaria et al, 2000

• To profile the measured outcome scores against associated demographic variables across the various clinical conditions.

Against the background of these details, it was the general aim of this study to develop and standardize an instrument for screening, identification or listing of problem behaviors in children with developmental disabilities to arrive at measurable comparable severity/ intensity indices or interpretable norms. The specific objectives of this exercise were:

Method: This cross sectional exploratory survey cum tool development and validation exercise was undertaken by drawing cases from Clinical Services at All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, located in Mysore, Karnataka (India), between JanuaryDecember, 2011. Each participant of this study underwent individual assessment through case history and diagnostic assessment combining opinions from a multi-disciplinary team of rehabilitation specialists, individualized assessment on standardized developmental schedules, adaptive behavior scales and intelligence tests to differentially diagnose different clinical conditions as included or classified according to ICD-10 criteria (WHO, 1992).

• To enlist a comprehensive set of problem behaviors as repor ted in cases of developmental disabilities; • To administer the developed tool on representative samples diagnosed under various comparable clinical groups of cases of developmental disabilities; • To establish reliability and validity indices of the developed tool; • To arrive at an objective and measurable ‘problem behavior severity index’ with empirical normative classification for affected cases; and, 11

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(a) Operational Definitions:

(Peshawaria & Venkatesan, 1992) and its derivative ‘Behavior Assessment Scale for Adult Living-Mental Retardation’ (BASAL-MR, Part B) (Peshawaria et al. 2000). The latter two tools constitute an elaborately developed and standardized system of problem behavior assessment in a given child although restricted only to either children or adults with mental retardation.

The term ‘problem behavior’ as defined in this study refers to any or all observable and measurable actions of individuals which are negative, maladaptive, undesirable, or problematic for the individual or to others around. It can be potential source of harm to self or others. They maybe likely source of danger for the child or people around, are age inappropriate for the age or developmental level of the child, socially deviant, cause great strain on caregivers, interfere in teaching/learning new skill behaviors or in the performance of already learned old skill behaviors in a child (Venkatesan, 2004). Examples of problem behaviors are hits others, screams, stamps feet, rolls on floor, pulls objects from others, sucks thumb, hoards unwanted things, bangs head, does not sit at one place for required length of time, etc.

The 75 items in BASIC-MR, Part B, are grouped under 10 domains, while the 109 items in BASAL-MR, Part B, are grouped under 12 domains (Table 2). Both these tools have identical scoring procedures, record booklets, profile sheets and report card procedures. There is provision for periodic assessment of each child at every quarter (or three months) and to calculate raw score convertible into cumulative percentages and graphic profiles. All items in both the scales are written in clear observable and measurable terms. The scoring of each child is carried out on a 3-point rating scale: ‘never’ (score: zero), ‘occasionally’ (score: one), and ‘frequently’ (score: two). The maximum possible score possible on BASIC-MR, Part B, is 150, and for BASALMR, Part B, is 240 since extra allowances are given to invisible but likely items of problem behaviors under every domain for a child. Both scales are developed and standardized using scientific procedures involving formation of item pool, initial and final try outs, field survey, establishing their sensitivity, reliability and validity. The sensitivity of BASIC-MR, Part B to behavioral changes between pre and post intervention reduced from mean of 15.83 (SD: 15.78; N: 235) to post test mean of 13.21 (SD: 15.22)(t: 7.50; p: < 0.001) as there were shifts from mean of 7.82 (SD: 9.01; N: 17) to

(b) Participants: This study covered 75 children, including 39 boys and 36 girls in age range from below or equal to 6 years (N: 27), 7-12 years (N: 25), 12+ years (N: 23). The sample included a reference group comprising of children with mental retardation (N: 18), hearing loss, (N: 15), autism (N: 13), learning disability (N: 14) and cases wherein ‘nothing abnormal was detected’ (N: 15). (c) Tools: Following diagnostic assessment, the sample cases included in this study were administered the newly developed 100-item ‘Problem Behavior Survey Schedule’ (PBSS) concurrently along with the 75-item ‘Behavior Assessment Scale for Indian Children with Mental Retardation’ (BASIC-MR, Part B) 12

S. Venkatesan / Problem Behavior Survey Schedule

mean of 2.53 (SD: 3.43; N: 17)(t: <3.31; p: <0.01) for BASAL-MR. A 8-week test retest reliability check for BASIC-MR, Part B, on 127 teachers 8 week showed correlation coefficient of 0.68 and that of a 1-week test retest reliability check for BASAL-MR, Part B, showed an r value of 0.85 (p: 0.003). Similarly, construct

validity and face validity of these instruments were demonstrated to be high with ratings of special teacher and/or vocational instructors. A comparative profile of domains and item frequencies in BASIC-MR, BASAL-MR and the presently developed PBSS is given under table 2.

Table 2. Comparative Profile of Domains and Item Frequency in BASIC-MR, BASAL-MR and the PBSS SNos Domains

BASIC-MR

PBSS

SNos Domains

BASAL-MR

Violent-Destructive Behavior*

Physical Harm toward Others*

Temper Tantrum**

Damages Property*

Misbehavior with Others*

Self Injurious Behavior**

Temper Tantrums**

Repetitive Behaviors**

Self Injurious Behavior**

Odd Behaviors**

Repetitive Behaviors**

Hyperactivity*

Odd Behaviors**

Rebellious Behaviors*

Inappropriate Social Behaviors**

Antisocial Behaviors*

Inappropriate Sexual Behaviors**

Fears**

Rebellious Behaviors*

Any Other

Hyperactive Behaviors*

Fears**

TOTAL

109

TOTAL

100

(*indicates externalizing behaviors; **indicates internalizing behaviors) (d) Procedure:

scales. These additional items became the basis for developing and designing the PBSS. Once the item pool was formed, the items were given an initial try-out by way of a pilot study on 5 cases of children with developmental disabilities. The try-out helped in tuning the tool on the sample as carried out in this study. Thereafter, reliability coefficients for the PBSS was determined by establishing inter-domain internal consistency as well as by ascertaining 3-week test-retest reliability coefficient and inter scorer reliability checks for a sub sample of 15

Data collection for this study involved one shot administration of BASIC-MR, Part B, the extra test items in BASAL-MR, Part B, as well as the PBSS without trespassing limits of the patience or over taxing respondents with tiresome repetition by administration of three checklists. Deeper probes were used through unstructured interview techniques to elicit any or other additional forms of problem behaviors not already listed in the reference 13

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cases across various diagnostic conditions. Recording of observed reactions and parent ratings was carried out with prior permission, informed consent and open knowledge of the respondents by respecting the ethical issues and guidelines as enshrined in official documents for such practices (Venkatesan, 2009).

each child on the PBSS is carried out on two counts: the ‘Frequency Count Score’ (FCS) based on presence or absence of given problem behaviors; and the ‘Intensity/Severity Count Score’ (I/SCS) of the problem behavior for a given child. The former is marked as ‘present’ (score: one) or ‘absent’ (score: zero). The latter is calculated on a 3-point rating scale: ‘never’ (score: zero), ‘occasionally’ (score: one), and ‘frequently’ (score: two). Thus, the maximum possible FCS on PBSS is 100 and I/SCS is 200 for a given child. Additionally, the PBSS also facilitates for each child another ‘Directionality Score’ (DS) in terms of ‘internalizing’ and/or ‘externalizing’ patterns of problem behavior. Further, on the PBSS, one can also derive a problem behavior severity index, and deduce the deviation score of problem behavior for a given individual against available norms.

Results and Discussion The results are presented and discussed sequentially beginning as details on the PBSS developed in this study followed by profiles on contemporary status of problem behaviors for overall sample in terms of their frequency (Table 3), severity (Table 4) in relation to associated variables like age, gender and diagnostic conditions. This is continued by information on comparative norms and standard scores before the presentation of results on reliability and validity exercises undertaken on the PBSS.

(b) Profile on Problem Behaviors:

(a) Problem Behavior Survey Schedule:

In this study, respondents have reported 239 problem behaviors (Mean FCS: 3.19; SD: 1.12) (Table 3) with 330 out of a possible maximum severity score (I/SCS) of 478 (69.04 %)(Table 4) for overall sample of 75 children with developmental disabilities. These findings hint at greater severity (or intensity) than frequency of the problem behaviors. Contrast this with the relatively higher estimates of 15.83 (SD: 15.78) problem behaviors reported during final try out of BASIC-MR, Part B (Peshawaria & Venkatesan, 1992) and 7.82 (SD: 9.01) problem behaviors during a similar exercise on BASAL-MR, Part B (Peshawaria et al, 2000). Likewise, another related analytical study on parent needs of children with mental retardation reported a mean frequency of 2.22 (SD: 0.69) problem behaviors (Peshawaria & Venkatesan, 1990). None of these studies

The PBSS addresses all diagnostic categories of children with developmental disabilities. It has several new items, such as, ‘writes nasty things about others’, ‘gossips/ spreads rumors about others’, ‘overuses cell phones’, uses tobacco/drugs’, ‘keeps things untidy’, ‘kills pets, animals or other creatures for no reason’, ‘pawns things’, ‘threatens to kill oneself’, etc. The PBSS consists of 100 items grouped under 11 domains (Table 2). While the PBSS shares part of its appearance, scoring, recording, profiling and report generation along with provisions for periodic assessment of each child at every quarter (or three months) and to calculate raw score convertible into cumulative percentages and graphic profiles, there are also many other new features. The scoring of 14

S. Venkatesan / Problem Behavior Survey Schedule

mentioned anything about the intensity or severity of problem behaviors in their sample.

the highest number of problem behaviors, followed by those with ‘learning disabilities’ (N: 14; Mean: 4.21; SD: 1.11), ‘mental retardation’ (N: 18; Mean: 3.33; SD: 1.66), ‘hearing impairment’ (N: 15; Mean: 2.80; SD: 0.78), and least in the sample wherein ‘nothing abnormal was detected’ (N: 15; Mean: 1.13; SD: 0.99). These domain-wise distributions of differences are found to be statistically significant (X2: 45.5; Df: 24; p: 0.005). This trend is confirmed even with respect to the intensity spread of these problem behaviors (X2: 95.4; Df: 24; p: 0.001). Their overall mean differences are found to be statistically significant (‘Frequency’ F: 17.763; p: <0.001 and ‘Intensity’ F: 17.068; p: <0.001). More specifically, more than half of the sample children with mental retardation (N: 18) display ‘violent-destructive behavior’, as children on ‘autism spectrum’ (N: 13) show ‘odd behaviors’, ‘repetitive behaviors’ and ‘hyperactivity’ or those identified as ‘learning disability’ manifest ‘antisocial behaviors’, ‘rebellious behaviors’ and/or ‘violent-destructive behaviors’.

On the basis of domain analysis, it is seen that the highest frequency of problem behaviors is reported for ‘odd behaviors’ (N: 26 out of 75; 35%), followed by ‘violentdestructive behaviors’ (N: 25 out of 75; 33%), temper tantrums (N: 25 out of 75; 33%), ‘repetitive behaviors’ (N: 24 out of 75; 32%) and so on. The least number of problem behaviors is reported for ‘misbehavior with others’ (N: 18 out of 75; 24%) and ‘fears’ (N: 19 out of 75; 25%). In relation to their intensity or severity, ‘violent-destructive behaviors’ (N: 38 out of 75; 51%) and ‘odd behaviors’ (N: 36 out of 75; 48%) emerge as most severe as against ‘misbehavior with others’ (N: 26 out of 75; 35%) and ‘fears’ (N: 25 out of 75; 33%) as the least problem behaviors for this sample (Tables 3 & 4). In relation to their clinical conditions, children diagnosed as ‘autism spectrum disorder’ (N: 13; Mean: 4.69; SD: 1.45), show

Table 3. Domain-wise distribution of FCS of problem behaviors in children and adolescents with developmental disabilities Problem Condition* Gender** Age (in years)*** Overall No. Behavior Items MR HI ASD LD NAD Boys Girls <6 7-12 12+ Domains (N: 75) (N: 18) (N: 15) (N: 13) (N: 14) (N: 15) (N: 39) (N: 36) (N: 27) (N: 25) (N: 23) Violent1. Destructive 16 25 9 4 2 7 3 16 9 5 12 8 Behavior Temper 2 4 25 7 6 3 5 4 17 8 7 11 7 Tantrum Misbehavior 3 14 18 5 3 6 3 1 11 7 2 8 8 with Others Self Injurious 4 11 22 6 4 7 4 1 12 10 6 11 5 Behavior Repetitive 5 9 24 8 2 11 2 1 13 11 7 13 4 Behaviors 6 Odd Behaviors 10 26 7 4 12 2 1 14 12 8 12 6 15

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Problem No. Behavior Domains 7

Hyperactivity Rebellious 8 Behaviors Anti 9 social behaviours 10 Fears

Items 3

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

Condition* Gender** Age (in years)*** MR HI ASD LD NAD Boys Girls <6 7-12 12+ (N: 75) (N: 18) (N: 15) (N: 13) (N: 14) (N: 15) (N: 39) (N: 36) (N: 27) (N: 25) (N: 23) 20 7 3 8 2 0 11 9 8 8 4

Overall

11 Any Other

Total

100

239

138

101

111

Mean

3.19

3.33

2.80

4.69

4.21

1.13

3.54

2.81

2.19

4.44

3.00

1.12

1.66

0.78

1.45

1.11

0.69

1.86 0.98 T: 2.10; df: 73; p: 0.04

0.97

1.34

1.48

Probability

F: 17.763; p: <0.001

F: 20.805; P: <0.001

(*X2: 45.5; Df: 24; p: 0.005; ** X2: 4.53; Df: 8; p: 0.806; ***X2:18.7; Df: 16; p: 0.282) Table 4. Domain-wise distribution of I/SCS of problem behaviors in children and adolescents with developmental disabilities Problem Condition* Gender** Age (in years)*** Overall No. Behavior Items MR HI ASD LD NAD Boys Girls < 6 7-12 12+ Domains (N: 75) (N: 18) (N: 15) (N: 13) (N: 14) (N: 15) (N: 39) (N: 36) (N: 27) (N: 25) (N: 23) Violent1. Destructive 16 38 12 6 3 13 4 26 12 10 14 14 Behavior Temper 2 4 35 11 7 4 7 6 20 15 8 14 13 Tantrum Misbehavior 3 14 26 7 4 10 4 1 14 12 8 12 6 with Others Self Injurious 4 11 29 9 4 9 6 1 15 14 14 8 7 Behavior Repetitive 5 9 33 10 2 18 2 1 16 17 14 10 9 Behaviors Odd 6 10 36 9 4 19 3 1 17 19 15 12 9 Behaviors 7 Hyperactivity 3 28 9 3 13 3 0 18 10 14 12 2 Rebellious 8 6 31 6 7 4 14 0 17 14 10 11 10 Behaviors Anti 9 social 14 32 3 4 3 19 3 19 13 3 13 16 behaviours 16

S. Venkatesan / Problem Behavior Survey Schedule

Problem No. Behavior Domains

Items

Condition* Gender** Age (in years)*** MR HI ASD LD NAD Boys Girls < 6 7-12 12+ (N: 75) (N: 18) (N: 15) (N: 13) (N: 14) (N: 15) (N: 39) (N: 36) (N: 27) (N: 25) (N: 23) 25 4 4 6 8 3 11 14 9 10 6

Overall

10 Fears

11 Any Other

Total

100

330

183

147

109

121

100

Mean

4.40

4.50

3.33

7.00

6.14

1.47

4.69

4.08

4.04

4.84

4.35

1.98

1.99

1.33

2.95

2.43

0.85

1.68

2.33

2.34

2.01

1.68

Probability

F: 17.068; p: <0.001

T: 1.31; df: 73; p: 0.20

F: 1.003; p: 0.37

(Score: 0: Absent; 1: Occasionally; 2: Frequently) (*X2: 95.4; Df: 24; p: 0.001; ** X2: 5.58; Df: 8; p: 0.694; ***X2: 28.3; Df: 16; p: 0.029) The analysis of results on the basis of gender variable does not yield any significant differences between boys (N: 39; Mean: 3.54; SD: 1.86) and girls (N: 36; Mean: 2.81; SD: 0.98), both, for the domain-wise distribution spread of the frequency (X2: 4.53; Df: 8; p: 0.806) as well as intensity (X2: 5.58; Df: 8; p: 0.694) of the problem behaviors. Similarly, the mean differences for problem behavior frequency (t: 2.10; df: 73; p: 0.04) (Table 3) as well as problem behavior intensity scores (t: 1.31; df: 73; p: 0.20) (Table 4) on the whole are also not found to be statistically significant. In relation to age variable, the distribution of problem behaviors emerges as a significant variable only with respect to their different domain wise intensity spread (X2: 28.3; Df: 16; p: 0.029) and not so much for the frequency of the problem behaviors (X2:18.7; Df: 16; p: 0.282). In contrast, when overall mean scores are considered, this trend reverses to indicate that for the same variable, the distribution of problem behaviors varies significantly for their frequency spread (F: 20.805; P: <0.001) rather than for intensity spread (F: 1.003; p: 0.37) respectively. Further, children in age group between 7-12 years

are found to have greater problem behavior frequency (Mean: 4.44; SD: 1.34) as well as problem behavior intensity (Mean: 4.84; SD: 2.01) scores than their younger and/or older age peers (Tables 4 & 5). On the whole and for most part, most of the children in this age group exhibit ‘repetitive behaviors’, ‘odd behaviors’, ‘rebellious behaviors’, and/ or ‘violent-destructive behaviors’ than older children above 12 years presenting ‘antisocial behaviors’ and ‘fears. Thus, results of this attempt to develop and standardize the ‘Problem Behavior Survey Schedule’ throws up a distinct profile of problem behaviors with significant differences, both, in terms of frequency and intensity spread for overall scores as well as across domain wise scores with respect to various clinical conditions on whom they were tried out. Similar differences are also noticed in relation to intensity and frequency of problem behaviors in relation to age variable of the children. The predilection is more towards children in between 7-12 years having more intensive and extensive problem behaviors followed by older children and then in those below six years. 17

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interpreted as having ‘mild’ level of problem behaviors as compared to another child scoring 9 or 10 being interpreted as having ‘severe’ level of problem behaviors. Likewise, raw scores of individual cases can also be interpreted on the basis of their ‘intensity’ score (I/SCS) values as indicated under table 5. These interpretations are to be made irrespective of associated variables, such as, the test taking child’s chronological age, gender, and/or diagnostic condition (Table 5).

The derived data on problem behavior frequency and intensity scores from this study became an occasion and opportunity for using the conventional conversion and normalization formula of taking two standard deviations above mean as criteria for development of norms and standard comparison scores. Thus, for example, a child scoring a ‘frequency’ raw score (FCS) of 5 or 6 on PBSS is to be

Table 5. Norms for the PBSS Normalized Value

Frequency Score (FCS)*

Intensity Score (I/SCS)**

Interpretation

Below 5

Below 8

Normal

5-6

9-10

Mild

+3.00 to +4.00

7-8

11-12

Moderate

+4.00 to +5.00

9-10

13-14

Severe

15+

Clinical

< +2.00 +2.00 to +3.00

+5.00 10+ (*Based on Mean: 3.19 and SD: 1.12;**Based on Mean: 4.40 and SD: 1.98) (d) Reliability & Validity:

of reliability between domains varied between 0.18 and 0.89. The internal consistency for overall scale is 0.55. This implies that the domains are independent of one another. The measured correlation coefficients between domains tentatively throw up the possibility of grouping them as ‘externalizing’ (indicated as asterisk in Table 6) is 0.62. This is comparable to the correlation coefficients between the remaining domains grouped as ‘internalizing problem behaviors’ (marked with plus symbol in Table 6) is 0.57. The ‘others’ (OTH) category was treated separately to get r: 0.57. These findings support the assumption that problem behavior constitutes a core phenomenon by itself meriting study. The mean inter-item correlations, which can be regarded as an

The inter-observer reliability for PBSS throws was estimated using Pearson’s Correlation between ratings given by two independent mutually blind raters on a subsample of 25 cases representing the same proportions of clinical categories as in the original sample of this study. The raters with at least post graduate qualification in psychology were trained to use the scale. The inter-rater reliability coefficient was found to be high (r: 0.911; p: <0.001). Another 3-week test-retest reliability exercise undertaken on a sample of 15 cases equally representing all the clinical categories as present in the original sample was found to be 0.89 (p: <0.001). Cronbach’s alpha correlation coefficients 18

S. Venkatesan / Problem Behavior Survey Schedule

indicator of homogeneity of the scale is rather high. The highest is for domains ‘RBB-VDB’ (ii: 0.89) and the lowest values are obtained for domains (FRS-ASB, r: 0.18). These findings suggest the possibility for exploring on the

empirical existence of ‘externalizing’ and/or ‘internalizing’ problem behavior groupings using PBSS possibly by means of a separate study in future.

Table 6. Inter-Domain Correlations between domains and total score on PBSS VDB* TT* MBO* SIB+ RPB+ OB+ HYP+ RBB* ASB* FRS+ OTH

VDB* -

TT* 0.76 -

MBO* 0.80 0.83 -

SIB+ 0.52 0.54 0.67 -

RPB+ 0.55 0.50 0.63 0.87 -

OB+ 0.49 0.36 0.33 0.82 0.86 -

HYP+ 0.55 0.62 0.53 0.88 0.83 0.91 -

RBB* 0.89 0.84 0.81 0.43 0.42 0.37 0.47 -

ASB* 0.86 0.75 0.76 0.38 0.26 0.38 0.31 0.86 -

FRS+ 0.37 0.32 0.25 0.57 0.66 0.82 0.34 0.28 0.18 -

OTH 0.66 0.63 0.55 0.68 0.59 0.57 0.35 0.33 0.27 0.34 -

{KEY: (VDB: Violent-Destructive Behavior; TT: Temper Tantrums; MBO: Misbehavior with Others; SIB: Self Injurious Behavior; RPB: Repetitive Behaviors; OB: Odd Behaviors; HYP: Hyperactivity; RBB: Rebellious Behaviors; ASB: Anti-Social Behaviors; FRS: Fears; OTH: Others)*indicate externalizing problem behaviors; +indicate internalizing problem behaviors with mutually different p values at <0.001)} Summary and Conclusion

behaviors in children with developmental disabilities in the country. Thus, the newly developed and standardized PBSS incorporates the following distinct features hitherto unknown to similar or available behavior assessment scales in the Indian scene.

In sum, this study enunciates the validation details of a recently developed 100-item PBSS with more extensive application or utility across additional clinical conditions including children on autism spectrum, learning disabilities, mental retardation, hearing impairment and the so-called ‘normal’. Further, this study has profiled the measured outcome scores on problem behaviors against associated demographic variables across various clinical conditions before proposing comparative norms, establishing reliability-validity of the scale which can thus become the basis for future evaluation and remediation of problem

1. It is scored differently, both, in terms of frequency as well as intensity of problem behaviours. 2. It gives norms. 3. It addresses all categories of children with developmental disabilities. 4. It gives a ‘Problem Behavior Severity Index’. 19

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5. G i v e n t h e l e a d s w o r k e d i n t h e standardization sample, the PBSS appears amenable for further sub-group analysis following Achenbach (1982) distinctions between ‘externalizing’ and ‘internalizing’ behavior disorders.

Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families. Aman, M.G., Singh, N.N., Stewart, A.W., & Field, C.J. (1985a). The aberrant behavior checklist: A behavior rating scale for the assessment of treatment effects. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89: 485-491.

While this study can be considered as a preliminary exercise on validation of a tool for survey of problem behavior in children with developmental disabilities; admittedly, there is need for undertaking expanded researches on larger samples, more diverse populations incorporating deeper probes in terms of domain-directionality scores to attest these features as the claimed merits of this newly developed scale for Indian children.

Aman, M.G., Singh, N.N., Stewart, A.W., & Field, C.J. (1985b). Psychometric characteristics of the aberrant behavior checklist. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89: 492-502. Aman, M.G., Tasse, M.J., Rojahn, J., & Hammer, D. (1996). The Nisonger CBRF: A child behavior rating form for children with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 17 (1): 41-57.

Acknowledgements The author seeks to place on record the gratitude and credits due to the respondents and Director, AIISH, Mysore, as well as the fellow staff involved in this departmental project. This work is part of the series of research papers brought out from the available departmental clinical records being harnessed towards periodic test revalidation and development for the benefit of children with developmental disabilities.

American Psychological Association. (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Arya, S., Peshawaria, P., Naidu, S., & Venkatesan, S. (1990). Problem behavior checklist. In: R Peshawaria. Managing Behavior Problems in Children: A Guide for Parents. New Delhi: Vikas. pp. 45-47.

References Achenbach, T.M., & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the child behavior checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: Queen City Printers.

Baker, B. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., & Edelbrock, C. (2002). Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of threeyear old children with and without developmental delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107: 433–444.

Achenbach, T.M., & Rescorla, L.A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.

Becker, W.C. (1960). The relationship of factors in parental ratings of self and each other

Achenbach, T.M., & Rescorla, L.A. (2001). 20

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to the behaviors of kindergarten children as rated by mothers, fathers and teachers. Journal of Consulting Psychology. 24(1): 507-527.

Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 19 (4): 1-13. Harris, P., Humphreys, J., & Thomson, G. (1994). A checklist of challenging behavior: The development of a survey instrument. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 7(2): 118-133.

Boggs, S.R., Eyberg, S., & Reynolds, L.A. (1990). Concurrent validity of the Eyberg child behavior inventory. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19(1): 75-78.

Hewitt, L.E., & Jenkins, R.L. (1946). Fundamental patterns of maladjustment: The dynamics of their origins. Springfield, IL: D. H. Green.

Brown L, & Hammill, D.D. (1990). Behavior rating profile, Second Edition. Austin, Texas: Pro-ED. Burks, H.F. (2007). Burks behavior rating scale, Second Edition. California: Western Psychological Services.

Leudar, I., Fraser, W.I., & Jeeves, M.A. (1987). Behavior disturbance and mental handicap: Typology and longitudinal trends. Psychological Medicine, 14: 923-935.

Campbell, S.B., Shaw, D.S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12 (3): 467-458.

Mazzucchelli, T.G., & Sanders, M.R. (2011). Preventing behavior and emotional problems in children with developmental disability: A public health approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32 (6): 2146-2156.

Connors, C.K. (1997). Connerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rating scalerevised. New York: Multi Health Systems. Crnic, K., Hoffman, C., Gaze, C., & Edelbrock, C. (2004). Understanding the emergence of behavior problems in young children with developmental delays, Infants and Young Children. 17( 3): 223-235.

Mishra, H.P. (1976). Behavior Disorder Checklist. Bangalore: National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences. Patterson, G.R., & Fagot, B.I. (1967). Selective responsiveness to social reinforcers and deviant behavior in children. Psychological Record. 17(1): 369-378.

Einfeld, S.L., & Tonge, B.J. (1995). The Developmental behavior checklist: The development and validation of an instrument to assess behavioral and emotional disturbance in children and adolescents with mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20 (2): 81-104.

Peshawaria, R., & Venkatesan, S. (1990). Behavior problems in mentally handicapped persons: An analysis of parent needs. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 17 (1): 63-70.

Glaser, B.A., Kronsnoble, K.M., & Forkner, C.B.W. (1997). Parents and teachers as raters of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s problem behaviors.

Peshawaria, R., & Venkatesan, S. (1992a). Behavior Assessment Scale for Children with Mental Retardation. Secunderabad: 21

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National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped.

in individuals with developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31: 577-588.

Peshawaria, R., & Venkatesan, S. (1992b). Behavioral approaches in teaching mentally handicapped children: A manual for teachers. Secunderabad: National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped.

Venkatesan, S. (2004). Children with developmental disabilities: A training guide for parents, teachers & caregivers. New Delhi: Sage (India) Publications.

Peshawaria, R., Menon, D.K., Bailey, D., Skinner, D., Ganguly, R., & Rajshekar, Ch. (2000). Behavior assessment scales for adult living-Mental retardation. Secunderabad: National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped.

Venkatesan, S. (2009). Ethical guidelines for bio-behavioral research. Mysore: All India Institute of Speech and Hearing. Venkatesan, S. (2010). Cultural factors in clinical assessment: The Indian perspective. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37(1): 75-85.

Peshawaria, R., Venkatesan, S., & Menon, D.K. (1988). Consumer demand of services by parents of mentally handicapped individuals. Indian Journal of Disability Rehabilitation, 2(2): 43-57.

Venkatesan, S. (2011). Academic problems in school children: Instructor manual. Mysore: All India Institute of Speech and Hearing & Bangalore: Sarva Siksha Abhiyaan.

Peshawaria, R., Venkatesan, S., & Menon, D.K. (1990). Behavior problems in mentally handicapped persons: An analysis of parent needs. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 17(2): 63-70.

Vrijmoeth, C., Monbaliu, E. Lagast, E., & Prinzie, P. (2012). Behavior problems in children with motor and intellectual disabilities: Prevalence and associations with maladaptive personality and marital relationship. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 33(4): 1027-1038.

Quay, H.C., & Peterson, D.R. (1993). The Revised Behavior Problem Checklist: M a n u a l . F l o r i d a : Ps y c h o l o g i c a l Assessment Resources.

Walker, H.M. (1983). Walker problem behavior identification checklist. California: Western Psychological Services.

Reynolds, C.R., & Kamphaus, R.W. (2004). BASC-2: Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.

World Health Organization (1992).The international classification of diseases-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Rojahn, J., Matson, J.L., Lott, D., Esbensen, A.J., & Smalls, Y. (2001). The behavior problems inventory: An instrument for assessment of self-injury, stereotyped behavior and aggression/destruction

Vol. 3. No. 2 July 2013

Journal of Disability Management and Special Education ISSN: 2229-5143

Impact of Socio-Economic Status, Education & Gender on Parental Expectations of Children with Cochlear Implant (CWCI) *Ravi Kumar & **Rajeev R. Jalvi

Abstract The present study was undertaken to investigate the impact of Socio-Economic Status, Education and Gender on the expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant. Total 51 parents of those children who have undergone/ undergoing cochlear implant were taken as sample. To assess the impact of Socio-Economic Status, Education and Gender on the expectations of parents a draft questionnaire was adapted and modified so as to suit the Indian context. Questionnaire contained five areas of expectations to assess whether the significant difference exists or not in the expectations level of parents on the basis of the above variables. Parents were assessed by fulfilling a profile containing the demographic information about them as well as their hearing impaired child and rated their expectations on a 5-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Analysis of results indicated that there neither statistically significant difference was found in the expectations level of parents due to their educational and socio economic status nor significant difference was found in the expectations level from their male and female child as well as expectations level between mothers and fathers. Key words: Parental expectations, Children with cochlear implant

Introduction

1998). Cochlear implant is one of the recent rehabilitation advancement and considering its outcome more and more parents want to do cochlear implant for their children with hearing impairment. The cochlear implantation process arouses many hopes and expectations among parents in case when the child with severe to profound hearing loss does not get benefitted enough from any kinds of hearing aids.

The identification of a child’s hearing loss is a distressing time for parents, often eliciting intense emotional responses to the diagnosis. It takes some time for the parents to accept their child’s disability, and then some more for them to become aware of the importance of their role in their child’s habilitation process. For the persons who do not get optimum benefit with hearing aids, cochlear implantation proves as a suitable option. The cochlear implant is considered to be one of the most important technological advancements of the twentieth century for people with severe to profound hearing loss (Estabrooks,

Considering the cost and emotional involvement of the parents of children with hearing impairment specially in country like us, a strong need is felt to undertake a study to find out the impact of Socioeconomic status, Education & Gender on

*Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education (K), BHU, Varanasi-221010, (UP) **Reader & Head, Department of Audiology, AYJNIHH, Mumbai-50

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the expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant. In the present study “Parental expectations” represents their child’s outcome from cochlear implant in the areas of communication abilities, social skills, academic achievements and future progress in the life.

economic status, education and gender of child as well as parents. Accordingly hypothesis was formulated as there will be no statistically significant difference in the level of Parental expectations due to difference in socio-economic status, educational status and gender of the child as well as parents.

Parents were divided into three groups on the basis of their educational qualifications. Parents whose qualifications were up to SSC passed are considered as bearing lower educational status, HSC passed or graduate parents are considered as bearing middle educational status and post graduate and above degree holder parents are considered as having higher educational status.

Deafness is not a life-threatening condition and parents, in thinking about a cochlear implant for their child, are making a decision which is likely to alter communication and education options for the child (Archbold et al., 1998 & 2000). A crucial element in pediatric cochlear implantation is the role that parents play in deciding to proceed with cochlear implantation for their child. The parental role does not end in the decision stage, as they are also asked systematically and continuously to play a major role in post operative rehabilitation (Evan, 1989; Lloyd, 1994). Thus the role of the parents is crucial to the cochlear implanted child for successfully reaching their optimal outcome.

Parents bearing monthly income up to Rs. 6,500/- are considered as having lower socio economic status, parents bearing monthly income between Rs. 6,501/- to Rs. 10,000/- are considered as having middle socio economic status and parents having income above Rs. 10,001/- are considered as having higher socio economic status. i.e., Income criteria were fixed according to family income slab of the ADIP scheme, given by Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India.

Despite the many professionals involved in the follow up care of these children, parents are from the beginning the strongest source of support for their children (Evans, 1989) and remain so, even if outcomes do not meet expectations. Additionally, as parents are the critical observers of any intervention to their children, they are uniquely able to assess outcomes in real life rather than clinical situations. Parental expectations are reflected from parents’ motivation for having the cochlear implantation for their child. According to Christiansen and Leigh (2000), 52% of participating parents reported that “ease in

Objectives of the Study The purpose of the present research was to explore a comprehensive impact of SocioEconomic Status, Education and Gender on the expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant. The specific objectives of the research therefore formulated as: To find out the relationship between the expectations of parents of children with cochlear implant and the associated factors like socio24

Kumar & Jalvi / Parental expectation of CWCI

development of oral spoken language” is their main motivation for cochlear implant.

correlated with mothers’ expectations of children’s social and communication skills. Results suggested that during the cochlear implant candidacy evaluation and (re) habilitation, professionals should acknowledge parents’ high hopes regarding their child’s future outcomes.

Beadle et al. compared current parental expectations with parents’ retrospective expectations prior to their child’s surgery. Parental retrospective repor t of their expectations of the child’s communication, speech and education during the pre-implant period and their expectations at present did not correlate. These findings indicated that parents may change their expectations over time according to their experience with their own child. Parents’ satisfaction with the cochlear implant depends on the parents’ prior expectations (Meadow-Orlans, Mertens & Sass-Lehrer, 2003). In a study conducted by Christiatnsen & Leigh (2002) reported that 67% of the parents indicated that they were very satisfied with their child’s cochlear implant progress, and 39% were very satisfied with their child’s spoken language skills followed by similar survey conducted by Meadow-Orlans et al. in 2003 who reported that, 67% of the parents agreed that they were very satisfied with the cochlear implant results.

Kumar & Jalvi, 2008 in their study examined the level of parental expectations about their child’s outcome following cochlear implant in 51 parents whose children either had undergone cochlear implantation or were still to undergo cochlear implantation. The overall findings explore that 72.5% parents showed high level of expectations while remaining 27.5% parents showed medium level of expectations in various areas of expectations about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant i.e., the level of parental expectations about their child’s outcome following cochlear implant ranges between high to medium level of expectations with varying degree and not a single parent has low level of expectations or almost no expectations. Methodology

Anat Zaidman-Zait & Tova Most (2005), in their study examined the expectations of 35 mothers with typical hearing and their beliefs and difficulties related to their child’s hearing loss and current or future cochlear implantation. They showed that mothers expressed relatively high expectations from the child’s outcomes following cochlear implantation as well as understanding of the determining nature of the (re) habilation process. In relation to impact, higher stress levels in the mothers were due to more communication difficulties and with less satisfactory relationships with professionals. Moreover, maternal satisfaction positively

Data Collection and Analysis The data was collected at a meeting of the parents. The research design of the present study was of ‘survey’ type with purposive and incidental sampling. Those parents were selected for the study that were bearing at least SSC (Xth) as minimum educational qualification and directly involved in cochlear implantation as well as post implant rehabilitation of their child. It was also kept in mind that they should be comfortable either in English or in Hindi language. For selecting the parents as sample of the study it was necessary for them that their 25

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child should have congenital bilateral severe to profound sensori neural hearing loss and either prepared to undergo cochlear implantation or have undergone cochlear implantation with implant age not exceeding more than 1.5 year. The age range of the child would be considered between 1 to 10 years with no any history or presence of any associated handicaps in them. In case the child is being prepared for undergoing cochlear implantation parents must have undergone pre implant training, on the other hand child should undergo appropriate post cochlear implant rehabilitation in case when the child had undergone cochlear implantation .of the children with hearing impairment who undergone/undergoing cochlear implant on 18th Nov. 2007 at the Kohinoor Hall in Mumbai, where parents from different parts of the country mainly from states of Maharastra and a few from Kerala, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh had come to participate.

after final modification to conduct the study. A profile sheet was also prepared containing detailed information about children who undergone/undergoing cochlear implant along with demographic information of their parents. Parents were instructed to fill up their childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s profile along with their demographic information and put appropriate tick (ď&#x192;ź) marks to the options given below in each statement, which they think best. For getting appropriate answer, a five point rating scale from Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD) was used. The most correct answer was given the maximum score of 5 while the least correct answer was given the minimum score of 1. Scores were distributed in descending order from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. In order to collect the data the researcher personally met the parents. Nearly 80 sets of questionnaire covering the profile of cochlear implanted child along with demographic information of his/ her parents were distributed with suitable instructions to all parents. Both parents were requested to fill up the questionnaire individually in case when both were actively involved in cochlear implantation and post implant rehabilitation of their child. Out of 80 sets only 59 dully filled questionnaire were received, however out of this 59 sets of questionnaire 8 were rejected due to incomplete and/or not fulfilling the criteria. Thus, finally 51 samples were taken into consideration for the present study. Out of 51 selected samples 46 were the parents of whose children had undergone cochlear implant and remaining 5 were the parents whose children were still to undergo cochlear implantation. The collected data was analyzed by using

The questions were adopted from the study of Anat Zaidman - Zait, M.A., and Tova Most, Ph.D. (2005) and were modified so as to suit the Indian context. The questionnaire was modified and finalized based on the response given by the judges. The modified questionnaire was also translated into Hindi by experts with the help of researcher. After collecting the questionnaire from them, tabulation was made for checking its validity. The questions, which were marked 80% as appropriate by judges, were selected for the final questionnaire as per the instructions/guidelines given by them. Thus only those questions were selected that were relevant and appropriate as per the objectives of the study. Hence total 38 questions were selected from different areas of expectations 26

Kumar & Jalvi / Parental expectation of CWCI

standard statistical program, ‘SPSS’ and the results obtained were tabulated and compared as per the objectives of the present study.

Level of expectations was categorized into four levels on the basis of scores obtained which are depicted in table 1.

Table# 1: Showing the measurable schemes of level of expectations Scores

Level of expectation

81% and above

High expectations

61% to 80%

Medium expectations

41% to 60%

Low expectations

40 % and below

Almost no expectations

Results

economic status and rest 17 parents (33.3%) belong to higher socio economic status.

Since, the study was conducted on 51 parents out of which 21 were mothers (41.2%) and 30 were fathers (58.8%). Among children of selected parents 23 were girls (45.1%) and 28 were boys (54.9%). Among participants, 12 parents (23.5%) were bearing lower educational status, 34 parents (66.7%) were bearing middle educational status while rest 5 parents (9.8%) were having higher educational status. In case of socio-economic status of respondents, 17 parents (33.3%) belong to lower socio economic status, another 17 parents (33.3%) belong to middle socio

In order to find the impact of Socioeconomic status, Education & Gender on the expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant, the total score covering all four areas of expectations were obtained from each parents which was then categorized into four different levels of expectations i.e. high, medium, low and almost no expectations. The results of the above mentioned sample were discussed here in view of the analyses of data using Mean, standard deviation, one-way ANOVA and ’t’ test.

Table # 2: Comparison of expectations level of parents on the basis of their socio-economic status Dependent Variable

Overall Expectations Score (%)

Income of respondents

Mean (In %)

(In Rs./ - p.m) (I)

S.D. (In %)

Income of respondents

P Value

(In Rs./ - p.m) (J)

Mean difference (I – J)

Upto Rs. 6,500/-

85.06

10.25

Rs. 6,501/- to 10,000/-

7.58

.57

Rs.6,501/- to 10,000/-

78.01

8.26

Above Rs.10,001/-

-2.39

1.00

Above Rs10,001/-

80.41

8.67

upto Rs. 6,500/-

- 5.18

.31

Total

81.34

9.47

Findings suggest that as the obtained

P value is greater than the 0.05 level of 27

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significance (Table P Value). So, the null hypothesis has been accepted. i.e., When the expectations of parents were compared among the parents having different Socioeconomic status (i.e., between lower & middle socioeconomic status, middle & higher socioeconomic status as well as

higher and lower socioeconomic status), no statistically significant difference were seen. So, in conclusion parental expectations are same about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant irrespective of their Socio-economic status.

Table # 3: Comparison of expectations level of parents on the basis of their educational status Dependent Variable

Overall Expectations Score (%)

Education of Respondents

P Value

HSC to Graduation

3.78

.677

9.14

Post Graduation & above

-9.26

.121

88.81

9.59

Up to SSC

5.48

.804

81.35

9.47

(In %)

Up to SSC

83.33

9.18

HSC to Graduation.

79.54

Post Graduation & above Total

(I)

Education of Respondents

Mean difference (I – J)

S.D.

Mean (In %)

When the expectations of parents were compared among the parents having different educational status (i.e., between Lower & Middle educational status, Middle & Higher educational status as well as higher & Lower educational status), no significant difference was seen as the obtained P values,

(J)

is greater than 0.05 level of significance and the null hypothesis has been accepted. i.e, The expectations level among the parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant remains the same irrespective of their educational status.

Table # 4: Result showing the expectations of mothers and fathers (in %) Areas of expectations Communication Abilities Score (%) Social Skills Score (%) Academic Achievements Score (%)

*Respondents

Mean (in %)

S.D. (in %)

83.16

12.01

78.57

11.44

83.03

10.48

81.66

11.94

83.57

13.24

79.33

14.18

(M/F)

‘t’ value

P Value

1.381

.065

.423

.337

1.079

.143

Kumar & Jalvi / Parental expectation of CWCI

Areas of expectations

*Respondents

Mean (in %)

S.D. (in %)

84.72

11.66

84.86

11.39

78.70

11.82

81.20

10.98

(M/F)

Change in future life Score (%) Rehabilitation Demand Score (%)

‘t’ value

P Value

-.042

.448

-.775

.221

*Respondents : M - Mothers, F – Fathers When the level of expectations between mothers & fathers were compared, again the null hypothesis is accepted. Thus there is no statistically significant difference exist in the

expectations level between mothers and fathers about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant.

Table # 5: Result showing parental expectations regarding their child’s gender (in %) S.D.

*Child’s gender

Mean (in %)

(in %)

81.50

10.73

79.19

13.08

Social Skills

82.81

10.57

Score (%)

81.52

12.28

80.35

14.13

81.95

13.71

85.41

11.25

84.41

11.76

78.57

10.45

82.36

12.09

Areas of expectations Communication Abilities Score (%)

Academic Achievements Score (%) Change in future life Score (%) Rehabilitation Demands Score (%)

‘t’ value

P value

.693

.245

.403

.344

-.407

.342

.420

.338

-1.265

.106

*Child’s gender : M - Male, F - Female Finally when the parental expectations from their male and female child were examined, the corresponding P values of each area of expectations are found to be greater than 0.05 level of significance and the null hypothesis is accepted. Thus there is statistically no significant difference exist in the expectations of parents from their male and female child. i.e., parents expect equally regardless of the gender of their child who undergone/undergoing cochlear implant.

In conclusion, the researcher wants to say that there is no statistically significant difference exists in the expectations level of parents from their male and female child, expectations level between mothers and fathers and also expectations level due to their educational and socio economic status. i.e., there is no any impact of socio-economic status, education & gender on expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant. 29

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Discussion The present study investigated the impact of Socio-economic status, education and gender on the expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant. The impact on parental expectations were examined with regard to the different domains of their child’s development i.e. communication abilities, social skills, academic achievements, change in future life and post implant rehabilitation demands. The findings indicated that there is no any impact of socioeconomic status, education and gender on expectations of parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant. The possible explanation for the above findings may depend upon the various factors like emotional involvement of the parents, age of the child, age at the time of cochlear implantation, state of additional disability with the child and finally quality of counseling services.

As not a single child in the present study had additional disability. Hence it may be another contributing factor for similar expectations level in parents. Also, various researches have shown that some factors like present age of the child, age of the time at cochlear implantation, length of the time using the cochlear implant etc. do influence children’s post implant outcomes regarding both the perception and production of spoken language (Balmey, 1995; Dowell, Blamey, & Clark, 1997; Mondain et al., 1997; Cheng, Grant, & Niparko, 1999; Barco, Franz, & Jackson, 2002; Spencer 2004). Parents expected that their child would be able to use the telephone, understand speech without relying lip-reading, follow a group conversation and so on. In addition, parents tended to expect that the child would experience better social interactions with their peers with typical hearing and would attain higher academic achievements than would have not been possible without the cochlear implant. Moreover, parents felt that if their child attained better communication abilities, he/she would also obtain better academic achievements and social relationship with their peers with typical hearing that finally leads to change in their future life.

In the present study the minimum educational status of the parents were SSC (Xth) passed and above, which in Indian contest may be viewed as ‘literate’ parents. As a result the expectations level among the parents about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant remains the same irrespective of their educational status. However, further there is need to compare the expectations level with their illiterate counterparts. Similarly in the present study the majority of children who undergone/ undergoing cochlear implant fall in the age range of 2 to 8 years, which is considered as more or less critical age for various aspect of development, so it may be another contributing factor for the above findings. The last but not the least may be the state of child with the additional disabilities.

Similar findings were reported by Anat Zaidman - Zait and Tova Most (2005) who found that mothers expressed relatively high expectations from their child’s outcome following cochlear implantations as well as an understanding of the demanding nature of the (re)habilitation process. Kumar R. & Jalvi R. (2008), reported that the level of parental expectations about their child’s outcome following cochlear implant ranges between 30

Kumar & Jalvi / Parental expectation of CWCI

high to medium level of expectations with varying degree and not a single parent has low level of expectations or almost no expectations.

H. C. (1993). Parental expectations as a factor in evaluating children for the multichannel cochlear implant. American Annals of the Deaf, 138, pp. 297-303.

In conclusion, the researcher wants to say since, parents expect irrespective of their socio-economic status, education and gender, they should be continued to disseminate up-todate, research-based knowledge on the efficacy of cochlear implants and focus on parental expectations concerning the demanding postimplant (re)habilitation process.

Kumar, R. & Jalvi, R. (2008), Parental expectations about their child’s outcome from cochlear implant: A sur vey. Unpublished dissertation of Mumbai University. Meadow-Orlans, K. P. (1990). The impact of childhood hearing loss on the family, In D. F. Moores, & K. P. Meadow-Orlans (Eds.), Educational and developmental aspects of deafness (pp. 321-338). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.

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Meadow-Orlans, K. P., Mertens, D. M., & Sass-Lehrer, M. A. (2003). Parents and their deaf children. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.

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Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, pp. 193-210.

Nucleus® 24 Contour TM Cochlear Implant System, (2000b, Fall). Who can benefit from cochlear implant? Retrieved November 12, 2003 from http://www. cochlearamericas.com/What/1011.asp.

Zaidman – zait, A. & Most, T. (2005). Cochlear Implant in Children with Hearing Loss: Maternal Expectations and Impact on the Family; the Volta Review, 105 (2), pp. 129-150; ISSN 0042 – 8639.

Ruben, R. J. (1995). Language: The outcome measure for the linguistically developing cochlear implant patient. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 33, pp. 99-101.

Zaidman – Zait, A. (2007). Parenting a child with Cochlear Implant: A Critical Incident, Journal of Deaf studies and Deaf Education, 12 : 2, pp. 221-222.

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Journal of Disability Management and Special Education ISSN: 2229-5143

The Self-assessment of Self-determination of the Persons with Mild Intellectual Disability– Is it Reliable? *Saumya Chandra

Abstract The current research paper, “The Self-assessment of Self-determination of the Persons with Intellectual Disability– Is it Reliable?” on 10 adolescent students with mild intellectual disability uses a need based ‘ Demographic Data Sheet’ and ‘Assessment Scale developed by American Institute for Research’ to uncover three key aspects; knowledge, ability and perception. With respect to age and socio economic status, although the assumption is that it plays a vital role in learning process, it did not affect a lot. The theme is that students with intellectual disability are viewed with sympathy therefore expected opportunities are not given to them, neither from parents nor from teachers. A domain wise prepared intervention package, practical exposure and home assignments used in the study give the data showing significant difference in all the three key aspects. The performance of the students with mild intellectual disability was assessed by them, their parents and their teachers. The result shows that not only can a successful and dignified life be led by the adolescents with mild intellectual disability, but also assessment done by them is reliable, if the focus is made on developing Self-determination from the very early ages. Key words : Mild intellectual disability, Self-determination, Self-assessment, AIR Self-determination Scale

Introduction

This view of self-determination, emphasizing choice and meaningful success is evident throughout several movements which resulted in a current focus on self-determinant special education. Self-determination depends upon students’ capacities and opportunities. Capacity refers to students’ knowledge, abilities and perceptions that enable them to be self-determined and feel good about it. Opportunity refers to students’ chances to use their knowledge and abilities.

Self-Determination for people with severe disabilities first appears in the 1972 writing of Benget Nirje where he stated that they could and should have a role in their own choices (Shapiro, 1993). Nirje promoted society to take actions that would enable them to have choices and control their lives and destinies, personal activities, education, independence and decisions (Nirje, 1972; Argan and Wehmeyer, 2003). Self-Determination is the ability of a person to consider options and make appropriate choices regarding residential life, work and leisure time.

Special education researchers were working towards helping students with severe disabilities control their lives for some time. Mithaug, Martin and Argan (1987) developed the Adaptability Instructional Model to teach students with disabilities how to regulate

Self-Determination is the drive to determine our thoughts, feelings, behaviour and choices over life events

*Assistant Professor, RKMVU, FDMSE, Coimbatore

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their own behaviour by 1) teaching students to identify and set goals, 2) engaging in independent performance through selfmonitoring, 3) evaluating their performance in terms of an existing standard, and 4) learning from their mistakes and adjusting their goals. Persons with intellectual disability have not had the opportunity to become self-determined. They often experience over protection and segregation and not included in decisions. But there has been a changing view of disability in the United States as a result in independent living, normalisation and selfadvocacy movements. Self-Determination is a concept reflecting the belief that individuals have the right to direct their own lives. Students with intellectual disabilities who have selfdetermination skills have stronger chances of being successful in making the transition to adulthood including employment and independence (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).

• To find out the difference if any in the assessment independently done by the students with mild intellectual disability themselves and their teachers after intervention. • To find out the difference if any in the assessment independently done by the students with mild intellectual disability themselves, their parents and teachers after intervention. Hypothesis: • There will be no significant difference in the SD levels of pre test mean scores of students with mild intellectual disability within and among the group when independently assessed by the teachers, parents and students. • There will be significant difference in the SD levels of post tests mean scores of students with mild intellectual disability when independently assessed by the teachers, parents and students.

Self-determination is about empowering people with disabilities by providing skill instruction and opportunities to practice choice and decision-making so that they themselves can obtain the outcomes they want.

• There will be significant difference in the pre and post test mean scores of self-determination levels of students with mild intellectual disability, when independently assessed by their teachers after the intervention.

Reviewing various research articles by different researchers it seems that “The Selfassessment of Self-determination of the Persons with Intellectual Disability – Is it Reliable?” there is no study available on the above-said topic. So the review of literature promotes the need of this study in Indian context.

• There will be significant difference in the pre and post tests mean scores of self- determination levels of students with mild intellectual disability, when independently assessed by their parents after the intervention

Objectives:

• There will be significant difference in the pre and post tests mean scores of selfdetermination levels of students with mild intellectual disability after the intervention when independently assessed by the students.

• To find out the difference if any in the assessment independently done by the students with mild intellectual disability themselves and their parents after intervention. 34

Saumya Chandra / The Self-assessment of Self-determination

Methodology

Tool

Here in this study the researcher selected experimental design that is single group pre and post test design. The team intervention is an independent variable and Self-determination is dependent variable. Purposive Sampling has been used in this study where the samples were selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The scale which is used in the present study is the AIR Self- Determination Scale, developed by the American Institute for Research in collaboration with Teachers College, Columbia University, with funding from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). There are three assessment forms: Educator Form, Parent Form & Student Form

Sample Selection: 10 male with mild intellectual disability , age group of 16 and above were selected from Star Special School, Coimbatore

(Developed by Wolman, Campeau and Dubois, 1994).

Description of AIR Scale Educator form

5 domains

30 items

Parent form

3 domains

18 items

Student form

4 domains

24 items

The scale ser ves not only as an assessment tool but also as an instructional and communication tool. As an instructional tool, it helps the educator in developing intervention package for each student with mild ID. As communication tool it can serve as recording device which can be used throughout the training program. The scale was translated into Tamil and given to 5 qualified and experienced professionals from the field of special education for validation. The items in the existing scale found difficult were modified as per the culture and exposure of the students.

in the form of pictures depicting the variety, choice, ability and demand. The researcher verified each item in order to check if they have properly understood the items and marked properly. Scoring was done domain-wise and in total. The selected objectives were: • Thing I do • How I feel • What happens at home • What happens at school • (Student form)

Assessment

Intervention

The AIR Self-Determination Scale was used for assessment of Self-Determination skills. All the 10 samples administered the scale themselves. On the basis of the AIR Student form, an assessment booklet was prepared

Before starting the intervention a group meeting was organized to take the consent of the parent and involve them in the intervention programme. When all the parents, educators, 35

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Objective-3 The third objective was selected from the domain-3 WHAT HAPPENS AT SCHOOL, where the samples felt that people at school should understand when they have to change their plan to meet their goals They should offer advice and encourage them when they are doing this.. The samples were asked to go through their ratings and select an item which has fewer score. The samples were guided to learn the skills using worksheet and teachers were involved for the practical exposures. Their session wise performance was recorded and post tests scores were compared.

students and researcher got agreed, four objectives were selected for all the 10 students. Since 10 was a big number to teach individually within the given duration therefore collectively four common objectives were extracted and in the form of group, intervention was given for 20 sessions to all the samples on the selected objectives. The entry level on the AIR Scale was taken as the baseline for the particular activity. Each sample was taught for 1 hour within 20 sessions using worksheets, practical exposures and home based assignments. Recording sheets were prepared to record the sessionwise progress.

Objective-4 On the basis of their felt needs, the last objective was selected from the domain-4 WHAT HAPPENS AT HOME. People at home should listen to them when the samples want to talk about what they want and what they need. For this parents were given training by discussing over the worksheets and activity records prepared by their wards.

Objective-1 The first objective, which all the samples selected to learn, was to figure out how to meet their goals from domain-1 THINGS I DO. To achieve this objective several choices and examples were given to them. All the samples were explained and asked to express what they like to do most in their leisure time. They were given worksheets and taught how to fill it. The work sheet had the provision to paste some pictures and writings on the above mentioned objective. Their pre and post test scores were compared.

Data Analysis Intervention was given for 20 sessions to the students with mild intellectual disability. The progress of students was recorded on specially designed formats in a systematic and scientific manner. The collected data were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted by using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The results are presented below with following tables and figures.

Objective-2 As it was explained, the samples wanted to learn to express themselves what they feel and what they need to do. Objective was taken from domain-2 HOW I FEEL. The samples were asked to go through their ratings and select an item for which they wanted to express themselves. As, usually their family members used to impose their choices and decisions on them.

Hypothesis â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1 There will be no significant difference in the SD levels of pre test mean scores of students with mild ID within and among the group when independently assessed by the teachers, parents and students. 36

Saumya Chandra / The Self-assessment of Self-determination

Table No. 1 Representing the mean and SD value of pre-test on self determination of the sample when assessed by students, parents and teachers Independent

Mean Scores

Standard Deviation

Students

169.8000

19.10090

Parents

131.1000

10.43977

Teachers

158.8000

18.87856

Total

153.2333

23.06316

Variables

Table no. 1 depicts the mean scores and Standard Deviation of self-determination obtained in pre test for students with mild ID. When independently assessed by students, parents and teachers, the mean scores were 169.8000, 131.1000 and 158.8000 and Standard Deviations were 19.10090, 10.43977

and 18.87856 respectively. Table no. 1 shows the pre test mean scores and Standard Deviation of the SD of the sample when assessed by students, parents and teachers. The mean scores of SD were 169.80, 131.10 and 158 respectively and the Standard Deviation are 19.10, 10.43 and 18.87 respectively.

Table No. 2 The comparison of self-determination scores among the three different groups; Parents, students and teachers Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between Groups

7953.267

3976.633

14.369

.000

Within groups

7472.100

276.744

Total

15425.367

Table no. 2 is showing the key interpretive element of interest is that p=00, a marginally significant difference exists within the comparison of self-determination scores among the three different groups. Hence the hypothesis no. 1 that there will be no significant difference in the pre test mean scores of self-determination levels of students

with mild ID, when independently assessed by the students, their parents and teachers is rejected. Hypothesis - 2 There will be significant difference in the SD levels of post tests mean scores of students with mild ID when independently assessed by the teachers, parents and students. 37

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Table No. 3 Representing pre test mean scores of Self-Determination of students between and among the groups Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between Groups

7953.267

3976.633

14.369

.000

Within groups

7472.100

276.744

Total

15425.367

Table no. 3 is showing the key interpretive element of interest is that p=00, significant difference exists within the comparison of selfdetermination scores among the three different groups. Hence the hypothesis no. 1 that there

will be no significant difference in the pre test mean scores of self-determination levels of students with MID within and among the groups, when independently assessed by the teachers, parents and students is rejected.

Table No. 4 Representing post test mean scores of Self-Determination of students when independently assessed by students, parents and teachers Independent Variables

Mean

Standard Deviation

Students

277.3000

22.50457

Parents

191.7000

15.81877

Teachers

226.2000

16.31496

Total

231.7333

39.95768

Table no. 4 represents the post test mean scores of SD and standard deviation of

students, parents and teachers.

Table No. 5 Representing post test mean scores of SD of students between the groups and within the groups Sum of Squares

Mean Squares

Sig.

Between groups

37096.067

18548.033

54.400

.000

Within groups

9205.800

340.956

Total

46301.867

Table no. 5 shows the post test mean scores of SD of students between the group and within the group. It represents the sum of squares, mean squares and F ratio that is 54.400 hence the hypothesis no. 2 that there

will be significant difference in the SD levels of post tests mean scores of students with mild ID when independently assessed by the teachers, parents and students is accepted. 38

Saumya Chandra / The Self-assessment of Self-determination

Hypothesis - 3

determination levels of students with mild ID, when independently assessed by their teachers after the intervention.

There will be significant difference in the pre and post test mean scores of self-

Table No. 6 Table Mean, SD of pre-test and post-test and “t” value for self determination of teachers group Test Pre-Test

Mean

158.80

18.87

Teachers Post-Test

226.20

Table no. 6 represents the significant difference in the SD of students when assessed by their teachers. It shows the mean scores of pre and post tests, std deviation and t value that is 10.28 hence the hypothesis no. 4 that there will be significant difference in the pre and post test mean scores of self-determination levels of students with mild ID, when

t-value

Sig.

10.28

.00

16.31

independently assessed by their teachers after the intervention is accepted. Hypothesis – 4 There will be significant difference in the pre and post tests mean scores of selfdetermination levels of students with mild ID, when independently assessed by their parents after the intervention.

Table No. 7 Table Mean, SD of pre-test and post-test and “t” value for self determination of parents group Test

Mean

Pre-Test

131.10

10.43

Post-Test

191.70

15.81

Parents

t-value

Sig.

12.30

.00

ID, when independently assessed by their parents after the intervention is accepted.

Table no. 7 represents shows significant difference in the SD of students when assessed by their parents. It shows the mean scores of pre and post tests, standard deviation and t value that is 12.30 hence the hypothesis no. 5 that there will be significant difference in the pre and post tests mean scores of selfdetermination

Hypothesis – 5 There will be significant difference in the pre and post tests mean scores of selfdetermination levels of students with mild ID after the intervention when independently assessed by the students.

levels of students with mild 39

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Table No. 8 Table Mean, SD of pre-test and post-test and â&#x20AC;&#x153;tâ&#x20AC;? value for self determination of students group

Students

Test

Mean

Pre-Test

169.80

19.10

Post-Test

277.30

22.50

Table no. 8 represents the mean scores of SD of students, pre and post test scores and standard deviation when assessed by the students. The t value is 17.37 so hypothesis no. 6 that, there will be significant difference in the pre and post tests mean scores of self determination levels of students with mild ID after the intervention when independently assessed by the students is accepted.

t-value

Sig.

17.37

.00

organization of intervention shows the ability to advocate themselves for their own capabilities. To a certain extent students with mild ID are aware of their interest, choice and ability and they are willing to learn more at their own pace. Most important finding of the study is that there is a significant difference in the mean scores of self assessment of self determination of students with mild ID between their parents and teachers.

Educational Implication of the study The findings of the study have some distinct implications in the rehabilitation process of students with mild intellectual disability. The knowledge gained through this study is of immense use as it declares that there is a positive impact of developing self determination among students with mild ID involving parents and teachers. Students with mild ID learn faster through the AIR SelfDetermination Scale and are self motivated while learning. The scale gives them an opportunity to express what they want to learn and how they would like to learn. Students with mild ID need to be trained in order to lead an independent life with purpose and dignity. While administering the scale it was observed that they are deprived of getting adequate opportunities to do what they want to do because parents and to some extent teachers also, usually overprotect them. They have their own apprehensions which create obstacles for their wards. The successful administration and

The result indicates that if training in self-determination is given at the school level along with home level, it would definitely help the students for better adjustment in the society. It is the need of today as youth is the biggest strength of the world. Youth with mild ID also have the right to live a life with dignity and self-respect therefore the concept has to be introduced with the curriculum of special children at early grades. Conclusion This study is the first of its kind in India. It throws light on developing selfdetermination among the students with mild ID and proves the reliability of the self assessment of self determination of students with mild ID. The research focuses on how the joint action of parents and teachers enhances self-determination among students with mild ID. Data analysis shows a significant difference in the SD levels of post tests mean scores of students with mild ID when independently 40

Saumya Chandra / The Self-assessment of Self-determination

References Agran, M., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003). SelfDetermination. In D. Ryndak & S. Alper (Eds.), Curriculum and Instruction for students with significant disabilities in inclusive settings (pp. 259 - 276). Needham heights, Mass: Allyn and Bacon.

assessed by the teachers, parents and students after the intervention. The positive outcome of the research will be helpful in developing SD among students with MID, when parents and teachers are actively involved. The study shows the effectiveness of developing Self-Determination among students with mild ID when parents and teachers both are involved equally. Researches have indicated that Self-Determination skill helps in selfadvocacy, goal setting, self-evaluation and adjustment. Students with mild mild ID, who have Self-Determination skills, have stronger chances of being successful in making transition to adulthood including employment, independence and right to live with dignity and self-esteem.

Mithaug , D.E., martin, J. E., & Agran, M. (1987). Adaptability Instruction: The goal of transition programming. Exceptional Children, 53, 500 - 505. Nirje, B. (1972). The right to self-determination. In W. Wolfensberger, (Ed.), Normalisation: The principle of normalisation (pp. 176 - 200). Toronto: National Institute on Mental Retardation. Perske, R. (1972). The dignity of risk. In W. Wolfensberger (Ed.), Normalisation: The principle of normalisation in human services (pp. 194 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 200). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: National Institute on Mental Retardation.

Review of literature shows that there is a wide scope of research in this area in our country as there are no data based studies found by the researcher. In the foreign studies also the researcher did not find any study on the said topic in Indian context and it is the major need of today so developing SD and independent assessment done by students with mild ID themselves have to be an integral part of the curriculum.

Wehmeyer, M.L., & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-Determination and positive adult outcomes: A follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63, 245 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 255.

Acknowledgement: The author acknowledges the guidance and suppor t given by Prof. (Dr) A.T. Thressiakutty to complete this study and prepare this article for publication.

Wolman, J.M.,Campeau,P.L .& Dubois,P.A (1994) AIR Self- Determination Scale, published by the American Institute for Research.

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Current Practices in Inclusive Education of Children with Intellectual Disability *R. Shilpa Manogna

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to find out the current practices in Inclusive education for children with intellectual disability. The journey towards Inclusive education has begun and the need to know where exactly we are and what is being done is of vital importance. Twelve resource teachers working in private schools and twenty two inclusive education resource teachers working under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) were interviewed by the Investigator. A finding of the study revealed that pull out education model is in practice. Private schools are practicing accommodations to certain extent. The scenario at the government schools is completely different. It is focusing on zero rejection and enrolment of Children with Special Needs (CWSN) into regular schools. Key words: Practices, Inclusive Education. Intellectual Disability, Resource teachers

Introduction: There was time when children with disability were not treated very well. They were not allowed to go to school with their peers. The Kothari Commission (1964â&#x20AC;&#x201C;66), the first education commission of independent India, observed the importance of the education of children with disabilities. The National Policy on Education (1986) has paved way for educating children with mild handicaps in regular schools (Balasundaram, 2005). It took almost a decade to have a strong legal base to provide equal opportunities to individuals with disabilities. With the enactment of Persons with Disabilities act (1995), protection of rights of persons with disabilities was ensured. The efforts of the Government of India (GoI) over the last two decades have been towards providing comprehensive range of services towards education of children with disabilities. GoI took major initiatives to provide educational opportunities for children

with disabilities in regular schools. To name a few, IEDC scheme, PIED, DPEP and recently SSA. Despite these initiatives, change has been slow, with segregation in special schools dominating the scene until recently. 86th Amendment of the Indian constitution (2002) via Article 21A (Part III) has made free and compulsory education a Fundamental Right for all children in the age group 6-14 years. The passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009 marks a historic moment for the children of India. This Act serves as a building block to ensure that every child has his or her right (as an entitlement) to get a quality elementary education. RTE provides a right platform to reach the unreached, with specific provisions for disadvantaged groups, such as child labourers, migrant children and children with special needs. Children with Intellectual Disability (ID) have been denied educational

*Lecturer, Department of Special Education, National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad-500009

Shilpa Manogna / Current Practices in Inclusive Education of CWID

rights for so long, but now these rights extend from early childhood through adulthood. With the zero rejection policy, every child with disability irrespective of level of severity is entitled to receive appropriate education in regular schools as far as possible. Including students with ID in classes with their natural neighbours and peers is a relatively new educational practice.

among home, school and community,” among others.” Singhal (2005a) too, argues that government policy focus on resources and physical access (e.g. distribution of aids and appliances), or infrastructure such as ramps in schools, and the notion of social justice through the equal distribution of benefit, seems to be more about inputs, not processes like pedagogy, curriculum or attitudes. In a study on practitioners’ perspectives in some inclusive schools carried out by Singhal and Rouse (2003), many teachers who were interviewed stated that: there have been no changes in their teaching. As stated by Lindsay (2007), Mani and Mulharah (2003) have talked about creating effective inclusive classrooms through cooperative learning. She also quoted that according to Malhotra (2003) teachers should be provided flexible syllabi, which would give them more time and freedom.

Educating students with and without disabilities in the general classroom is becoming the current practice which is commonly known as inclusive education. Inclusive education is perceived to be one of the ways to increase educational access to large number of students with disabilities. This means more children with disabilities will be placed in the regular classroom than before. Since the law directs that students with disabilities spend as much of their school days possible in the same instructional and social activities as their peers without disabilities, inclusion became more popular. (Beattie, Jordan, Algozzine, 2006). Effective inclusion practices often require that teachers, administrators and other professionals give up traditional attitudes and expectations.

Sandhill and Singh (2005) undertook an overall study of ten ‘inclusive’ private schools in Delhi selected by word-of-mouth, followed by an in-depth exploration of two private schools, in order to assess the changes they had made in their adoption of inclusive education. It was found in the study of ten schools that the tendency was to place children with disabilities in special units attached to the school, although some children spent some time in the mainstream classrooms, which the authors defined as more of a special school than inclusive school approach.

Lot of research has been done to find out the best practices to promote inclusive education. The Roeher Institute (2004) documented that : “Best Practices for Inclusion is based on the principles that “all children attend age appropriate regular classroom in their local schools,” “all children receive curriculum relevant to their needs,” and “all children benefit from cooperation and collaboration

UNICEF’s Report on the Status of Disability in India (2003) documents that most services for children with disabilities are concentrated in big cities or close to district 43

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headquarters. It also states that many schools have a large number of children in each classroom and few teachers. As a consequence of this, many teachers are reluctant to work with children with disabilities and consider it an additional workload. Another important observation was that the curriculum lacks the required flexibility to cater to the needs of children with disabilities. There are limited developmentally appropriate teachingâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;learning materials for children both with and without disabilities. Keeping in view the mixed results there is a need to identify and analyze current practices in promoting inclusive education. The purpose of this study is to understand the current practices in the education of children with ID in inclusive set ups. The main focus of the study was to identify the practices in identification of Children with ID, assessment procedures undertaken, curricular emphasis, effective teaching methods and evaluation procedures used by private school resource

elicit from each participant a comprehensive range of views, perceptions and reflections about their experiences of practices in inclusive education. Sample 34 Special educators working as resource teachers in Inclusive set up were the participants. Twelve special educators working in private schools as resource teachers and twenty two special educators working as Inclusive Education Resource Teachers (IERTs) under SSA were part of the study. Non probability convenient sampling method was used. Only those special educators who have volunteered to participate in the study were interviewed. Instrument A semi-structured interview method was employed. An interview schedule, consisting of 12 open-ended questions with probes was used to gather information from each participant. The interview questions were developed through a review of the literature relating to practices in inclusive education. The interview questions were given for validation to professionals in the field.

teachers and government resource teachers. Methodology Research Design A qualitative approach was chosen for conducting the investigation. This approach was specifically chosen to enable the exploration of resource teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences of teaching in inclusive set ups. Experience is a phenomenon of interest for qualitative researchers. This kind of research gives an avenue to teachers to express their feelings and opinions about inclusive education. Indepth interviews were conducted to collect the information from the teachers in order to gain better understanding of their perspectives on inclusive education. The key objective was to

Procedure The investigator has contacted the special educators working in regular schools and explained the purpose of the study. Those who consented were interviewed. The participants in turn have suggested some more names, who were contacted by the investigator. Prior appointment was taken from the participants to conduct the interview. The investigator has conducted one to one interview with each participant. Interviews ranged in duration from 30 minutes to 60 minutes. The investigator made sure 44

Shilpa Manogna / Current Practices in Inclusive Education of CWID

that the participants were comfortable and free from any distraction. Responses were noted down verbatim. Some interviews were recorded with the participants’ consent. The investigator remained as neutral as possible and clarification was sought wherever it was required. The investigator ensured to paraphrase at regular intervals to have clarity in terms of the information expressed by the participants.

to forty four (44). Majority of CWSN were identified with Learning Disabilities, slow learners, autism, ADHD, Down syndrome, cerebral Palsy and ID. The scenario in government schools is slightly different. Children with ID and Physical handicaps are enrolled most when compared to other categories of CWSN. One of the major finding of the study is that children with ID are least preferred for admission into private schools. A minimum of one and a maximum of three students with ID are enrolled in private schools. One of the most reputed schools has a huge number of 120 CWSN in their school. But there was not even a single child with ID or VI or HI was enrolled. When the investigator enquired about the reason for this the resource teacher replied:

Data Analysis The responses were studied for analysis. The audio-taped interviews were transcribed verbatim into written text by the principal investigator. An outline of paraphrased items was generated based on each interview text. Each transcript was examined separately and whenever a new theme emerged, it was highlighted. The identified themes within the transcript were then compared across transcripts and overall themes were developed which were later used to report the findings of the study.

“My school authorities have not yet reached to that stage that they will include children with ID. They think, its very difficult to handle them. They will not be able to cope with the demands. The school is not ready to accept them right now. Though our school has five special educators we mostly have children with Autism, LD, ADHD and Slow learners.”

Conformability After the interview, the investigator read aloud the interview text. In addition to this they were also asked to add any additional information if they wish so. All participants agreed with the summaries and confirmed that the information reflected accurately presented their contributions to this investigation. The final coding themes were- assessment, curriculum, teaching methods and teaching learning materials, evaluation procedures, teacher and peer acceptance and challenges.

On the similar issue one of the participants revealed that: “We have one student with mild ID. It is not easy to teach her. We don’t follow a functional curriculum for her. We don’t know what to do with her. We are continuing her because she is with us for the past four years. Right now she is in sixth grade. But we informed the parents that we will not allow her to

Results It was found that the number of CWSN enrolled in private schools ranged from ten 45

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give her tenth exams from our school. They agreed to it.”

profound disabilities. Conduct Surveys, physiotherapy camps, attend meetings with anganwadi teachers and IKP members. Where is time for us to go to schools and teach these children? We only give some tips to the teachers but they are not sufficient.

Another major finding was that boys are more enrolled in comparison to girls both in private and government schools. It was also found that special teacher - CWSN ratio in private schools is around 1:25 and sometimes 1:35. One of the participants reported that:

Another participant during the interview has expressed that:

“It’s difficult for me to teach for 35 students with special needs. I don’t find time to plan appropriately for these kids. I am over burdened but my authorities don’t want to appoint one more special educator. They say we will see next year.”

“We are running from pillar to post. Are we salesmen? How can two IERTs give training to these many CWSN in regular schools? Each school is situated so far that it’s difficult to travel from one place to another place.” Identification Participants of the study indicated that they are using appropriate procedures to identify and to assess children with ID. They expressed fair knowledge of assessment procedures. One of the participants expressed that:

Same concern was expressed by another participant: “I have to teach 28 students. It is so hectic to plan for them, especially during examination time. Other teachers think that I am having gala time with only 28 students. They don’t understand how difficult it is to teach 28 students who are at different levels.”

“Our school has developed a checklist. We use it to screen these children. But we send these children to outside clinics for Psychological assessment.”

There is altogether a different perspective from the Inclusive Education Resource Teachers (IERTs) under SSA. It was noted that there are only two IERTs for each mandal. Each mandal has atleast 60 schools. The IERTs expressed the concern of not able to concentrate on the CWSN who are enrolled in regular schools. One of the IERTs expressed her concern in the following way:

Another participant (IERT) revealed that: “SSA has developed checklists for identifying CWSN. We use them. But most of the time we don’t really go for detailed assessment. Earlier I used to use FACP for programming for children with SEVERE disabilities but due to lack of time now I don’t use.”

“We have 72 schools in our mandal. A total of 150 CWSN are enrolled altogether. We have to give home based education to children with severe and

It was observed from the experiences of the government teachers that due to lack of 46

Shilpa Manogna / Current Practices in Inclusive Education of CWID

time and lot of travelling they hardly use any standardized tools for assessing CWSN in spite of have knowledge. It was also noticed that all the participants wanted to have a quick assessment procedures.

One of the participants has expressed her experience in the following way: “We don’t develop functional curriculum for this child with MR. It is difficult for normal children to cope up, with today’s curriculum how can a child with MR cope? Our school curriculum is very hard. And the worst part is I am not allowed to modify it. I have to go with the management.”

Curriculum All the participants working in private schools have emphasized that they follow the regular curriculum with necessary accommodations and adaptations. It has become a regular practice in private schools. For children with ID exemption of subjects as per the CBSE norms is in practice in almost all the schools. It was expressed by one of the participants that they emphasize on teaching vocational skills at secondary level as part of their curriculum. The participant has expressed that:

On the contrary participants working as IERTs have expressed that they don’t have time to explain about the importance of modified curriculum or functional curriculum to regular teachers. One of the participants stated that: “None of the schools in my mandal have modified curriculum for these children. First of the all the regular teachers don’t have the skill and I don’t have the time, Even when I try to explain, nobody listens to me. We are simply including these children into regular schools but not doing any justice to them. Though I am visiting the schools for some time it’s not at all sufficient to cater to their actual needs.”

“We have vocational curriculum for these children with MR. They are exempted from languages/EVS. Instead we train them in skill like drawing, stitching, fabric painting, glass painting, decorative items preparation etc. We want them to lead an independent life. We are trying our best. Let’s see how it works….”

Sharing the same sentiments one of the participants said:

On the similar issue one of the participants said that:

“These children are simply put in regular schools. The regular teachers don’t know how to teach them. They don’t know what IEP is and what functional curriculum is? I know how to teach and what to teach. But I am not allowed to do so. My job profile is completely different. Though my designation is IERT, I am not teaching

I feel that giving training in vocational activities will help them to lead an independent life. This girl has a good potential to become a teacher assistant. That’s the reason I give her training in simple first aid, arranging the TLMs for the class, bringing lower class children to resource room as per the schedule. She is good at managing small kids.” 47

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actually. Curriculum modification, IEPs and functional curriculums are only in

concept at every class level. I am supposed to use them. All the worksheets are simple and often accompanied by pictures. Apart from those worksheets we have certain educational CDs and software for teaching grammar, spellings and math concepts. Till now I found them effective.”

theory not in practice. “ Teaching Methods and Materials Private schools adopted the pull out teaching model whereas the government schools have CWSN in regular schools as there is no resource room set up in each school. IERTs provide support on itinerant basis which is found to be very infrequent and insufficient. Participants of the study indicated usage of a variety of teaching methods in resource rooms. Most of the resources teachers working in private sector were using strategies such as chunking, simplification, demonstration, drill and practice, reinforcement, etc. They have also expressed that play way method; activity method and multi-sensory method were found to be most effective teaching methods. The participants have also expressed that they were using need based materials. Most of the resource teachers were using flash cards, modified and simplified worksheets, graphic charts, computer software, blocks and puzzles. One of the participants of the study revealed

On the contrary one of the participants working as IERT under SSA narrated his story under frustration in the following way: “What special teaching methods do you think the regular school teachers will use? They (regular teachers) feel allowing them to sit in the regular class in itself is great. They teach as they are used to teach. If this child with special needs listens and understands it’s ok. Otherwise they don’t bother. Under SSA we have provision for TLMs for CWSN. But it never came. I have been working for the past two years. My officials tell we will get TLMs but till date that auspicious day has not come.” Evaluation Procedures

that:

For promoting inclusion teachers must use evaluation methods that will enable students with special needs to demonstrate mastery. It was observed from the interaction with the participants that they were evaluating the progress of the students in the most appropriate way feasible. Majority of the participants working in the private schools have said that they were providing considerable accommodations in evaluating these children. Giving extra time for completing the test, writer facility, use of calculators and oral tests were in practice in almost all the private schools.

“I mostly use worksheets, charts, puzzles for teaching these children; my school provides me with Educom software. It is very effective. Every child benefits from this e-learning. There is a touch screen system so even a student with cerebral palsy also benefit from them. Apart from this for maths I use Jodo Gyan kit. It is very effective” Another Participant stated that: “My school has developed lesson plans and worksheets based on each 48

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Teacher – Peer Acceptance

Majority of them also stated that they modify the question paper, they only give most important lessons for the test and the questions are read aloud for better comprehension. Describing the issue of evaluation one of the participants said that:

Favorable and positive attitude towards CWSN is important for promoting inclusive education. When asked about the teacher and peer acceptance levels mixed responses have come from the participants. It was expressed by the private school resource teachers that slowly these children are accepted. Initially they were not treated well but now they are accepting the individual differences. It was also found that teacher acceptance is high, peer acceptance is also high. One of the participants said:

“I see that these children don’t lose marks for spelling errors and reversals. I give them breaks if required. They can’t give a test at a stretch for long period of time. The only difficulty I face is that when I modify the paper for these children the regular teachers think that I am interfering with their business. They don’t understand that it is necessary for these children.”

“I see a lot of changes in the regular teachers’ attitude after a series of workshops conducted by me and my colleague. I don’t say they have fully accepted these CWSN but the condition is a little better. Students are now coming forward to help them in academics. I think slowly we are moving ahead.”

Since there is no detention system in government regular schools all CWSN are promoted to the next higher class till class eight. So the issue of modifying evaluation procedures is not a major concern. One of the participants has shared her views in the following way:

Participants working as IERTs expressed that: “They are just accepted because they are forced to accept them. They are often looked down and are ill treated. Some are sympathetic to them but they feel that these kids should be in special schools. Peers are better than teachers. At least they are accepting them while playing and help them in completing routines.”

“When there is no special teaching happening what special evaluation do you expect in a government school? Teachers often complain that these children do not write anything in the exam paper. They show blank papers when we go for visits. I tell them to take oral exam but they feel that these children are good in special schools only. They just promoted to the next class based on attendance. One thing teachers also accept is that the behavioral changes that are quite noticeable.”

Another participant has expressed similar sentiments by stating: “It is difficult to convince HM to admit them. We sometimes threaten them by quoting the law and the 49

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consequences. Unless we are part of the school I don’t think we can bring in any major changes in the present situation. Its half cooked now. Nobody likes it. Neither the regular teacher, nor the disabled child.”

“We need more team members. Two people are enough to handle this workload. There is no place for us to conduct the camps. There is no place for us to even keep our records also. All they (officials) want is numbers.” Another participant voiced her experience in the following way:

Challenges When enquired about the challenges faced most of the resource teachers working in private schools faced are with the non cooperation from the regular teachers and parents and increased work load. One of the participants expressed her feelings as:

“There is no continuity. I had a gap of four months for my contract renewal. What quality services do you think I will provide? Two IERTs cannot do wonders or miracles. They should take more people. Each school should have a special teacher. They should also appoint speech and physiotherapist. It is more required.”

“They (regular school teachers) have an authority over the students. They treat us as aliens. They think that I am over smart. They don’t want to change their ways. The rude comments are so hurting sometimes. I am here because of the support I get from my principal. She is my strength”

Discussion During the last decade India has seen a major force of change in the education system in terms of Univerzalisation of primary and Elementary Education and Universalization of Secondary Education. The efforts were successful to a great extent. When it comes to the education of Children with Special needs especially Children with ID, there is still lot to be achieved. Inclusive education is perceived as “…a concept that has been adopted from the international discourse, but has not been engaged with in the Indian scenario.(Singal , 2005a). This has been clearly demonstrated in the experiences shared by various participants working at mandal level.

Another participant stated that: “It’s difficult to make the parents understand that their child requires special support. Even if they understand they expect that everything should be done in the resource room. They want instant results like Maggie noodles.” The participants from government sector had altogether different challenges. They expressed that travelling within the mandal from one school to other is quite tedious and time taking. They too expressed that they are overburdened by the job responsibilities. Continuity and job security was a major concern. One of the participants stated that:

‘Inclusive’ and ‘integrated’ education are also concepts that are used interchangeably (Julka, 2005; Singal, 2005a). It is understood as the placement of children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms, with the provision 50

Shilpa Manogna / Current Practices in Inclusive Education of CWID

of aids and appliances, and specialist training for the teacher on how to ‘deal with’ students with disabilities. It was found that the CWSN are being provided with necessary aids and appliances but the most important part of quality education is ignored. There is little engagement with the connotations of school, curriculum, and teacher flexibility for all children.

schools. These private schools require the payment of huge fees, and hence this inclusive education is not accessible to all, and so somewhat exclusive. Measures should be taken to make inclusive education affordable to all sections of the community. Getting disabled children into schools is important, overcoming attitudinal, bureaucratic and logistical barriers at various levels along the way, but being in the classroom is only a precondition for inclusion in formal education; presence does not guarantee participation in learning (Craft, 2010). While physical infrastructure and enrolment are important, they are seemingly simple access issues to address, and easy to demonstrate progress in through quantitative data. It is the more complicated constraints of what happens in the classroom and in the community at large, fundamentally guided by attitudes towards children with disabilities, that are the most difficult to change. However, they are equally essential in ensuring access, whether in terms of enrolment or academic participation. In the final analysis it is largely what happens in classrooms that determines whether pupils will stay in school, for how long, and with what degree of academic and social success. This is high time that more concentration on academic participation and pedagogy may be given than simple statistics.

SSA is the government’s millennial Education for All umbrella programme for all education schemes, which aims to universalize elementary education. The goals are that all children aged 6-14 i) will be in some form of education by 2003, ii) will complete 5 years’ primary education by 2007, and iii) will complete 8 years’ education by 2010 (GOI, 2002). It has adopted a Zero Rejection Policy and it has been successful to great extent in implementing it. It was noticed that giving home based education to severe and profound children with disabilities as an important aspect of the job profile of IERTs. Singal (2005a) too, argues that government policy focus on resources and physical access (e.g. distribution of aids and appliances), or infrastructure such as ramps in schools, and the notion of social justice through the equal distribution of benefit, seems to be more about inputs, not processes like pedagogy, curriculum or attitudes. It was all through expressed by the participants of the study these aspects are least focused.

There is evidence to suggest that many teachers do not feel equipped to teach children with disabilities and complain that they need more time to instruct these students (Mukhopadhyay, 2009). The fundamental question teachers ask as they face a class in person and in their imagination in planning is: How do I (sometimes ‘we’) help this student or

The explosive growth of private schools in recent years in India, in both urban and rural areas, is seen by many to be a result of dissatisfaction with the poor quality education provision in government schools (Nambissan, 2003; Singal & Rouse, 2003). Good inclusive practices have been observed in private 51

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these students learn this with these resources in this place? This emphasizes the need to relook at our teacher training programs. Finally, training of general education teachers to modify or implement teaching methods to be inclusive is needed recommended by Hanson et al. (2001). Multi categorical training may be considered as the need of the hour. Both pre-service and in-service training programs should focus not only on understanding diverse needs but also equip them with enough practical exposure to teach CWSN. Facilitating inclusive school environment requires ensuring physical access, the opportunity for optimal learning and social experiences and providing a nurturing climate.

instruction should only happen if it is absolute necessary. Keeping in view the scenario in government regular schools accountability is a major issue of concern. The IERTs should be involved more in teaching at school level than in community level and there is a definite need to recruit more special educators to cater to needs of the CWSN. Issues related to meager salaries and job security should be addressed. Conclusion The journey towards Inclusive education has begun and is a reality now. Since the mind set of government and the general public by and large has changed, inclusive education is slowly being accepted not as a destination to reach but as a process. The disparity between elite educational institutions and their poorer counterparts are too glaring even to be mentioned. More research is needed in the area of inclusive pedagogy, inclusive instructional practices and related support services required to promote inclusion. The results of the study cannot be generalized as the sample is too small and is restricted to the twin cities and is not truly representative. Future research should be conducted with increased sample from across the country. The Fundamental Right to Education for CWSN may be fulfilled in long â&#x20AC;&#x201C;term through improved implementation of Inclusive Education.

Recommendations based on the study are that clear clarity with regard to job duties, responsibilities of regular as well as resource teachers need to be ensured for effective discharge of duties. Successful inclusion is likely to happen only when resource teachers, regular teachers and administration work together in coordination. Administrators should realize that teachers need time and support to work with other teachers and parents. In-service professional development program to empower both special educators and regular teachers to work together for successful inclusion should be conducted. The focus of these programs should not limit themselves to identification of diverse needs but should also focus on creating appropriate learning environment, adapting instruction and curriculum. Use of research based instructional practices in classrooms should be adopted. Pull out of children with special needs for providing support is a major practice right now. Inclusive teachings methods such as co-teaching, parallel teaching should be encouraged. Pull out

References: Balasundaram.P (2005). The Journey Towards Inclusive Education in India. Paper presented at Seisa university. Ashibetsu shi, Hokkaido, Japan Beattie.J, Jordan ,L.N & Alogozzine. B.(2006). Making Inclusion Work: Effective practices for all teachers. USA, Crowin Press. Constitution of India (1949) Constitution of India, Article 41, New Delhi: Ministry 52

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of Law and Justice, accessed at: http:// indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/fullact1. asp?tfnm=00%2052

The Roeher Institute (2004). Inclusive Policy and Practice in Education: Best Practices for Students with Disabilities. Retrieved from www.roeher.ca.

Corft .A (2010). Including Disabled children in Learning: Challenges in Developing Countires.: accessed at :http://www. create-rpc.org GOI (2002) India 2002: A Reference Annual, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi: Government of India

Sandhill, A. & Singh, A. (2005) Inclusion: Some Emerging Directions in the Indian Context, paper presented at the Inclusive and Supportive Education Congress 2005, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow accessed at www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/ Outputs/ImpAccess_RPC/PTA15.pdf

Julka, A. (2005) Educational Provisions and Practices for Learners with Disabilities in India, paper presented at the Inclusive and Supportive Education Congress 2005, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.

Singal, N. (2005a) Responding to difference: Policies to support ‘inclusive education’ in India, paper presented at the Inclusive and Supportive Education Congress 2005, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow

Lindsay.K.G (2007). Inclusive Education in India: Interpretations, Implementations and Issues: accessed at: http://www. create-rpc.org

Singal, N. (2005b) Mapping the field of inclusive education: a review of the Indian literature, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 9 (4), OctoberDecember 2005, pp. 331-350

Mukhopadhyay, S., Molosiwa, S. M. & Moswela, E. (2009). Teacher Trainees’ Level of Preparedness for Inclusive Education in Botswana Schools: Need for Change. International Journal of Scientific Research in Education, Vol. 2(2), 51-58. Retrieved [1/02/12] from http://www.ijsre.com.

Singal, N. & Rouse, M. (2003) ‘We do inclusion’: Practitioner perspectives in some ‘inclusive schools’ in India, in Perspectives in Education, Special Issue: The inclusion/exclusion debate in South Africa and developing countries, 21 (3), pp85-98

Nambissan, G. (2003) Educational Deprivation and Primary School Provision: A Study of Providers in the City of Calcutta, IDS Working Paper 187, Social Policy Programme, June 2003, Falmer: Institute of Development Studies, accessed at: www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/ 15582159.2011.548234

UNESCO (2009). Inclusive education the way of future: Final Report. Retrieved May 13th 2009, from http://www.unesco.org/ en/inclusiveeducation UNICEF (2003). Examples of Inclusive education in India. Final Report. Accessed at: http://www.unicef.org/publications/ files/2003

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. 53

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ISSN: 2229-5143

An Error Analysis of Mathematical Achievement in Primary school Children with Hearing Impairment *T. Geetha & **A.T. Thressiakutty

Abstract Error patterns in computation have changed greatly over the years. Errors are positives in the process of learning, some view errors as part of the “messiness” of doing mathematics, while in many situations errors may be regarded as an opportunity to reflect and learn. To assess the error patterns in Mathematics a standardized tool viz “Mathematics Achievement Analysis Matrix” – developed by Dr. Thressiakutty (2002) was used. The sample for the study constituted Children With Hearing Impairment (CWHI-34) from Integrated Schools (2) and Special Schools (2) including Hearing Children (HC = 40) from a local primary school. Analyzing the Mathematical Achievement of both the groups CWHI and HC no significant difference was observed in relation to their performance on selected Mathematical Concepts. The Mean Scores of HC on money concept was higher at (5.18) compared to CWHI at (3.88) and on time concept CWHI scored (0.80) compared to HC at (0.06) though in the other areas viz., Numerals, Basic Computations, Fractions, Measurement and Geometry not much of difference was noted in the mean scores between the two groups. In terms of grade level performance on mathematical achievement significant difference was observed in the two groups. With respect to mathematical errors though there was no significant difference between groups, difference was noted in terms of grade level for both the groups. Teachers need to remember that students are not necessarily learning what is taught.They need to keep eyes and ears open to find out what our students are actually learning. Thus, teachers need to be alert for ‘Error Patterns’, and an analysis of the errors paves way to identify their strengths and weakness in a particular concept area. Key terms: Error Analysis, Mathematical Achievement, Primary school Children with Hearing Impairment

Introduction Education is the fundamental right of every child. Universal Declaration of Human Right (1948), The Declaration of Rights of the Disabled Persons (1975), The

Declaration Decade of Disabled Persons (1983-92), Development of Standard Rules for Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (1993) and Asia Pacific Decade of the Disabled Persons (1993-2002) have all

* Professor, Department of Special Education, Avinashilingam Institute of Home Scince and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore-641043. E-Mail-geethaadu_lakshmi@rediffmail.com ** Professor in Special Education, FDMSE, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Coimbatore-641020

Geetha & Thressiakutty / Error Analysis of Mathematical Achievement in Primary school Children

had remarkable effect in providing directions for policies and programmes for persons with disabilities.

The projected child population in the age group 0-6 years for 2001 was 157.86 with boys accounting for 51.88 percent of the population and girls constituting 48.12 percent. Approximately six percent of persons with disabilities belong to the age group 0-14 years in the rural areas and 5.4 percent in urban areas. (RCI-Status Report 2003) It has been estimated that out of the 34.8 million deaf children in India only one in ten go to school and most of them still study in special schools. Studying the sub group differences in educational placement for the deaf and hard of hearing students noted that there was sharp drop in the residential school attendance between 1979 and 1985 and an increase in local school attendance.

India is a signatory for Biwako Millennium Framework for Action (2003-2012) which ensures an Inclusive, Barrier Free and Right Based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia Pacific Region for Persons with disabilities, “Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation (PWD, Act 1995) in our country has further brought focus on education of persons with disabilities as their right. The “Right to Education” includes the concept of ‘Appropriate Education’. This is possible only when the existing school system is prepared adequately in terms of infrastructure, teacher preparation, curricular adaptation and evaluation systems, peer group preparation and the community as a whole. Varied educational practices are found in our country since education is a state subject and states have over the years developed along divergent lives to possibly meet their “perceived” needs.

Children face numerous difficulties with numbers and remembering mathematical facts as well as performing mathematical operations. They may have difficulties with abstract concepts of time and direction, mathematical concepts, rules, formulas and basic addition, subtraction, multiplication and division facts. Like all skills if you cease to practice you loss the skill and few practice maths as adults. Maths, is a skill needed for everyday life. This rarely includes algebra and much of what is taught in secondary schools does include lot of money, measurement, time and percentages. For eg., maths in real life exercise includes for paying for a family meal in a restaurant, requiring estimation skills, possibly accurate addition skills, subtraction skills, if using cash and percentage skills for the tip.

Inclusive Education is concerned with the appropriate content; process suitable to the individual needs and a disabled friendly environment. Providing appropriate education to the children with disabilities is the responsibility of various governments. In addition, our country has an obligation to comply with the provisions of various International Mandates with the latest Biwako Millennium Framework for Action towards an Inclusive, Barrier Free and Right Based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia & Pacific Region. It has set certain targets for education and also for Children with Disabilities interactive among other priority areas.(Rao. 2005)

There is a general consensus that deaf and hearing-impaired students’ competence in mathematics is inferior to that of their hearing counterparts (Frostad, 1999). Studies of 55

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mathematical achievement and understanding have generally concluded that there is no significant cognitive basis for major differences in mathematical performance between deaf and hearing students.

of difficulties in mathematics, there would be neither children with hearing impairment nor deaf pupils displaying achievements adequate for their age level. Research into errors provides a rich source of knowledge about the processes and influences involved in mathematical problem solving. Significant research needs to be conducted into the nature and causes of errors in mathematical problem solving at primary level.

Achievement differences that are observed are the result of a combination of linguistic and experiential delays for the deaf students (Pau, 1995; and Titus, 1995). What is less clear are the reasons why this is the case, and the synergies between the poor performance of deaf and hearing-impaired students and that of hearing students who experience difficulties in mathematics. Some authors have relied on comparison of cognitive strategies (Titus, 1995), while others have focused on the effects of sign language on the development of cognitive strategies (Frostad, 1999). What are less well researched are the effects of language. Development and use on performance for deaf and hearing-impaired students. The effect of language on mathematics performance for disadvantaged students has been noted and this suggests that students who have hearing loss experience difficulties similar to their hearing peers. In part, these delays may be due to the development of an alternative form of language, that of sign language, that impacts on the types of understanding that students develop with regard to mathematical concepts.

Objectives • The study aims to : • analyze error patterns of selected sample in relation to mathematical achievement • assess error patterns of selected sample in relation to grade level performance Hypotheses • There is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical errors • There is no significant difference between Grade and Mathematical Errors committed by CWHI. • There is no significant difference between grade and mathematical errors committed by HC Methodology Selection of Area: The Investigator visited the local schools (integrated and special) for Children with Hearing Impairment in Coimbatore. Thus, two Integrated Education Centers and two Special Schools for Children with Hearing Impairment were identified to conduct the present study. One Local Primary School within accessible distance and within the city limits was selected to implement the study among the Hearing

Children make all kinds of computational errors in solving mathematical problems. Computational errors are not necessary the result of carelessness or not knowing how to proceed, it can be caused by them applying the ‘failure strategies’. Literature reveals that hearing loss is not a direct cause of difficulties in mathematics. If hearing loss were a direct cause

Children. 56

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Selection of Sample: Sampling is defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it (Kothari, 2006).

=40) were identified randomly including every fourth child on the attendance roll from each grade. Thus 10 children each from Grade I to IV were identified as Sample B (Hearing Children - HC) making up a total of 40 children. Thus 34 Children with Hearing Impairment including Profound Impairment were identified as Children with Hearing Impairment Sample A (CWHI) for the experimental from Grade I to IV respectively.

The main purpose of conducting sample survey is to estimate certain population parameters based on information obtained from a sample of population. The sample for the study comprised of both Children with Hearing Impairment and Hearing Children in grade I to IV at primary level.

Mathematical Error Analysis in Children with Hearing Impairment and Hearing Children Error analysis is a traditional technique in Mathematical Assessment. Cox (1975) differentiates between systematic computation errors and errors that are random or careless mistakes. With systematic errors students are consistent in their use of an incorrect number fact, operation or algorithm.

The heads of the respective institutions (regular, integrated/special schools) were contacted and the purpose of the study was explained, thus enabling the identification of the required sample for the study. To select Children with Hearing Impairment purposive sampling method was adopted since only very limited number were enrolled in the schools identified for the purpose. Four local schools within Coimbatore (2 integrated 2 special schools) were approached to identify the required sample.

Delay in understanding of mathematical concepts is a critical problem in early years among children with hearing impairment as informally acquired number skills, ability to estimate and to make comparative judgments are considered strong predictors of Mathematical Achievement (Geary et al 2008).

Purposive sampling is involved when the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass, so selected out of the huge one will be typical or representative of the whole (Best, 1996).

Error analysis is an assessment approach that allows us to determine whether students are making consistent mistakesÂ when performing basic computation while there are common errors that children make that they may demonstrate error patterns that are individualistic and specific. Thus an attempt was made to assess the error patterns of Children with Hearing Impairment and Hearing Children.

In order to select the Hearing Children a local regular primary school was approached and the required sample (Hearing Children 57

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This aspect of the study involved:

assessment of the worksheets for error analysis among the sample.

• Error Pattern Analysis of Mathematical Achievement of Selected Sample

An attempt was also made to analyze the errors in sample worksheets to group their performance under five distinctive heads viz-

• Error Analysis of Selected Sample in Four Basic Computation Area

• Correct response • Poor Concept

• Error Pattern Analysis of Mathematical Achievement of Selected Sample

• Incorrect Operation • Non performer

From the Mathematical Achievement Analysis Matrix (MAAM – A, 2002) test tool implemented enabled identification and

The assessment of poor concept and incorrect operations has been as follows

Poor Concept

Incorrect Operation

¾¾

Lack understanding of symbols

¾¾

Confusion in symbols

¾¾

Number facts

¾¾

Confusion in operations

¾¾

Identification of numerals

¾¾

Skip a step, number

¾¾

Random errors

¾¾

Wrong procedure

¾¾

Errors in place value

¾¾

Multiplication tables

¾¾

Copying numbers

¾¾

Difficulty in carrying over

¾¾

Multiplication tables

¾¾

Reading numbers and writing

This analysis of worksheet enabled identification of errors in all computation skill areas and also revealed the areas of skill deficits.

intervention exercise for Error Analysis for a period of five days. This in-depth exercise enabled the investigator to gain insight into the errors systematically committed and randomly made by the sample. Incorporating the Enright (1985) suggestion of organizing the errors into clusters the worksheets of the sample were assessed and analyzed for the following error cluster viz :-

• Error Analysis of Selected Sample in Four Basic Computation Areas: The four computation areas viz., addition, subtraction, multiplication and division concepts of the ten CWHI and HC were further analyzed for errors as follows:

• • • • • •

• Error Analysis of Selected Sample: A sample of ten children with hearing impairment from grade IV who were identified as low achievers on the MAAM implemented were fur ther involved in an in-depth 58

Regrouping Process substitution Omission Directional Placement Attention to sign and guessing

Geetha & Thressiakutty / Error Analysis of Mathematical Achievement in Primary school Children

Analysis and Interpretation of data:

Results and Discussion

Mathematical Achievement of Selected Sample with Respect to Mathematical Concepts Table 1. Mean SD and t Value for Mathematical Concepts with Respect to CWHI and HC

The data thus gathered was consolidated, analyzed and interpreted

Mathematical Concepts Numerical Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Fraction Money Measurement Time Geometry

No. of Children

Mean

CWHI

11.97

4.93

11.15

6.43

CWHI

10.47

5.14

9.60

6.41

CWHI

8.03

5.85

7.98

6.55

CWHI

6.82

5.83

6.90

5.56

CWHI

3.62

6.04

3.62

5.82

CWHI

3.21

2.89

3.95

3.15

CWHI

3.88

4.24

5.18

4.81

CWHI

1.82

2.31

2.22

2.85

CWHI

0.06

2.47

0.80

3.02

CWHI

1.00

0.34

1.682

1.68

t value 0.54 Ns 0.53 Ns 0.97 Ns 0.95 Ns 0.91 Ns 0.29 Ns 0.23 Ns 0.82 Ns 0.54 Ns 0.14 Ns

in the acquisition of mathematical concepts. Hence, the Hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical achievement is not rejected. It is concluded that CWHI and HC showed similar achievement in relation to mathematical

Ns-Non Significant From the above Table 1, it is clear that the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; value for different components in mathematical concepts for CWHI and HC are not significant. It indicates that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC 59

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concepts revealing no significant difference between the groups.

in relation to mathematical concepts revealing no significant difference between the groups.

Though there is no significant difference in relation to performance on money concept, the Mean score of HC was (5.18) compared to CWHI (3.88) indicating a better performance in this area. In relation to time concept a difference in Mean score for HC (0.06) was noted, compared to CWHI at (0.80) indicating their better performance of CWHI on this concept.

• Mathematical Errors of the Selected Sample Errors committed by the selected sample on the mathematical achievement test were analyzed and is discussed under the following heads: • Mathematical errors of CWHI and HC • Mathematical errors of CWHI with respect to grade

From the above table it is clear that the ‘t’ value for different components in mathematical concepts for CWHI and HC are not significant. It indicates that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC in the acquisition of mathematical concepts. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical achievement is not rejected. It is concluded that CWHI and HC showed similar Achievement

• Mathematical errors of HC with respect to grade • Error Analysis on mathematical achievement of CWHI and HC • Mathematical errors of CWHI and HC Hypothesis :There is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on Mathematical Errors

Table 2. Mean, SD and t Value for Mathematical Errors with Respect to CWHI and HC Variable

Group

Mean

Mathematical

CWHI

55.09

43.3

Achievement

34.20

24.3

t Value 2.60Ns

Ns –Non Significant From the above table it is clear that the‘t’ value for the mathematical errors of CWHI and HC is 2.60 which is not significant. It indicates that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical errors. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical errors is not rejected. It is concluded that CWHI and HC

committed mathematical errors to the same level irrespective of the group to which they belong. • Mathematical Errors of CWHI with Respect to Grade Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between grade and mathematical errors committed by CWHI. 60

Geetha & Thressiakutty / Error Analysis of Mathematical Achievement in Primary school Children

Table 3. One way ANOVA for Analysis of Grade and Mathematical Errors by CWHI Age

Between groups

34856.5

11618.8

Within groups

26978.1

899.28

Total

61834.8

F Value

12.1*

Significant * at 0.01 level The above table shows that the F value for the difference between Grade and the mathematical errors by CWHI is 12.1 which is significant. It indicates that there is significant difference between the four grades viz., I, II, III and IV on mathematical achievement of CWHI. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between grade and mathematical errors committed by CWHI

is rejected. It is concluded that the CWHI in the four grades performed mathematics with respect to their grade level. â&#x20AC;˘ Mathematical Errors of HC with Respect to Grade Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between grade and mathematical errors committed by HC.

Table 4. One way ANOVA for Analysis of Grade and Mathematical Errors by HC

Age

Between Groups

10844.0

3614.7

Within Groups

12128.4

336.9

Total

22972.4

F Value

10.8*

Significant * at 0.01 level mathematics in accordance to the expected grade level.

The above table shows that the F value for the difference between grade and mathematical errors by HC with respect to grade is 10.8 which is significant at 0.01 level. It indicates that there is difference between the four grades viz., I, II, III and IV on mathematical achievement of HC. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between grade and mathematical errors committed by HC is rejected. It is concluded that the children in the four grades performed

â&#x20AC;˘ Error Analysis on Mathematical Achievement of CWHI and HC This part of the analysis was attempted to gain an overview on the performance of the sample on mathematical concepts assessed using the tool. The analysis of data was done under four heads viz correct response, poor concept, incorrect operation and non performer. 61

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Table 5. Significant Errors and Overall Performance on Mathematical Achievement Test in CWHI and HC

Concepts

Correct response

Poor Concept

Incorrect Operation

Non performers

CWHI

Numericals

82.5

9.5

1.5

0.5

3.5

7.5

Addition

84.5

4.5

5.5

1.5

2.5

9.5

Subtraction

73.5

77.5

9.5

5.5

5.0

8.0

Multiplication

65.5

22.5

16.5

3.5

3.0

9.0

15.0

Division

43.5

48.5

17.5

20.5

3.0

0.5

36.0

30.5

Fraction

61.0

15.0

1.0

26.0

23.0

Money

61.3

14.0

2.0

0.7

30.0

24.0

Measurement

55.0

17.0

1.0

56.0

27.0

Time

42.0

19.0

50.0

39.0

Geometry

38.0

30.0

80.0

32.0

It was observed that almost 80 percent achievement was observed by CWHI & HC in two concepts viz numericals and addition. A gradual decreasing trend was noticed in the subsequent higher level skill areas viz subtraction, multiplication and division (78 to 49%)

Among the errors in relation to poor concept- multiplication and division recorded the maximum percentage incurring errors with 17to 22 percent among both the groups (CWHI & HI) respectively. In terms of incorrect operations the percentage score on various mathematical concepts was comparatively very low (0-6%) revealing difficulty in relation to incorrect operations among both CWHI & HC.

In the concept areas viz., Measurement, time and geometry CWHI group scored less than 40 percent, with a similar trend (55 to 38%) by children in the hearing group. The overall performance reveals reduction in achievement scores by the sample in relation to higher level conceptual skills.

A higher percentage in the higher skill area was observed in terms of non performers in the various conceptual skill areas viz measurement, time & money as obtained by CWHI.

Similarly, there was a higher percentage of non performers among CWHI on the higher order skills compared to basic computational skills. Similar trend was observed in the HC category.

This analysis brings to focus for intensive training in basic concepts to pave way confidence building and accuracy in 62

Geetha & Thressiakutty / Error Analysis of Mathematical Achievement in Primary school Children

performance in the higher order computation Skill areas.

to highlight the levels of mathematical achievement and being to focus significant errors in computation.

Major Findings • T h e ‘ t ’ v a l u e s o n m a t h e m a t i c a l achievement in relation to mathematical Concepts for CWHI and HC was found not significant, indicating no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical achievement scores

• A wider distribution of sample across the population and educational models will enable identifying CWHI with difficulties in mathematics for early intervention inputs. Recommendations • There arises a dire need in strengthening the basics related to mathematical concepts in the younger age groups

• No significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical errors was observed in the ‘t’ Value. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between CWHI and HC on mathematical errors is accepted revealing that CWHI and HC committed more or less similar errors on the Mathematical Achievement Test.

• Focused attention on identifying and correcting misconceptions and errors in mathematical computations is needed and encourage using worksheets as exercises to prepare children with hearing impairment

• The ‘F’ value for the difference between the four grades viz., I, II, III and IV on mathematical errors of CWHI was significant. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between grade level and mathematical errors committed by CWHI is rejected.

• Relate mathematical topics to applications in real life – the process of questioning, understanding and analyzing would gradually introduce the concept into the agenda of thinking about the material that is being learnt • D e v e l o p t e a c h i n g p a c k a g e s addressing misconceptions to bring about improvements in mathematical achievement among CWHI for a long term impact.

• It was noticed that the F value for the difference between grade and mathematical errors by HC is 10.8 which is significant. It indicates that there is difference between the four grades viz., I, II, III and IV on mathematical achievement of HC. Hence, the hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference between grade and mathematical errors committed by HC is rejected.

Conclusion There is always a need to create learning environments that are meaningful for children to meet their individual needs and encourage learning in an holistic, equitable and culturally sensitive way. The reality for children with hearing impairment is that they find it difficult to learn mathematical content and process in interpreting and understanding the language of mathematics. It would always be beneficial

Limitations • The present study is limited to a small sample of CWHI in integrated and special schools. A larger sample would be able 63

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to give students an opportunity to practice in finding errors with a problem, highlighting the errors considered careless. It is therefore, important for teachers to identify these children who are yet to reach clarity in concepts and understanding and then provide experiences to assist them in reducing this knowledge gap that prevails and tends to continue over the years.

Kothari,C.R.(2006).Research MethodologyMethods and Techniques. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd. Pau, S.C., (1995) The Deaf Child and Solving Problems of Arithmetic: The Importance of Creading. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 287-291. Rao.L.G.(2005) Status of Education of Children with Disabilities, National Institute of Mentally Handicapped, Secundrabad.

References Best,J.W.(1996). Research in Education (7th Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt.Ltd.

RCI Status Report. (2003). Rehabilitation Council of India. New Delhi.

Frostad, P. (1999). Deaf childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use of cognitive strategies in simple arithmetic problems. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 40,129-153.

Titus, J. C. (1995). The Concept of Fractional Number among Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 255-263.

Geary, D.C., Hoard, M.K., Nugent, L., & Bryd-Craven, J.(2008). Development of Number Line Representations in Children with Mathematical Learning Disability. Developmental Neuropsyhology, 14, 277-299.

ThressiaKutty,A.T.(2002). Mathematical Achievement Analysis Matrix (MAAM) Classes I-IV. Secunderabad: National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped.

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Journal of Disability Management and Special Education

ISSN: 2229-5143

Analysis of Errors in the Tamil Writings of Primary School Students *K. Ranganathan, **K. Anil Kumar & ***S. Venkatesan

Abstract The teaching of languages either as oral expression or written skills has always had a central place in the curriculum of students at primary school levels. This study attempts a randomized exploration by survey into the qualitative and quantitative analysis of writing errors in Tamil as elicited from the academic records of 140 students in class six across six government schools. This was done through textual analysis by undertaking a content scan on the nature, type, extent and frequency of errors reflected in their performance on a paragraph test, as reported by teacher interviews, from direct observation and perusal of their procured writing records. Results show more than half of the records have shortcomings like writing without margins, lack of differentiation between letters, words and sounds, frequent use of eraser, etc. Other drawbacks, although in fewer counts, were confusions in use of singular-plural forms, unclear writing, using new symbols or not writing anything at all. Further, for the overall list of writing errors elicited (N: 140; Mean: 8.42), gender sensitive differences with boys showing more range, type and number of difficulties (N: 87; Mean: 10.35) than matched girls (N: 53; Mean: 5.26) is found (<0.05). Based on an empirical classification in terms of their number and rank positions, structural and grammatical errors (Mean: 40.62; Rank: 9) emerge as more serious than semantic errors (Mean: 36.22; Rank: 12) in this sample. The implication of these findings for their identification, remediation and teacher sensitization on these issues is highlighted. Key Words: Language Teaching – Error Analysis – Children’s Writings - Orthography

Language has always enjoyed a central place in the curriculum for primary school students. The teaching of language involves many dimensions, such as, oral expression, written skills, literature or creative writing. In any case, the aim in primary schools is to encourage and assist pupils to use language fluently, freely and express their ideas clearly. Written expression is defined as ‘transformation of feelings thoughts, wishes, dreams, desires, what is known, seen, read and heard into words eloquently and efficiently’ (Polard &

Bourne, 1994). It is the ability to write down information and ideas (using sentences, correct grammar and spelling) such that the intent of the author is clear and can be understood by others. Writing is a complex form of communication. It is a process that involves organization, structuring sentences, correct grammar and spelling. This skill is required for every individual to meet his daily needs, carry on with his education, to be successful in life and to become a person who understands and is understood by people by improving his/her

*Research Scholar, RIE, Manasagangotri, Mysore: 570 006 Email: ranganathanrie@gmail.com **Assistant Professor in Education, Manasagangotri, Mysore: 570 006 Email: psyconindia@gmail.com or psyconindia@aiishmysore.in ***Professor in Clinical Psychology, AIISH , Mysore: 570 006. Email: psyconindia@gmail.com or psyconindia@aiishmysore.in

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understanding and expression skills (Arthur & Cremin, 2006).

Studies on Chinese, Korean and Japanese writings by primary school children have listed common mistakes like including spaces between groups of alphabetical letters to resemble words, lack of subject-verb agreement (He run every day, boy-go or mum-put), formnoun and verb phrases (clothes in car or going holiday) confusions, inclusion of prepositions (in, on, at, under or upon) at inappropriate places, improper use of pronouns (he, she, they, his, hers or theirs) or articles (the, a), faulty use of connectives (and, then, next, after or because), wrong use of full stops and capital letters, defective use of verb tenses (go, went, saw, opened), incorrect use of punctuations (â&#x20AC;&#x153; â&#x20AC;?, !?), word or alphabet substitutions or omissions, use of unnecessary words or morphemes, use of colloquial language or expressions, inclusion of direct speech instead of indirect speech, fragmented sentences, proper nouns not being capitalized, showing directional sweep, use of incorrect noun plurals (The fruits is ripe), reversal, inversion, substitution, omission, addition, distortion, etc. (Liow & Lee, 2004; Law et al. 1998; Taylor & Taylor (1996).

Writing is determined by transforming thoughts into words, words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs. Words are symbols that express our feelings, thoughts, objects and concepts that belong to our world. However, words are insufficient on their own to express our feelings, thoughts, judgments and actions. We need sentences to make them meaningful. In this sense, a sentence is the basic unit of expression. Every sentence is built to convey a thought or feeling and is characterized by a choice of words and their specific arrangement in right order (Olsen, 1987). Expression errors render a sentence ambiguous. The errors may arise from grammar, missing subject, active-passive disagreement among verbs, clause errors, missing adverbial clause of place, missing object, missing verb or auxiliary, phrase errors, subject-verb disagreement and punctuation errors. The expression may also be damaged by semantic errors like incorrect use of idioms and proverbs, repetitions and logical errors. A thorough knowledge of what errors learners commit in their writing becomes the first step for their correction (Kress, 2012).

Suat (2008) classified writing errors of young children in Turkish language into (a) grammatical and (b) semantic errors. Examples of grammatical errors were missing subject, active-passive disagreement among verbs, punctuation, missing adverbial clause of place, missing object, missing verb or auxiliary phrase errors, etc. Semantic errors are in the form of use of unnecessary, conflicting or confusing words, using words in wrong places or run-on sentences without proper splits or breaks, idioms and proverb errors, repetitions, logical errors, etc.

Some researchers have attempted to compile the frequently encountered nature, type or intensity of errors in written expression for different segments of populations, such as, children with developmental writing disorders, poor handwriting, motor coordination problems, learning disabilities or hearing impairments (Dilshad, 2006; Gupta, 2004). Others have targeted typically developing children across different languages, age or gender groups (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Brien, 1992). 66

Ranganathan, Kumar & Venkatesan / Errors in Tamil Writing

A few Indian studies have targeted on the nature of writing errors in native children for their own languages or in English as second language. In an early study, Leelavathi (1982) found greater frequency and distribution of Kannada writing errors in primary school children from lower than higher socioeconomic strata. They showed predilection for errors involving letter/word substitutions, blending and reversal. Hegde (1998) covered young students having difficulties in marking meaningful words, morphophonemic structures, essay writing and letter writing in Kannada. Others have added some more writing difficulties in word formation, sentence construction, essay writing, letter writing, rewriting stories and making meaningful words (Thimmappa, 1998). For the same language and identical age/grades of children, Venkatesha (2005) found content errors like incomplete sentences with inappropriate word insertions, poor essay writing, letter writing, story writing and punctuations.

children. While most South Indian languages have been at least explored; so far, there are hardly any reports on the nature, content, extent, or intensity of writing errors in children for Tamil as a language for learning or medium of instruction. Hence, this forms the felt need, rationale, background and justification for undertaking this study. It was the aim of this study to identify, enlist and compare the nature or characteristics of common errors in writing Tamil for children hailing from primary school grades in relation to gender and also to attempt their comparisons based on an empirical classification. Method: This cross sectional exploratory survey was undertaken in June, 2011, by drawing a random sample of 140 students including 87 boys and 53 girls in class five from 6 government schools with Tamil as medium of instruction under matriculation stream syllabus located in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. (a) Operational Definitions: Errors, flaws, pitfalls or slip ups as recognized for this study refers to ‘an act or condition of unintentional, ignorant or imprudent deviation from accuracy or agreed specification of requirements of an expected code of behavior’ (Corder 1973). The cause of error is recognized as a fault while its consequence is a failure. This paper distinguishes ‘mistakes’ from ‘errors’ where the former refers to unsystematic errors of learners as opposed to systematic errors of learners for which we are able to reconstruct their knowledge of the language to date (Corder, 1978).

A similar study on children having writing problems in Malayalam linked their difficulties to completion of vowel sequence, proper arrangement of letters, analyzing words, matching words, tense of sentence or location of antonyms (Joseph, 1998). Paparagudu (2006) analyzed written records in Telugu for children in class four to find instances of difficulty in letter writing, essay writing, story re-writing with improper punctuations. In the course of developing remedial instruction program for elementary school children with writing difficulties in English, Raghavan (2001) noticed spelling mistakes, illegible hand writing, irregular slant, proportion, alignment and forms of letters among normal as well as the affected

The primary data units in this study are the types and numbers of errors consolidated 67

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by compiling verbatim by perusal of written samples, reports from teacher interviews and written test protocols. This was followed by data classification, categorization, and cataloguing by sorting various errors. Three broad error zones included in this study are: (a) Structural; (b) Grammatical; and, (c) Semantic. A structural error signifies faults in overt appearance of letters, words or sentences (such as, spelling mistakes, micro or macrographia). Grammatical errors refer to expressions not conforming to rules of grammar or accepted usage by native speakers of that language. (Examples are faulty use of verb-tense, articles, placing words in the wrong order in a sentence, erroneous use of colon, semicolon or punctuations). Semantic errors are slip ups in conveying intended meanings owing to confused or distorted content (analogous examples in English language include use of ‘putted’ for ‘put’, ‘their’ for ‘there’, ‘then’ for ‘than’, ‘loose’ for ‘lose’ or ‘compliment’ for ‘complement’).

approximately 50-60 minutes. Further, as part of the same test, the participants were also instructed to compose a paragraph on a subject chosen by the researcher covering not more than 100 words. The difficulty level analysis for the chosen five paragraphs across two teachers used as mutually blinded raters was calculated as a high Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficient rho value (r: 0.94). Information on the common mistakes in Tamil writings seen in the student records, examination scripts, copywriting, black board copying, submitted assignments, home work books, formal or informal class tests were also scrutinized and collected by interviewing key teacher informants. The theme of open ended exploratory interviews with 25 teachers focused on what they perceived were the most common errors in Tamil writing across students in their class. The investigator also spent at least 3-5 hours in various classes to undertake direct observation of students while their writings were in progress. All the accumulated information was then evaluated via ‘Writing Evaluation Scale’, which is a need based summarizing instrument developed by listing the various types and/or frequency of the observed writing errors derived from the different sources. The errors were eventually subjected to statistical analysis in terms of frequency counts and percentages.

(b) Tools: The data collection instruments used in this study included (a) Demographic Data Form; (b) Paragraph Test; (c) Teacher Interview Format; (d) Student Records; (e) Direct Observation; and (f) Writing Evaluation Scale. The Demographic Data Form was prepared to collect details on or about the child and teacher participants in the study including their personal information, school and home. Paragraph Test is a randomly chosen set of five sections from the class five prescribed school text in Tamil each comprising of around 40-60 words. The children were expected to copyright the same on a piece of paper upon dictation by an examiner spread over a duration of

Procedure: The actual procedure of data collection involved presentation of stimuli to be written using a pre-recorded version of dictation by the first author for the chosen passages under ‘Paragraph Test’ in front of students of 20 each spread over seven groups/sessions. Each passage covering around 40-60 words took about ten minutes each. Thus, every session 68

Ranganathan, Kumar & Venkatesan / Errors in Tamil Writing

of data collection took approximately one hour. The children were instructed to pay attention, listen carefully and write the dictated matter. Apart from observing the students while they were taking the dictation, it was followed by

interviews with teachers and scrutiny of student records to enlist various forms, patterns or frequency counts of the errors in their writing Tamil. A facsimile of three scanned documents are given under scanned copies 1-4.

Scanned Copy 1

Scanned Copy 2

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Scanned Copy 3

Scanned Copy 4

Results: The collected data was then transcribed in terms of the number or frequency of errors in writing across three designated error zones, viz., (a) Structural; (b) Grammatical; and, (c) Semantic respectively. The inter-observer reliability check for values obtained on the frequency of observed errors in writing across a sub sample of 20 children showed an r value of 0.92 (p: 0.001).

as in terms of gender variable. On the whole, 1179 errors were identified for overall sample (N: 140; Mean: 8.42). The most frequently encountered errors (> 50 %) are writing without margins, showing no differentiation between letters-words, spacing problems, using local/colloquial dialect, frequently using erasers during actual writing, etc. At the lower end, a lesser number of students (< 25 %) showed errors involving sequencing problems, use of repetition of letters, new or idiosyncratic symbols, changed shape or structures given to symbols and/or not writing at all.

Table 1 shows the nature, types and distribution of various errors in writing as gathered in this study for overall sample as well 70

Ranganathan, Kumar & Venkatesan / Errors in Tamil Writing

Table 1: Distribution of Errors in Writing Rank Errors in

Boys

Girls

Total

Order Writing

(N: 87)

(N: 53)

(N: 140)

1 4 6 7 9 9 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 2 5 8 9 12 13 14 14 3 10 11 12 12 14 15 15 16

Structural Errors: Without margin Erasure of mistakes Paragraphs missing Extra margin space Unwanted lines, dots in paragraph More space between paragraphs Sentences in improper line Extra or no space between letters and words Improper scripts Not following paragraph structures Wrong letters shapes and structures Letters & words very big size (Micro/Macrographia) Unclear or illegible writing Grammatical Errors: No differentiation between vowels & consonants Improper morphophonemic structure as in joining 2 words Missing punctuation marks Case markers missing Incorrect sentence form Wrong use of synonyms-antonyms Wrong use of singular-plural forms Using new or unwanted symbols like arrows Semantic Errors: No differentiation made between letters sounds Using unrelated letters & words Insertion of new meaningless letters & words Use of local/colloquial dialect Use of meaningless words Repetition of same letters & words Not writing anything or giving empty paper Beginning & completing words Destruction of basic letters Total Mean

(t: 11.9873; Df: 53; SED: 1.727; p: <0.001)

F 45 34 37 33 26 28 27 27 26 25 26 26 26

% 51.7 39.0 42.5 37.9 29.9 32.2 31.0 31.0 29.9 28.7 29.9 29.9 29.9

F 33 24 8 11 11 9 7 6 7 8 6 6 6

% 62.3 45.3 15.1 20.8 20.8 17.0 13.2 11.3 13.2 15.1 11.3 11.3 11.3

F 78 58 45 44 37 37 34 33 33 33 32 32 32

% 55.7 41.4 32.1 31.4 26.4 26.4 24.3 23.6 23.6 23.6 22.9 22.9 22.9

49 39 29 30 28 27 26 25

56.3 44.8 33.3 34.5 32.2 31.0 29.9 28.7

18 14 9 7 6 6 6 6

34.0 26.4 17.0 13.2 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3

67 53 38 37 34 33 32 31

47.9 37.9 27.1 26.4 24.3 23.6 22.9 22.1

51 29 27 28 28 26 25 25 22 900 10.35

58.6 33.3 31.0 32.2 32.2 29.9 28.7 28.7 28.7

14 7 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 279 5.26

26.4 13.2 15.1 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3

65 36 35 34 34 32 31 31 28 1179 8.42

46.4 25.7 25.0 24.3 24.3 22.9 22.1 22.1 20.0

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Discussion: Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as ‘a device the learner uses in order to learn’ (Selinker 1992). There is evidence to show that identification of writing errors by teacher as well as by the erring students forms the first step towards their remediation in the process of language learning and teaching (Carroll & Swain, 1993; White et al, 1991). Following identification and classification of the error type, there are laid down approaches, procedures and techniques for analysis and remediation of the errors. At the same time, it is important to acknowledge that any attempt to simply list and neatly categorize common writing errors by textual analysis has also the peril of overlooking what is essentially a complex system of language writing activity with overlapping areas and fuzzy boundaries. It is simply meant to highlight that structural, grammatical and semantic errors in language writing cannot be just wished away by textbook explanations. It needs studentdirected approaches and teacher sensitivity about matters thereof (Wray, Madwell, Paulson & Fox, 2002; Topping, 1995; Kress, 1994; Protherough, 1983).

With respect to gender variable, the boys (N: 87; Total: 900; Mean: 10.5) show a comparatively poor performance with greater number of writing errors than girls (N: 53; Total: 279; Mean: 8.42)(t: 11.9873; Df: 53; SED: 1.727; p: <0.001). A content wise inspection of the differences in the pattern of errors as seen by gender shows that there is greater predilection for girls in this sample to ‘write without margins’ (Girls: 62.3 %; Boys: 51.7 %) and ‘overuse eraser’ (Girls: 39.0 %; Boys: 45.3 %). In all other aspects, boys are found to have greater number of errors in writing compared to girls. In a related study, more than three-fourths of their female subjects showed grammatical errors like ‘missing subject’, ‘missing adverbial clause’, ‘subject-verb disagreement’, than comparable males who made fewer grammatical errors but were high on using words in wrong place and repetitions (Suat, 2008). Additionally, teachers stated that most of the students did not have adequate language skills and had difficulty in grasping tenses, modals, gerunds and infinitives, and punctuation. Further, they added that they could not spare enough time for grammar studies. A further analysis of the derived data on writing errors in Tamil following their empirical classification into three broad zones of errors: (a) Structural; (b) Grammatical; and, (c) Semantic by two mutually blinded authors revealed an inter-coder agreement coefficient of 0.952. The results show that, both, in terms of their number as well as rank positions, structural and grammatical errors (Mean: 40.62; Rank: 9) emerge as more serious than semantic errors (Mean: 36.22; Rank: 12) in this sample.

Conclusion: In sum, this study has attempted to identify, enlist and compare the nature or characteristics of common errors in writing Tamil for children hailing from primary school grades and in relation to gender. It is also seen that boys in general show a comparatively poor performance with greater number of writing errors than girls. It is possible to empirically classify writing errors into three broad zones of errors, viz. structural, grammatical and 72

Ranganathan, Kumar & Venkatesan / Errors in Tamil Writing

semantic. Additionally, teachers also vouch that most of their students did not indeed have adequate language skills-which they partially attributed to their own lack of focus or priority during their teaching of language skills for the children. There is need for fostering writing activities, exercising narration skills, compositions, paraphrasing, making lengthy expositions in place of multiple choice questions or short answers in the students from an early age. This implies that teacher sensitivity training programs are as much to be planned or undertaken as student remediation programs are formulated for amelioration of the lot in written language competencies for the children. References Arthur, J., & Cremin, T. (Eds.). (2006). Learning to teach in the primary school. New York, NY: Routledge. Carroll, S., & Swain, M. (1993). Explicit and implicit negative feedback: An empirical study of linguistic generalizations. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(3): 357-386. Corder, S.P. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth, MX: Penguin Education. Corder, S.P. (1978). Error analysis and interlanguage. London: Oxford University Press. Dilshad, H.A.M. (2006). Prevalence of learning difficulties/disability among primary school children: effect of emotional problems and academic achievement. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation submitted to Department of Human Development, College of Rural Home

Science, Dharwad University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. Gupta, A. (2004). Reading difficulties of Hindispeaking children with developmental dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 17(1-2): 79-99. Hegde (1998). Writing difficulties among primary school children in Kannada language. Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation submitted to University of Mysore, Mysore. Joseph, K.P. (1998). An analysis of writing difficulties among primary school children in Malayalam language. Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation submitted to University of Mysore, Mysore. Kress, G. (1994). Learning to write. London: Routledge. Law, N., Ki, W.W., Chung, A.L.S., Ko, P.I., & Lam, H.C. (1998). Children’s stroke sequence errors in writing Chinese characters. Reading and Writing. 10(35): 267-292. Liow, S.J.R., & Lee, L.C. (2004). Metalinguistic awareness and semi syllabic scripts: Children’s spelling errors in May. Reading and Writing. 17(1-2): 7-26. O’Brien, D. (1992). Writing in the primary school. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire. Olsen, C.B. (Ed.). (1987). Practical ideas for teaching writing as a process. California: California State Department of Education. Paparayudu, S. (2006). An Analysis of writing difficulties of IV standard children in Telugu Language of Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh. Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation submitted to University of Mysore, Mysore. 73

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Polard, A., & Bourne, J. (Eds.). (1994). Teaching and learning in the primary school. London: Routledge.

Timmappa, L. (1998). An analysis of writing

Protherough, R. (1983). Writing. London: Mathuen.

Dissertation submitted to University of

difficulties among primary school children in Kannada language. Unpublished M.Ed Mysore, Mysore.

Raghavan, P. (2009). Written expression of children with writing disabilities and normal children. Journal of Disabilities and Impairments, 23(2): 117-125.

Topping, K. (1995). Reading, Spelling and Writing: The handbook for teachers and parents. New York, NY: Cassell.

Selinker, L. (1992). Rediscovering language. Essex: Longman.

Venkatesha (2005). An analysis of writing

Suat, U. (2008). Report on Analysis of expression errors in the writings of primary school students in terms of certain variables. Alabama: Project Innovation.

Kannada language of Koppal district.

difficulties of IV standard children in Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation submitted to University of Mysore, Mysore. White, L., Spada, N., Lightbown, P., & Ranta,

Tamil Nadu Government School Education Department (2011). Tamil Language Text Book for Class Five. Chennai: Tamil Nadu Text Book Cooperation.

L. (1991). Input enhancement and L2 question formation. Applied Linguistics, 12 (4): 416-432. Wray, D., Madwell, J., Poulson, L., & Fox, R.

Taylor, I., & Taylor, M.M. (1996). Writing and literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

(2002). Teaching literacy effectively in the primary school. London: Routledge.

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Effect of Uni-Nostril Pranayama on Developing Span of Attention Among Students with Mild Intellectual Disability *Rohnika Sharma & **A.T. Thressiakutty

Abstract The purpose of the present experimental study with control group was to find out the effect of uni-nostril pranayama on developing span of attention among students with mild intellectual disability.10 students of secondary level with mild intellectual disability (i.e IQ 5470) were selected through purposive sampling from TAT kalanilayam school-Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya, Coimbatore. Subjects were matched by conducting pre-pre test and were assigned to experimental and control groups. Experimental group was given 20 days intervention programme in the form of Uni – nostril pranayama for duration of 45 minutes. In order to check the improvement in the span of attention, both the groups were made to complete the given standardized Digit Vigilance Test in the given time. When compared the scores of experimental and control group significant difference in correct response and time taken was found. The comparison of mean scores of correct responses by experimental group was (285.20) higher than control group (257.20). And the comparison of the mean scores of time taken by experimental group was (13min.) less than control group (19 min.). The result showed positive effect of uni-nostril pranayama on developing span of attention among secondary level students with mild intellectual disability. Key Terms; Uni-nostril pranayama , Span of Attention, Mild Intellectual Disability

Introduction “When the breath wanders the mind is unsteady, but when the breath is still, so is the mind still”. Hath Yoga Pradipika.

can be turned on or off at will or something in kind or form that can be lent or given to this or that situation. However, this notion is misconceived. Attention can never be considered as a force or a faculty of the mind. One must try to understand it in terms of an act, a process or a function

The word ‘attention’ frequently is used in our day-to-day conversation. During lectures in the classroom, a teacher calls for your attention to what he is saying or what he writes on the blackboard. At a railway station or other public places, announcements start with “your attention please” before informing the passengers or other people about the schedules of the trains or some other matter of public interest. Thus attention is taken as a power, capacity or faculty of our mind, which

Attention is the process of getting an object of thought clearly before the mind. -Ross (1951) Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment. - Sharma. (1967)

* Asst.Professor- Special Education, MIER College of Education, Jammu (J & K) ** Professor in Special Education, FDMSE, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Coimbatore-641020, kutty1942@hotmail.com

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The body, breath and the mind are intricately interwoven. When the air moves the mind moves and when the air is stilled the mind also could be stilled. Uni-nostril Pranayam i.e breathing through a particular nostril has shown to have significant effect in developing attention, studies reveals that Uni-nostril pranayama activate the left hemisphere of the brain which is necessary for intellectual abilities including attention and concentration. These simple, yet powerful breathing practices have a unique advantage over many other forms of treatment: they are free from unwanted sideeffects, cut health care costs, and are easy to learn and practice in daily life

First ever workshop on teaching yogasana to the children with mental retardation was organized at Chennai by Krishnamacharya Yoga mandiram (KYM) and Vijay Human Services (VHS) during 1987. Practically all children with mental retardation have difficulties in coping with their day to day activities. Scientific studies conducted by KYM & VHS have shown that special educators can teach yoga asana to the children with mental retardation. Significant improvements have been noted in the students as well as changes in the teachers themselves. Jamie (2004) studied the effect of yoga therapy on attention span in academic setting. The research involved six students with mental retardation, ranging in age from 10 to 12 years old. The main behavior characteristic of students was inattentiveness. The results show significant improvement of attention span of students.

Children who are intellectually disabled normally function at low level; their intellectual level and span of attention are below average. Hence, they face difficulties in understanding and learning conceptual skills. Children with intellectual disability have significant difficulties in maintaining attention while performing activities. It is very difficult for them to retain their attention for few minutes. They are usually slow in overall development, in learning to walk; speech is usually delayed and some may not be able to talk at all. A few may look normal physically but suffer from other physical anomalies like short stature, low set ears, high hunched palate, narrow forehead, small size of head; some others have other kinds of retardation as well, that is, they may be deaf etc. Most children with mental retardation have other behavioural disorders like poor attention span, hyperactivity, stubbornness, temper tantrums and aggressive behaviour.

In June, 2010, Yoga session has been organized for the children of Vasantham Special School for the mentally challenged by a public charitable trust. Considering their special needs and abilities, to sustain their interest and enthusiasm, the yoga course were designed in such ways that it includes all that children love to do. Alli Murugesan, Principal of the school says that teaching yoga helped the children acquire good coordination of body movements. Students are showing less signs of hyperactivity, tension and anger.â&#x20AC;?The results are much more what we are expectingâ&#x20AC;?. (The new Sunday express/ August 15, 2010-Yoga through music, dance and stories). The above studies reveal that yoga has positive impact in developing span of attention.

These children can be treated up to great extent with the help of yogic techniques. 76

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Rationale of the study Lack of attention is one of the characteristics of children with intellectual disability. Attention is essential for selection, acquisition and comprehension of stimuli. Without attention, the process of learning cannot be successful. The role of attention is pivotal in learning. Various techniques need to be used in order to improve attention in children with intellectual disability. We have seen that, practicing of Yoga is therapeutically useful for different ailments like asthma, hypertension and diabetics. As yoga has a positive impact on the overall development, the study has been selected to find out the effect of Uni-Nostril pranayama on developing span of attention of secondary level children with mild intellectual disability. If the study has been found effective the UniNostril pranayama could be used by the special educators in the curriculum, as cocurricular activity in order to develop attention of children with mental retardation.

taken by control and experimental group in performing digit vigilance test. Hypothesis set for the study • There will be significant difference between the post-test mean scores of correct responses made by control group and experimental group in performing digit vigilance test • There will be significant difference between the pre and post-test mean scores of time taken in performing digit vigilance test by experimental group. • There will be no significant difference between the pre and post-test mean scores of time taken in performing digit vigilance test by control group. • There will be significant difference between the post-test mean scores of time taken by control group and experimental group in performing digit vigilance test. Research Design

Objectives of the study

This study should explain cause effect relationship between the variables and hence the investigator has selected true experimental study with control and experimental group – pre/post test design.

• To find out the significant difference between the post test mean scores of correct responses made by control and experimental group in performing digit vigilance test.

Sample selection

• To find out the significant difference between the pre and post-test mean scores of time taken in performing digit vigilance test by experimental group.

The investigator selected purposive sampling procedure for selection of the sample of individual with intellectual disability. A total sample of 10 children comprised of both male and female studying at T.A.T. Kalanilayam school of RKMVU, based on the following

• To find out the significant difference between the pre and post-test mean scores of time taken in performing digit vigilance test by control group.

Inclusion criteria

• To find out the significant difference between the post-test mean scores of time 77

¾¾

Mild intellectual disability (50-70 IQ).

¾¾

Age range 6 -14 years.

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Able to identify number 1 to 9 in multiple choice situations.

¾¾ Able to follow simple instructions, was selected considering their intellectual ability and functional ability.

Table :1 Particulars of the sample: age, gender & I.Q Control Group

Experimental Group

Age

Gender

I.Q

Age

Gender

I.Q

14yrs

Male

10yrs

Male

13 Yrs

Female

10 yrs

Male

14ys

Male

9 yrs

Male

10yrs

Male

14yrs

Female

13yrs

Male

10yrs

Male

Description of the tool (The Digit Vigilance Test (Lezak, 1995)

The table (1) shows the total description of the sample selected for the study. For the study 10 students with mild intellectual disability both male and female studying at T.A.T Kalanilyayam School was selected from secondary group.

The Digit Vigilance Test (Lezak, 1995) consists of number 1 to 9 randomly ordered and placed in rows on a page. There are 30 digits per row and 50 rows on the sheet. The digits are closely packed on the sheet. The same level of mental effort or attention deployment is required over a period of time .The subject has to focus on the target digits that are 6 and 9 (total 288) amongst other distracter digits. Inability to sustain or focus attention leads to both increased time to complete the test as well as error.

Measuring Instruments (Tools) • Proforma for demographic details. • Digit Vigilance test (Lezak-1995) • Yoga module for Uni-nostril pranayama developed by the investigator Pilot study A pilot study was conducted to check the usability of the selected tool on 5 students with mild intellectual disability by administering Digit Vigilance Test. It was revealed that students faced difficulty in cancellation of digits as the digits were very small in size and closely packed. Therefore, based on the observation and suggestion given by the special educators of the school, little modifications were made. After modifications it was observed that students performed well in cancellation of digits in digit vigilance test.

After conducting the pilot study, it was found that students were not able to use digit vigilance test as the digits were too small in size and closely packed. Therefore as per the need and suggestion provided by their class teacher, researcher had incorporated minor adaptation to the tool to make it suitable for the children with mild mental retardation. In the adapted test, the space between each row and each column had been increased, 78

Sharma, R & Thressiakutty / Effect of Uni-Nostril Pranayama

size of the digits also enlarged. Although the test takes about 15 minutes to complete, the flexibility of time was considered for the children with mental retardation by making relaxation in time i.e. instead of 15 minutes, 20 minutes, time was allotted to complete the test.

•

• Benefits of uni- nostril pranayama. Procedure & Data Collection The investigator visited TAT Kalanilayam Middle School, Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya and sought written permission from the respective higher authorities. The investigator assured that his experimental study will not affect the learning of the children in any way. Before intervention pre-pre-test was conducted, students whose scores nearly matched, (C-1, C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5) & (E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, E-5) were grouped into experimental and control group. The researcher assessed the students to collect base line data using digit vigilance test.

Administration Procedure of Digit Vigilance Test The subject is made to sit comfortably and the digit vigilance sheet is placed in front of the subject. The subject is asked to scan the sheet and cancel the target numbers 6 and 9 (by drawing a “/” or “*” mark on them). He/she is asked to cancel the digits as fast as possible without missing the targets or cancelling wrong numbers. Scores: There are three scores:

The experimental group was made to follow the instructions given below to perform the uni-nostril pranayama :

• The number of correct responses ---- Sum total of the number of 6 and 9 which have been cancelled by the subject.

Sit in any comfortable sitting posture. Be it simple Sukhasan or Vajrasan.

• Error score ---- Sum total of the number of omission that is the number of 6 and 9 which have not been cancelled and the number of commissions that is the number of digits other than the target digits which have been cancelled,

• Keep the back, neck and head in a straight line. • Put your right hands in Vishnu Mudra i.e., close your Index finger and Middle finger and thumb.

• Time taken to complete the test.

• Now put your left hand in Chin Mudra i.e., just touch your Index finger with the thumb

Yoga module for Uni-nostril pranayama A guideline module for special educators was also prepared which would help the special educators in learning techniques of performing uni-nostril pranayama. The module consists of:

• Now close the right nostril and slowly, deeply exhale through the left nostril. • Now inhale through the left nostril and again exhale through left nostril.

• Different types of uni- nostril pranayama. •

Different Mudras and steps to be followed to perform pranayama.

Rules to be kept in mind before performing uni- nostril pranayama.

• Inhalation and exhalation must be done only through the left nostril. 79

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Results & Discussions

• “Aum” can be mentally recited during inhalation and exhalation.

A series of t-tests were conducted to find out the differences obtained in correct responses and time taken while performing digit vigilance test on the mean achievement scores between pre and post test for both experimental and control groups. The results are presented below with following tables and graphs.

• Practice this for about 10 rounds. • The intervention programme i.e. uni – nostril pranayama was given for 20 sessions to experimental group. On every 5th day ‘digit vigilance test’ was given to both group C and E for the given duration (i.e. 20 min.), and their scores were recorded on the master score sheet.

Table: 2 Comparison of post test Means, SDs, t-Value of control and experimental group in correct responses (Digit vigilance test). Groups

Post test Mean

t-value

Sig.

Experimental Group

285.20

2.94

3.02

.00

Control Group

257.20

20.52

Total Score = 288 Above table (2) represents mean scores, SD of the post-test of correct responses in given digit vigilance test by experimental group is 285.20 and control group is 257.20 with standard deviation of 2.94 and 20.52 respectively. The t- test was conducted to find out whether there is any significant difference between post test mean scores of experimental

and control group in correct responses made in the given digit vigilance test. The result indicates t-value of 3.02, which is significant at .00 levels. This means there is a significant effect of uni- nostril pranayama in developing span of attention. Hence hypothesis 1 is accepted.

Table-3 Comparison of Pre and Post Test Mean Scores of Experimental group in time taken (Digit vigilance test) Tests

Mean

t-value

Sig.

Pre-Test

12.78

.000

Post-Test

1.22

Above table (3) and figure (3) represents mean scores, SD of the pre-test & post-test of experimental group of all five children and “t” value for the time taken. The mean for the pre-test on time taken is 20, where as it is 13 for the post-test. SD for pre-test is 0, as

compare to 1.22 for the post-test. The “t” value is 12.78 which is significant at .00 level. This means there is a significant effect of uni- nostril pranayama in developing span of attention. Hence hypothesis no.2 is accepted. 80

Sharma, R & Thressiakutty / Effect of Uni-Nostril Pranayama

Table : 4 Comparison of Pre and Post Test Mean Scores of control group in time taken (Digit vigilance test) Tests

Mean

t-value

Sig.

Pre-Test

20.00

.00

1.58

Post-Test

19.00

1.41

Above table (4) represents mean scores, SD of the pre-test & post-test of control group of all five children and “t” value for the time taken. The mean for the pre-test on time taken is 20, where as it is 19 for the post-test. SD for pre-test is 0, as compared to 1.41 for the

post-test. The “t” value is 1.58 which is not significant .This means there is no significant effect of uni-nostril pranayama in developing span of attention among control group. Hence hypothesis no. 3 is accepted.

Table: 5 Comparison of post test Means, SDs, t-Value of control and experimental group in time taken (Digit vigilance test) Groups

Post-test Mean

t-value

Sig.

Experimental Group

13.00

1.22

7.17

.00

Control Group

19.00

1.41

Above table (5) represents mean scores, SD of the post-test of time taken in given digit vigilance test by experimental group is 13 and control group is 19 with standard deviation of 1.22 and 1.41 respectively. The t- test was conducted to find out whether there is any significant difference between post test mean scores of experimental and control group in correct responses made in the given digit vigilance test. The result indicates t-value of 7.17, which is highly significant at .00 levels. This means there is a significant effect of uni-nostril pranayama in developing span of attention. Hence hypothesis no. 4 is accepted.

pranayama on developing span of attention among secondary level children with mild intellectual disability. On following the pranayama on regular basis children with mild intellectual disability will be able to perform the given task by committing less error and with more concentration. Significant difference was found between the post tests mean scores of experimental and control group. Finally the result of the study supported the fact that uninostril pranayama has a positive impact on developing span of attention among children with mild intellectual disability. The yoga module prepared can be used by the special educators for giving practice on pranayama to their students with special needs.

Conclusion: The results of data analysis confirms that there is a positive effect of uni – nostril 81

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References

http:www.sankalpa.org.in/mental retardation. htm

Aggrawal, J.C. (1992). School Administration. Arya Book Depot. New Delhi.

h t t p : w w w. H e a l t h & y o g a . c o m / h m t l / dissertations/ghzabstract.asp

American Journal of Alzheimer’s disease and Other Dementias. (1992). The effects of environmental barriers on the attention span of Alzheimer’s disease patients, 7(1), 9-15.

http:www.theyogacentre.com/yoga/for the special child.httm Kumar, S. (2001). Poetry therapy in mental retardation. 14th National Seminar on Mental Retardation, Deepshikha, Ranchi.

Anderson, B. (1980). Stretch Yourself for Health and Fitness. USB publishers’ distributor Ltd, New Delhi.

Lezak .(1995). Digit Vigilance Test.

Best, J.W., & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education. ESS Publications, New Delhi.

Nagarathna , K. (1994). Research Methodology in education. Ram Publishers, Madras.

Bhagwan , Gautam , Nagendra – Acomparative study of three different yoga modules on attention and concentration. Conducted by: Swami Vivekananda Anusandhana Samsthana (Research foundation)

Nagarathna , R., & Nagendra, H.R. (1985). Yoga for bronchial asthma: A control study. British Medical Journal 29, (1), 77-89. Nairne , J.S. (2003). Psychology – The adaptive mind. Ram Publishers, Madras.

Bhuyan . (2003). Svyasa Digital Repository. S-Vyasa University . Brosnan, B. (1982). Yoga for Handicapped people. John Wiley & sons, Delhi.

Perkins, M. (1979). Introduction to Hatha Yoga. Thorsons Publishers limited, New York.

Cautela, J.R. (1978). Relaxation. Wadworth Publications, New York.

Ranbir . (2004). Effect of Yoga: A control study .Journal of Attention Disorder 7, 205-216

Chanchani, S. (1995). Yoga for Children. Bharat Mudranalaya, New Delhi.

Ray, D.S. (1998). Yogic Exercises- Psychologic and Psychic processes. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (p) Ltd, New Delhi.

Dash, B.N. (2003). A text book of Educational Psychology. Dominant Publishers and distributors , New Delhi.

Saravakumar, A.R. (2008). Enhancing Attention Activation strategies through Yoga. Journal of Applied Behaviour

Fraser, B.A. (1987). Physical Management of multiple handicaps. Wadwor th Publications, New York.

Analysis, 32.139-151. Sharma, R.N., Chandra, S.S. (2004). General Psychology. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. New Delhi.

Gradinar, M.D. (1999).The principles of Exercise therapy. CBS Publishers and distributors, Delhi. 82

Saumya Chandra / The Self-assessment of Self-determination

Sharma, Y.K. (2004). Text book of Educational Psychology. Kaniska Publishers and distributors, New Delhi.

Udupa, K.N., & Singh, R.H. (1972). The Scientific basis of Yoga. Journal of the American Medical Associations. 22, (3) 365-374.

Smith, M.B. (2006).Mental Retardation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; An Introduction to Intellectual Disabilities. Thorsons Publishers limited, New York.

Verma, V. (1991). Yoga for integral health. Bharat Mudranalaya, Shahdara, Delhi.

Sternberg, R.J. (1999). Cognitive Psychology. Harcourt Inc., USA.

Venkat, T. (2002). Motivation for yoga and meditation. John Wiley and Sons, Delhi.

Sumar, S. (1998). Yoga for special child. Special Yoga Publishers, Buckingham.

Yoga through music, dance, & stories. (2010). August 15. The new Sunday express.

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Is there one Sign Language all over India? Compiled and presented by G. Poongothai

Each country has its own sign language and there are even different variations or “dialects” of sign languages used. In India, too, there is only one sign language known as Indian Sign Language (ISL) with regional variations or dialects. For instance the sign language used by the deaf in Andhra Pradesh is somewhat different from the one used in Tamil Nadu and so on. Even though deaf people from both the places are able to communicate each other easily because they are using same language School : Move both “Open” hands palm facing in at chest level, from side to side in symmetric fashion (as if reading).

with little variations. Here are some useful signs for you. The following signs are extracted from Indian Sign Language Dictionary, published by Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Faculty of Disability Management and Special Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

Discuss : Move index fingers of both “One” hands back and forth from the mouth alternately, twice.

Information: Touch the mouth with right “Flat O” hand and move out in an arc ending with “Five” hand facing out.

* Asst. Professor, RKMVU-FDMSE

G. Poongothai / Is there one sign language all over India?

Explain: Place both “Open” hands facing up under the chin and describe a clockwise vertical circle alternately, twice.

Learn: 1Touch left “Open” hand at waist level with fingertips of inverted right “Bowl” hand and move up to “Flat O” hand, while touching the right temple with fingertips.

Teacher: Hit wrist of both “One” hand against each other in a crossed position at chest level.

Knowledge : Touch the right temple with finger tips of the right “Bent” hand, twice. 85

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Success

Story : Strong Will in a Stone Deaf Mr. Nareshwar Prasad Jain, popularly known as N.P. Jain, started losing his hearing power at the young age of 18 years and became STONE DEAF when only 30, is indeed a citizen extraordinaire . He had an excellent academic record- always a topper in his class and merit holder in the Board/University examinations. He had, therefore, nurtured very high ambitions but fate willed otherwise and all his hopes and aspirations were shattered on the sharp rocks of disability.

this altruistic cause. Initially he sensitized his friends, acquaintances and public at large and raised awareness about the problems, needs and potential of the persons with disabilities. In June 1995, he established an NGO “Friends of Handicapped- India” which provided monthly scholarships of Rs. 100/- each to 20 students; organized and participated in several diagnostic-cum-fitment camps in which free hearing aids and other assistive devices costing more than Rs. five lakh were distributed to many persons.

However, he did not let his trauma come in his way. He decided to salvage, whatever he could, out of the ship wreck. Instead of confining himself to his own cocoon, he joined the Defence Accounts Department of the Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance (Defence) as an Auditor and immersed himself completely in discharging his official duties. He topped in All India Subordinate Accounts Service Examination overcoming his severe handicap. He made rapid strides, rendered meritorious service in key appointments, got all the promotions and ultimately retired on superannuation in 1993 as Dy. Controller of Defence Accounts (a class one post of Indian Defence Accounts Service). In those times it was a rare distinction for a Stone Deaf person to achieve.

As a result of the inspiration and encouragement provided by All India Federation of the Deaf, New Delhi and

Despite the constraints due to Govt. service Mr. Jain always did his bit for the welfare of persons with disabilities. However, the amorphous desire to serve the Disabled crystallized in a keen and distinct craving after his retirement and he plunged headlong in 86

Success Story / Strong Will in a Stone Deaf

National Institute of the Hearing Handicap (NIHH), North Regional Centre (NRC), New Delhi, Mr. Jain established Vaani School and Research Centre at Meerut on 09-11-1997 with just 4 children with special needs on its rolls. The school made rapid strides both in terms of quality and quantity and carved out a niche for itself.

awarded the best NGO award by the Govt. of U.P. on 03. 12. 2009 is ample testimony to this fact. To meet the ever increasing demand for trained teachers for the education of Children with Hearing Impairment and Mental Retardation, N.P. Jain started Satyanand Vaani Training College for Teachers of the Deaf in 2007 with the approval of the RCI, New Delhi which also has earned a reputation for itself.

It is now a premier institution of its kind in Western Uttar Pradesh and is now providing high quality totally FREE education to about 170 Children with Hearing Impairment and Mental Retardation in SMART classes from nursery to senior secondary level with the modern tools of education such as computers and projectors. It is recognized by Govt. of Uttar Pradesh and Govt. of India, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. The school is a real “Island of Excellence” in the otherwise neglected and dismal scenario of Deaf Education. That the NGO was

Three years ago he embarked on an ambitious venture of establishing a multipurpose vocational training centre-cum-hostel at an estimated cost of about Rs. one hundred and fifty lakh for providing highly skilled training in various vocations to the handicapped persons so that they may earn their livelihood, stand on their own feet and become useful, productive citizens of the country and not be a drag on

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the society. Seventy percent of the project has been completed and a few vocational courses are likely to commence by the end of the year.

3. “Meerut Gaurav Samman” by the UP Journalists Association on 14.04.2004 4. Numerous awards by Rotary clubs, Lions clubs, Bharat Vikas Parishad, All India Jain Milan etc.

The achievements of Mr. Jain in this old age are amazing. He functions with a crusading zeal in a truly “Mission Mode”. His is an integrated approach for the welfare of the persons with disabilities as his activities also cover prevention, early detection of the disability and also social integration of persons with disabilities. The exceptional, extraordinary and inspirational services rendered with total devotion and dedication by Mr. Jain to the persons with disabilities have aroused the conscience of many a persons and motivated them to add their mite in this noble cause. All these activities for persons with disabilities, including building constructions, are financed by public donations.

Here one cannot forget the role of his equally benign wife Mrs Shail Kumari Jain, a normal hearing person, in his success. She too was in Defence Accounts Department and like him is a pensioner now. She has played her triple role of a Govt. employee, House wife raising two lovely kids and as an interpreter to her hearing impaired husband admirably. She has proved to be his “Pillar of strength and “Better Half” in the true sense of the phrases. She has stood by his side as a solid rock. Clasping their hands, the Comrades in Arms have faced many tempests in life with courage, fortitude, equanimity and aplomb. Whenever she found the spirits of her husband plunging down she instinctively found a recipe to dispel the pall of gloom. To me, they are really “Made for each other”. Incidentally, their son is a senior Chartered Accountant (settled in Australia) and daughter is happily married to a Chief Engineer (living in Mumbai).

He has brought hope in the hearts, smile on the lips and fragrance in the lives of the Silent Children of God. His efforts and activities have a profound impact on the differently abled fraternity and many of them look upon him as their role model. In recognition to his services, Mr. Jain has been awarded:

Abhishek Kumar Srivastava Asst. Professor Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University Faculty of Disability Management and Special Education Coimbatore-20 abhishekbhu2007@gmail.com

1. “State Level Best Individual Award” on 03.12.2002 (International day for the disabled) by the UP Govt. 2. “ R a j i v G a n d h i S t a t e A w a r d ” o n 25.03.2006 by the Chief Commissioner for PWDs, Govt. of India

JODMSE Vo l u m e 3 Number 2 July 2013 ISSN 2229-5143

RAMAKRISHNA MISSION VIVEKANANDA UNIVERSITY PO Belur Math, Howrah, West Bengal, 711202, India, Phone: 91-33-26549999, Fax: 91-33-26544640, Web: www.rkmvu.ac.in

FACULTY OF DISABILITY MANAGEMENT AND SPECIAL EDUCATION SRKV Post, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore - 641 020 Phone: +91 422 2697529, Fax: +91 422 2692353, E-mail: jodmse@gmail.com, fdmedu@gmail.com, Web: www.vihrdc.org, www.rkmvucbe.org