3. kongres GZS 2016, zbornik by Revija GIMNASTIKA

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3rd INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS SLOVENIAN GYMNASTICS FEDERATION PLENARY LECTURES, INVITED PROCEEDINGS, BOOK OF ABSTRACTS AND BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS

Editors: Maja Bu훾ar Pajek and Mitija Samard탑ija Pavleti훾

Portoro탑, Slovenia, January 22th, 2016

Organizer:

Slovenian Gymnastics Federation

Organizing Committee: Chair: Mitija Samardžija Pavletič Members:

Maja Bučar Pajek Sebastijan Piletič Jernej Salecl Miha Marinšek Nuša Semič Urša Bavdek Robert Grgič

Scientific Committee: Chair: Maja Bučar Pajek Vice-chairs:

Almir Atiković Miha Marinšek

Members:

Boštjan Šimunič Petra Zupet Sunčica Delaš Kalinski

Secretary:

Eva Semič

Publisher:

Slovenian Gymnastics Federation Dalmatinova 10, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia January, 2015

Editors:

Maja Bučar Pajek and Mitija Samardžija Pavletič

Reviewers:

Maja Bučar Pajek, Petra Zupet, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič, Miha Marinšek

Design and Prepress: Grafična klet Edition:

150 copies

For the Publisher:

Mitija Samardžija Pavletič

3rd INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS ORGANIZED BY SLOVENIAN GYMNASTICS FEDERATION PLENARY LECTURES, INVITED PROCEEDINGS, BOOK OF ABSTRACTS AND BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 796.41(082) GIMNASTIČNA zveza Slovenije. International Scientific Congress (3 ; 2016 ; Portorož) Plenary lectures, invited proceedings, scientific programme, book of abstracts and book of proceedings / 3rd International Scientific Congress, Slovenian Gymnastics Federation, Portorož, Slovenia, January 22nd, 2016 ; [organizer Slovenian Gymnastics Federation] ; editors Maja Bučar Pajek and Mitija Samardžija Pavletič. - Ljubljana : Slovenian Gymnastics Federation, 2016 ISBN 978-961-6733-12-0 1. Bučar Pajek, Maja 2. Gimnastična zveza Slovenije 284194304

Contents EDITOR‘S PREFACE 5

PLENARY LECTUREs

FIG CODE OF POINTS IN MAG AND WAG STIMULATES ASYMMETRIES 9 Ivan Čuk

INVITED PROCEEDINGS MONITORING PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND 13 MOTOR EFFICIENCY IN MEN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS IN SLOVENIA Miha Marinšek INSIGHTS INTO THE POSSIBLE IMPACT 19 OF BILATERAL DIFFERENCES IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS Maja Bučar Pajek ASSESSMENT OF ASYMMETRY IN SITUATIONAL 24 CONDITIONS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS: A CASE STUDY Mitija Samardžija Pavletič, Edvard Kolar NOTE ON WOMEN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS C-I 39 COMPETITIONS AT MAJOR COMPETITIONS FROM 2008 – 2015 Sunčica Delaš Kalinski INTEGRATING MINDFULNESS AND FLOW IN GYMNASTICS 40 Maja Smrdu, Urban Kordeš SHOULDER JOINT MOBILITY IN GYMNASTICS 47 Sabina Rekič, Petra Zupet MEASURING AND MONITORING THE PROCESS OF PHYSICAL PREPARATION FOR 48 FIGHT MATCH ON THE CASE OF K-1 FIGHTER FROM THE BOXING CLUB KOPER Marko Vidnjevič, Armin Paravlić

TOP 15 COMPETENCIES OF SLOVENIAN FITNESS MANAGERS 49 Iztok Retar, Ana Bardorfer

BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS THE USE OF AUDIOVISUAL STIMULATION IN LEARNING GYMNASTIC ELEMENTS 57 Anja Šešum, Ivan Čuk, Maja Bučar Pajek, Tanja Kajtna CORRELATION BETWEEN STATIC BALANCE 69 AND DROP JUMP AMONG ARTISTIC GYMNASTS Nina Istenič, Daša Orlič, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič THE IMPACT OF LENGTH, WIDTH AND FLAT FOOT ON BALANCE 81 Ana Kašček, Ivan Čuk, Suzana Pustivšek, Vedran Hadžič, Maja Bučar Pajek THEORETICAL MODEL OF RUNNING IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS VAULT DISCIPLINE 87 Aljaž Vogrinec, Srečko Namestnik, Miha Marinšek RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DYNAMIC BALANCE 88 AND EXPLOSIVE LEG POWER IN YOUNG FEMALE GYMNASTS Aleksandra Aleksić-Veljković, Katarina Herodek, Dejan Madić, Kamenka Živčić Marković DROP JUMP ON FORCE PLATE IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS 93 Urban Sever, Mitija Samardžija Pavletič, Edvard Kolar HYPERBARIC CHAMBER MEDICONET KOREJA HYPERBARIC OXYGEN THERAPY IN SPORTS Vladan Stanojkovič, Armin Paravlić, Urška Gašperin GROUP ACROBATIC ROUTINES – »TEAMGYM« Karmen Šibanc

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EDITOR’S PREFACE In order to answer the questions such as: how to improve physical condition of an athlete, how to teach more complex gymnastics skills and their combinations, how to develop effective but still save training procedure and achieve outstanding results in competitions, we are actively connecting different experts from various fields of expertise and scientific circles. Many new discoveries are reshaping the content and actions of the quality of an athlete’s competence as well as the definition of the competence of the coaching and management staff. The renewed relationship between athlete and his coaching and management team offers new possibilities in development of a different and more contemporary model for achieving the projected goals. In modern sports environment this is also the only path into creating a system where champions are not a thing of a chance but rather a thing of planned activities. Implementing results of the scientific and expert research and open minded approach as well as consideration of an individual’s quality and potential are key strategically identified traits of Slovenian Gymnastics Federation in order to develop a model of successful athlete and organisation. Scientific Congress on Slovenian Gymnastics Federation is one of the measures taken in order to encourage research activities and training of our experts. Organizers of the Congress are striving to encourage researchers from various fields (coaching, biomechanics, physiology, sport medicine, physiology, sociology, management, etc.) to implement their work into the field of gymnastics and by doing so contribute to further development of this discipline. The reason for that is the recognition that Slovenian as well as foreign knowledge is not sufficiently used in practice. Authors from this year’s Congress booklet as well as the ones from previous years offer interesting starting points from different fields of expertise that could be effectively implemented in training processes: technique and methodics of gymnastics skills, motor learning, biomechanics, judging, sport medicine, sport psychology and last but not least management in sports. Articles offer interdisciplinary approach with modern methods for preparation, prevention and rehabilitation of athletes as well as concrete tools for defining the athlete’s level of potential and quality of preparation. In a pioneer way some innovative approaches of diagnostics in gymnastics are also addressed. We united different views, different cultural and sociological surroundings and unified them under one scientific-gymnastics treatment.

Mitija Samardžija Pavletič President of the Organizing Committee

PLENARY LECTURES

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FIG CODE OF POINTS IN MAG AND WAG STIMULATES ASYMMETRIES Čuk I.1

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Slovenia

FIG Code of Point (COP) in Men Artistic Gymnastics (MAG) and Women Artistic Gymnastics (WAG) are the most important guidelines how to build competition exercise and win in artistic gymnastics. In each COP are defined two important factors: exercise content and exercise performance. Exercise content is objective part, which is defined by elements difficulty and membership in elements group. From references in the past there are only few gymnasts, which were injured on both body sides simultaneously with same diagnosis. As simultaneous bilateral injuries are extremely rare, it is important to analyze the most important rules, if rules are promoting such state. In MAG COP are included 993 elements and in WAG COP are included 713 elements. Analysis if they are symmetric at start position, during movement and at final position been made. Element is symmetric by arms and trunk with legs activity when all left and right body side performs simultaneously same activity. Results show in MAG COP as a whole is significantly more asymmetric elements with asymmetric trunk and legs activity. In WAG COP as a whole is significantly more asymmetric elements with asymmetric activity of arms, trunk and legs. Hypothetical most difficulty exercises on each apparatus revealed that in general for all around gymnast proportion between asymmetric and symmetric elements is close to 70% to 30%, what suggests that difficulty relates to increased asymmetry. COP in MAG and WAG enforces asymmetric movements for achieving high results, however, coaches’ task is to be aware of COP influence on gymnasts’ health and minimize asymmetries in load and to work on symmetric conditioning.

INVITED PROCEEDINGS

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MONITORING PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR EFFICIENCY IN MEN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS IN SLOVENIA MarinĹĄek M.1

University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia

ABSTRACT The competition programme in menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s artistic gymnastics for youth is composed of compulsory exercise, assessment of technical knowledge, assessment of morphological characteristics, and assessment of motor abilities. The aim of the present research was to present long-term results of monitoring motor abilities in Slovenian men artistic gymnastics. The assessment results (N = 1.474) of motor abilities of different age groups (from 6 years to 18 years) from 1998 to 2015 were included in the research. Various statistical methods were employed according to the data typology. Slovenian gymnastics system is capable to identify individuals with desirous motor abilities for artistic gymnastics. In 17 years, 1% to 8% of gymnasts were identified as very appropriate in different age groups. Most of them however were identified as partially appropriate with percentage ranging from 40% to 59%. Results showed significant differences between generations of gymnasts in their motor abilities and on average better-developed special flexibility in comparison to special strength. key words: motor abilities, potential success, special strength, special flexibility

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INTRODUCTION In the year 1997 (Piletič, Kolar and Čuk) prepared the project of the new competition programme for younger age groups in men’s artistic gymnastics in Slovenia. The competition programme consists of four age groups: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

First age group from 6 to 8 years (OV1); Second age group from 9 to 10 years (OV2); Third age group from 11 to 12 years (OV3); Fourth age group from 13 to 14 years (OV4).

The competition programme is composed of following parts: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

Compulsory exercise for all age groups; Assessment of technical knowledge; Assessment of morphological characteristics and Assessment of motor abilities.

Motor abilities assessment are divided into three components (Kolar, Čuk, 1999), general motor efficiency, special strength, and special flexibility. The assessment protocol has been determined. Based on assessment results and norms (Crnjac, 1998) the model enables the calculation of potential success of individual gymnast (Piletič, Kolar in Čuk, 1997). The norms and calculated potential success gives the coaches feedback they can use in their planning and to compare their gymnasts with their counterparts in the country. With help of the norms set, we can define how successful the gymnasts were in performance of certain assessment on the ordinal scale from 1 to 5: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

Excellent 4.5 – 5.0 points Very good 3.8 – 4.4 points Good 2.8 – 3.7 points Satisfactory 1.8 – 2.7 points Non satisfactory 1.0 – 1.7 points

The number of the assessments is as follows (Čuk, Kolar, Crnjac, Piletič, 1999): ͳͳ General motor efficiency (5 assessments); ͳͳ Special strength (5 to 8 assessments); ͳͳ Special flexibility (5 assessments). Older gymnasts (youth and junior gymnasts from 15 to 18 years) were also included in the programme of motor efficiency monitoring. They performed tests determined for the fourth age group. The aim of the article is to present long-term results of monitoring motor efficiency in Slovenian men artistic gymnastics who are involved in the competition programme of Slovenian gymnastics federation.

METHODS Gymnasts who took part in the competition programme and motor assessments of Slovenian gymnastics federation from 1998 to 2015 were included in the research. There were 725 assessments in the first age group OV1, 342 in the second (OV2), 174 in the third (OV3), and 233 in the fourth (OV4, youth and juniors).

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Measurements protocol were carried out according to the rules (Piletič, Kolar in Čuk, 1997). No motivational comments were offered to participants during the execution. Motor efficiency was assessed by trained assessors with many years’ experience in men’s artistic gymnastics. The results were registered on the paper sheet and afterwards entered in the computer database. The reliability was checked with Cronbach’s alpha. The calculations showed reliable data (all alpha above .79). The Kolmogorov Smirnov test showed the data was not normally distributed (some p bellow .05). Regarding the distribution characteristics we employed nonparametric tests. Kruskal-Wallis test to compare independent samples and Wilcoxon test of signed ranks to compare related samples were used. All statistical analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel 2013 (Microsoft Corporation) and IBM SPSS Statistics version 21.0.

RESULTS From the data gathered from 1998 to 2015, we can observe that mean values of gymnasts’ potential success were rising across the age groups (Picture 1). The potential success reached mean values between 2.20 and 2.75 points. These scores can be assessed as satisfactory according to Piletič, Kolar, and Čuk (1997) and Crnjac (1998). One might argue these are low scores but it has to be stressed that these are the mean values of all measurements assessed in Slovenia.

Picture 1: Mean values (vertical bars are standard deviation) of normalized points in gymnasts’ potential success (PS), general motor efficiency (MEgen), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec) across different age groups.

Potential success is calculated as a weight function of general motor efficiency (MEgen), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec). The MEgen showed a tendency to rise with time (Picture 1). The STRspec and FLEXspec showed an interchangeable course over time. The biggest change in the course of before mentioned variables can be seen from 12 years to 13 years. At this point in time the special strength increases and special flexibility decreases.

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Table 1: Distribution of classified scores across age groups

6-8 y

9-10 y

11-12 y

13 - y

Excellent 4,5 – 5 points

Very good 3,8 – 4,4 points

Good 2,8 – 3,7 points

118

16%

17%

28%

102

44%

Satisfactory 1,8 – 2,7 points

425

59%

181

53%

40%

Notsatisfactory 1,0 – 1,7 points

170

23%

27%

18%

Sum

725

100%

342

100%

174

100%

233

100%

The distribution of qualitative scores proves the notion of individual athlete with exceptional motor abilities. Slovenian gymnastics system is capable to identify individuals with desirous abilities for artistic gymnastics. There were from 1% to 8% of gymnasts identified as very appropriate (very good) in different age groups. Most of them however were identified as partially appropriate (satisfactory) with percentage ranging from 40% to 59% (Table 1). Picture 2: Course of mean potential success (PS), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec) across years for category 6 – 8 years (vertical bars are standard deviation).

Picture 3: Course of mean potential success (PS), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec) across years for category 9 – 10 years (vertical bars are standard deviation).

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Picture 4: Course of mean potential success (PS), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec) across years for category 11 – 12 years (vertical bars are standard deviation).

Picture 5: Course of mean potential success (PS), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec) across years for category 13 years and older (vertical bars are standard deviation).

On the Pictures 2 to 5 the course of mean potential success (PS), special strength (STRspec), and special flexibility (FLEXspec) across time can be seen. The course of PS was significantly different between years for 6 – 8 years Chi(14) = 58.41; p ˂ .00; 9 – 10 years Chi(14) = 92.12; p ˂ .00; 11 – 12 years Chi(14) = 48.28; p ˂ .00 and 13 and older Chi(14) = 55.65; p ˂ .00. The course of STRspec was significantly different between years for 6 – 8 years Chi(14) = 53.90; p ˂ .00; 9 – 10 years Chi(14) = 90.46; p ˂ .00; 11 – 12 years Chi(14) = 56.69; p ˂ .00 and 13 and older Chi(14) = 61.02; p ˂ .00. The course of FLEXspec was significantly different between years for 6 – 8 years Chi(14) = 55.13; p ˂ .00 and 9 – 10 years Chi(14) = 63.01; p ˂ .00. The course of FLEXspec for 11 – 12 years and 13 and older was not statistically different between years Chi(14) = 19.11; p = .16 and Chi(14) = 17.21; p = .24, respectively. Wilcoxon test of signed ranks showed Slovenian gymnasts had in the past on average better-developed special flexibility in comparison to special strength; 6 – 8 years Z = -16.02 p ˂ .00; 9 – 10 years Z = -23.15 p ˂ .00; 11 – 12 years Z = -11.44 p ˂ .00 and 13 an older Z = -12.67 p ˂ .00.

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CONCLUSION The biggest improvement in potential success of Slovenian male gymnasts can be observed from 11 to 13 years of age. This is probably due to the process of maturation and planed training process. Within these years the body is subjected to turbulent physical changes such as hormone proportions, muscle growth, etc. (Gabbard, 2012; Malina, Bouchard, Bar-Or, 2004). Under well-structured training process with suitable training methods, the individual athlete can develop his motor abilities in substantial extent. The results suggest significant differences between generations of gymnasts in their motor abilities. This is particularly true for special strength and less for special flexibility. As the special strength is one of the key factors for potential success prediction (Čuk, Kolar, Crnjac, and Piletič, 1999) and competition success (Jovanovič, Kolar, Piletič, and Marinšek, 2005) in men artistic gymnastics, it is of high importance to devote more time to appropriate and efficient methods to develop special strength.

REFERENCES Crnjac R. (1998). Norme nekaterih motoričnih sposobnosti in morfoloških značilnosti za spremljanje učinkov treniranja pri dečkih 6-14 let v športni gimnastiki. Diplomsko delo, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport Čuk. I, Kolar E., Crnjac R., Piletič S. (1999). Spremljanje nekaterih učinkov treniranja športne gimnastike na motorične sposobnosti in morfološke značilnosti dečkov starih 6 – 14 let. – Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije Gabbard, C. P. (2012). Lifelong motor development – Sixth edition. Texas A&M University: San Francisco CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Jovanovič, D., Kolar, E., Piletič, S., Marinšek, M. (2005). Povezanost potencialnega modela uspešnosti in tekmovalnega modela uspešnosti pri tekmovalcih starih 9 in 10 let v moški športni gimnastiki. V: KOLAR, Edvard (ur.), PILETIČ, Sebastijan (ur.). Gimnastika za trenerje in pedagoge 1. Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije. Kolar E., Čuk I. (1999). Vrednotenje potencialnega modela uspešnosti (motorični in morfološki prostor) za dečke kategorije 6-8 let v moški športni gimnastiki. Strokovni priročnik št. 8, 65-78 – Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation, and physical activity. Champaign (Ill): Human Kinetics. Piletič S., Kolar E., Čuk I. (1997). Strokovni priročnik št. 6.– Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije

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INSIGHTS INTO THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF BILATERAL DIFFERENCES IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS BuÄ?ar Pajek M.1

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Slovenia

ABSTRACT Performance, injury risk potential and cosmetic aspects may all be influenced by the asymmetry of load and training structure. There is lack of information about the possible impact of asymmetries in artistic gymnastics. Hereby we present some theoretical considerations and observational data that enable some insights into this understudied area. The examination of Code of Points reveals significant number of elements with unilateral engagement and the absence of any notion or recognition of the concept of symmetry. Our observational data on balance beam routines has extended the theoretical observation by providing the qualitative data on the significant asymmetry of load on lower extremities at balance beam routines measured at one of the world cup competitions. Further observational data on anthropometric, anatomical and structural asymmetries is reviewed which supports the hypothesis on the possible impact of asymmetries on the injury risk especially at landing phases of gymnastics elements. Scant information however exists about the possible gains in performance and results with consistent methodological improvements in symmetry training. Prospective and interventional studies in this area are needed in the future. key words: artistic gymnastic, injuries, lateralization

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INTRODUCTION Gymnastic exercises are critically dependant on coordination in three space dimensions and time. Performance could therefore be importantly subjected to the influence of bilateral differences (asymmetry) in initiations of motor action, performance and finalisation. The symmetry of human body may have a cosmetic impact as well as being a determinant of physical abilities and performance. An example from the history of sport is the Sokol gymnastic organization (one of the main middle Europe’s gymnastic societies in the first half of 20th century) where a strong emphasis was put on bilateral equalisation of activation and usage of musculoskeletal apparatus proposing and taking care of distributed employment of exercises for various body parts (Fikar, 1947). We can define two major aspects of possible asymmetric impact: impact on injury risk and impact on results. This topic has been so far understudied in sport scientific literature. Theoretical background and regulatory material on symmetries in gymnastics A crucial aspect when we consider the asymmetry in load may be found in the general structure of balance beam routines as stated by the FIG Code Of Points (FIG, 2013). This document defines the elements and their difficulty and is regarded as the golden standard for establishing movement structure and evaluating it. We inspected this document and searched for the elements defined by unilateral or bilateral actions, respectively. The result of this analysis is shown below. Here, the elements are divided into following groups (added number of elements with difficulty, take offs and landing are counted for each figure within difficulty box): ͳͳ Mounts – 45 elements – take off with one leg 7, landing with one leg 6; ͳͳ Gymnastics leaps, jumps and hops – 35 elements, take off with one leg 17, landing with one leg 22; ͳͳ Gymnastics turns – 22 elements, take off (start of turn) with one leg 22, landing (end of turn) with one leg 22; ͳͳ Holds and acrobatic non –flight – 18 elements, take off with one leg 18, landing with one leg 12; ͳͳ Acrobatic flight - 34 elements, take off with one leg 15, landing with one leg 14; ͳͳ Dismounts - 29 elements, take off with one leg 16, landing with one leg 0; It may be observed that a vast proportion of elements are defined as one leg take off or one leg landing. Further inspection of governing materials shows that at any level of competition in sport gymnastics the symmetry and equality of both body sides in exercises is not sufficiently emphasized neither in children, nor in adults (FIG, 2013). Furthermore, in COP there we could find no rule or statement on the bilateral equality and symmetry of load or movement structure. From these insights it may be concluded, that the COP and rules, as they are currently published, do not favour or acknowledge the symmetry of load.

INEQUALITY AND BILATERAL DIFFERENCES OF LOAD Preferential use or burden on one of the limbs may lead to adaptations at three important levels: the morphological, structural and functional level. All three levels can be inspected and verified for these adaptations separately. First, there is some published data on morphological influence that may be inferred from the studies on anthropometric parameters. The influence of long-term training on anthropometric parameters of rhythmic sports and artistic gymnasts was investigated by Douda et al. (Douda, Laparidis, & Tokmakidis, 2002). These authors found and reported significant differences in circumferences between the right and left legs, but surprisingly only in rhythmic gymnasts, not in artistic gymnasts. These differences could have been the consequence of training structure or the limited sample size, as in general the power to detect differences is limited with the sample size of the study and the magnitude of differences and variance of investigated parameters. Another study assessed the position of the anterior and posterior iliac spinae (Barakatt, Smidt, Dawson, Wei, & Heiss, 1996)2. Gymnasts as a group were

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found to have asymmetrically positioned innominate bones as opposed to non-gymnasts representing the control group. By repeating asymmetrical physical activities bilateral differences between extremities and bones are expected to enlarge with time. The crucial question here is whether these differences also bring the protective adaptations or the opposite, they represent a weak point for injury and inferior performance. Our group with international participation has performed a study on how many elements which asymmetrically load lower extremities are included in balance beam routines of professional female gymnasts (Bučar Pajek, Hedbavny, Kalichova, & Čuk, 2016). We video-recorded all exercises of qualification round on balance beam at an international competition B World Cup in Ljubljana 2014. We analysed take-offs and landings to define the actions done by left leg, both legs simultaneously, or right leg. A delay of at least 0.01 second in recruitment of one of the lower limbs defined the action as being from a single leg. When there was recruitment of both legs in action in a shorter time interval we considered the action as being initiated by both legs. The time interval of delay between the legs was defined as a difference in time between the departure of first and last foot from the ground (or the time interval in the first ground contact in landing). The leg which left support last, was considered as the take-off leg and the leg which was first in support at landing was considered as the landing leg. The reliability and validity in recognising left/right body side from the video-recorded routines in similar previous researches was high [17]. Two gymnastics experts (B.P.M. and H.P.) evaluated the taped routines, designated and counted the leg actions. We calculated a sum of all take-offs and landings with left, right and both legs and a pairwise t-test between the number of left/right/both leg actions. As the number of take offs and landings were different by gymnasts we calculated also percentage of actions on left/right/both legs and again calculated a pairwise t-test between each left/right/both legs. In the routines of 19 included gymnasts we found significant asymmetry of load: right leg initiated 42.87% of actions (on average 12.47±3.32 per routine), while left leg and both legs initiated 29.08 and 28.05 % of actions (on average 8.58±2.97 and 8.21±3.07 per routine, respectively). The load on right leg was significantly larger compared to left leg and both legs (p=0.002 and 0.003). Only 4 gymnasts (20.8%) loaded left leg more than right leg. It is clear from our results that there is significant asymmetry of the usage of lower limbs at balance beam routines in elite gymnasts. From our results a critical question arises whether asymmetrical load of such a magnitude is acceptable not only for adults, but also children and youngsters. This asymmetrical load may have significant anthropometric, structural and safety impact.

INJURY RISK POTENTIL AND THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF BILATERAL INEQUALITIES Niu, Wang, He, Fan and Zhao (Niu, Wang, He, Fan, & Zhao, 2011) did a research on biomechanical bilateral inequality during double-leg landing between the dominant and non-dominant lower limb. They concluded that the non-dominant ankle has a more effective protective mechanism regarding excessive joint motion and that the dominant ankle joint is at a greater injury risk during drop landing. Their result supports the hypothesis that bilateral differences may predispose the athletes to injury when there are insufficient adaptations or protective mechanisms pertained to a single side of the body. In athletes, the non-dominant leg showed greater cortical bone mineral density than the dominant leg which is used for mobility or manipulation whereas the non-dominant leg lends support during the actions of the dominant leg (Sone et al., 2006). It is generally well known that greater bone mineral density is protective against fracture risk (Golob & Laya, 2015; Nichols, Sanborn, & Essery, 2007). The lateral differences in body structure are not only limited to bone but also ligaments may show side differences. Bohm et al (Bohm, Mersmann, Marzilger, Schroll, & Arampatzis, 2015) measured mechanical and morphological Achille’s tendon properties of the non-dominant and dominant leg by means of ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and dynamometry. The Achille’s tendon of the dominant leg featured a significant higher Young’s modulus and length but a tendency toward lower maximum strain compared with the non-dominant leg. The tendon cross-sectional area and stiffness were not significantly different between sides.

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Concerning injury causes Lund and Myklebust reported that 84 % of the injuries occurred in the landing phase of the gymnastic skills and most frequently the ankle was injured (Lund & Myklebust, 2011). The majority of competition injuries (approximately 70 %) resulted also from either landings or dismounts (Marshall, Covassin, Dick, Nassar, & Agel, 2007). Some above-mentioned authors reported the same causes without percentages. Most injuries occurred on floor exercise (32.1 %), beam (20.7 %), and bars (17 %) (O’Kane, Levy, Pietila, Caine, & Schiff, 2011). These studies do not, however, evaluate which side of body was affected, whether it was an injury that occurred during performing symmetrical or asymmetrical elements and whether the dominant or non-dominant limb was injured. With such data we could get further insight into the possible protective measures that may be taken with equalisation of burden at landing, but also other elements where the injury risk is high.

THE IMPACT OF ASYMMETRIES ON RESULTS Čuk and Marinšek (Čuk & Marinšek, 2013) highlighted the asymmetric activity of the lower limbs when the jump element execution was not technically perfect. In such cases landing on both legs was associated with uneven load distribution. Even elements which are supposed to be performed with both legs simultaneously can have a significant asymmetrical load on lower limbs. This often happens in elements with turns (Čuk & Marinšek, 2013). In general, not many data on this topic is present in the scientific literature and further work should be done to reveal the possible impact of asymmetry on the performance and success in artistic gymnastics.

CONCLUSION From the above considerations it is evident that the problem of asymmetry is understudied in artistic gymnastics. We are mainly concerned with the impact on injury risk and the impact on results. There is significant body of evidence showing that the Code of Points predisposes to the asymmetry of load and the current artistic gymnastic practice executes it abundantly. Concerning the injury risk we propose that further research should incorporate laterality data and associate this data with the asymmetry of load. Concerning the general performance and success in element performance a thorough biomechanical and epidemiological studies for separate elements and routines may reveal the possible benefit of increasing symmetry in improving the results. We propose that the problem of asymmetry should not be neglected in the future scientific work in artistic gymnastics, a practice turn from the current situation which could benefit the future developments in this sport.

REFERENCES Barakatt, E., Smidt, G. L., Dawson, J. D., Wei, S. H., & Heiss, D. G. (1996). Interinnominate motion and symmetry: Comparison between gymnasts and nongymnasts. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 23(5), 309–319. Bohm, S., Mersmann, F., Marzilger, R., Schroll, A., & Arampatzis, A. (2015). Asymmetry of Achilles tendon mechanical and morphological properties between both legs. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 25(1), e124–32. Bučar Pajek, M., Hedbavny, P., Kalichova, M., & Čuk, I. (2016). The asymmetry of lower limb load in balance beam routines. Sci Gymnastics J, 8(1), 5–13. Čuk, I., & Marinšek, M. (2013). Landing quality in artistic gymnastics is related to landing symmetry. Biol Sport, 30(1), 29–33. Douda, H., Laparidis, K., & Tokmakidis, S. (2002). Long-Term training induces specific adaptations on the physique of rhythmic sports and female artistic gymnasts. Eur J Sport Sci, 2(3), 1–13.

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FIG. (2013). 2013-2016 Code of Points for Women’s Artistic Gymnastics. 2013-2016 Code of Points. Retrieved from http://www.fig-gymnastics.com/publicdir/rules/files/wag/WAG CoP 2013-2016 %28English%29 Nov 2014.pdf Fikar, A. (1947). O Sokole a sokolství [About Sokol]. Praha: Československá obec sokolská. Golob, A. L., & Laya, M. B. (2015). Osteoporosis: Screening, Prevention, and Management. Med Clin North Am, 99, 587–606. Lund, S. S., & Myklebust, G. (2011). High injury incidence in TeamGym competition: a prospective cohort study. Scan J Med Sci Sports, 21(6), e439–e444. Marshall, S. W., Covassin, T., Dick, R., Nassar, L. G., & Agel, J. (2007). Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women’s gymnastics injuries: National collegiate athletic association injury surveillance system, 1988-1989 through 20032004. J Athl Train, 42(2), 234–240. Nichols, D. L., Sanborn, C. F., & Essery, E. V. (2007). Bone density and young athletic women. An update. Sports Med, 37, 1001–14. Niu, W., Wang, Y., He, Y., Fan, Y., & Zhao, Q. (2011). Kinematics, kinetics, and electromyogram of ankle during drop landing: A comparison between dominant and non-dominant limb. Hum Mov Sci, 30(3), 614–623. O’Kane, J. W., Levy, M. R., Pietila, K. E., Caine, D. J., & Schiff, M. A. (2011). Survey of injuries in Seattle area levels 4 to 10 female club gymnasts. Clin J Sport Med, 21(6), 486–92. Sone, T., Imai, Y., Joo, Y.-I., Onodera, S., Tomomitsu, T., & Fukunaga, M. (2006). Side-to-side differences in cortical bone mineral density of tibiae in young male athletes. Bone, 38(5), 708–13.

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ASSESSMENT OF ASYMMETRY IN SITUATIONAL CONDITIONS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS: A CASE STUDY Samardžija Pavletič, M. 1, Kolar E. 2 1 2

University of Primorska, Applied Kinesiology, Koper, Slovenia University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia

ABSTRACT High load on the body, high number of repetitions of individual elements and asymmetric loading are characteristics in men’s artistic gymnastics. The athlete that participated in the study is a member of the Slovenian senior Men’s Artistic Gymnastics team. At the time of the study, the participant was nineteen years of age, weighed 72 kg, and had a height of 165.5 cm and a body mass index of 26.25 kg /m2. Loads during the performance of difficult acrobatic elements were measured in situational conditions on floor. Elements were performed in both forward and backward directions. The results indicate that the asymmetric load on the legs is a common feature of takeoff and landing. Furthermore, the study shows that the measurement of load in asymmetry is not sufficient unless it is divided into eccentric and concentric phases. In addition, study shows high level of average asymmetries during takeoff in eccentric contractions (59.7 %) and average asymmetries in concentric contractions (35.82 %). The average asymmetry during the landing phase was 43.3 % for all measured skills. Such high levels of asymmetries place an athlete at high risk of injury.

key words: gymnastics, symmetries, 3D sensor, acrobatics, load

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INTRODUCTION Men’s Artistic Gymnastics (MAG) is an Olympic discipline consisting of six events which are floor exercise, pommel horse, rings, vault, parallel bars and horizontal bar (MAG, 2013). Presumably, floor is the most attractive event in gymnastics. An exercise on floor is composed mostly of acrobatic elements in combination with elements of strength, balance and flexibility. Different element groups on floor are structured into non-acrobatic elements, acrobatic elements forwards, acrobatic elements backwards, acrobatic elements sideways, acrobatic elements with twists in the flight phase, and dismounts (MAG, 2013). It is considered that the most attractive skills include a large number of twists around the lateral and/or longitudinal axis. Learning and automation of complex gymnastic elements is a long and difficult process. It is not known how much time and effort is necessary for automation of a specific motor programme. Some authors claim that 10.000 hours of training (of elements) is enough for automation (Baechle, Earle, National, & Conditioning, 2008), while others claim that between 40.000 and 50.000 repetitions should suffice (Čoh, Jovanović-Golubović, & Bratić, 2004). In summary, in order to master a certain element in artistic gymnastics and to perform it in various different conditions, a high number of repetitions is needed. Quantity of repetitions for a particular athlete is dependent on their individual requirements and abilities, which will result in an individualised programme. Russian authors have presented modal quantitative values claiming that an athlete will on average undertake 300-310 training days annually, where they perform about 1500 hours of training and 90.000-130.000 elements from the Code of Points (60-90 elements/day) (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004; Smolevski & Gaverdovski, 1999). Along with a high level of technical difficulty on floor, there is also high loading on the muscular and skeletal system of an athlete, especially during takeoff and landings of acrobatic elements. Such flighted acrobatic elements are composed of a takeoff, flight and landing phase (Bolkovič, Čuk, Kokole, Kovač, & Novak, 2002; Karacsony & Čuk, 2005). Norman and Komi (1979) further divide the takeoff into eccentric (accumulation of energy) and concentric phases (release of energy). Thus, the muscular action is composed of eccentric immediately followed by concentric movement (Norman & Komi, 1979). The maximum forces on floor occur during takeoffs and landings. While landing, forces can reach as high as 14.4 times body weight of an athlete (Karacsony & Čuk, 2005; Kruse & Lemmen, 2009; Markolf, Shapiro, Mandelbaum, & Teurlings, 1990; Sands, 2000). The force measured at landing is dependent on the height of the element. This is supported by McNitt-Gray (1993) who found landing forces ranging from 3.9 to 11 times body weight were dependent on the height from which the participants jumped (0.32m, 0.72m, 1.28m). Moreover, according to Panzer (1987), complexity of elements (single or double saltos backwards) is another factor affecting the loading. The findings revealed that the load at landing ranged from 8.8 (single salto backwards) to 14.4 (double salto backwards) times body weight. Furthermore, the loading increased by 6.7 times body weight when a double salto backwards was performed compared to a single salto backwards (Panzer, 1987). A kinematic analysis of various acrobatic elements backwards was conducted by Čuk and Ferkolj (2000). Their findings show that the height of the athlete’s centre of gravity was 0.70 m during a stretched salto backwards; 1.07 m during a double tucked salto backwards; and 1.38 m during a triple tucked salto backwards (Čuk & Ferkolj, 2000). These results, along with findings of McNitt (1993) and Panzer (1987) suggest that with an increase in technical difficulty and execution of complex coordinated elements, elite gymnasts also face an increase in loading when elements are repeated excessively throughout training. The total load of the eccentric and concentric phase at takeoff whilst performing acrobatic elements can reach up to 15 times body weight, where high loads and shear forces predominantly increase the risk of chronic injuries formed during asymmetric performances (Brueggemann & Hume, 2013; Brüggemann, 1985). The high occurrence of injuries in gymnastics is found in the ankles, knees, and spine (Froehner, 2000; Kirialanis, Malliou, Beneka, & Giannakopoulos, 2003; Marshall, Covassin, Dick, Nassar, & Julie, 2007).

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Additionally, there is higher frequency of injuries in the wrist and shoulder girdle found in Men’s Artistic Gymnastics (DiFiori, Caine, & Malina, 2006; Froehner, 2000). In elite gymnastics, a large number of repetitions with high loading often result in chronic injuries. The most common cause of chronic injuries are high intensity mechanical stimuli, which reach the athlete’s maximum muscular and other (physical) structural ability (Froehner, 2000). In artistic gymnastics, dramatic changes are identified by clinical and radiological testing of the chest and lumbar part of spine (Brueggemann & Hume, 2013). Experts and scientists are not in agreement on whether the injuries occur due to incorrect landings or a result of swinging elements. However, it is considered a fact that most injuries in gymnastics occur on landings (Marshall et al., 2007). Thus, incorrect landing, high frequency of performed elements and high load on landings indicate a risk of injury. For example, the distribution model (measurement of reaction force on a surface and 3D kinematic analyses) suggests that due to compressive forces on landings, intervertebral disks in the L5/S1 region undergo loads that on average reach more than 11.6 times body weight in the first 50 ms, and at the maximum they reach up to 20 times body weight (Brueggemann & Hume, 2013). In addition, Brueggemann (2013) points out that shear forces greater than 3.5 body weight present a great risk of injury of the vertebrae (L5/S1). The same applies for the lower extremities, where along with high load and shear forces, incorrect placement (of feet) during takeoffs and landings present a great risk. These risks are specific for floor due to prevalent acrobatic elements that include at least one takeoff and landing. Even though the muscle asymmetries are most frequently monitored during rehabilitation programmes (Augustsson, Thomee, & Karlsson, 2004; Thomee et al., 2012), it must be pointed out that muscle asymmetries are a risk factor for the occurrence of injuries in various anatomical places and have a negative effect on the athlete’s ability (Baumhauer, Alosa, Renstrom, Trevino, & Beynnon, 1995; Bračič et al., 2008; Coombs & Garbutt, 2002; Richards, Ajemian, Wiley, Brunet, & Zernicke, 2002). Moreover, Bračič (2010) concludes that when one leg produces a greater force on the surface during takeoff, it leads to rotation of the body in the frontal plane in the same direction of the leg that produces less force, which reduces the effectiveness of the movement. Such asymmetrical production of force on the surface consequently results in an incorrect landing. Thus, even when landing on both feet simultaneously, the expected symmetrical distribution of forces on both feet is impossible. In such cases, there is an occurrence of overload on the foot that produces less force on the surface due to the rotation in the frontal plane, instead of symmetrical distribution of the force when landing on both feet simultaneously (Bračič, 2010). In conclusion, all of the above indicates that the movement asymmetries in gymnastics are a greater problem than originally considered and that along with internal risk factors causing asymmetries there are external risk factors for asymmetry in the form of the Code of Points for Men’s Artistic Gymnastics. The systematic issue was first pointed out by Bučar P. (2015 and 2016). Findings for the specific analysis of the international rule book for MAG and WAG -Code of Points – suggest that there is an occurrence and systematic creation of asymmetry in gymnastics (Bučar P., 2015). In an additional, more detailed analysis of the beam event, the results show presence of asymmetry in 60 % of elements (Bučar Pajek, Hedbávný, Kalichová, & Čuk, 2016). The objective of this study is to assess the level of asymmetry during takeoff and landing in various different gymnastics elements on floor performed under situational conditions. Moreover, along with the overall level of asymmetry, symmetries of individual phases (eccentric and concentric) are examined as well. Lastly, this study aims to contribute towards reducing the risk of injury.

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METHODS Subject The study sample comprises of one member of the Slovenian National team in senior Men’s Artistic Gymnastics. At the time of the study, the subject was nineteen years old. Morphological characteristics: height 165.5 cm, weight 72 kg, body mass index 26.25 kg/m2. In the six-month period before the study took place, his straining sessions were regular, with an average of 4 hours per day.

Measurement protocol Measurements were taken with a sensory system Sensmotion 1 SU6DOF (TMG-BMC d.o.o. Ljubljana, Slovenia), which consists of inertial and magnetic sensory parts. The system is composed of a 3D sensor for angular velocity (ITG3200, InvenSense, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) and a 3D sensor for the magnetic field (LSM303DLM, STMicroelectronics, Geneva, Switzerland). Size of the set is 69 x 54 x 15 mm and the weight is 30 g (Figure 1). Figure 1: Sensory system Sensmotion 1 SU6DOF.

Data was collected with a frequency of 1000 Hz and stored on a 3,77GB memory card (SD – Secure Digital Card) that was built in the system.

Figure 2: Placement of sensors on both feet.

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In addition to the listed components, a temperature sensor and a battery are also integrated in the system. The battery enables an hour of activity in a wireless mode of data collection. Three interrelated measurement components are attached to the participantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feet by using the elastic band: one for each foot (Figure 2) and one for lower the part of the back, between the L5 and S1 (Figure 3). This kind of placement enabled the participant to perform the required elements without any decrement to performance.

Figure 3: Placement of the sensor on the lower back.

Performed elements were recorded using video cameras. One of the cameras was a Panasonic brand that can capture 200 frames per second and the other camera was a Casio brand and can capture 300 frames per second. One camera was placed behind the participant and the other camera was placed perpendicular to the direction of the performed acrobatic elements, at a seven meter distance of the assumed point of takeoff (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Placement of cameras.

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After the measurements were conducted, data was transmitted to a computer for processing (cvs format), synchronised with the video recording and thus ready for simple kinematic analysis (Figure 5). Software programme for the video footage and video analysis was manufactured by TMG-BMC.

Figure 5: Kinematic and dynamic analysis of an individual element.

Sample of variables

Participant performed six acrobatic series: 1. Round-off, back handspring, stretched salto backwards (RP_S), 2. Round-off, back handspring, stretched salto backwards with 2/1 (double) twist around the longitudinal axis (RP_S_7200), 3. Round-off, back handspring, double tucked salto backwards (RP_D), 4. Stretched salto forwards with 1/1 (full) twist around the longitudinal axis (S_N_3600), 5. Stretched salto forwards with 2/1 (double) twist around the longitudinal axis (S_N_7200), 6. Stretched salto forwards with 2/1 (double) twist around the longitudinal axis and connected with a stretched salto forwards with 1/2 (half) twist around the longitudinal axis (S_N_7200_1800).

Only two phases in the acrobatic series were analysed: takeoff phase in a salto or the first salto if the acrobatic series included several saltos, and the landing phase where they are close to their maximum load.

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Following parameters were used in the analysis: 1. Takeoff: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

Total average load on the left leg (O_PO_LN), Total average load on the right leg (O_PO_DN), Lateral symmetry (left/right) of the total average load (O_SYM_PO), Average load during the eccentric phase on the left leg (O_PO_EXC_DN), Average load during the eccentric phase on the right leg (O_PO_EXC_DN), Lateral symmetry (left/right) during the average eccentric contraction (O_SYM_EXC_PO), Maximum load during the eccentric phase on the left leg (O_MO_EXC_LN)*, Maximum load during the eccentric phase on the right leg (O_MO_EXC_DN)*, Lateral symmetry (left/right) of the maximum eccentric contraction (O_SYM_EXC_MO)*, Average load during the concentric phase on the left leg (O_PO_KON_LN), Average load during the concentric phase on the left leg (O_PO_KON_DN), Lateral symmetry (left/right) of the average concentric contraction (O_SYM_KON_PO), Maximum load during the concentric phase on the left leg (O_MO_KON_LN), Maximum load during the concentric phase on the right leg (O_MO_KON_DN), Lateral symmetry (left/right) of the maximum concentric contraction (O_SYM_KON_MO).

2. Landing: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

Average load on the left leg (D_PO_LN), Average load on the right leg (D_PO_DN), Lateral symmetry (left/right) during the average load (D_SYM_PO), Maximum load on the left leg (D_MO_LN), Maximum load on the right leg (D_MO_DN), Lateral symmetry (left/right) of the maximum load (D_SYM_MO).

*Data for round-off, back handspring, stretched salto backwards is missing. The load is expressed as acceleration of gravity: G, which is an acceleration of a body forced by the gravitational pull of the Earth, with a value of 9,81 m/s² (Kladnik, 2001). Data gathered to answer research questions was processed with descriptive statistical parameters (load, symmetries). Processing of the data was conducted with the use of Microsoft Office 2013 – Excel.

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RESULTS Table 1: Average load (G) of the left and right leg and level of the load of each leg (symmetry) during takeoff in various acrobatic elements.

O_PO_LN

O_PO_DN

O_SYM_PO

RP_S

2,4128

1,2402

94,5%

RP_S_720

2,3669

1,8013

31,4%

RP_D

2,7966

2,0832

34,2%

S_N_360

1,3429

1,6495

18,6%

S_N_720

1,7303

1,6944

2,1%

S_N_720_180

1,6942

1,7672

4,1%

During the takeoff of a salto in acrobatic series backwards, the load on the right leg is greater than the load on the left leg. The highest level of asymmetry is present in RP_S, where the left leg carries an average of 94.5 % more load than the right leg. Also, high level of asymmetry and higher load of the left leg by more than 31 % is present in other acrobatic series backwards, for example in RP_7200 and RP_D. During performance of the acrobatic series forwards, the highest level of asymmetry is found in the takeoff phase in N_S_3600 (18.6 %).

Table 2: Average load (G) of the left and right leg during the eccentric and concentric phase of the takeoff in different acrobatic elements.

O_PO_EXC_LN

O_PO_EXC_DN

O_PO_KON_LN

O_PO_KON_DN

RP_S

2,1885

0,8317

2,6515

1,6449

RP_S_720

2,2648

1,8149

2,5182

1,7812

RP_D

3,4642

2,3787

1,6186

1,5619

S_N_360

0,5309

2,3684

1,7985

1,2322

S_N_720

1,1904

1,8682

2,1326

1,5615

S_N_720_180

1,8006

1,6255

1,4981

2,0282

The average load in the eccentric phase in acrobatic series backwards is highest in the takeoff phase in the double tucked salto backwards (left leg 3.46 G and right leg 2.37 G). The athlete carries a lower load of an average of 0.59 G during the eccentric phase of the takeoff in the acrobatic series forwards when compared to the average load of the same phase of the takeoff in the acrobatic series backwards.

The average load in the concentric phase is similar in acrobatic series forwards and backwards, except in PR_D where the average load in the concentric phase is lower by 1.4 G compared to the average load in the eccentric phase. On average the athlete carries 0.25 G less load during the concentric phase of the takeoff in the acrobatic series forwards when compared to the average load of the same phase of the takeoff in the acrobatic series backwards.

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Table 3: The maximum load (G) of the left and right leg in the eccentric and concentric phase of the takeoff of different acrobatic elements.

O_MO_EXC_LN

O_MO_EXC_DN

O_MO_KON_LN

O_MO_KON_DN

3,1782

2,6007

RP_S_720

4,0890

2,9558

3,0307

2,4971

RP_D

5,8728

3,4557

2,6568

2,4445

S_N_360

0,8766

2,5214

3,0773

2,1352

S_N_720

1,8139

2,0510

3,6895

3,1591

S_N_720_180

2,4829

2,2012

2,5013

3,4632

RP_S

The maximum load in the eccentric phase of the takeoff of acrobatic elements backwards is highest when performing the double salto backwards (right leg 5.87 G and left leg 3.45 G). The maximum loads during acrobatic elements forwards are on average higher than the loads during acrobatic elements backwards by 2.1 G. The maximum load in the concentric phase is highest in S_N_720. However, the maximum load in the eccentric phase is 1.88 G (left side) and 1.11 G (right side) lower compared to the maximum load of the concentric phase. The athlete carries an average load of 0.25 G lower during the concentric phase of the takeoff in acrobatic elements forwards when compared to the average load during acrobatic elements backwards.

Table 4: Lateral symmetry (G) of the left and right leg in the eccentric and concentric phase of the takeoff of different acrobatic elements.

O_SYM_EXC_PO

O_SYM_KON_PO

O_SYM_EXC_MO

O_SYM_KON_MO

RP_S

163,1%

61,2%

22,2%

RP_S_720

24,8%

41,4%

38,3%

21,4%

RP_D

45,6%

3,6%

69,9%

8,7%

S_N_360

-77,6%

46,0%

-65,2%

44,1%

S_N_720

-36,3%

36,6%

-11,6%

16,8%

S_N_720_180

10,8%

-26,1%

12,8%

-27,8%

There is an occurrence of high levels of asymmetry in both eccentric and concentric phases. In the eccentric phase of the takeoff of acrobatic series backwards, the asymmetries are greater than in the concentric phase of the takeoff of acrobatic series backwards. The load on the left leg is greater in both eccentric and concentric muscle function. The level of asymmetry in the acrobatic series forwards is greater during the eccentric phase than the concentric phase. However, it should be noted that the difference is lower when compared to asymmetry in acrobatic elements backwards. In acrobatic elements forwards, the load on each leg and the associated asymmetry is dependent on the phase of the muscle function (eccentric or concentric) and is thus interchangeable depending on the phase. In the eccentric phase, lower load is placed on the left leg, whereas during the concentric phase of the takeoff, higher load is placed on the right leg.

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Table 5: The average and maximum load and lateral symmetry (G) of the left and right leg in the eccentric phase of the landing of various acrobatic elements.

D_PO_LN

D_PO_DN

D_MO_LN

D_MO_DN

D_SYM_PO

D_SYM_MO

RP_S

0,7398

0,7665

1,3855

1,5843

-3,5%

-12,5%

RP_S_720

0,5543

0,4187

1,7727

1,0539

32,4%

68,2%

RP_D

2,7869

2,0027

5,3093

3,5420

39,2%

49,9%

S_N_360

1,3991

1,4880

3,5870

3,0533

-6,0%

17,5%

S_N_720

0,2071

2,4443

0,4170

3,3158

-91,5%

-87,4%

The load during the landing of acrobatic series backwards increases with the difficulty of elements and it reaches an average value of 2.79 G on the left leg and 2.00 G on the right leg. On the left leg it reaches a maximum value of 5.31 G. An increase in the load is followed by an increase in the level of asymmetry. In addition, findings show that the athlete places a greater load on his left leg when landing. The highest level of asymmetry can be found in landings of a double salto backwards, where the average load on the right leg is higher than the average load on the left leg by 39.2 %. There is no evidence regarding the increase in load of landings for acrobatic elements forwards. Another important finding suggests that there is a positive correlation between the increase of asymmetry and the increase of twists around the longitudinal axis. For example, in S_N_720, the right leg carries 91.5% more load than the left leg.

DISCUSSION The main finding of the study is that the average and maximum loads during takeoff reach high values and high levels of asymmetry are common, e.g. loads placed on left and right leg differ (Table 1). Table 1 shows that the asymmetry is greater in the acrobatic elements backwards compared to the acrobatic elements forwards. Acrobatic elements forwards have a high average load, however, there are no significant differences between the average load of the left and right leg (Table 1). A high jump is essential for the execution of the most difficult gymnastics elements on floor, which in turn will determine the success of an athlete. However, there are a number of physiological factors that affect the high of a jump (Komi, 2003). Nevertheless, the data is not sufficient enough for further quality analysis or applicable use. Norman and Komi (1979) have stressed the importance of the division of the takeoff phases and have described them as the phase of accumulation of energy (eccentric phase) and the phase of energy release (concentric phase). Hence, in the second part of the analysis the takeoff was differentiated into eccentric and concentric phases. Data gathered for both phases were analysed with the same criteria as used for the entire takeoff. Characteristics of the eccentric and concentric phase of takeoffs can be found in Table 2 (average loads), Table 3 (maximum loads), and Table 4 (lateral symmetries). The results show that the participant carries greater load on his left leg during the eccentric phase of the takeoff for saltos backwards. The level of asymmetry in the eccentric phase of the takeoff differs between the takeoff for saltos backwards with when twisting around the longitudinal axis (lower asymmetry) and the takeoff for saltos backwards with no additional twists around the longitudinal axis (higher asymmetry). Moreover, greater load occurs on the left side in the concentric phase of the takeoff. Asymmetry of the takeoff (concentric contraction) is greater when the athlete performs saltos backwards with twists around the longitudinal axis and lower when the athlete performs saltos backwards without additional twist around the longitudinal axis.

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When concerning the elements where the athlete performs saltos forwards, there is a greater load on the right leg (asymmetry over 36 %) during the eccentric phase of the takeoff in S_N_360 and S_N_720. On the other hand, however, there is a greater load on the left leg (asymmetry is 36.6 %) in the concentric phase of the takeoff in the S_N_360 and S_N_720. Additional results of the individual analysis for the eccentric and concentric phase of the takeoff during acrobatic elements forwards indicate that there is high level of asymmetry between the left and right side (Table 4). It should be noted that this finding is not in coherence with the findings of the entire takeoff (Table 1), where there is zero or low level asymmetry. The use of the measurement system enabled more accurate measurements of the individual takeoff phases (eccentric and concentric) in situational conditions, providing a more correct conclusion. The conclusion states that there is a high asymmetry in the individual analysis of eccentric and concentric phases during the takeoff of forward acrobatic elements. In short, this is the most important finding of the study. It enables coaches to precisely plan the training programme and loading of their gymnasts as the eccentric and concentric phases need to be separated due to different approaches and methods in the strength development (Bompa, 2006; Digby, 2003; Kraemer & Scot, 2003; Ušaj, 2003). Asymmetry in the concentric phase could be associated with the individual strategies of landing – this is supported in the literature, as mentioned above. The same eccentric muscular actions that occur in the first phase of the takeoff also occur in the landing. Individual strategies are dependent on athlete’s physical condition and technical knowledge (Hraski & Mejovšek, 2004; Marinšek, 2011; B. Mkaouer, Jemni, Amara, Chaabene, & Tabka, 2013). However, in this study the asymmetry is so high that it present a potential risk in training and thus, a strategy for landing may become of secondary importance. The highest measured asymmetry of the eccentric contraction was 163 %, whilst the average asymmetry of the eccentric phase was 59.7 %. When considering the concentric contraction, the highest measured asymmetry was 61.2 % and the average asymmetry was 35.82 %. According to the established ranking for the risk of asymmetry (Augustsson et al., 2004; Sapega, 1990; Thomee et al., 2012), the study participant can be placed within the high risk of injuries category (low: up to 10 %; medium: 10 %-20 %; high: 20 % or more). Furthermore, the participant places greater load on the left leg in the concentric phase regardless of the direction of the movement (Table 3). Thus, it is presumed, that the participant’s right side is impaired, which results in a correction or compensational movement. The video analysis shows that the execution of acrobatic elements was correct and that the participant begins twisting around the longitudinal axis with a delay when he is already in the flight phase. For this reason it is believed that tactics and technique contribute very little to deficiencies. The main reason for the occurrence of deficiencies is a high asymmetry associated with the deficit of different forms of strength in the eccentric and concentric phase and with inter-muscular coordination in different phases of the takeoff. In addition, the study suggests that during the landing of an acrobatic series backwards, the load on the athlete increases as the difficulty of performed elements increase (Table 5). These findings are in accordance with previous research (Čuk & Ferkolj, 2000; Karacsony & Čuk, 2005; Marinšek & Čuk, 2010; McNitt-Gray, 1993; Bessem Mkaouer, Jemni, Amara, Chaabène, & Tabka, 2013; Panzer, 1987). Furthermore, load fluctuations were found in elements that include twists around the longitudinal axis. The literature explains this phenomenon with individual strategies of landing which are related to the physical conditions and technical knowledge of the athlete (Hraski & Mejovšek, 2004; Marinšek, 2011; B. Mkaouer et al., 2013). Moreover, the study shows that the asymmetric load on the feet is characteristic of both takeoff and landing phases.

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To continue, asymmetry is considered a negative phenomenon in sport because it negatively affects the load on an athlete. The problem is predominantly an increased risk of injury that affects the safety of the training through an increased load on the athlete (Steffen, Baramki, Rubin, Antoniou, & Aebi, 1998; Yeadon, 1999). Comparison of landings from a two- and one-meter height indicated that even a symmetrical landing from a two-meter height increases the risk of eversion in the calcaneocuboid joint by 52 % (Arampatzis, Morey-Klapsing, & Bruggemann, 2003). Furthermore, during an asymmetric the load increases up to 5 times body weight on the overloaded leg. Thus, the probability of eversion is greater when these two factors are combined. In a number of studies, Breuggemenn (1985, 2013) notes that while landing, the asymmetrical load on the legs leads to incorrect loading on the spine. This then causes an increase of shear forces on the vertebrae in the lumbar part of the back, which further increases the risk of injuries in gymnastics (Brueggemann & Hume, 2013; Brüggemann, 1985). When this is applied to this particular study, it can be assumed that the factor of asymmetry further increases the risk of injuries. Furthermore, Radin and Paul (1970) claim that the body absorbs energy according to two strategies: strategy of bone deformation and strategy of length change of the active muscle. Absorption of outside energy is either followed by a disperse of energy within the body or is used as an energy reserve for load enhancement during concentric muscular contraction. When the energy is used for load enhancement during concentric muscle contraction (immediately followed by eccentric muscle contraction) (Komi, 2003), the strategy of lengthening of the active muscle (eccentric muscular contraction) presents a more efficient, controlled and mostly safe loading on the athlete’s body. According to Radin and Paul (1970), the strategy of bone deformation is aimed towards a reduction of the external load on the bone microstructures which can if exposed to a high number of repetitions develop into stress fractures (Schaffler, Radin, & Burr, 1989). It is more frequently presumed that the bone deformation strategy is followed by absorption of energy, due to existing high levels of load and forces. In cases of increased asymmetry (over 20 %) of load on the overloaded extremity, asymmetries have an additional negative effect and increase the risk of stress fractures and chronic injuries. For a better understanding of the issue in artistic gymnastics, it is necessary to connect the risks of asymmetric landing and the strategies of energy absorption with a high number of repetitions – multiple ten thousand per year (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004; Smolevski & Gaverdovski, 1999). This presumably presents an increased risk of chronic injuries or pre-existing acute injuries due to an already existent chronic injury in the same location. The literature suggests that such high numbers of repetition and loading on the body are associated with serious complications and injuries even after athlete’s competitive career. In men’s artistic gymnastics, the most common anatomical location of injuries is the lumbar part of the spine, shoulders, elbows and wrists. (Brueggemann & Hume, 2013). In addition, asymmetry can be reduced with an effective landing. The goal when landing is to achieve a position of equilibrium as soon as possible. Asymmetry reduces the surface of support during landing, which decreases the effectiveness of the balance restoration and with it a successful landing (Marinšek, 2011). Additionally, this study cannot support the assumption of Bračič (2010), who states that in the case of uneven distribution of load on both feet during takeoff, there is an occurrence of rotation in the frontal plane and overload on the leg that carries less load on the surface. The analysis of the concentric phase of the takeoff and landing indicates that in most cases the athlete carries a greater load on the leg that was already overloaded during takeoff (Table 2 and Table 5). However, despite this finding it would be reasonable to conduct a study on a larger sample to determine whether or not Bračič’s finding are applicable in gymnastics.

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CONCLUSION We are often faced with the question of what is the most objective way to evaluate movement characteristics and/or what are the best demonstrated features of the athlete during that movement. Data collection in situational conditions is an extremely difficult task in artistic gymnastics because the athlete needs to be provided with safe conditions for the performance of complex motor tasks. The research objective was to assess the relationship of lateral symmetry in situational conditions in complex acrobatic series forwards and backwards on floor. The issue of asymmetry and high loads on the athlete has been a subject of discussion for a long time. Development of information technology and various sensory systems enable the increase in situational gathering of the additional useful information in gymnastics and in that way ensure greater safety and efficiency of the athlete. Unfortunately, there is a lot of asymmetry, which is associated with issues in gymnastics and is reflected in this study. The added value of the study is a successful test for the detection of load level in situational conditions that include individual measurements for eccentric and concentric phases. Great emphasis was placed on the separation of the eccentric and concentric contraction, as at first the measurement of the average and maximum load in the entire takeoff of an acrobatic series forwards did not detect any symmetry. When eccentric and concentric phases were analyses individually, the results show that there is a high level of asymmetry between the left and right leg. The ability to monitor the movement according to the phases (eccentric, concentric) in situational conditions, along with more accurate and indepth findings are considered advantages of the used measuring system. The use of this type of system enabled more precise detection and correct conclusion which states that in the acrobatic series forwards, there are high levels of asymmetry.

REFERENCES Arampatzis, A., Morey-Klapsing, G., & Bruggemann, G. P. (2003). The effect of falling height on muscle activity and foot motion during landings. J Electromyogr Kinesiol, 13(6), 533-544. Arkaev, L., & Suchilin, N. (2004). How to Create Champions. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport, cop. 2004. Augustsson, J., Thomee, R., & Karlsson, J. (2004). Ability of a new hop test to determine functional deficits after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 12(5), 350-356. Baechle, T. R., Earle, R. W., National, S., & Conditioning, A. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning. Leeds: Human Kinetics. Baumhauer, J., Alosa, D., Renstrom, P., Trevino, S., & Beynnon, B. (1995). A Prospective Study of Ankle Injury Risk Factors. The American journal of sports medicine, 564-570. Bolkovič, T., Čuk, I., Kokole, J., Kovač, M., & Novak, D. (2002). Izrazoslovje v gimnastiki. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport, Inštitut za šport. Bompa, T. O. (2006). Periodizacija; teorija i metodologija treninga. Zagreb: Marjan tisak. Bračič, M. (2010). Biodinamične razlike v vertikalnem skoku z nasprotnim gibanjem in bilateralni deficit pri vrhunskih sprinterjih. (Doktorska disertacija), Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport, Ljubljana, Slovenija. Bračič, M., Hadžič, V., Derviševič, E., Peharec, S., Bačič, P., & Čoh, M. (2008). Uporaba izokinietike v atletskem treningu. Atletika, 5-9. Brueggemann, G.-P., & Hume, P. A. (2013). Biomechanics Related to Injury. In C. Caine, K. Russell, & L. Lim (Eds.), Gymnastics (pp. 61-74): John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Brüggemann, P. (1985). Mechanical load on the achilles tendon during rapid dynamic sport movements. Journal Of Biomechanics, 18(7), 554.

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Bučar P., M. (2015). The possible impact and significance of asymmetries in artistic gymnastics Paper presented at the Sport Health & Education: Complementary Approach to Gymnastics, Gdansk. Bučar Pajek, M., Hedbávný, P., Kalichová, M., & Čuk, I. (2016). The asymmetry of lower limb load in balance beam routines. Sci Gymnastics J., 8(1), 5-13. Coombs, R., & Garbutt, G. (2002). Developments in the use of the hamstring qudriceps ratio for the assessment of muscle balance. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 1, 56-62. Čoh, M., Jovanović-Golubović, D., & Bratić, M. (2004). Motor learning in sport. Physical Education and Sport, 2(1), 45-59. Čuk, I., & Ferkolj, M. (2000). Kinematic analysis of some backward acrobatic jumps. Paper presented at the XVIIIth International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, Hong Kong. DiFiori, J. P., Caine, D. J., & Malina, R. M. (2006). Wrist Pain, Distal Radial Physeal Injury, and Ulnar Variance in the Young Gymnast. The American journal of sports medicine, 34(5), 840-849. Digby, S. (2003). Neural Adaptation to Strength Training. In P. V. Komi (Ed.), Strength and power in sport (pp. 281314). Bodmin, Cornwall: Blackwell Science Ltd. Froehner, G. (2000). Retrospektive Untersuchung von Kunstturnerinnen und Kunstturnern der ehemaligen DDR (Retrospective study of female and male gymnasts of the former GDR). In G.-P. Brueggemann & K. Krahl (Eds.), Belastungen und Risiken im weiblichen Kunstturnen (pp. 73-95). Schorndorf: Hofmann. Hraski, Ž., & Mejovšek, M. (2004). Production of angular momentum for backward somersault. Paper presented at the IASTED International Conference on Biomechanics, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Karacsony, I., & Čuk, I. (2005). Floor exercises. Ljubljana: ŠTD Sangvinčki. Kirialanis, P., Malliou, P., Beneka, A., & Giannakopoulos, K. (2003). Occurrence of acute lower limb injuries in artistic gymnasts in relation to event and exercise phase. Br J Sports Med, 37(2), 137-139. Kladnik, R. (2001). Gibanje, sila, snov - fizika za srednješolce 1. Ljubljana: DZS d.d. Komi, P. V. (2003). Strength and power in sport. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Kraemer, W. J., & Scot, M. (2003). Hormonal Mechanisms Related to the Expression of Muscular Strength and Power. In P. V. Komi (Ed.), Strength and power in sport (pp. 73-95). Bodmin, Cornwall: Blackwell Science Ltd. Kruse, D., & Lemmen, B. (2009). Spine injuries in the sport of gymnastics. Curr Sports Med Rep, 8(1), 20-28. MAG, -. C. o. p. (2013). International Gymnastics Federation. Marinšek, M. (2011). Twisting somersault landings in floor exercise. (doctoral dissertation), Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport, Ljubljana. Marinšek , M., & Čuk, I. (2010). Landing errors in the men’s floor exercise are caused by flight characteristics. Biol Sport, 27(2), 123-128. Markolf, K. L., Shapiro, M. S., Mandelbaum, B. R., & Teurlings, L. (1990). Wrist loading patterns during pommel horse exercises. J Biomech, 23(10), 1001-1011. Marshall, S. W., Covassin, T., Dick, R., Nassar, L. G., & Julie, A. (2007). Descriptive Epidemiology of Collegiate Women’s Gymnastics injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988-1989 Through 2003-2004. Journal of athletic training, 42, 234-240. McNitt-Gray, J. L. (1993). Kinetics of the lower extremities during drop landings from three heights. J Biomech, 26(9), 1037-1046. Mkaouer, B., Jemni, M., Amara, S., Chaabene, H., & Tabka, Z. (2013). Kinematic and kinetic analysis of two gymnastics acrobatic series to performing the backward stretched somersault. J Hum Kinet, 37, 17-26.

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Mkaouer, B., Jemni, M., Amara, S., Chaabène, H., & Tabka, Z. (2013). Kinematic and Kinetic Analysis of Two Gymnastics Acrobatic Series to Performing the Backward Stretched Somersault. J Hum Kinet, 37, 17-26. Norman, R. W., & Komi, P. V. (1979). Electromechanical delay in skeletal muscle under normal movement conditions. Acta Physiol Scand, 106(3), 241-248. Panzer, V. P. (1987). Lower Extremity Loads in Landings of Elite Gymnasts. (Doctoral dissertation), University of Oregon, Oregon. Radin, E. L., & Paul, I. L. (1970). Does cartilage compliance reduce skeletal impact loads? The relative force-attenuating properties of articular cartilage, synovial fluid, periarticular soft tissues and bone. Arthritis Rheum, 13(2), 139-144. Richards, D., Ajemian, S., Wiley, P., Brunet, J., & Zernicke, R. (2002). Relation between ankle joint dynamics and patellar tendinopathy in elite volleyball players. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 266-272. Sands, W. A. (2000). Injury prevention in women’s gymnastics. Sports Med, 30(5), 359-373. Sapega, A. A. (1990). Muscle performance evaluation in orthopaedic practice. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 72(10), 15621574. Schaffler, M. B., Radin, E. L., & Burr, D. B. (1989). Mechanical and morphological effects of strain rate on fatigue of compact bone. Bone, 10(3), 207-214. Smolevski, V. M., & Gaverdovski, J. K. (1999). Športna gimnastika. Kiev: Olimpijska literatura. Steffen, T., Baramki, H. G., Rubin, R., Antoniou, J., & Aebi, M. (1998). Lumbar intradiscal pressure measured in the anterior and posterolateral annular regions during asymmetrical loading. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon), 13(7), 495505. Thomee, R., Neeter, C., Gustavsson, A., Thomee, P., Augustsson, J., Eriksson, B., & Karlsson, J. (2012). Variability in leg muscle power and hop performance after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 20(6), 1143-1151. Ušaj, A. (2003). Kratek pregled osnov športnega treniranja. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport, Inštitut za šport. Yeadon, M. R. (1999). Learning how to twist fast. Paper presented at the XVII International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports – Acrobatics, Perth, Western Australia.

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NOTE ON WOMEN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS C-I COMPETITIONS AT MAJOR COMPETITIONS FROM 2008 – 2015 Delaš Kalinski S.1

University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia

Since it became a part of the modern Olympic Games (1928), Women’s Artistic Gymnastics has experienced a numerous of changes. The same had an influence on the female gymnasts’ career, but also on their competing tactics. From different formats of competition, C- I competition is the most important event since it includes all competitors and teams; the results from this competition determine who has qualified for other competitions (C-II, C-II and C-IV). During C-I competition, there is a certain difference between competitors who tend towards the Vault Finals and the ones who do not: gymnasts who tend towards the Vault Finals (Vault Qualifiers) during C-I competition compete 2 vaults while other competitors compete only one vault. Through the analysis of Difficulty Scores (DS), Execution Scores (ES) and Final scores (FS) of each apparatus, the aims of this study is to determine: a) characteristics and trend in the DSs’, the ESs’ and the FSs’, achieved on all apparatuses during C-I competitions, on all major competitions held from 2008 to 2015 (Olympic Games held in 2008 and 2012, Qualification Tournament for the OG in 2012, World Championships held in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015); b) differences between the DSs’, the ESs’ and the FSs’, achieved on different apparatuses, between different competitions; c) a number of female gymnasts that “survive” more than one Olympiad; d) a number of competitors who compete in Vault Qualifications; f) differences between vault scores of All-Around competitors and Vault Qualifiers on C-I competitions. The sample consisted of all elite female senior gymnasts who competed in C-I competitions on analyzed major competitions. 2*8 factorial ANOVA was applied together with Bonferroni post hoc, when needed. Also, when needed, T-test for independent and T-test for dependent samples were applied. The study has determined: 1) trend in scores (especially of the DSs’ and the FSs’), metaphorically speaking, show ‘wavy shape’ between two analyzed Olympic Games; 2) a significant differences between scores on different apparatuses, between some competitions; 3) that cca 62% of all gymnasts competed All-Around in the Qualifying competition (C-I) on both Olympics (OG2008 and OG2012); 4) that cca 25% of female gymnasts “survive” two Olympics; 5) that only 20% of female gymnasts, on most major competitions, compete Vault Qualifications; 6) significant differences between the DS, and consequently the FS, of only vault of All-Around competitors and of the first vault of the Vault Qualifiers. In conclusion, determined results show characteristics and tactics of the elite gymnasts in the analysed period. As such, they present guidelines for any future planning and programming of training sessions for future senior female competitors.

key words: elite female senior gymnasts, ANOVA, trend of the Difficulty Scores/Execution Scores/ Final Scores, competition tactics

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INTEGRATING MINDFULNESS AND FLOW IN GYMNASTICS Smrdu M.1, Kordeš U.2

University of Primorska, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, Department of psychology, Koper, Slovenia 2 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, The Middle European interdisciplinary master programme in Cognitive Science, Ljubljana, Slovenia 1

ABSTRACT Coaches and athletes spend most of their time working on the physical and fundamental aspects related to their sport. They often neglect and ignore the one area that ultimately separates successful athletes from those who do not reach their full potential – mental aspect. Our thoughts influence our actions and our actions influence our thoughts. This never-ending cycle often leads athletes and coaches to attribute poor performance to process of thinking. One of the most common techniques for working with thoughts is metacognition, however a relatively new approach, named mindfulness, is emerging also in sport psychology. Important effect of mindfulness is exactly a reduction of amount of thoughts, their intensity and entanglement to their content. Both approaches will be discussed in connection to flow, from theoretical and practical (gymnastically oriented) point of view.

key words: mindfulness, flow, metacognition, gymnastics

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INTRODUCTION In the beginning we will introduce basic notions of flow, as a personal experience (experiential level) that may lead to a peak performance (behavior level), metacognition, as a set of techniques emerging from cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness as a quite new technique, now used also by sport psychologists. After that we will try to integrate and compare them theoretically and practically through examples of gymnastic training.

FLOW Flow is generally defined as an elevated state of consciousness that reflects changes in attention (Crust, 2005). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) has defined it as an optimal mental condition that involves athlete’s complete absorption with the present task or activity, without his/hers conscious decision for it. With that athlete loses awareness of everything else: time, people, distractions and even basic physical needs. Together with Jackson (1999) they presented nine characteristics of flow experience: a) Sensation of balance between high demands of the situation and personal skills of gymnast. When both of them (challenges of situation and skills) are simultaneously above the average, a general positive experience is triggered. b) Feeling of complete focus on the task. c) Immerging of action and awareness, or a sense of automaticity of ones own actions. d) Clearly defined goals and athlete’s sense of certainty about upcoming events. A gymnast has a sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity. e) Clear feedback: gymnast receives immediate and clear feedback, which confirms that everything is going according to the plan. f) Sense of control that occurs without conscious effort, a high level of skills and a sense that all is done without any effort are simultaneously occurring. g) Distortion of temporal experience: gymnast may experience that time is running slower or faster and his/hers awareness of time passing may be reduced. h) Loss of awareness of himself/herself: gymnast is not worried if other people judge or evaluate him/ her, neither he/she doesn’t have this kind of attitude towards himself/herself. Instead he/she becomes one with the activity. i) Internally rewarding experience: the gymnast feels enjoyment for doing elements or exercise because of activity itself, without expectation of reward or any benefit. Palmer (2006) notes that the experience of flow also changes movement patterns, so that conscious movements and unconscious reflex become better integrated, which also improves coordination. Many athletes describe how effortlessly they executed their performance, while achieving the best personal result.

The variability between indicators suggests that flow cannot be reliably identified through any narrow set of measures. As the flow experience is complex, a range of indicators is needed to identify when and how one experiences flow (Ainely, Enger & Kenedy, 2008).

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MINDFULNESS The notion mindfulness is a translation (Davis, 1881 in Wayne, 2007) of a Pali word sati and indicates Budddha’s recommendation for daily maintenance of continuous attention to the body, feelings, objects of consciousness (i.e. thoughts and perceptions) and consciousness itself (Wynne, 2007: 73). Western psychology has maintained the notion, but the meaning has adapted. Thus, in Western culture mindfulness is defined as paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment, nonjudgmentally, as if your life depends on it (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, 2). Cottraux (2007) described it as a mental condition, which occurs with directing attention voluntary to sensory, mental, cognitive and emotional aspects of current experience. Mindfulness in the present moment is an aimless act associated with transient suspension of both ego (Ryan and Brown, 2003) and interpretation of experience (Shapiro et al., 2006). When a gymnast is consciously present to observe a moment without judging it and when is refraining from attributing the personal values to the occurring process, than he/she is mindful. In recent conceptualizations mindfulness is defined as an effective cognitive self-regulation, which is reflected in the accurate evaluation and non-automatic response (Garland et al., 2009; Shapiro et al., 2006). When practicing mindfulness, thoughts are noted as kind of states that pass through the mind and as such don’t require any action. This creates “space” between gymnast’s perception and gymnast’s response and enables him/her more objective response to the situation, as oppose to automatic one.

In sports psychology we distinguish two key components of mindfulness (Bishop et al., 2004): (1) its own control attention and awareness of the current experience and (2) the attitude of curiosity, openness and acceptance of the current experience. Awareness and acceptance of the internal and external aspects of current experience, having nonjudgmental adoption, follow-up thoughts, feelings and emotions, without avoidance or excessive involvement, bring with them emotional stability (Carmody, 2009; Delgado et al., 2010). We can see that the term mindfulness is used in two ways. First indicates the manner of experience, and the other, the technique of psychological preparation. Thus, for example Gardner and Moore (2004) found that practicing mindfulness (as state) resulted in acceptance of negative thoughts, reducing worries increased consumption, concentration and persistence. Mindfulness is also used as a technique to control emotional states. This approach is expected (Wells, 2001) to facilitate: a) the development of metacognitive mode of operation in which thoughts are not detected as a reality, but only as a mental events that can be assessed and amended; b) reduction of worries that lead to ill adapted behavior; c) flexibility of responses to the threat; d) development of plans for the control of cognition.

METACOGNITION Flavell (1979) first used the term metacognition for individual cognitive processes or other processes associated with them. It indicates the level of thinking which includes active control of the thought processes. Skills, which are, by their nature, metacognitive, are planning, learning, understanding control, evaluation of progress, maintaining motivation and effort on the implementation of the tasks and the capability of awareness disturbing stimuli (internal and external). Metacognition can be divided (Hartman, 2001) in executing management and strategic knowledge. The first involves planning, monitoring, evaluation and review of individual’s thought processes and knowledge. Strategic expertise incorporates: “what” knowledge (declarative knowledge), knowledge of “when” and “why” (contextual

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knowledge) and “how” knowledge (procedural knowledge). Both parts of the metacognition are required for self-thinking and learning. Metacognition has three components: ͳͳ metacognitive knowledge (also called metacognitive awareness): what individual knows about cognitive processes in self and others; ͳͳ Metacognitive regulation is regulation of cognition and learning experiences; ͳͳ Metacognitive experience; It is associated with the current cognitive activity that one experiences it.

INTEGRATION When our brain gets caught up in thoughts (usually about the past or about the future), a stress response is created, and we cannot use the part of the brain that keeps us engaged in the moment (Race, 2014). Our thoughts and internal dialogue (self-talk) create a stress response, and that impacts our behavior. What we’re telling ourselves affects what we see, and what we see affects what we feel. Therefore gymnast has a problem with containing focus but also his/hers decisions making and problem solving are influenced and distracted. While some degree of stress is normal in gymnastics, just as in every other sport, we want to moderate the stress, since it increases anxiety (including with fears of failure) and this negatively influences gymnastic performance in competition (Duncan, 2014). Since gymnastic is a sport in which one has to show his/ her maximum in up to 90 sec (jump on vault takes only 5 seconds) it is also important to be able to resist not just internal (anxiety, fear) but also external distractions (a loud crowd, distracting teammate etc.). Applied sport psychology is mostly based on cognitive behavioral therapy and its paradigm, so sport psychology has rapidly began to incorporate its’ knowledge, with the emphasis on metacognition as a technique for improving sport performance. The consequence of this is that the psychological preparation of the athlete is based on the regulation of cognitive processes, since they are regarded as major factors in the decision-making process. With metacognition, awareness of self began to gain importance in the process of training and competition. In general, athletes with more developed metacognitive or executing skills are also more successful in learning, since ability to learn incorporates also how quickly athlete detects blockages and adjusts strategy accordingly. Metacognition is therefore very useful in learning new skills, setting goals and observation of emotional states. On the other hand, experiences of athletes show that metacognition during performance can be also distracting and destroy the physical execution. This is evident especially in the sports that have complex coordination requirements (e.g. gymnastics) and in sports, where the critical timing (e.g. gymnastics-vault). Thus, the gymnast reports: “The most important is the timing of a push off from a spring board, and if I think about when to push off, I will never do it right, I just have a feeling. If I feel the timing in the legs, then I know I’m in good shape”. Rhythmic gymnast describes an execution of a difficult element as follows: “The element must be carried out by itself, if I think that I need to fix a leg or change something, this completely ruins my execution of the element.” Similarly, about the performance of usual sequence of elements in the exercise gymnast reported: “During the exercise I started to think and I forgot how to go forward, I forgot which is the next element, and this sequence is the part of the exercise that I practiced thousands of times, is the sequence I would know, if I wake up in the middle of the night.” Therefore, metacognition may be useful in sport; on the other hand, since it is almost entirely based on a cognitive activity, with its excessive activation, metacognition can also fundamentally degrade performance. Psychologists have concluded that metacognitive techniques may improve competitive execution, but often do not lead to superior performance. It turns out that the control of rational part doesn’t necessarily help with integration of a human functioning (Kahneman, 2003). So the psychologists from the Eastern spiritual traditions introduced mindfulness, which provides more integrated functioning. In sports psychology we are beginning to use it also as a method that can facilitate achieving flow.

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By changing the overall mental mindset, one can see results faster. So far sport psychologists have used different mental techniques to improve athlete’s mental preparation, i.e. visualization, imagery, positive self-talk, positive affirmations. But nowadays sport psychologists are incorporating mindfulness into their teachings of mental preparation, increasingly. They do that by teaching athletes to stay focused on the present moment and strengthen the mind-body connection, while feeling better in their own skin. Mindfulness helps training the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that creates a calm and alert state of mind, which helps us stay focused, avoid distraction and perform at our best. It’s one of the best ways to calm the stress response in the brain. This allows us to notice our thoughts and emotions without getting attached to them (Race, 2014). A study in mindful meditation showed that mindfulness led to lower resting output of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (lower resting cortisol levels — the socalled “stress hormone; Jacobs et al., 2013). Through bringing out attention inward, we also activate the insular cortex of the brain. As a result, we experience a heightened sense of awareness of our body and improve the communication between the body and mind. This helps us to sense physiological changes, like a tense muscle or shallow breathing, and to make a split-second adjustments even before we are consciously aware of what is going on (and before those factors have a chance to impact our performance (Race, 2014). The application of mindfulness to sport performance has recently become a popular research endeavor. Some researchers have suggested that by enhancing current moment awareness, a critical component of a peak sport performance (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Ravizza, 2002), mindfulness exercises can help to generate flow, or a state of complete focus on the task or event at hand (Aherne, Moran, & Lonsdale, 2011; Kee & Wang, 2008). These studies suggest that gymnast’s flow dispositions and mental skills adoption could be differentiated using mindfulness (Jackson & Eklund, 2004). Gardner and Moore (2012) hypothesized that mindfulness-based interventions for sports are effective because they help athletes direct their attention to the current athletic task, while minimizing external distractions. The use of mindfulness in sport is quite new, although the first research about a mindfulness-based intervention for athletes was conducted already in 1985 (Kabat-Zinn, Beall, & Rippe, 1985) and in presented positive effects. However, quite some time was needed for mindfulness to become fully accepted in sport. In recent years, several approaches based on mindfulness have been developed (Kaufman & Glass, 2006; Gardner & Moore, 2007) and their usefulness has been intensively studied (e.g. Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009; Pineau, Glass, Kaufman, Tenuta, & Bernal, 2011; Pineau, Glass, & Kaufman, 2012). They all showed a strong and significant positive connection between mindfulness and flow and thereby also with peak performance (Privette & Bundrick, 1991; Jackson & Roberts, 1992; Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Young & Pain, 1999; Kordeš & Smrdu, 2012). Jackson and Eklund (2004) showed in their research that high mindfulness is connected to better attention control, emotional control, goal setting and selftalk, but also higher flow dispositions and mental skills adoption habits, challenge–skill balance, merging of action and awareness, and clear goals. Athletes who reported a greater sense of mindfulness were more likely to experience a higher state of flow. These athletes also scored better in terms of control of attention and emotion, goal-setting and positive self-talk (Kee & Wang, 2008). Mindfulness training that we used also with gymnasts involves further techniques: - Mindful breathing: For a few (five to ten) minutes a day gymnast pays attention to his/her breathing, which involves natural and/or deep, rhythmic breathing. Physiologically, this can help to regulate one’s breathing if it becomes shallow. - Body scan: Practicing a body scan can help release tension, quiet the mind, and bring awareness to gymnast’s body in a systematic way. Gymnast lies down on his/her back with palms facing up and legs relaxed. He/she is trying to maintain attention on each body part (such as the feet, knees, stomach, shoulders, neck, and arms one by one) and any sensations there. Engaging in this practice regularly, helped gymnasts to become more highly attuned to what’s happening in their body.

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- Internal and external messages: Paying attention to internal dialogue as well as the stories telling to one’s family and friends, can reflect and shape gymnast’s mental state. Gymnasts were noticing their thoughts and emotions, without judgment and without attachment to them. With that gymnasts learned they can notice that the feelings are there and learn to not get entangled with them from one routine to another. Eventually we translated these mindfulness exercises to specific tasks and activities in gymnastics. For example, to practice mindfulness while stretching, by noticing the specific sensations in parts of a body as one stretches and noticing his/hers breathing patterns. After that, gymnasts were practicing mindful awareness during sport-related events, for instance, they tried to be mindful while performing Russian wendeswings. Eventually, they practiced being mindfully aware during competition. Gymnast after his routine on a pommel horse reported: “I thought without thinking, I had trust in what I was doing. At the last routine I felt pure joy in performance, without being aware of the audience.” Researches found out that athletes who are more conscious of the present moment are more likely to experience a state of flow. They also presented that higher mindfulness indicates better metacognitive skills such as attention control, emotional control, goal setting and self-talk (Gardner & Moore, 2006; Kee, Wang, 2008); and that mindfulness is at the core of top performance (Jackson, Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Ravizza, 2002). Also our experience with gymnasts show, that training mindfulness can be a good way not just to better performance, but also to higher enjoyment in practicing sport, and with summing both, to flow.

CONCLUSION We still do not understand the connection between mindfulness and mental training and athletic performance fully. However, it has been proven that mindful practices can help in many ways, e.g. they help to connect with the present moment, and create a more resilient mind, they lower stress levels and effect prefrontal cortex. That may lead to better performance by improving attention, emotional and thought responses and patterns and they provide possibility for development of flow. As first experiences in psychological preparation, especially in so physically complex sport as gymnastics, are showing us, this technique can be even more effective than the usual cognitive ones.

REFERENCES Aherne, C., Moran, A. P., & Lonsdale, C. (2011). The effect of mindfulness training on athletes’ flow: An initial investigation. Sport Psychologist, 25(2), 177-189. Ainley, M., Enger, L. & Kennedy, G. (2008). The elusive experience of ‘flow’: Qualitative and quantitative indicators. International Journal of Educational Research. 47 (2), 109–121. Carmody, J. & Baer, R. A. (2009). How long does a mindfulness-based stress reduction program need to be? A review of class contact hours and effect sizes for psychological distress. Journal of clinical psychology, 65(6), 627-638. Cottraux, J., (2007). Thérapie cognitive et emotions: La troisie`me vague [Cognitive therapy and emotions: The third wave], Paris. Crust, L. (2005). Flow: For peak experiences in sport, you need to go with the flow In I. Walker (ed.), Psychology a will to win. London, pp. 43–50. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The flow experience and its significance for human psychology, In M. Csikszentmihalyi (ed.), Optimal experience: psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge, UK, pp. 15–35. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. Delgado, L. C., Guerra, P., Perakakis, P., Vera, M. N., et. al. (2010). Treating chronic worry: Psychological and physiological effects of a training programme based on mindfulness. Behavior research and Therapy 48, 873–882.

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Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry, American Psychologist 34, 906–991. Gardner, F. L. & Moore, Z. E. (2007). The psychology of enhancing human performance: The mindfulness-acceptance commitment (MAC) approach. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Garland, E., Gaylord, S. & Park, J. (2009). The role of mindfulness in positive reappraisal, Explore 5 (1), 37–44. Hartman, H. J. (2001), Metacognition in learning and instruction. Dordrecht. Jackson, S. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. C. (1999). Flow in sports: The keys to optimal experiences and performances, Champaign, IL. Jackson, S. A. & Roberts, G. (1992). Positive performance states of athletes: Toward a conceptual understanding of peak performance, The Sport Psychologist 6, 156–171. Kabat-Zinn, J., Beall, B. & Rippe, J. (1985). A systematic mental training program based on mindfulness meditation to optimize performance in collegiate and Olympic rowers. VI World Congress in Sport Psychology, Copenhagen, Denmark. Kaufman, K. A. & Glass, C. R. (2006). Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: A treatment manual for archers and golfers. Unpublished manuscript, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC. Kaufman, K. A., Glass, C. R. & Arnkoff, D. B. (2009). Evaluation of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE): A new approach to promote flow in athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 334-356. Kordeš, U. & Smrdu, M. (2013). Review of some phenomena in sport psychology from the point of view of the athlete’s experience. Ars & humanitas, 6 (1), 33-49. Palmer, R. (2006). Zone mind, zone body, Penryn, UK. Pineau, T. R., Glass, C. R., Kaufman, K. A., Tenuta, C. K. & Bernal, D. R. (2011). Self and team efficacy beliefs of rowers and their relation to mindfulness and flow. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Pineau, T. R., Glass, C. R. & Kaufman, K. A. (2012). Mindfulness in Sport Performance. In A. Ie, C. Ngnoumen & E. Langer (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness pp. 1004-1033. Oxford, UK: Wiley- Blackwell. Privette, G. & Bundrick, C. M. (1991). Peak experience, peak performance, and flow: Correspondence of personal descriptions and theoretical constructs. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 6(5), 169-188. Race, K. (2014). Mindful parenting: Simple and powerful solutions for raising creative, engaged, happy kids in today’s hectic world. St. Martin’s Griffin. Ryan, R. M. & Brown, K. W. (2003). Why we don’t need self-esteem: on fundamental needs, contingent love and mindfulness, Psychological inquiry 14, 27–82. Shapiro, S. L., Carlson L. E., Astin J. A. & Freedman B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness, Journal of Clinical Psychology 62, 373–386. Kee, Y. H. & Wang, C. K. J. (2008). Relationships between mindfulness, flow dispositions and mental skills adoption: A cluster analytic approach. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 9 (4), 393–411. Duncan, M. (2014). Athletes fear of failure can lead to choking. Retrieved from: Coventry University. “Athletes’ fear of failure likely to lead to ‘choke,’ study shows.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 7 May 2014. <www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2014/05/140507212249.htm> Jackson, S.A., & Eklund, R.C. (2004). The flow scale manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Wynne, A. (2007). The origin of Buddhist Meditation, Abingdon, Oxon. Young, A. J., & Pain. D. P. (1999). The Zone: Evidence of a Universal Phenomenon for Athletes Across Sports. The Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 1. Retrieved December 5, 2015, from http:// www.athleticinsight.com/Vol1iss/ Empirical_zone.htm

3rd INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS ORGANIZED BY SLOVENIAN GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

SHOULDER JOINT MOBILITY IN GYMNASTICS RekiÄ? S.1, Zupet P.2

University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia IMS Institute for Medicine and Sports, Ljubljana, Slovenia

1 2

BACKGROUND Gymnasts are both lower extremity and upper extremity weight-bearing athletes. Injury incidence is high with 3.6 injuries per gymnasts per year and 2.5-3.3 injuries per 1000 hours of training. There have been some already known risk factors for injuries in gymnastics like larger body size, rapid growth, training more then 15-20 hours per week and life stress.

AIM To analyze the range of motion (ROM) in shoulder joint and assess its correlation to overall and shoulder injury risk in artistic and rhythmic gymnastics.

METHODS There were 62 subjects (MAG 15, WAG 24, RG 23) included in the prospective study. The ROM of left and right shoulder joints was measured at the beginning of the study and the incidence of injuries was followed in the next 12 months. Basic statistics parameters were used to describe the ROM values. The differences in ROM between left and right shoulder were analyzed with paired-samples t-test and MannWhitney test was used to assess the injury risk. P-values Ë&#x201A; 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS We found a significant deficit in retroflexion and external rotation of both shoulder joints in artistic but not also in rhythmic gymnastics and some deficit in internal rotation and abduction of both shoulder joints in artistic and rhythmic gymnastics. There was no significant correlation between overall and shoulder injury incidence and shoulder ROM.

CONCLUSION In gymnasts some ROM deficit in scapulo-humeral joint may be due to tight joint structure and is not correlated to increased injury risk.

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MEASURING AND MONITORING THE PROCESS OF PHYSICAL PREPARATION FOR FIGHT MATCH ON THE CASE OF K-1 FIGHTER FROM THE BOXING CLUB KOPER Vidnjevič M.1, Paravlić A.2

Slovenian Kinesiology Association, Istrska cesta 103, Koper, Slovenia. University of Primorska, Science and Research Centre, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Garibaldijeva 1, Koper, Slovenia. 1 2

Careful modulation of training characteristics in high-level sports optimizes performance and avoids inappropriate workloads and associated sports injury risk (Malisoux, Frisch, Urhausen, Seil, & Theisen, 2013). Today, we can see on the market the various measurement and evaluation instruments,The purpose of this study was to monitor end evaluate the physical preparation of the K1 fighter with more than one aim regarded on the state of the athlete on which basis the different measurement instruments were used. We aim: (i) to analyse the contribution of HBO in the rehabilitation of the injured combat athlete; (ii) to measure whether muscle performance is influenced by rapid weight loss techniques (hot bath, sauna, daily training) and HBOT; (iii) to identify the effect of “weight cutting” process on body composition. One participant (29 years of age; body mass 85,7 ± 1,90 kg; height 177 cm) was measured and monitored in the Boxing club Koper during contest preparation). We used a three different methods to measure this process.. For Body composition measurement we used BIA (Tanita MC-780 MA), muscle function was assessed by TMG (9 muscle pairs were measured) and HBOT was used as a method of rehab due to an injury of the hip joint. Measurement repetition: TMG measurements were taken five times, BIA eight times and HBOT ten times in a row within fourteen days. TMG results showed improvements in Dm and Tc for most muscle pairs. Muscle symmetry improved in all nine muscle pairs. The most progress was observed in the biceps femoris, followed by vastus medialis and vastus lateralis muscles. For instance, compared to the initial state, Tc of BF has highly improved after the third HBOT. Dm of the BF has also improved after HBOT and hot bath in a way, that BF was much more relaxed in comparison with initial measurements. On the day of the contest, participant’s body mass, visceral fat level and trunk fat decreased, but his lean muscle mass stayed the same. Preparation for the match was carried out without drastic fluid deficit which was also one of the main goals of weight loss process. After ten HBOT, participant’s ankle was no longer injured, swelling have gone down and the pain was gone. According to the results, BIA was recognized as the suited method for assessing body composition based on specific characteristic desired for interpretation and TMG as a reliable method as muscle assessment tool (Dahmane et al., 2005; García Manso et al., 2010; Tous-Fajardo et al., 2010). Contribution of HBO in the rehabilitation of the ankle injury was positive and it allowed the injured athlete to return to competition faster than the normal course of rehabilitation. The above-mentioned methods are, to our knowledge, potentially valuable tools for new researches and especially for intervention studies where there is a need to make precise measurements of potentially delicate changes.

REFERENCES Malisoux, L., Frisch, A., Urhausen, A., Seil, R., & Theisen, D. (2013). Monitoring of sport participation and injury risk in young athletes. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 16(6), 504-508. Dahmane, R., Djodjevič, S., Šimunič, B., & Valenčič, V. (2005). Spatial fiber type distribution in normal human muscle: Histochemical and tensiomyographical evaluation. Journal of Biomechanics, 38, 2451-2459.

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TOP 15 COMPETENCIES OF SLOVENIAN FITNESS MANAGERS Retar, I. 1, Bardorfer, A.2 1,2

University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia

ABSTRACT The purpuse of this contribution is to present the preliminary results of the pilot study which are the most important job competencies of the fitness centre managers in Slovenia. In the online questionnaire, we interviewed 53 experts working in fitness centres. The first three most important competencies are: »Human resources management ability«, »Motivation for lifelong learning« and »The understanding and realization of the expectations and wishes of the costumers«. The findings of the pilot study are to be used for the development of lifelong learning programs in the field of the fitness industry.

key words: management, fitness centres, top competencies

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INTRODUCTION Today fitness organizations need successful fitness managers with the appropriate competencies more than ever. Through that they will meet the expectations and requirements of consumers of their sports services, the staff within the sport organizations and the interests of the owners. The work in fitness organization should be planned, organized, lead and controlled by experts for professional sports management who have a number of competencies from sports, managerial and technical to social. Sports management differs in the Slovenian area from the general concept of management. Those differences are a result of a number of peculiarities inherent in sports, such as organizational structure, ownership structure (e.g., private, public, public-private sports organizations, sport club etc.), stakeholders structure, the structure of mission (profit and non-profit) and the structure of key products (e.g., fitness in tourist industry or in health institutions, fitness for top athletes, etc.). In general the fitness management can be understood as a creative process of coordination with key resources and successful cooperation with stakeholders, which allows the fitness organization to reach the set goals of its owner. These define a fitness manager as a competent professional, who has the ability to use knowledge, skills, personal qualities, experience, competencies and motivation in their own way to carry out effectively the expected work or the role in the area of fitness management. The fitness industry is increasing worldwide. According to the data of International Health, Racquet & Sports club Association (IHRSA) posted in the annual International Report (2015), total revenues of Slovenian fitness industry were in 2015 amounted to 43.858.878 US dollars. The 2015 report indicates that Slovenian fitness market consists of 84 organizations with a total of 51.450 members. Regarding the same report in 2010, Slovenian fitness industry was amounted to 6.319.655 US dollars, consisted of 30 organizations with a total of 9.000 members. A comparison with Europe and neighbouring countries (Table 1) shows that the Slovenian fitness market is despite the increasing trend, relatively modest and underdeveloped in terms of number of establishments and members.

Table1 Proceeds of the global fitness industry in 2015 (The 2015 European Health Club Report; The 2015 IHRSA International Report; The Leisure Database; DSSV; Estimates by industry experts).

State

Annual income

Fitness organizations

Members

Europe

35.009.912.448 $

51.299

47.668.950

Slovenia

43.858.878 $

51.450

Croatia

143.933.160 $

656

189.000

Austria

611.037.000 $

903

735.000

Italy

2.819.835.532 $

6.695

4.326.000

A comparison with Europe and neighbouring countries (Table 2) shows that the Slovenian fitness market is in terms of financial annual income of fitness organization per capita in a very good position.

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Table2 Numbers of fitness organizations and annual income in USA $ per capita in fitness industry in 2015 (The 2015 European Health Club Report; The 2015 IHRSA International Report; The Leisure Database; DSSV; Estimates by industry experts).

State

Number of fitness per capita

Annual income (USD $) of fitness per capita

Europe

14.474

682.468 $

Slovenia

24.524

522.129 $

Croatia

6.484

219.410 $

Austria

9.384

676.674 $

Italy

8.937

421.185 $

WORK METHODS Sample description The study included 53 Slovenian participants (49.1 % women) who were economically active in the fitness centre. 81.1 % of participants were aged 21 to 40 years, 17 % between 41 and 60 years and 1.9 % in 61 years or more. The educational structure of participants was varied: 52.8% with university / university education, 20.8% high school, 9.4 % Master’s degree, 9.4 % higher / professional education, 3.8 % higher school, 1.9 % Ph.D. and 1.9 % with completed primary education. 49.1 % of participants qualified as instructors, 26.4 % as coaches and 22.6 % as trainers. 67.9 % of participants in the fitness organization perform the function of a coach, a managering function only 35.8 %. 28.3 % survey participants are owners of fitness organizations. In addition to these, 26.4 % of participants also perform other functions (trainer, instructor, and receptionist). 43.4 % of participants are self-employed, 17.0 % perform regular permanent employees, 13.2 % are regularly employed for a fixed period, 11.3 % performed work through copyright or contract for services, 11.4 % participants involved in different way (volunteering, ownership, internship…). The average seniority of the participants was 9.7 years and the average period to provide certain features in the fitness of the participants was 7.3 years. With 38.5 % of fitness centres is registered as an independent company, 36.5 % as a private company (organization registered under the Companies Law), as 19.2 % Sports Association (an organization registered under the Societies Law) and 5.8 % as a private institution (organization registered under the Law on institutions). 45.3 % of organizations located in Central region, 11.3% in the Coast and Karst, 9.4 % in Podravska, 7.5 % in the Gorenjska region, 7.5 % in Savinjska, 5.7 % in Carinthia, 3.8 % from Southeast Slovenia and 7.6 % in other statistical regions in Slovenia. 53.8 % fitness organizations have a capacity of 12 to 100 people, 25.0 % from 100 to 200, and 21.2 % over 200 people.

THE PROCESS OF COLLECTING THE DATA In the e-mail addresses of selected fitness organizations from the base Fitness Association of Slovenia from July 2015 was sent to the online questionnaire on the website. In total there were 53 completed questionnaires.

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UTILITIES We used the online questionnaire, which is in addition to the issues of the demographic data of the participants as well as information on the fitness organization, containing the scales of general and specific competences of fitness managers. The first scale consisted of 12 general, and the other 28 specific competencies, which were formed on the basis of research Retar (2014), Kyungro and Young (2003) and Koustelios (2003). The task of the participants was to evaluate the importance of each competence on a scale of 1 (least important) to 6 (most important). Reliability of scales used in this study was high: Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of internal reliability for the scale of generalized competence totalled 0.86 to 0.95 (Andrew Pedersen and McEvoy, 2011, p. 202).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The respondents emphasised that the first three most important among the general and specific competencies are: »Human resources management ability« (5,77); »Motivation for lifelong learning« (5,63) and »The understanding and realization of the expectations and wishes of the costumers« (5,62). The structure of importance of 15 top competences among total of 40 competencies is presented in Table 3. Table 3 The evaluation of the 15 most important work competences for performing the tasks of a fitness manager as assessed by the interviewed Slovenian fitness managers. 1. Ability to work with people

5,77

2. Motivation for lifelong learning

5,63

3. The understanding and realization of the expectations and wishes of the costumers

5,62

4. Customer care with maintainig existing users

5,54

5. Developing a positive working environment

5,44

6. Formation of appropriate fitness program

5,37

7. Recruitment and selection of candidates for jobs

5,37

8. Feeling of responsibility towards employees, the environment and sports society for the results of their work

5,29

9. Promotion of work, monitoring, rewarding and design performance indicators

5,25

10. Promoting doing business on the basis of good business relations

5,21

11. Training and introduction to work

5,10

12. Implementation in sports or coaching

4,98

13. Communication with the public, especially the media and key stakeholders

4,98

14. Management of sports infrastructure

4,81

15. Mastering project management

4,77

Modern managers are shifting towards identifying and developing the most important competencies for successful management in sports and thus enhancing the competitiveness of the organizations they lead. The goal of this pilot research was to determine which are the most important competencies in the sphere of management of the fitness centre, which can contribute to its success. The findings can contribute to the understanding of the most important competencies of managers in the field of fitness.

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CONCLUSION The goal of the research was to determine which are the most important competencies in the field of fitness organizations. Managers in fitness industry today are facing new challenges, such as sustainable development, an extraordinary competition, demanding customers, empowered and competent human resources and technological discoveries, which require them to acquire new skills through lifelong learning. In our pilot research, we found out that the role of fitness managers is not only to organize and supervise anymore, but also understanding the expectations of the costumers and efficiently managing human resources, as well as motivation for lifelong learning. Among the limitations of the study include that the analyzes were carried out on a small and not representative sample fitness managers, since it involved those who want it, and that is based on the subjective evaluation of the importance of individual competencies sports managers. Therefore, we do not know whether the reported importance of competencies completely corresponds to the actual direction in the operation of fitness managers. The results of the survey certainly reflect the specific Slovenian cultural, social, political and economic differences as well, and this is what could distinguish some of the findings of our study from others. Undoubtedly, successful fitness managers are an important factor in the process of survival, growth and development of fitness organizations. Therefore the possibility of identifying and measuring the competencies is probably crucial in selecting and directing employees to further personal and professional growth.

REFERENCES Andrew, D., Pedersen & P., McEvoy, C. (2011). Research Methods and Design in Sport Management. Champaign: Human Kinetics. Koustelios, A. (2003).Identifying important management competencies in fitness centres in Greece. Routledge: Managing Leisure. Volume 8, Issue 3. Kyungro, C., Young, K. (2003). Competencies for Fitness Club Instructors: Results of a Delphi-study. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences.Vol. 15 Issue 1, p 56-64. 9 p. 1 Chart. Retar, I. (2014). Razvoj modela strukture kompetenc športnih menedžerjev kot izhodišče za vseživljenjsko učenje. Doktorska disertacija. Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta. Retar, I., Plevnik, M. & Kolar, E. (2013). Key competences of Slovenian sport managers. Annales Kinesiologiae. Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče, Inštitut za kineziološke raziskave: Univerzitetna založba Annales, 4 (2), 81–94. The 2015 IHRSA Global Report: The State of the Health Club Industry. (2015). Boston: International Health, Racquet & Sports club Association.

BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS

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THE USE OF AUDIOVISUAL STIMULATION IN LEARNING GYMNASTIC ELEMENTS Šešum A.1, Čuk I.1, Bučar Pajek M.1, Kajtna T.1 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT Nowadays, more and more people are aware of the difficulty to reach imposed goals and in their craving to improve their performance, results and to be more successful in business, private life and sports, they turn to many methods that help them reach and realize their goals. The market offers many services, methods, products and machines that guarantee and promise better results. The purpose of this research was to study the impact of audio-visual stimulation (hereinafter: AVS) on the improvement of motoric abilities. In order to get better results, a presentation of a gymnastic element was added. The study was conducted on 19 first year students of the Faculty of Sport in Ljubljana, 9 females and 10 males. The students attended the classes of Gymnastics and AVS, each class twice a week. Through the students’ execution of gymnastic elements it was established how much the students had improved from the first lesson to the assessment. For audio-visual stimulation, the machine “Therapeut”, meters to determine heart rate and blood saturation, music and questionnaires with a scale to determine well-being were used. Progress of motoric learning of gymnastic elements, heart rate decline as well as changes in saturation and well-being were monitored. No results obtained in the observed parameters showed that we had any impact on the improvement. A statistically significant difference was noted only in the number of completed compositions, where the control group was better. Our study has not revealed any impact of AVS on the improvement of the observed parameters.

key words: audio-visual stimulation, motor learning, imagery, heart rate

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INTRODUCTION Nowadays, more and more people are aware of the difficulty to reach imposed goals without a “clear head”. In their craving to improve their performance, results and to be more successful in business, private life and sports, they turn to many methods that help them reach and realize their goals. The market offers many services, methods, products and machines that guarantee and promise better results. Among them is also audiovisual stimulation, the purpose of which is to influence brain functioning through audio and visual stimuli.

Brain waves Alpha waves Alpha waves (8 - 12 Hz) are one of the more simple forms of brain activity. They are present in people who are awake, relaxed and processing information automatically. The highest amplitudes of alpha waves come from the frontal and occipital cortex. Alpha waves appear also during physical activity, but only when athletes are very focused (Ricker, 2015). Beta waves Beta waves (13 Hz and higher) are present at fast and intensive brain activity, for example in people who are awake and attending to internal (mental) or external events. Beta waves are strongest in frontal cortex and indicate brain functioning on the highest level. They have high frequencies, but lower amplitude than alpha waves (Ricker, 2015) Theta waves Theta waves (4 – 8 Hz) indicate that a person is in a light sleep from which he or she can be awakened easily. They can also appear shortly when a person is awake and exposed to stressful circumstances or events. Theta waves originate in hippocampus and limbic system (Ricker, 2015). Delta waves Delta waves have the highest amplitudes (< 4 Hz) and indicate deep sleep or even vegetative state in which people are not aware of their surroundings. They are dominant in children up to 1 year of age (Ricker, 2015).

Motor learning Motor learning is a process in which people acquire, perfect and use motor programs, located in central nervous system. Exercise helps to shape those programs and saves them to the right location (Ušaj, 2003). Motor abilities are in part innate and in part acquired during the development (Pistotnik, 1999). We differentiate the following forms of motor abilities: speed, balance, power, coordination, flexibility, precision and perserverance (Videmšek, Berdajs, & Karpljuk, 2003). These abilites are limited by biological as well as psychological factors, therefore we can also categorize them as psychomotor abilities. Most of motor learning takes place in motoric part of cortex. It is a relatively permanent change in execution of certain motoric tasks which require motor abilities. Term psychomotor learning includes not only muscle activity, but also a conscious control of movement.

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Martens (1997, in Kajtna & Jeromen, 2013) defined three phases of motor learning: • Cognitive stage: it begins when we decide for learning and ends when we know basics of movement. Athlete understands movement and has a correct perception of it. • Associative stage: athletes are able to execute movement correctly, but only in known circumstances and without additional challenges. Basic movement is fluent and almost automatic, which means it is already engraved in a motor program and control of movement decreases. Execution of movement is becoming more and more consistent, the number of mistakes decreases. Athletes are able to detect mistakes on their own, which enables them better control of training. • Autonomous stage: Athletes execute movements preciselly. Motor program is realiable and perfected. Movements are economic and fluent, athletes are selfconfident. Automatisation of movement enables them to focus their energy on details and their surroundings.

Motor learning in gymnastics In our research we focused on motor learning of gymnastic elements. Sports gymnastics is one of the most basic sport disciplines and it is of extreme importance for motor development of individual, since it enables conscious control of body position and movement (Čuk, 1996). One of the most important roles of gymnastics is therefore to enable development of basic motor skills, such as power, coordination, flexibility, balance and speed (Zajc, 1992).

Visualization The term visualization refers to the cognitive process of purposefully generating visual mental imagery of a certain movement, skill or experience, even before execution of it. Visualization has no support in external stimuli and is based completely on our memories of body position and movement. The reaction of nerves and muscles at visualization is the same as at real movement (Kajtna & Jeromen, 2013). Visualization is used as a method of mental training which has an important role in sports, since it improves motor skills, motivation, self-confidence, technique, tactique, problem solving, pain control and rehabilitation (Vasundhara & Noohu, 2014). The effectiveness of visualization was proven in an experiment by Vasundhara and Noohu (2014). They studied the effect of mental training on a group of 30 amateur basketball players. One group trained by classic methods, while other group also used mental visualization. The progress was more significant in second group that used also visualization. Research showed that visualization can be an important tool for motor learning. Visualization and actual movement have the same mental processes, only different intensity. If visualization is performed regularly and in a structured manner, it can importantly improve motor skills in sports. Usage of mental training also contributes to better focus and prevents burnout (Stankovič, Raković, Joksomovi, Petkovič, & Joskomovič, 2011). Schott et al. (2013) believe that visualization is the most effective when joined with relaxation. Mental training should be performed in a peaceful and relaxed state, which enables better focus during the training.

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Relaxation To be relaxed means to have a calm body and a calm mind. State of relaxation can be achieved not only through physical rest, but also through activity (mental, sport and physical). In this case people have a feeling of an easy, effortless execution and pleasant tiredness after activity, therefore even relaxation is a form of activation (Jeromen & Kajtna, 2008). Eason, Brandon, Smith, and Serpas (1986) claim that relaxation in sport helps to achieve better focus and attention, decreases anxiety, heart rate, frequency of breathing and muscle tension. Hanafi, Hashim, and Ghosh (2011) stress two techniques of relaxation, progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training. They tested the effects of those techniques on athletes in between two highly intensive workouts and measured many characteristics, for example: heart rate, maximum usage of oxygen during the workout (VO2max), reaction time and subjective grade of effort. Results showed no short or long-term effects of relaxation for most of the measured characteristics, the only positive effect was seen for reaction time, indicating improvement of psychomotor abilities. Besides that the heart rate descreased during relaxation. Lohaus, Hebling-Klein, and Vogele (2001) focused on the issue of relaxation in children. They found out that different relaxation techniques result in lowered heart rate in children, who also claimed they feel better after execution of relaxation techniques.

Audio-visual stimulation Audio and visual stimuli in audio-visual stimulation is monotonous and rythmic. Stimuli does not hold content of its own, so that people can not experience stimuli as already known. The brain responds to the stimuli with an electrical impulse, which travels through the brain and becomes the sound/picture we hear/see. Audio visual stimulation effects people on two levels: • Autonomous nervous system effects relaxation of a person. It effects decrease of heart rate, muscle tension and blood pressure. • Central nervous system changes center of thalamus to a negative level, consequently people become more alert (»Audio-vizuelna stimulacija s focus-om 101«, 2015). Main effects of audio-visual stimulation (Brain apparatus Therapeut, n. d.) are: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

Improved capability to stay calm in stressful situations Deep muscle relaxation Termination of negative routines Improvement of imune system Changed sleep rythm Improved learning abilities Improved focus and visualisation

Not much research has been carried out in the field of audio-visual stimulation, however few papers that exist prove positive effects of it. Siever (2006) performed audio-visual stimulation on a sample of elders with stimuli of 18 and 20 Hz for left and 10 Hz for right brain hemisphere. Results showed significant mood improvement and significant decrease in symptoms of depression. Siever proved positive effects of AVS also in other circumstances. For example, he reports significant improvement of technique, visualisation, motor learning and results in professional golf players. Besides that Siever (2012) also proved significant improvement of memorisation, focus and grades in students after AVS.

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Budzynski (2001) reports significant improvement of mental capabilities after AVS in 75-year old male. Cruceanu and Rotarescu (2013) proved that the exposure to 30-minutes of audio-visual stimulation with the frequency of 10,2 Hz significantly improves cognitive skills. Based on their research, authors claim that people need to be exposed to AVS at least for 20 minutes in order to achieve positive effects. Even first signs of relaxation (body movements, body language, tension of face muscles) appear only after 15 minutes of exposure to AVS. Kennerely (2004) on the other hand reports about positive effects of AVS after 5 minutes of exposure. Goodin et al. (2012) claim that even shorter period of time is needed. They noticed changes in brain waves two seconds after the beginning of AVS.

Goals and hypotheses In our research we are interested in effects of audio-visual stimulation on motor learning and progress at gymnastics. Our research questions are: ͳͳ How does exposure to AVS effect motor learning ? ͳͳ How does exposure to AVS effect heart rate and blood saturation through different time points? ͳͳ How does exposure to AVS effect quality of execution of certain gymnastic skills ? We predict following hypothesis: H1: AVS effects motor learning of gymnastic elements positively. H2: AVS is going to decrease heart rate. H3: Students, exposed to AVS, are going to receive significantly better grades of gymnastic elements than students in control group. H4: AVS is going to decrease oxygen saturation in blood.

METHODS Sample 39 students of Faculty of Sport of University of Ljubljana participated in the study, 20 of them (10 male and 9 female) were assigned to experimental and 19 (10 male and 10 female) to control group. All participants were students of first year of bachelor program Sports Education and had no prior knowledge of gymnastics. Participants were included in subject Sports gymnastics for the first time. We chose them based on their grades of gymnastic elements, that they performed on the first hour of subject. There were no significant differences in knowledge of gymnastics between students of control and experimental group, as shown in Table 1. Table 1 T test for differences in gymnastics knowledge for control and experimental group

Variable

Status

Sum of grades for gymnastics Experimental group elements Control group

26,84

2,22

0,11

0,92

26,70

5,57

*M - mean, SD – standard deviation, t – t value; p - significance

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Measures Audio-visual stimulation was carried out with a tool for stimulation called Therapeut (Poznik d.o.o.) and music background. Therapeut is a device that stimulates brain waves and brain activity through usage of headphones and special glasses. Its goal is to reach a certain frequency of brain waves (alpha, beta, theta or delta) therefore the device produces stimuli (sound and light) with a chosen frequency of brain activity. The stimuli is reproduced in peoples brains in a form of electrical impulses that have the same frequency as external stimuli from the device. Final effect of exposure to Therapeut is a psychophysical relaxation, which feels similar to state of light sleep. People’s minds are still present and conscious to a certain extent, while their bodies are completely relaxed (Manual for Therapeut). For the measurement of mood we used Brunel mood scale that measures 6 categories: depression, tension, tiredness, anger, liveliness and confusion. Finally, to measure oxygen saturation and heart rate we used Oxymeter (Guandong Biologht Meditech Co. Ltd). Gymnastics in the research were carried out with the help of following apparatus: vault, balance beam, floor, uneven bars and rings.

Procedure Students were included in an experiment for 3 months, 2 times a week. For audio-visual stimulation on a device Therapeut we chose program number 4 that combines apha and beta waves. Manual describes the chosen program as refreshing and creative. Students were in a lying position during AVS. The light in a room was slightly dimmed in order to create calm and peaceful environment. In the background we also included calm music. AVS lasted for 11 minutes. Before and after AVS we measured heart rate and oxygen saturation. After 11 minutes of AVS students visualised gymnastic skill they practiced at gymnastics that week. After every executed skill, students filled out a questionnairre on which they marked 24 of their feelings and moods on a scale from 0 to 4, 0 being worst and 4 being the best possible feeling. Besides that they answered two open type questions about their feelings and thought during exercises. Last two questions measured focus and calmess during AVS on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very). Besides AVS students participated at class Sports gymnastics, which contains theoretical (1 hour per week, all together 15 hours) and practical (3 hours per week, all together 45 hours) part. The purpose of this class is to inform students about characteristics and importance of gymnastics in schools and sports association (Čuk, Bolkovič, Bučar-Pajek, Turšič, & Bricelj, 2006). Lectures (theoretical part) followed didactic principles, recommended order of teaching of gymnastics skills and motor development of students. Textbook »Teorija in metodika športne gimnastike – vaje« (Theory and method of sports gymnastics – practice) was used by students during lectures. After three months of AVS and lessons of Sports gymnastics students took a practical exam of gymnastics skills, which was graded by two professors on a scale from 5 to 10 points, with differences of 0,10 point between grades. We compared control and experimental group based on grades of this practical exam. Students performed 13 gymnastic elements.

RESULTS Firstly we tested differences between control and experimental group in exam grades for different gymnastic elements. Results of t-test for independent samples show, that there was only one significant difference between the both groups ( t = -2,44 (p = 0,02)), that is that the students in the control group successfully completed more routines at the final exam (M = 6,10, SD = 1,65( than the experimental group participants (M = 4,47, SD = 2,41).

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Furthermore, results of analyses of heart rate after audio-visual stimulation are shown in Figure 1.

*m1, m2, m3â&#x20AC;Ś. Consecutive number of heart rate measurement. Figure 1. Results of heart rate change Figure 1 shows unsystematic heart rate change after every measurement, therefore we can not detect a specific trend of changes. Next we focused on change in oxygen saturation after audio-visual stimulation. Results are shown in figure 2.

* m1, m2, m3â&#x20AC;Ś. Consecutive number of measurement. Figure 2. Changes in oxygen saturation before and after AVS. Figure 2 shows that changes in oxygen saturation are not consistent or systematic, in some measurements levels dropped, while at others the levels of oxygen saturation increased.

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Table 2 shows results of questionnaire about mood and feelings of students after exposure to audiovisual stimulation. Table 2 Grades of feelings after AVS

Depression

1,21

1,47

1,00

1,54

1,33

1,61

1,26

1,82

0,89

1,94

1,60

2,53

Tension

1,63

1,57

1,53

2,67

2,22

2,05

1,16

1,46

1,28

1,84

1,47

1,96

Tiredness

6,58

3,44

6,82

4,17

5,00

3,87

5,89

3,86

5,33

3,24

4,33

3,64

Anger

1,05

1,58

1,00

1,50

1,56

1,58

1,11

1,49

0,89

2,30

1,40

2,13

Liveliness

5,32

3,61

3,41

2,98

4,83

3,68

3,21

3,29

3,39

3,42

3,87

3,52

Confusion

3,84

3,13

2,18

2,40

2,17

2,48

1,95

2,15

1,44

1,89

1,87

2,00

Variable

m10

m11

m12

m13

Depression

1,63

2,58

0,50

1,00

1,25

2,82

0,43

0,65

0,44

1,20

0,56

1,15

Tension

1,19

2,04

0,67

0,89

1,25

2,41

0,86

1,41

1,33

2,22

0,67

1,28

Tiredness

5,00

4,86

4,33

2,81

4,69

3,40

3,57

2,74

4,39

3,15

5,28

3,75

Anger

0,88

1,75

0,25

0,62

1,31

2,70

0,36

0,84

0,28

0,75

0,78

1,52

Liveliness

3,50

3,74

5,00

3,57

3,94

3,97

3,07

3,22

3,72

3,98

2,89

3,34

Confusion

1,69

1,96

1,42

1,98

1,88

2,28

1,29

1,44

1,22

1,73

0,78

1,26

*m1, m2, m3 … consecutive number of measurement; M - mean, SD – standard deviation, t - t-value; p – significance. Table 2 shows that most of the feelings (depression, tension, tiredness, anger and confusion) decreased in time, while liveliness changed unsystematically in-between measurements.

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Moreover we examined students assessments of their focus and calmness after AVS. Results are shown in Table 3. Table 3 Focus and calmness after AVS m2

How much I 3,79 calmed down ?

0,71

3,88

0,78

3,22

1,26

3,74

0,87

3,61

0,70

3,73

0,80

How focused was I during AVS ?

0,85

3,53

1,12

3,50

0,99

3,53

0,90

3,56

0,86

3,67

1,11

3,95

m10

m11

m12

m13

How much I 3,88 calmed down ?

1,02

3,75

0,97

3,87

1,13

3,79

0,89

4,17

0,71

3,56

1,20

How focused was I during AVS ?

1,36

3,92

0,79

3,93

1,10

4,00

1,04

3,89

1,08

3,67

1,28

3,56

*m1, m2, m3 … consecutive number of measurement; M - mean, SD – standard deviation, t - t-value; p – significance. Table 3 shows tere were no significant changes in focus and calmness of students after AVS. Students reported a medium level of calmness during AVS, similar is also true for focus. Lastly, students answered an open question about their mood and general welbeing during AVS. Most of the students reported feeling relaxed, nice, sleepy, exhausted or tired. Some participants stressed that they could not relax during AVS because of glasses and sound. However even those students got used to disturbances in time and relaxed more easily at the end of our experiment, although a smaller group of students still reported that the sound of AVS is uncomfortable. On the other hand, some students found AVS very soothing and helpful for visualisation of gymnastic elements.

INTERPRETATION Or research was based on three goals. Firstly we wanted to analyze how does exposure to AVS effect motor learning. Results show that control group received better grades for execution of gymnastic skills than experimental group in 13 out of 18 elements. Experimental group executed better only 5 elements and despite described differences between control and experimental group, we need to stress that grades of control and experimental group were very similar and statistically insignificant. Groups were significantly different only in number of executed routines, which was higher in control group. Most of research in the field of AVS is not consistent with our findings and reports about significant positive effects of AVS. For example, Siever (2002) proved an improvement of technique and results in professional golf players after 12 minute exposure to AVS.

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To sum up, we cannot conclude that exposure to AVS effects motor learning. We also have to reject our two hypotheses that AVS effects motor learning of gymnastics elements positively and that students, exposed to AVS, are going to receive significantly better grades for gymnastic elements than students in control group. One of the possible explanation for insignificant results could be length of exposure to AVS. Our participants were exposed to it for 11 minutes, while some authors (Cruceanu & Rotarescu, 2013) suggest that at least 20 minutes is needed for the positive effects to take place. Furthermore, part of our reserach was also visualization of gymnastic skills, performed after AVS. Previous research consistently proved positive effects of visualization for motor learning (Vasundhara & Noohu, 2014), motor skills, performance and rehabiliation (Schott et al., 2013; StankoviÄ? et al., 2011). Our results are not in agreement with these findings, since visualization did not have a significant positive effect on motor learning of students. However, we believe that the cause of ineffectiveness is not visualization as such, but lack of motivation and elaboration of students in visualization of gymnastic elements. Students participated at classes in groups of 20 to 25 people, therefore we had difficulties keeping all of the students motivated. We also could not determine whether every single participant understood instructions well enough for successful visualization. Our second goal was to analyze, how does exposure to AVS effect heart rate and blood saturation through different time points. Results did not show conclusive trend of heart rate and oxygen saturation changes through time. Heart rate was highest after first measurement, which can be contributed to fear before first exposure to AVS or to expectations. In some measurements we noted decline of heart rate and oxygen saturation, while at others heart rate and blood oxygen saturation increased. We have to acknowledge that students came to AVS with different levels of energy and tiredness, which could influence their heart rate. Some of them were probably also nervous or stressed, which has an indirect effect on oxygen saturation. If students were not able to relax during AVS, because of other stressors in their life or tiredness, that influenced their heart rate and oxygen saturation. Besides that some students also claimed that the sound of AVS is unpleasant, which could also prevent relaxation and influence heart rate and blood oxygen saturation. Based on our results we have to reject our hypotheses, that AVS is going to decrease heart rate and oxygen saturation. All in all we did not confirm positive effects of AVS for motor learning or decrease in heart rate and blood oxygen saturation. Since AVS is a form of relaxation we expected results similar to previous research on relaxation (for example Eason, Brandon, Smith, & Serpas, 1986), which claims that relaxation contributes to better focus, decreased anxiety, heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension. While heart rate in our case did decrease somewhat, the change was not significant. Therefore we can not confirm positive long term effect of AVS, only positive short term effects in some cases. Similar conclusion was produced also by Conte (2013), who reports about decreased heart rate only during AVS. The reason for our inconclusive results could be in number of AVS sessions. Hanafi, Hashim, and Ghosh (2011) found out that even 12 sessions of relaxation are not enough to produce long term positive effects of relaxation, we had 13 sessions. On the other hand, Lohaus et at. (2001) claim that even five session should result in long term positive effects. Our results do not support their claim. In our research students also filled out questionnairres about their feelings and mood during AVS. Results show that feelingss of liveliness and tiredness decreased with time. Also feelings of confusion decreased linearly with time, probably due to the knowledge about procedure. We noted a very small decrease in feelings of tension and depression, which we did not expect, since more sessions of relaxation were supossed to result in less tension and depression. Lastly, we asked students to assess their focus and calmness after AVS. They reported feeling most focused between measurements 3 and 7 and 8 and 11. After measurement number 11 focus of students decreased, probably due to feelings of boredom , since students did not notice improvement of their gymnastic skills after visualisation. We have to point out that chosen sample of students had a lot of

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activities besides our research, therefore it is possible that thew viewed AVS and visualisation as a burden without a reward and were consequently less motivated for execution of it. Motivation is a key factor in improvement of psychomotor skills (Cucui & Cocui, 2014), which could explain lack of improvement of motor skills in our research. We noticed signs of decreased motivation in students with time. For example many students said they can not relax due to the visual and audio stimuli, in time they showed less and less interest for AVS and motor learning. We also have to stress that we had no control over how much effort students put into execution of motor skills. It is possible that some students did not try their hardest in execution of exercises. Lack of improvement in motor skills can therefore be explained also with lack of motivation and effort in students, not only with ineffectiveness of AVS. All in all, our research is one of the first analysis of AVS in Slovenia and has contributed to knowledge of students and faculty about AVS. We recognize that we could improve our work in many ways. Firstly, in order to obtain more valid results we could include more participants into research, especially in experimental group. It would also be beneficial to offer rewards for participation in order to increase motivation of students. Furthermore, students should be better acquainted with the technique of visualization from the beginning, which would guarantee better basis for correct execution of it. Lastly it could be positive to expose students to more or longer sessions of AVS in order to obtain more valid results. AVS is a relatively new field of research, which offers many prospects for the future. Although our research did not confirm positive effects of it for motor learning, there are many other fields where AVS could have positive effects and should be researched more extensively (for example rehabilitation, cognitive skills, health behaviors…).

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Jeromen, T. & Kajtna, T. (2008). Sproščanje: moj mali priročnik. Ljubljana. Kajtna, T. & Jeromen, T. (2013). Šport z bistro glavo. Utrinki iz športne psihologije za mlade športnike. Ljubljana. Kennerely, R. (2004). QEEG analysis of binaural beat audio entrainment: A pilot study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 8, 122. Lohaus, A., Hebling-Klein, J., Vogel, c., & Kuhn-Hennighausen, c. (2001). Psyhological effect of relaxation traning in children. Brithis Journal of Health Psyhology, 6, 197–206. Možganski aparat Therapeut (b. d.). Celje: Poznik, d. o. o. Pistotnik, B. (1999). Osnove gibanja. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport. Inštitut za šport. Ricker, J., (25.12.2015). Consciousness & Brain Activity. PSY-101. from http://sccpsy101.com/home/chapter-2/ section-6/ Schott, N., Frenkel, M., Korbus, H., & Francis, K. (2013). Mental practice in orthopedic rehabilitation: where, what, and how? A case report. Movement & Sport Sciences, 82, 93–103. Siever, D. (2002). The rediscovery of audio-visual entraiment technology. Edmond: Comtronic Devices Limited. Siever, D. (2006). The Application of Audiovisual Entrainment for the Treatment of Seniors’ Issues. Canada: Mind Alive Inc. Siever, D. (2012). Audio-Visual Entrainment: A Novel Way of Boosting Grades and Socialization While Reducing Stress in the Typical College Student. Biofeedback, 40(3), 115–124. Stankovič, D., Rakovič, A., Joksomovič, A., Petkovič, E., & Joksomovič, D. (2011). Mental imagery and visualization in sport climbing training. APES, 39 (1), 35–38. Ušaj, A. (2003). Osnove športnega treniranja. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport. Vasundhara, N. in Noohu, M. (2014). The effect of mental imagery on muscle strength and balance performance in recreational basketball players. Medicina Sportiva, 10 (3), 2387–2393. Videmšek, M., Bedrajs, P. in Karpljuk, D. (2003). Mali športnik. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport. Zajc, B. (1992). Motorične sposobnosti slovenskih tekmovalk v športni gimnastiki v primerjavi s povprečno šolsko populacijo. Bachelor’s thesis, Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport.

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CORRELATION BETWEEN STATIC BALANCE AND DROP JUMP AMONG ARTISTIC GYMNASTS Istenič N.1, Orlič D.1, Samardžija Pavletič M.2

Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia University of Primorska, Applied Kinesiology, Koper, Slovenia

1 2

ABSTRACT The aim of the study was to examine the correlation between single leg stance with closed eyes and drop jump among artistic gymnasts. 38 expert gymnasts, 21 women and 17 men, whose average age was 15.39 ± 4.97 years, participated in the study. The experiment consisted of maintaining balance during single-leg stance on a force plate with closed eyes for 30 seconds and executing a drop jump after dropping from 35 cm box onto the force plate. The results showed following correlations as statistically significant: negative correlation between total sway path and relative maximal force (F) during push off (r = — 0.333, n = 38, p < 0.005), negative correlation between sway path in anterior-posterior (A-P) direction and relative maximal F during push off (r = —0.329, n = 38, p < 0.005), negative correlation between sway maximal amplitude in A-P and relative maximal F (r = — 0.346, n = 38, p < 0.005), negative correlation between sway maximal amplitude in A-P and relative maximal F during counter movement (r = — 0.331, n = 38, p < 0.005), negative correlation between sway path in A-P and performance-index (relation between the jump height and the time of ground contact) (r = — 0.338, n = 38, p < 0.005) and negative correlation between sway maximal amplitude in A-P and performance-index (r = — 0.320, n = 38, p < 0.005). The results suggest there is a correlation between selected static balance parameters and selected drop jump parameters. The observed correlations could be result of importance of precise knee stiffness control during both drop jump and balance strategies, which athletes use to control movements in A-P when standing on reduced base of support.

key words: static balance, drop jump, artistic gymnastics

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INTRODUCTION

Balance Balance is an ability of the body to maintain the position of the body’s centre of gravity over the base of support, usually offered by the feet, with minimal postural sway (Nashner, 1997; Winter, Patla in Frank, 1990). Both maintaining balance during anti-gravitational activities and proper body posture represent the base for execution of other secondary movements. These are used to propel ourselves through space or manipulate with the surrounding environment (Winter, 1995). Term kinaesthesia or proprioception (Rošker, 2010) describes specific sensory functions as sense of position, acceleration, force produced by our own muscles, exertion, rhythm … Peripheral sensory receptors as well as visual and vestibular sensory system play a major role in gathering kinaesthetic information. These information are used by central nervous system to make a picture of orientation and position of individual limbs and body and their movement (Zorko, Rošker in Šarabon, 2014) and to produce motor responses that affect coordination, joints range of motion and strength (Bressel, Yonker, Kras in Heath, 2007). Static balance is the ability to maintain the specific posture of the body. It is usually obtained in standing subject with devices that measure the movements of the body or its centre of gravity, or mostly centre of pressure (COP). The most commonly used tests for precise evaluation of body balance are tests, performed on a force plate, which measures the COP of the whole body (Panjan in Šarabon, 2010). Šarabon, Kern, Loefler and Rošker (2010) found cumulative parameters describing the path the COP makes the most repeatable and sensitive to detect different increases of balancing tasks and therefore suitable for further use in balance studies and clinical practice. Such parameters are sway path (SP), sway maximal amplitude (Amax) and mean frequency (F). Different sport disciplines demand different levels of sensorimotor processes to perform sport specific skills and protect the neuromuscular system from injury (Bressel, Yonker, Kras in Heath, 2007). In according to these requirements, sports training enhances the ability to use somatosensory and otolithic information, which improves postural capabilities of the performer (Bringoux, Marin, Nougier, Barraud and Raphel, 2000). Goal of balance training is to improve precise control of balance and by that to improve joint stability during potentially dangerous external interruptions. The major factors of improved joint stability are better muscular coactivation and faster neuromuscular response to stretch (Šarabon, Kern, Loefler and Rošker, 2010). Responses to perturbations during standing vary from simple monosynaptic stretch reflex to more complex balance strategies, which depend on the stance position. In side-by-side stance, anterior-posterior balance is totally under ankle (plantar flexor/dorsiflexor) control, whereas medial-lateral balance is under hip (abductor-adductor) control. In tandem stance the role of ankle and hip reverse: the mediallateral balance is dominated by ankle invertors and evertors, with mixed and small contribution from the hip mechanism, and the anterior-posterior balance is dominated by the hip mechanism, with mixed and small or sometimes negligible contributions by ankle plantar/dorsiflexors (Winter, 1996). The hip strategy responds in more perturbed situations or when the ankle muscles cannot act (Winter, 1995). According to Hrysomallis (2011), test of static body balance in unipedal stance is specific to gymnasts, but closed eyes represent an untrained visual condition.

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Drop jump Drop jumps from different heights are a good measure of special jump strength and a useful diagnostic method for assessment of stretch-shortening cycle in short time (Čoh, 2013). Ground contact of drop jump is an example of a stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), where the pre-activated muscle is first stretched (eccentric action) and then followed by the shortening (concentric) action. The SSC cause enhancement of performance during the final phase (concentric action) when compared with the isolated concentric action. The neural control, including central and peripheral components, plays a key role in the optimal muscle activation (Nicol, Avela in Komi, 2006). During the impact phase of the ground contact a major part of the elastic energy can be stored in the tendomuscular system and is utilised in the subsequent push-off phase. The efficiency of SSC depends also on the time of switch from eccentric to concentric contraction. The longer is the switch, the lesser is the efficiency of contraction: a part of elastic energy accumulated in the muscle is available only for a definite time, depending on a life span of cross bridges in muscle, about 15-100 ms (Gollhofer in Kyröläinen, 1991, Čoh, 2013). Good drop jumps are reported to have ground contact time under 180 ms and very good drop jumps between 145 and 160 ms (Bosco, 1999, in Bavdek, Štirn and Dolenec, 2015). If the contact time is too long, the stored elastic energy can be wasted as heat (Komi and Nicol, 2010). Therefore, the aim of a good drop jump is to shorten the time of amortisation (Čoh, 2013). Besides immediate transition between eccentric and concentric phase, also a short and fast eccentric phase and a well-timed pre-activation of the muscles before the eccentric phase are important for effective SSC action (Komi and Nicol, 2010). The pre-activation, which is interpreted as a neuronal activation part, provides the tendomuscular system with adequate stiffness prior to the ground contact, so the recoil of elastic energy can be expected. The pre-programming is observed especially in extensor muscles (Gollhofer in Kyröläinen, 1991). Two types of jump motions with regard to the pre-landing motion of the knee joint can be observed. In the good jump, the bouncing type, knee flexion is observed just before touchdown (~50 ms). This prelanding movement could be associated with the high initial stiffness observed after touchdown coupled with the high series elasticity of the knee joint. In the poor jump, the absorbing type, incomplete knee flexion (inadequate pre-landing movement) induces subsequent deep-knee flexion after touchdown, which corresponds with the absorbing motion. Poor performance is also related to longer contact time and lower takeoff velocity (Horita, Komi, Nicol in Kyröläinen, 2002). The load of drop jump is affected by height of starting position, athlete’s body weight, contact time and height of vertical jump. The highest muscular loads are observed in ankle plantar flexors, knee extensors and hip extensors. The latter predominate in braking (eccentric) phase, if the plantar flexors cannot control it themselves. In this case the transition between eccentric and concentric phase lengthen, which has negative impact on the drop jump efficiency (Čoh, 2013). Participation in sport may induce specific alterations in neuromuscular control of lower limb muscles, depending on intensity and nature of training (Bencke, Damsgaard, Saekmose, Jørgensen, Jørgensen in Klausen, 2002). Big volume of rebound jumps in gymnastic training from very young age may have an important influence on plyometric reliability of gymnasts when compared with non-gymnasts. Because of specific sport demands, gymnasts need to reach a high level of their rate of force development in an extremely short time. Neuromuscular facilitation plays a mayor role here. Beside that skill, technique and training specifics are important factors that could influence drop jump, since jumping performance and segmental coordination are greatly associated (Marina, Jemni, Rodriguez in Jimenez, 2011).

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Correlation between balance and drop jump Results of Zemkova and Hamar (2010) showed that a 6 week combined agility and balance training improved dynamic balance in both visual and eyes closed conditions and reduced ground contact time during drop jump. Bruhm, Kullmann and Gollhofer (2004) studied impact of 4 week sensorimotor training on postural stabilisation and jump performance. Within the sensorimotor training group, there was a clear tendency (but not significant) to improvement in performance-index of drop jump, which was calculated as the relation between the jumping height and the time of ground contact. The subjects of this group were able to maintain neuromuscular activity after the ground contact without extensive reductions after training. Higher iEMG during early ground contact was also observed. This may be the result of a preparatory adjustment of the muscle stiffness, which may result in reduced ground contact times and therefore in improvements in performance-index. Improved sensory feedback of the periphery to the central nervous system, induced with sensorimotor training, could contribute to precise stiffness regulation in relevant muscles.This resulted in optimised inter-muscular coordination. Ashton-Miller, Wojtys, Huston in Fry-Welch (2001) point out that sensory information is less probable to be altered as a result of training and that central changes in processing of sensory information are more probable to take place, enabling more efficient awareness and perception. These changes are functionally shown in improved balance, joint stability, intramuscular coordination, muscle strength, kinaesthetic sense and jumping ability (Rošker and Šarabon, 2010). The aim of the study is to examine effect of balance with eyes closed on drop jump parameters. The chosen balance test was performed with eyes closed, which is an unspecific and untrained visual condition for gymnasts (Asseman, Caron in Cremieux, 2008). Therefore we could assume that the specifics of their training did not affect the results of balance tests but only their balance ability did.

METHODS

Subjects 38 expert gymnasts, 21 women (55.3 %) and 17 men (44.7 %), whose average age was 15,39 ± 4.97 years, participated in the study. Measurement protocol The experiment consisted of two measurements. In balance test, subjects were asked to maintain balance during single-leg stance on a force plate. Their task was to maintain a balanced position for 30 seconds with eyes shut. They were required to maintain a balanced position of the trunk with their hands placed on their hips. Throughout the measurement, the other leg was lifted from the plate with knee bent at a 90º angle, with thighs parallel. The test was performed barefoot and with no additional task. The subjects performed the test on each leg with maximum three trials, each lasting 30 second. If the subject could not perform three correct trials on the same leg, only the valid ones were included in the analysis. In drop jump test, subject were executing a drop jump after dropping from 35 cm box onto force plate. They were instructed to step off the box (not jump) and to perform a jump with as short contact time as possible, landing with each foot on one force plate. They performed the test barefoot and with hands on hips. Jumps, where heel strike was observed, were repeated. One valid jump of each gymnast was included in analysis.

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Data collecting and processing The subjects were evaluated on a bi-lateral force plate (S2P Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia). The size of the plate was 600 x 600 mm, each piece 300 x 600 mm. The x-offset was 120 mm and the y-offset was 270 mm. The ground reaction force was measured by 8 strain-gauge sensors, embed into the platform. The sampling rate was 1000 Hz, 100 samples per channel. Reference single-ended (RSE) terminal configuration was used. Pre-scaled units were volts. The sensitivity was set to 3000 mN/V for all channels. The measurement data was transferred to a personal computer via the USB interface. ARS software (Analysis & Reporting Software; S2P Ltd., Ljubljana, Slovenia) was used for acquisition and treatment of parameters.

Observed parameters The following parameters were chosen for further analysis: Sway path â&#x20AC;&#x201D; total [mm]: the common length of the trajectory of the COP sway calculated as a sum of the point-to-point Euclidian distances; Sway path - A-P/M-L [mm]: the common length f the trajectory of the COP sway only in the anteriorposterior/medial-lateral direction; Sway maximal amplitude - A-P/M-L [mm]: the amplitude between the two most distant samples of the COP sway in anterior-posterior/medial-lateral direction; Mean frequency of total spectrum - A-P/M-L [Hz]: the frequency of the oscillations of the OP calculated as the mean frequency of the power spectrum for the anterior-posterior/medial-lateral direction Relative maximal force [% BW]: maximal force during the contact dividid by the body weight; Relative maximal force during counter movement [% BW]: maximal force during the counter movement divided by the body weight; Relative maximal force during push off [% BW]: maximal force during the push off dividid by the body weight; Contact time duration [s]: time interval between the first contact and the take off; Jump height from take off velocity [m]: the height of the jump calculated from the take off velocity as calculated from the force impulse; Performance-index [m/s]: ratio between the height of the jump and the time interval between the start and the take off (contact time).

Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS 17.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). For each subject, all valid (maximum three for each leg) repetitions of the same balance task and one valid repetition of drop jump were taken for further statistical analysis. Basic descriptive statistics were conducted. Assumptions for use of Pearson correlation coefficient were tested and while they were respected, Pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure the strength of associations between selected variables.

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RESULTS Descriptive statistics were conducted for the chosen parameters of balance and drop jump test. Mean values are represented in table 1. Table 1. Mean values of selected balance and drop jump parameters. N

min

max

mean

Stand. deviation

SP∑

2013,33

4721,67

2938,2675

515,14522

SPA-P

1308,33

3381,67

1949,6711

392,28155

SPM-L

1263,33

2561,67

1792,8216

264,29679

A maxA-P

52,78

161,60

77,9662

22,80192

A maxM-L

37,25

223,25

50,2283

29,61739

FA-P

,39

,88

,6373

,11327

FM-L

,59

1,01

,8198

,09875

,09

1,66

,3237

,26346

,35

1,91

1,1486

,35444

F max

374,00

821,33

548,9737

100,45809

F maxCM

187,33

743,33

513,6140

119,16739

F maxPO

274,67

737,00

507,3772

107,85315

,15

,32

,2155

,04304

SP∑

SPA-P

F max

F maxCM

F maxPO

Pearson Correlation

-,081

-,319

-,270

-,224

-,333

,222

Sig. (2-tailed)

,628

,051

,101

,175

,041

,181

Pearson Correlation

-,066

-,338*

-,263

-,222

-,329*

,234

Sig. (2-tailed)

,692

,038

,110

,180

,044

,158

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SPM-L

A maxA-P

A maxM-L

FA-P

FM-L

Pearson Correlation

-,099

-,270

-,267

-,216

-,319

,188

Sig. (2-tailed)

,556

,101

,105

,194

,051

,259

Pearson Correlation

,018

-,320

-,346

-,331

-,307

,251

Sig. (2-tailed)

,916

,050

,033

,042

,061

,129

Pearson Correlation

,005

-,112

-,166

-,148

-,194

,121

Sig. (2-tailed)

,976

,504

,319

,375

,243

,468

Pearson Correlation

-,182

,058

-,002

,102

-,070

-,016

Sig. (2-tailed)

,275

,731

,992

,541

,674

,923

Pearson Correlation

-,251

,125

,065

,244

-,035

-,030

Sig. (2-tailed)

,129

,456

,699

,140

,834

,859

38 *

Legend: SP∑ = sway path — total [mm]; SPA-P = sway path - A-P [mm]; SPM-L = sway path - M-L [mm]; A maxA-P = sway maximal amplitude A-P [mm]; A maxM-L = sway maximal amplitude M-L [mm]; FA-P = mean frequency of total spectrum A-P; FM-L = mean frequency of total spectrum M-L; F max = relative maximal force [% BW]; F maxCM = relative maximal force during counter movement [% BW]; F maxPO = relative maximal force during push off [% BW]; TC = contact time duration [s]; H = jump height from take off velocity [m]; IP = performance index = H/TC [m/s] Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there are statistically significant correlations between following parameters. There was a medium, negative correlation between SP∑ and F maxPO, which was statistically significant (r = — 0.333, n = 38, p < 0.005). There was a medium, negative correlation between SPA-P and F maxPO, which was statistically significant (r = —0.329, n = 38, p < 0.005). There was a medium, negative correlation between A maxA-P and F max, which was statistically significant (r = — 0.346, n = 38, p < 0.005). There was a medium, negative correlation between A maxA-P and F maxCM, which was statistically significant (r = — 0.331, n = 38, p < 0.005). There was a medium, negative correlation between SPA-P and IP, which was statistically significant (r = — 0.338. n = 38, p < 0.005). There was a medium, negative correlation between A maxA-P and IP, which was statistically significant (r = — 0.320, n = 38, p < 0.005). There was no correlation between any of the balance test parameters and TC that would be statistically significant. There was also no correlation between any of the balance test parameters and H that would be statistically significant.

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DISCUSSION The aim of the study was to examine the correlations between maintaining balance on one leg with eyes closed and drop jump performance among artistic gymnasts.

Correlation between SPA-P and IP and between A maxA-P and IP There was a medium, negative correlation between SPA-P and IP and a medium, negative correlation between A maxA-P and IP, which were both statistically significant. IP was calculated as ratio between the height of the jump and the contact time. Subjects with lower values of SPA-P and A maxA-P had higher values of IP. IP values may be higher because of higher jump or/and shorter contact time. Consequently, the observed balance parameters SPA-P and A maxA-P have some effect on height of the jump or/and contact time, even thought the correlations between the parameters were not statistically significant. According to Šarabon, Kern, Loefler and Rošker (2010), A maxA-P values are greatly affected by sudden events, such as big correction moves, that increase the A maxA-P values. Human body reacts to increased difficulty of balance task mainly by increasing amplitude of the sway and by minor increases in frequency of the sway. We assume that the given balance test was more difficult for subjects that showed higher values of A maxA-P. We assume that subjects, that showed lower values of A maxA-P, had better abilities to control their balance. Those subjects (with lower values of A maxA-P) showed higher values of IP, which may also be connected to higher jumps and/or shorter contact times.

Correlation between A maxA-P and F max There was a medium, negative correlation between A maxA-P and F max, which was statistically significant. As mentioned before, A maxA-P values may be connected with subject’s perception of balance test’s difficulty and his ability to maintain balance (Šarabon, Kern, Loefler and Rošker, 2010). Therefore, subjects that perceive the balace test as less difficult achieved greater values of F max. According to Walsh, Arampatzis, Schade and Brüggemann (2004), values of F max change proportionately to increasing starting height of drop jump and to decreasing contact time values. In our study, the starting height of the drop jump was constant for all subjects and repetitions. Therefore, the correlation between A maxA-P and F max may indicate correlation between subject’s balance abilities (lower values of A maxA-P) and shorter contact time.

Correlation between A maxA-P and F maxCM There was a medium, negative correlation between A maxA-P and F maxCM, which was statistically significant. This correlation could be interpreted similarly to the one between A maxA-P and F max. Subjects that perceive the balance test as less difficult, managed to develop higher force during counter movement. The counter movement represents the first phase of ground contact, when the muscles are working eccentrically.

Correlation between SP∑ and F maxPO and between SPA-P and F maxPO There was a medium, negative correlation between SP∑ and F maxPO, and a medium, negative correlation between SPA-P and F maxPO, which were both statistically significant. Push off is the second phase of ground contact when the muscles are working concentrically. Subjects, whose path of projection of COP

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(centre of pressure) during balance task was shorter (totally or only in anterior-posterior) managed to develop higher F maxPO. It is still not clear what are the differences of parameters between subjects with better balance and subjects with worse balance, which makes the interpretation difficult. Does balance training (and consequently better balance) affect the frequency of oscillation? Or does it affect the body, to better detect deviations from neutral position, react faster and therefore maintain lower amplitudes of oscillation (Šarabon, Kern, Loefler and Rošker, 2010)? The studies are not unified, because they state different changes of SP parameters after balance training or interpret higher and lower SP values differently. Therefore it is difficult to interpret neuromuscular mechanisms that lie behind balance control. Additionally, it is difficult to determine whether higher values of SP represent better or worser balance (Juras, Rzepko, Krol, Czarny, Bajorek, Slomka in Sobota, 2013).

Anterior-posterior parameters of balance test All parameters of balance test (except SP∑) that are statistically significant correlated to selected drop jump parameters define movement control in anterior-posterior direction. When standing on a reduced support surface (in our case on one leg), the balance in anterior-posterior direction is regulated predominantly by the hip mechanism, with mixed and small or sometimes negligible contributions of ankle plantar/dorsiflexors (Winter, 1996). Horita, Komi, Nicol and Kyröläinen (1996) state that interaction between reflexes and stiffness of knee extensor muscles may play a major role in regulation of muscle strength and drop jump performance. According to their findings, knee extensor muscles are the main source of strength for regulation of drop jump performance. Besides knee flexors and extensors, also hip adductors and abductors involve in providing stiffness and stability of knee (Zhang in Wang, 2001). According to Chimera, Swanik, Swanik and Straub (2004), early pre-activation of adductors may provide better stability of knee at the ground contact. The effect of precisely timed reactivation was observed also by Horita, Komi, Nicol and Kyröläinen (2002). Well timed and sufficient activation of hip muscles provides adequate stiffness of knee and is therefore important for both: maintaining balanced position on reduced support surface and effectively performing drop jump. These two roles of hip muscles may be the reason, why the correlations between anterior-posterior parameters of balance test and selected drop jump parameters occurred. The better the hip muscles can control of the COP motion with adequate (co)activation, the better they can also provide adequate stiffness of knee with adequate pre-activation when performing drop jump.

Limitations, guidelines for further research and potential for practical applications Mean values of our subject’s contact times were 0.22 ± 0.04 s. According to studies of Bosco (1999, in Bavdek, Štirn and Dolenec, 2015), Komi (2000) and Komi and Nicol (2000), that long contact times is outside the contact times, observed in effective drop jumps. When contact times are too long, the stored elastic energy can be wasted as heat (Komi and Nicol, 2010). Reason for such long contact times could be sought in relatively small number of subjects, who were of different genders and ages. A great part of subject was still in the late application stage, which takes place from age of approximately 11 to 15. In application stage children grow very fast and the dynamics of skills, based on precise movement control is slowed down. Also explosive power is lower in this stage (Gallahue, Ozmun and Goodway, 2006; Škof and Kalan, 2007).

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The other reason could be the specifics of jumps in artistic gymnastics. Gymnasts, specialised in selected apparatus, donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t use SSC leg movements much in their routines and the technique of their drop jump performance could be questioned. SSC leg movements are used predominantly in vault, floor and beam routines. These apparatus react to landing differently than solid floor. The floor responds with force when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve extra height and a softer landing that would be possible on a regular floor. The balance beams are nowadays sprung to accommodate the stress of high-difficulty tumbling and dance skills. When performing vault, a gymnast leap onto the spring board (Artistic gymnastics). Because of specifics of jumps in gymnastics the optimal contact time on apparatus may differ from optimal contact times on regular floor. When performing the jump on a regular floor, which is an untrained surface and responds to landing differently than apparatus, the gymnasts may not adjust their jumping technique to the surface but perform the jump in the way, that is usual for them and that is optimal for their routines on selected apparatus. Also differences in functional abilities and in jumping technique between women and men should be taken into the account. After fast growth in puberty the neuromuscular system of men and women do not equally adjust to changes. In men, parallel to growth also progress in neuromuscular strength and coordination takes place (neuromuscular spurt), but that does not happen in women. Consequently, the deficit in neuromuscular control of trunk may have an important negative influence on control of lower limbs in frontal plane. That could be seen as instability of leg joints when cutting and landing. For balance control when standing on reduced support surface, cutting and landing women use hip strategy predominantly. They also have lower joint stiffness compared to men (Hewett and Myer, 2011). Also Schmitz and Schultz (2011) observed gender specific biomechanics in eccentric phase of drop jump.They concluded that the drop jump from the same starting height could be more difficult for women compared for men, Consequently, women use different movement strategy to safely perform the task. They also observed higher hip stiffness in men than in women. In study of Marina, Jemni, Rodriguez and Jimenez (2012) women artistic gymnasts achieved the best values of Bosco expression (BE) in drop jumps from 40 cm when men artistic gymnasts achieved the best values of BE in drop jumps from 40 to 60 cm. That may mean that optimal drop jump starting heights may differ between genders and also between age categories. Some suggestions for further researches could be made. To better understand the correlation between balance and drop jump and differences in gender biomechanics, which may influence this correlation, a similar study could be carried out, but separately for women and men. According to unclear differences in balance parameters between subjects with better/worse balance, a such study could be made. It could be examined, how does the selected balance parameters change with improvements in balance. Balance test parameters in anterior-posterior direction are affected also by subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thigh muscles strength. Strength of these muscles play an important role in performing drop jump, but it may also influence the balance parameters. In further researches, that correlation could be examined. If it proves to be statistically significant, strength training for selected thigh muscles could be implemented in training to improve balance. Also some practical applications of the study results could be considered. Firstly, could balance training be used as prevention from injuries, that happen during SSC movements? And secondly, could balance training be used to improve drop jump parameters and consequently improve performance? Balance training is often used as a part of preventive program. According to correlation of balance parameters and drop jump parameters, especially the sway maximal amplitude and drop jump parameters, subject with better ability of maintaining balance could perform drop jumps with higher relative maximal force, higher relative maximal force during counter movement and possibly also with shorter contact times and higher jump height. Long contact times may be connected with presence of heel strike at landing, and consequently shorter contact times may mean safer jumps. Beside that, shorter contact times are correlated with better use of stored elastic energy. Both questions are interesting for people, involved in sports training, but to confirm any of those correlations and their possible practical applications, further researches should be made.

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CONCLUSION Although the study has its own limitations, it could give basis for further research, for example studying the changes in COP parameters with improving balance, studying the correlations between balance and drop jump separately by gender. The results suggest there is a correlation between selected static balance parameters and selected drop jump parameters. Gymnasts with better balance abilities tend to develop higher relative maximal force, higher relative maximal force during countermovement. They also had better performance index values, which were calculated as ration between jump height and contact time. Also some correlations between sway path parameters and drop jump parameters were observed, but because of unclear differences in those parameters between subjects with better/worse balance, those correlations stay unclear. The observed correlations could be result of important role of knee extensor and flexor muscles and hip abductor and adductor muscles, which provide adequate knee stiffness. The latter is important in both performing the drop jump effectively and maintaining balance with balance strategies, which are used to control movements in anterior-posterior when standing on reduced base of support. The chosen balance test was performed with eyes closed, which is an unspecific and untrained visual condition for gymnasts. Therefore we could assume that the specifics of their training did not affect the results of balance tests but only their balance ability did. That indicates possible use of balance training for prevention of injuries during SSC movements and for improvements in their performance, but these assumptions should be further studied. REFERENCES Artistic gymnastics. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://en.wikipedia.org Ashton-Miller, J. A., Wojtys, E. M., Huston, L. J., & Fry-Welch, D. (2001). Can proprioception really be improved by exercises?. Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy, 9(3), 128-136. Asseman, F. B., Caron, O., & Crémieux, J. (2008). Are there specific conditions for which expertise in gymnastics could have an effect on postural control and performance?. Gait & posture, 27(1), 76-81. Bavdek, R., Štirn, I. and Dolenec, A. (2014). Primerjava odrivne moči med različnimi tipi košarkaric slovenske članske in mladinske reprezentance. Šport: Revija za teoretična in praktična vprašanja športa, 62. Bencke, J., Damsgaard, R., Saekmose, A., Jørgensen, P., Jørgensen, K., & Klausen, K. (2002). Anaerobic power and muscle strength characteristics of 11 years old elite and non‐elite boys and girls from gymnastics, team handball, tennis and swimming. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 12(3), 171-178. Bressel, E., Yonker, J. C., Kras, J., & Heath, E. M. (2007). Comparison of static and dynamic balance in female collegiate soccer, basketball, and gymnastics athletes. Journal of athletic training, 42(1), 42. Bringoux, L., Marin, L., Nougier, V., Barraud, P. A. in Raphel, C. (2000). Effects of gymnastics expertise on the perception of body orientation in the pitch dimension. Journal of Vestibular Research, 10(6), 251-258. Bruhm, S., Kullmann, N. and Gollhofer, A. (2004). The effects of a sensorimotor training and a strength training on postural stabilisation, maximum isometric contraction and jump performance. Int J Sports Med, 25, 56-60. Chimera, N. J., Swanik, K. A., Swanik, C. B., & Straub, S. J. (2004). Effects of plyometric training on muscleactivation strategies and performance in female athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 39(1), 24-31. Čoh, M. (2013). Biodinamična analiza pliometričnih skokov skakalk troskoka. Šport: Revija za teoretična in praktična vprašanja športa, 61. Gallahue, D. L., Ozmun, J. C. and Goodway, J. (2006). Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults. Mcgraw-hill, Boston.

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Gollhofer, A., & Kyrolainen, H. (1991). Neuromuscular control of the human leg extensor muscles in jump exercises under various stretch-load conditions. Int J Sports Med, 12(1), 34-40. Hewett, T. E., & Myer, G. D. (2011). The mechanistic connection between the trunk, knee, and anterior cruciate ligament injury. Exercise and sport sciences reviews, 39(4), 161. Horita, T., Komi, P. V., Nicol, C., & Kyröläinen, H. (1996). Stretch shortening cycle fatigue: interactions among joint stiness, reflex, and muscle mechanical performance in the drop jump. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 73(5), 393-403. Horita, T., Komi, P., Nicol, C., & Kyröläinen, H. (2002). Interaction between pre-landing activities and stiffness regulation of the knee joint musculoskeletal system in the drop jump: implications to performance. European journal of applied physiology, 88(1-2), 76-84. Juras, G., Rzepko, M., Krol, P., Czarny, W., Bajorek, W., Slomka, K., & Sobota, G. (2013). The effect of expertise in karate on postural control in quiet standing. Archives of Budo, 9(3), 205-209. Komi, P. V. (2000). Stretch-shortening cycle: a powerful model to study normal and fatigued muscle. Journal of biomechanics, 33(10), 1197-1206. Komi, P. V., & Nicol, C. (2010). Stretch–shortening cycle of muscle function. Neuromuscular aspects of sport performance, 1st edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 15-31. Marina, M., Jemni, M., Rodríguez, F. A., & Jimenez, A. (2012). Plyometric jumping performances of male and female gymnasts from different heights. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(7), 1879-1886. Nashner, L. M. (1997). Practical biomehanics and physiology of balance. In G. P. Jacobson, C. W. Newman, & J. M. Kartush (Eds.), Handbook of balance functional testing (pp. 261-279). San Diego (CA): Singular Publishing Group. Nicol, C., Avela, J., & Komi, P. V. (2006). The stretch-shortening cycle. Sports Medicine, 36(11), 977-999. Panjan, A., & Šarabon, N. (2010). Review of methods for the evaluation of human body balance. Sport Science Review, 19(5-6), 131-163. Rošker, J., & Šarabon, N. (2010). Kinaesthesia and Methods for its Assessment: Literature Review. Sport Science Review, 19(5-6), 165-208. Schmitz, R. J., Schultz, M. D., Lewsey, M. G., O’Malley, R. C., Urich, M. A., Libiger, O., ... & Ecker, J. R. (2011). Transgenerational epigenetic instability is a source of novel methylation variants. Science, 334(6054), 369-373. Šarabon, N., Kern, H., Loefler, S., & Jernej, R. (2010). Selection of body sway parameters according to their sensitivity and repeatability. European Journal of Translational Myology, 20(1-2), 5-12. Škof, B. and Kalan, G. (2007). Biološki razvoj - telesni in sploni razvoj. In Škof, B. (Ed.), Šport po meri otrok in mladostnikov: pedagoško-psihološki in biološki vidiki kondicijske vadbe mladih (pp. 136-181). Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport, Inštitut za šport. Winter, D. A., Patla, A. E. in Frank, J. S. (1990). Assessment of balance control in humans. Med Prog Technol, 16(12), 31-51. Winter, D. A. (1995). Human balance and posture control during standing and walking. Gait & posture, 3(4), 193-214. Winter, D. A., Prince, F., Frank, J. S., Powell, C., & Zabjek, K. F. (1996). Unified theory regarding A/P and M/L balance in quiet stance. Journal of neurophysiology, 75(6), 2334-2343. Zemková, E., & Hamar, D. (2010). The effect of 6-week combined agility-balance training on neuromuscular performance in basketball players. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 50(3), 262-267. Zhang, L. Q., & Wang, G. (2001). Dynamic and static control of the human knee joint in abduction–adduction. Journal of biomechanics, 34(9), 1107-1115. Zorko, K., Rošker, J. in Šarabon, N. (2014). Pomen kinestetične funkcije v vadbenem procesu. Šport: Revija za teoretična in praktična vprašanja športa, 62.

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THE IMPACT OF LENGTH, WIDTH AND FLAT FOOT ON BALANCE Kašček A.1, Čuk I.1, Pustivšek S. 1, Hadžić V.1, Bučar Pajek M.1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to find out if the foot morphologic characteristics impact on maintenance of balance position by athletes. Morphologic characteristics of the foot are described with length, width and flat of the foot. 122 sport students registered in the first class in study year 2011/2012 at Faculty of Sport in Ljubljana were participating in this study. The flat foot was defined with Clark‘s method. The balance was measured with Biodex stability system (BSS) (Biodex Medical Systems Inc, Shirley, NY) under conditions: the hardness of the supporting surface = 4, we made 3 recurrence and 20 second balance maintained. We have calculated the correlation coefficients (Pearson, Kendall’s tau b and Spearman’s rho) and regression analysis for dependence stability indexes (Overall stability index (Osi), Anterior/ Posterior stability (A/Psi), Medial/Lateral stability (M/Lsi)). Results for the right leg, within the error of 5%, are pointing on the influence of the foot’s length on all three of the stability indexes (Osi: p = 0,001, A/Psi: p = 0,001, M/Lsi: p = 0,006). Results for the left leg are also showing on the influence of foots length on Osi (p = 0,035) in A/Psi (p= 0,027), while M/Lsi (p= 0,073) there is none. Flat foot has no influence over stability indexes.

key words: balance, foot, length of the foot, width of the foot, flat of the foot

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INTRODUCTION The balance is a general term which describes the dynamics of body posture. It is related to the inertial forces acting on the body and the inertial characteristics of individual body segments (Winter, 1995). Horak (1987, p. 1881) defines balance as “the ability to maintain equilibrium in a gravitational field by keeping or returning the center of body mass over its base of support.” Enoka (1994) says that the human body in the upright and steady position, as long as the force vector of the central center of gravity remains within the boundaries of the base of support and remains stable, as you can with the muscle-skeletal system adapts to interference and returns to a state of equilibrium. “Because two-thirds of our body mass is located two-thirds of body height above the ground we are an inherently unstable system unless a control system is continuously acting”, says Winter (1995, p. 193). Some authors (Tsigilis, Zachopoulou and Mavridis, 2001) do not only face the problem of measuring the balance and test reliability, but also the problem of defining balance. Balance should not be a general motoric ability, but highly specific capability, which depends on the performed tasks or the measurement test. People as two-leg beings can move in three main different ways; one leg is permanently in contact with the ground (walking), we can be in the free-supporting stage, when both legs for a short time are not in contact with substrate (running), or can be fixed in the leg contact with the ground (standing) (Winter, 1995). When we have an internal or external balance disorder, balance is compensated by different solutions, depending on the degree of the disorder. Responses range from simple monosynaptic reflex to stretch, all the way to the activation of the balance strategies. Balance strategies are sensorimotor solutions which are used for maintenance of control over balance and include muscle synergists, movement patterns, torques in the joints and reaction base forces (Horak, Henry and Shumway-Cook, 1997). The aim of this study was to find out if the foot morphologic characteristics impact on maintenance of the balance position by athletes. Anatomy of the foot is described with length, width and flat of the foot. In the upright position the base of support is determined by the position of feet including the area under and between the feet. More are the feet apart the greater is the base of support (Hochmuth, 1984). The main factor in stable position is the strength angle which depends on the size of the support surface and the height of the center of gravity of the body. Strength angle is the angle between the force of gravity and the outer edge of the support surface (Marinšek, 2007). From biomechanics it‘s already known that bigger is the lever, easier the balance is maintained. From this we can conclude, that the length of the foot will impact on anterior/posterior index stability (A/Psi) and the width of foot on medial/lateral index stability (M/Lsi). We were also interested, how the flat of the foot influences the balance maintenance. The study shows (Menz, Morris in Stephen, 2005) the characteristics of foot and ankle greatly influences the balance maintenance and functional abilities of elderly people.

METHODS Sample 122 sport students registered in the first class in study year 2011/2012 at Faculty of Sport in Ljubljana were participating in this study. All of them are athletes, so we assumed they have strong ankle stabilizators.

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Variables Morphologic characteristics of the foot are described with length, width and flat of the foot. Length and width are defined with two distant points on the foot. The plantogram evaluation has been used in this research. The flat foot was defined with Clark‘s method (Pridalova & Riegerova, 2005), where the AB line connects the points between the inside of the heel and the foot. Point A is then connected with point C, which is determined on the deepest edge of the longitudinal arch. This forms an angle between points C-A-B (Figure 1) which is measured with a goniometer (results in degrees - °) (Videmšek, Klopčič, Štihec, Karpljuk, 2006). Measurements for flat of the foot are: • α < 31o = the foot is flat; • α = 32o - 43o = the foot is partially flat; • α > 34o = the foot is normal.

Figure 1: Clark’s Method of flat of the foot (Videmšek, 2006)

The balance was measured with Biodex stability system (BSS) (Biodex Medical Systems Inc, Shirley, NY) under conditions: the hardness of the supporting surface = 4, we made 3 recurrences and 20 second balance maintained.

Data analysis The data were analyzed by the statistical package SPSS 15.0. Basic parameters of the distribution of variables were calculated (mean, standard deviation). Correlation coefficients (Pearson, Kendall’s tau b and Spearman’s rho) and regression analysis for dependence stability indexes (Overall stability index (Osi), Anterior/Posterior stability index (A/Psi) and Medial/Lateral stability index (M/Lsi)) were calculated within the error of 5%.

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RESULTS It has been confirmed that there is correlation between variables. There is however one exception – flat of the foot, where there is no correlation between variables. We were mostly focusing on the correlation between variables of balance and morphologic characteristics of the foot, where moderate correlation is. The interesting part, it has been found out is that on the right leg the correlation is more noticeable than on the left leg. Even non parametric tests (Kendell‘s tau b and Spearman‘s rho) are providing similar results. The maintenance of balance position by athletes (stability index) was also tested in dependence on morphologic characteristics of the foot (length, width, flat of the foot) using regression analysis. Results for the right leg, within the error of 5%, are pointing on the influence of the foot’s length on all three of the stability indexes (Osi: p = 0,001, A/Psi: p = 0,001, M/Lsi: p = 0,006). Results for the left fleg are also showing on the influence of foots length on Osi (p = 0,035) and A/Psi (p = 0,027), while for M/Lsi (p = 0,073) there is none.

Flat foot has no influence over stability indexes.

Table 1 The correlation between Osi, A/Psi, M/Lsi and length, width, flat of the right foot.

Right foot Correlation

Osi

A/Psi

M/Lsi

Length of the foot

Width of the foot

Flat of the foot

Pearson CRL

.528*

.460*

-.001

Sig.

.000

.988

Pearson CRL

.529*

.462*

.040

Sig.

.000

.671

Pearson CRL

.472*

.408*

-.046

Sig.

.000

.626

Notes: p < .05, two tailed paired; * significant

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Table 2 The correlation between Osi, A/Psi, M/Lsi and length, width, flat of the left foot. Left foot Correlation

Osi

A/Psi

M/Lsi

Length of the foot

Width of the foot

Flat of the foot

Pearson CRL

.414*

.400*

-.169

Sig.

.000

.070

Pearson CRL

.392*

.362*

.150

Sig.

.000

.109

Pearson CRL

.358*

.347*

.157

Sig.

.000

.092

Notes: p < .05, two tailed paired; * significant

Table 3 The regression analysis describes the statistical relationship between length, width and flat of the left/ right foot and Osi, A/Psi and M/Lsi. Length

Width

Flat

2.133

.856

1.728

sig.

.035*

.394

.087

2.244

.480

1.573

sig.

.027*

.632

.119

1.810

.698

1.581

sig.

.073

.487

.117

3.266*

.569

.105

sig.

.001

.571

.917

3.317*

.538

.622

sig.

.001

.592

.535

2.806*

.490

-.441

sig.

.006

.625

.660

Left foot Osi

A/Psi

M/Lsi

Right foot Osi

A/Psi

M/Lsi

Notes: p < .05, two tailed paired; * significant

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DISCUSSION In this research we want to find out if the foot morphologic characteristics impact on maintenance of balance position by athletes. Morphologic characteristics of the foot were described with length, width and flat of the foot. The balance was measured with Biodex stability system (BSS) (Biodex Medical Systems Inc, Shirley, NY) under conditions: the hardness of the supporting surface = 4, we made 3 recurrence and 20 second balance maintained. In research different stability indexes (Overall stability index (Osi), Anterior/Posterior stability index (A/Psi) and Medial/Lateral stability index (M/Lsi)) were used. In the previous research (Menz, Morris in Stephen, 2005; Kejonen, Kauranen, Vanharanta, 2003) some correlates between characteristics of foot and balance maintenance predominantly of elder people were found. They also found the differences between male and female, but they more investigate the differences between trained and non-trained foot. In our research we had athletes which we assumed they have strong ankle stabilizators. We focused in how much is balance depends on width, length and flat of the foot. In the end of research, we figured out that from all of the foot morphologic characteristics, the most influential one is length of the foot. For us to be able to firmly confirm this statement, we should have also noted height of the test subjects and check the ratio of height and foot length. There are also noticeable differences between left and right foot. Right foot have stronger correlation between stability indexes and width/length then left foot. We are anticipating, that here it would be shown, which leg is dominant. The correlation between flat of the foot and stability indexes isn’t significant. Flat foot has no influence over stability indexes. In future it should have been researched, whether there are statistical differences in maintaining balance between dominant and non-dominant leg.

REFERENCES Enoka, R. M. (1994). Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology. Human Kinetics, Champaign. Hochmuth, G. (1984). Biomechanics of athletic movement. Berlin: Sportverlag. Horak, F. B. (1987). Clinical measurement of postural control in adults. Physical Therapy, 67(12), 1881-1885. Horak, F. B., Henry, S. M. and Shumway-Cook, A. (1997). Postural perturbations: new insights for treatment of balance disorders. Physical Therapy, 77(5), 517-533. Kejonen, P., Kauranen, K., Vanharanta, H. (2003). The relationship between anthropometric factors and bodybalancing movements in postural balance. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 84:17-22. Marinšek, M. (2007). SOMERSAULTS AND LANDING MISTAKES IN FLOOR EXERCISE. Master’s degree. Ljubljana: The Faculty of Sport. Menz, H. B., Morris, M. E., Stephen, S. R. (2005). Foot and Ankle Characteristics Associated With Impaired Balance and Functional Ability in Older People. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 60 (12), 1546-1552. Pridalova, M., & Riegerova, J. (2005). Child’s foot morphology. Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis Gymnica, 35 (2), 75-86. Tsigilis, N., Zachopoulou, E. and Mavridis, T. (2001). Evaluation of the specificity of selected dynamic balance tests. Perceptual & Motor skills, 92 (3), 827- 833. Videmšek, M., Klopčič, P., Štihec, J., & Karplju, D. (2006). The analysis of the arch of the foot in three-year-old children–a case of Ljubljana. Kinesiology,38(1), 78-85. Winter, D.A. (1995). Human balance and posture control during standing and walking. Gait & Posture, 3(4), 193-214.

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THEORETICAL MODEL OF RUNNING IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS VAULT DISCIPLINE Vogrinec A.1, Namestnik S.2, MarinĹĄek M.2

Slovenian Gymnastics Federation, Slovenia Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, Slovenia

1 2

ABSTRACT Expert modelling has been used to design a model of optimal running in artistic gymnastics vault discipline with regards to the running technique, run-up length and rhythm as well as some important running motor control factors. The review of existing literature indicates that running in vault discipline has to be as fast as possible yet needs to be performed with adequate control to allow the preparation of the attack onto the springboard. The speed of running increases from the first step and is only decreased on the fourth from last step in order to regulate the attacking distance to the springboard. In the last two steps, the speed increases again and records the highest value in the last step. Good attack on the springboard necessitates important visual information, which gymnast receives from the environment and uses it in order to regulate the speed and rhythm of running prior to the attack on the springboard. From a biomechanical point of view, running in artistic gymnastics vault discipline has to be very similar to sprinting in athletics, as this model is optimal for achieving maximum speed. At the same time, a run-up has to be controlled due to the attack on the springboard and subsequent jump over the vaulting table, thus requiring an optimum run-up speed. Important factors for achieving such optimum run-up speed are in addition to some morphological factors also central regulation of movement, motor abilities and energetic factors.

key words: running technique, biomechanics, motor control, run-up speed, run-up rhythm

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DYNAMIC BALANCE AND EXPLOSIVE LEG POWER IN YOUNG FEMALE GYMNASTS Aleksić-Veljković A.1, Herodek K.1, Madić D.2, Živčić-Marković K.3

University of Niš, Faculty of Sport and Physical education, Niš, Serbia University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical education, Novi Sad, Serbia 3 University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Zagreb, Croatia 1 2

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between variables of dynamic balance and countermovement jump in young, female gymnasts. A single-group design was used. Forty-seven young, female gymnasts (Mean±SD; age: 8-12 years, height: 42.88±10.38 cm, mass: 35.59±8.15 kg; body mass index: 17.18±1.62 kg/m2; training hours per week: 15-18 h/week) performed measurements of dynamic balance and countermovement jump with and without arm swing. Significant, but small to medium associations were observed between variables of balance and height of the jump in both protocols of the countermovement jump ranging from r = +0.313 to +0.426. No significant associations were observed between variables of dynamic balance and relative power and peak power of countermovement jump with or without arm swings. The data indicate that dynamic balance and leg powerimply that balance and power are independent of each other and may have to be tested and trained complementarily in young gymnasts. key words: artistic gymnastics, countermovement jump, jump height, testing

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INTRODUCTION Authors suggested that there is only little information available in the literature regarding potential associations between various forms of balance and lower extremity muscle power in healthy children (Muehlbauer, Besemer, Wehrle, Gollhofer, & Granacher, 2013). Both abilities are very important in artistic gymnastics in performance on all of the apparatus and in all categories of gymnasts. Even minimal loss of balance affects the final score at the competition, especially on the balance beam and floor, and during landing on the uneven bars and vault. Landing in gymnastics, which requires maintaining balance after performing very complex elements influences the development of a superior balance compared to other athletes (Bressel, Yonker, Kras, & Heath, 2007). Gymnasts’ ability to transmit their impulse from their feet to their upper bodies following rebounds is crucial, allowing acrobatic skills such as somersaulting and twisting (Mkaouer, Jemni, Amara, Chaabèn, & Tabka, 2012)standing back somersault with landings on the spot (BSls. Jumping ability of gymnasts is often linked to successful performance and is sometimes considered as an overall indicator of gymnastics proficiency. Researchers have reported significant relationship between balance capacity and jump ability in amateur soccer players of different ages (Gualtieri, Cattaneo, Sarcinella, Cimadoro, & Alberti, 2009), but also that power and balance as well as balance under single and dual task conditions seem to be independent of each other and may have to be tested and trained complementarily in seniors (Muehlbauer et al., 2013). Possible correlation between power and balance in young female gymnasts will suggest that by training one of these aspects individually, one could also indirectly affect the adaptation of the other (Gualtieri et al., 2009). The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between variables of dynamic balance and countermovement jump in young, female gymnasts.

METHODS

Sample Forty-seven young, healthy, female gymnasts participated in the study after experimental procedures were explained (Mean±SD; age: 8-12 years, height: 42.88±10.38 cm, mass: 35.59±8.15 kg; body mass index: 17.18±1.62 kg/m2; training hours per week: 15-18 h/week). Appropriate informed consent was gained from their parents and coaches. Local ethical permission was given and all experiments were conducted according to the latest version of the declaration of Helsinki. The testing took place day before the beginning of international competition. Immediately prior to testing participants performed a standard individual, gymnastics warm-up. During testing, the air temperature ranged from 24°C to 27°C. Testing always commenced at 10 a.m. and was completed by 1 p.m.

Procedures The YBT (Y Balance Test) is a measure of dynamic balance in unilateral stance that has been deemed to be reliable and valid (Shaffer et al., 2013). The participant reaches forward with one foot in the anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral direction. The test is performed barefoot. Following the protocol, each participant was required to perform six practice trials before the three data-collection trials. With the stance-foot toes directly behind the start line, the participant was instructed to reach as far as she could while maintaining balance (Plisky et al., 2009)flexibility, and proprioception and has been used to assess physical performance, identify chronic ankle instability, and identify athletes at greater risk for lower extremity injury. In order to improve the repeatability in measuring components of the SEBT, the Y Balance Test\u2122 has been developed. Objective. The purpose of this paper is to report the development and

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reliability of the Y Balance Test\u2122. Methods. Single limb stance excursion distances were measured using the Y Balance Test\u2122 on a sample of 15 male collegiate soccer players. Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC. Each of the participants was instructed that any of the following activities would constitute a failed attempt, after which an additional trial would be performed: (1) maximal reach with the free leg before the controlled return to the stance platform (2) using momentum (kicking) to move the reach indicator, (3) stepping on the top of the reach indicator for support, or (4) losing balance before the controlled return to the bilateral stance. The amount of rest time between trials was long enough for the rater to record the reach distance and returns the indicator to its starting position. All raters were trained in performing the YBT protocol. The reach distance in each direction was normalized to the limb length (i.e. inferior anterosuperior iliac spine to inferior medial malleolus). The sum of three normalized reach distances was then averaged and multiplied by 100 to generate a composite score. Participants performed maximal vertical countermovement jumps (CMJ) while standing on a threedimensional force platform (Kistler® type 9281a). Subjects performed three countermovement jumps with arm swing and three without arm swing. Resting period was 1-2 minutes between jumps. For each of these trials, subjects were asked to jump as high as possible. The best trial in terms of maximal height was taken for further data analysis. The protocols and criteria for correct trials of jumps was according previous studies (Acero, Sánchez, & Fernández-del-Olmo, 2012), (Kums, Ereline, Gapeyeva, & Pääsuke, 2005). The jump height and relative power were calculated directly by the system, determinate from flight time. The peak power was calculated according the following equation (Sayers, Harackiewicz, Harman, Frykman, & Rosenstein, 1999): Peak power (w) = 60.7x (jump height cm]) +45.3x(body mass [kg])-2055 Data analysis Data are presented as group mean values standard deviations (SD). Associations of leg power and dynamic balance variables were assessed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. Associations are reported by their correlation coefficient (r-value), level of significance (p-value). Values of r = 0.10 indicate small, r = 0.30 medium, and r = 0.50 large size of correlation (Muehlbauer et al., 2013).

RESULTS Table 1 shows descriptive statistics, while Tables 2 display the correlations between examined variables of countermovement jump with and without arms swing and dynamic balance. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for variables of CMJ Minimum

Maximum

Mean

Std. Dev.

Jump Height

26.10

46.63

34.71

4.75

Jump Height AS

30.70

56.57

43.02

5.79

Relative Power

15.93

31.03

22.96

3.21

Relative power AS

13.13

36.47

24.17

5.99

Peakpower

565.20

3412.20

1534.81

568.91

Peakpowera

803.94

3960.61

1965.87

629.09

YBTD

61.47

92.68

77.79

6.09

YBTL

65.70

92.16

78.51

5.22

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Table 2. Correlations between examined variables Jump Height

Jump Height AS

Relative Power

Relative Power AS

Peak Power

Peak Power AS

Jump Height AS

.922**

Relative Power

.610**

.685**

Relative Power AS

.232

.346*

.409**

Peak Power

.804**

.828**

.509**

.146

Peak Power AS

.776**

.866**

.549**

.206

.985**

YBTD

.388**

.313*

.095

-.096

.234

.209

YBTL

.426**

.375**

.157

.035

.286

.271

YBTD

.742**

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

DISCUSSION The aim of the present study was to examine correlations between chosen variables of countermovement jump with and without arm swing and two composite variables of dynamic balance in young female gymnasts. The results showed that there is small to medium positive statistically significant correlations between Jump Height of both procedures (with and without arms swing) and dynamic balance of participants. There were not statistically significantly correlations between the variables of leg power and dynamic balance of participants. The data indicate that dynamic balance and leg power in young female gymnasts are independent of each other and may have to be tested and trained complementarily in early years of gymnastics training (8-12years). Testing and periodical monitoring of young athletes’ abilities is necessary for success in senior category. That information are important for planning and making training programs adapted to the needs of gymnastics and the gymnasts’ age. In this way we could achieve a harmonious and healthy development of fundamental motor skills in accordance with the physical development of athletes (Ricotti, 2011). Lower extremity muscle power did not appear to be the dominant factor in maintaining balance in young women (Katayama et al., 2004). Earlier investigations examined this relationship in elderly (Muehlbauer, Besemer, Wehrle, Gollhofer, & Granacher, 2012), amateur soccer players (Gualtieri et al., 2009), young adults (Muehlbauer et al., 2013) etc. Power training improves balance, particularly using a low load, high velocity regimen, in older adults with initial lower muscle power and slower contraction (Orr et al., 2006). We suggest further studies to be longitudinal character in order to truly examine this relationship in young gymnasts.

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REFERENCES Acero, R. M., Sánchez, J. A., & Fernández-del-Olmo, M. (2012). Tests of Vertical Jump: Countermovement Jump with Arm Swing and Reaction Jump With Arm Swing. Strength & Conditioning Journal (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins), 34(6), 87–93. Bressel, E., Yonker, J. C., Kras, J., & Heath, E. M. (2007). Comparison of Static and Dynamic Balance in Female Collegiate Soccer, Basketball, and Gymnastics Athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 4242(11), 42–46. Retrieved from www.journalofathletictraining.org Gualtieri, D., Cattaneo, A., Sarcinella, R., Cimadoro, G., & Alberti, G. (2009). Relationship between balance capacity and jump ability in amateur soccer players of different ages. Sport Sciences for Health, 3(3), 73–76. Katayama, Y., Senda, M., Hamada, M., Kataoka, M., Shintani, M., & Inoue, H. (2004). Relationship between postural balance and knee and toe muscle power in young women. Acta Medica Okayama, 58(4), 189–95. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15551756 Kums, T., Ereline, J., Gapeyeva, H., & Pääsuke, M. (2005). Vertical jumping performance in young rhythmic gymnasts. Biology of Sport, 22(3), 237–246. Mkaouer, B., Jemni, M., Amara, S., Chaabèn, H., & Tabka, Z. (2012). Kinematic and kinetic analysis of counter movement jump versus two different types of standing back somersault. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 4(3), 61–71. Muehlbauer, T., Besemer, C., Wehrle, A., Gollhofer, A., & Granacher, U. (2012). Relationship between strength, power and balance performance in seniors. Gerontology, 58, 504–512. Muehlbauer, T., Besemer, C., Wehrle, A., Gollhofer, A., & Granacher, U. (2013). Relationship between strength, balance and mobility in children aged 7-10 years. Gait and Posture, 37(1), 108–112. Orr, R., de Vos, N. J., Singh, N. A., Ross, D. A., Stavrinos, T. M., & Fiatarone-Singh, M. A. (2006). Power training improves balance in healthy older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61(1), 78–85. Plisky, P. J., Gorman, P. P., Butler, R. J., Kiesel, K. B., Underwood, F. B., & Elkins, B. (2009). The reliability of an instrumented device for measuring components of the star excursion balance test. North American Journal of Sports Physical Therapy : NAJSPT, 4(2), 92–99. Ricotti, L. (2011). Static and dynamic balance in young athletes. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 6(4), 616–628. Sayers, S. P., Harackiewicz, D. V, Harman, E. A., Frykman, P. N., & Rosenstein, M. T. (1999). Cross-validation of three jump power equations. Medicine and science in sports and exercise (Vol. 31). Shaffer, S. W., Teyhen, D. S., Lorenson, C. L., Warren, R. L., Koreerat, C. M., Straseske, C. a, & Childs, J. D. (2013). Y-balance test: a reliability study involving multiple raters. Military Medicine, 178(11), 1264–70.

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DROP JUMP ON FORCE PLATE IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS Sever U.1, Samardžija Pavletič M.2, Kolar E.1

University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia University of Primorska, Applied Kinesiology, Koper, Slovenia

1 2

ABSTRACT Bouncing drop jumps are very common thype of movement, which is used in artistics gymnastics. Drop jumps are recognized in many elements and thumbling series on floor and also on apparatus as vault and beam. The purpose of the study was to determine the pattern of results that are specific to each sport and to find the differences between the categories that would in the future be separated between the better and worse parametric values of drop jump (DJ). The survey was made on the basis of individual preventive measurements of 47 Slovenian gymnasts. 17.08 ± 5.76 in male gymnastics (MAG) and 15.01 ± 3.43 in the women‘s artistic gymnastics (WAG). Both categories are then divided according to age, in the junior category (WAG_MLkat, MAG_MLkat) and absolute category (WAG_ABS, MAG_ABS). To determine the differences between the groups, we used descriptive statistics and one factor analysis of variance. After reviewing the results, we found that the highest jump made was 36 cm high and lowest made 18 cm. The average contact time at take-off was 0:21 and the relative peak force (% BW) 566.06. We have found that there are statistically significant differences in the jump hight (JH) between gender and also between age groups. Significant differences were not found in the other two parameters, contact time and relative peak forces. From the parameters, we can see that gymnasts of absolute categories jump higher than the junior categories, from what we can conclude that age affects the height of the jump. If we compare the contact times in the literature and our own research, we can realize that Slovenian gymnasts had short contact times, which means that the jumps performed in line with expectations. At the same time, it is interesting that in our study female gymnasts (WAG) average jump higher than male gymnasts (MAG), which is not observed in other studies. The results of this study will be useful in interpreting rebounds in further measurements and will be refined as to better understand and to determine the normative values we need a larger sample.

key words: artistic gymnastics, drop jump, force plate

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INTRODUCTION Drop jump with immediate rebounce is a very common type of movement, which occurs in gymnastics (Tonic, and others, 2012). We face drop jump in artistic gymnastics in both individual elements such as all series of acrobatic elements on the floor, as well as on apparatus such as vault and beam (Jemni, 2011). As a gymnast perform a thumbling element, his body hits the floor followed by immediate take-off pulse and fast take off (Tonić, Petković, Dragić, Ilić, & Tankuševa, 2012). Drop jump consists of the following stages: leaving the base, which is set at a specific height, preparation for landing, the contact with the ground, a quick vertical rebound movement, and then the final landing (Čoh et al., 2011). Some authors measure also the highest point which is reached by the center of gravity of the body after taking of the ground (Dolenec, 1999; Gollhofer & Kyrolainen, 1991). Studies show that the parameters of drop jump are a good indicator of the effectiveness of the trust in selected sports such as athletics, gymnastics, basketball, etc . (Tonić et al., 2012). One of the most important training types in the training process is also drop jumping and is an important tool for the control of specific take-off power (Sankey, Jones, & Bampouras, 2008). Value of the take-off depends a lot on eccentric - concentric neuromuscular modulation developing the force (Čoh, 2013). Drop jumps have very similar modulation of development muscular force and with them we can improve the function of eccentric-concentric muscle functioning on lower extremities (Čoh, 2013). Level rate in drop jumping is defined by the depth of the jump, the weight of the athlete, contact time, maximum force at the take-off and vertical jump height (Čoh, 2013). Plantar flexors of ankle, knee and hip extensor are most burdened while performing the drop jumps (Weinhandl, Smith, & Dugan, 2011). While performing drop jumps we must take care to avoid contact the platform with the heel, which otherwise causes the peak of force increases by more than 10%, and also prolongs the contact time of the take-off, which limit the effectiveness of the drop jump (Weinhandl et al., 2011). To pressure the heel to the ground can occur when breaking eccentric stage cannot provide the ankle extensor, then the knee and hip extensor take care of this part and this event significantly lengthens the transition from eccentric to concentric phase, which has negative consequences for the effective jump (Čoh, 2013). In addition to the eccentric-concentric contraction is a key mechanism of the effectiveness of drop jumps corresponding muscle preactivation which begins 40 to 60 milliseconds before the feet touch the ground (Gollhofer & Kyrolainen, 1991). Muscle preactivation provides coactivation of m. Gastrocnemius and m. Tibialis anterior (Komi, 2000). Stiffness of m. Gastrocnemius makes able to store large amounts of elastic energy in the string and lower stretching muscles (Horita, Komi, Nicol, & Kyrolainen, 1996; Markovic, Dizdar, Jukic, & Cardinale, 2004). The aim of drop jumps also to reduce the time needed for amortization, which generates an optimal transition from eccentric to concentric contraction (Čoh, 2013). If concentric contraction does not follow quickly enough the eccentric contraction, that leads to the loss of elastic energy which was stored in the transverse bridges (Čoh, 2013). In the phase of stretching the muscles is the major part of the elastic energy stored in the serial elastic elements of muscle - fascia, tendon and transverse bridges (Bobbert, Huijing, & van Ingen Schenau, 1987a, 1987b; Bobbert & van Ingen Schenau, 1988). Part of elastic energy is available only 15-100 milliseconds (Komi & Gollhofer, 1997). The amount of stored elastic energy also depends on the force stretching the muscles and stretching of the muscle-tendon complex. Important is the rigidity of the two systems. Triple jumpers, for example, develop greater muscle stiffness (m. Gastrocnemius), as is the Achilles heel (Zatsiorsky, 1995). The fact is that the muscle-tendon complex in terms of increased speed of the eccentric-concentric cycle store a greater amount of kinetic energy in the form of elastic energy (Bobbert & van Soest, 2000; Komi, 2000). For a longer contact time (more than 200 milliseconds) to the ground, part of the absorbed elastic energy is converted into heat energy (Komi, 2000).

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Drop jumps are frequently used content plyometric training to raise the height of the vertical rebound movement (Sankey et al., 2008). Effect of training drop jumps is also often inconsistent. The cause of the inconsistencies in the difference between two technically different types of drop jump (Sankey et al., 2008). We can find the drop jump linking with a quick counter movement jump and drop jump by minimizing the contact time with the ground or ‘bounce’ ‘drop jump. The first one has long contact time with the ground and the height of the jump is higher and the other is a shorter contact time and lower reach the highest point (Tonić et al., 2012). In gymnastics we have repeatedly witnessed the second. The studies found many tests of different jumps, which can be used in different sports (Gabbett, 2006; Lidor, Arnon, Hershko, Maayan, & Falk, 2007; Lidor, Hershko, Bilkevitz, Arnon, & Falk, 2007; Lidor & Ziv, 2010; Melrose, Spaniol, Bohling, & Bonnette, 2007). All display height of the jump, and the relative peak force. Some authors also indicate the contact time and the time of the flight after take-off through the contact pads (Loko, Aule, Sikkut, Ereline, & Viru, 2000; Markovic et al., 2004). Bilateral force plate gives a better measurement of the forces produced during the jump (Carlock et al., 2004). In all studies we can indicate that it is a large correlation between the force produced during the execution of the jump and the height of the jump. Marina (2003) states that the competitors of elite level in US made a study of drop jumps from a height of 60 cm in which female gymnasts have reached a height of about 45 cm, while male gymnasts around 50 cm (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004). Motoshima and others (2015) cite the fact that the performance parameters of drop jump can directly be compared with the performance of the implementation of the take-off on the spring board and successful implementation of elements of the apparatus like vault. Drop jump, as such, can in many cases be equated with the realization of many gymnastic elements (Motoshima, Kitagawa, & Maeda, 2015). The aim of this study is to propose normative values, which are characteristic for sportsmen in Slovenia and to find the differences between the categories of women’s artistic gymnastics (ŽSG) and men’s artistic gymnastics (MAG) in order to give guidelines of good and bad parameters of drop jump.

METHODS

Protocol Athletes on the board first measure weight. Gymnasts performed drop jump from a 35 cm high bench. They were barefoot, with their hands on hips. They performed 3 rebounds and they were instructed that after the drop from the bench quickly take off (Motoshima et al., 2015). The test has been made so that from one foot to drop from the bench, and then as quickly bounced from bilateral force plate and dismount. The order of the athletes was random. Before the test was made out by other physical tests, which were not energy or resource demanding. The measurement was carried out on S2P bilateral force plate for measuring a force to the ground. The panel was via a USB cable connected to a laptop computer and for holding data capture and processing using the following software package ARS manufacturer S2P. With bilateral plate for measuring forces on the ground we can analyze the functional capacity of muscles left and right legs separately. The method can diagnose the dynamics of the forces that occur in the different movement structures of the object we are measuring. In this method the forces are measured in the vertical, horizontal and lateral directions. With this technology it is possible to measure the take-off force in the vertical jump, long and high jump, the system also provides diagnostics of static and dynamic balance.

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Great importance of measuring forces on bilateral force plate is the determination of dominance of the left and right foot and knowing the deficits in the production of force, which is an important figure in the development of motor skills, preventive training and rehabilitation of the athlete. The big difference in the force produced by the left and right leg appears for trauma and surgery of the hip, knee and ankle (Bračič, 2012).

Observed parameters and analysis From the resulting parameters we used to analyze the jump height (JH) , the maximum take-off force (Fmax / % BW) and a contact time of take-off (CT) . These parameters are most often used in other sports, so we decided to use them in our study.

The data analyze was done with the software IBM SPSS version 22. We used a descriptive statistics to find differences in mean values between categories, one factor analysis of variance for finding statistically significant differences between categories and gender and Tukey HSD Post hoc test.

Subject The study included 47 Slovenian athletes, of which 21 are men (MAG) and 26 women (WAG). Athletes are classified into four categories based on age and category in which they compete: 16 gymnast aged 14 years and over in the absolute category WAG (WAG _ABS), 10 gymnast aged 13 years or less in age categories (WAG_MLKat), 11 gymnast aged 16 years or more in the absolute category MAG (MAG_ABS) and 10 gymnast aged 15 years or less in age categories (MAG_MLkat).

Table 1: Number of measured gymnasts (N), Mean (age ± St. Deviation involved in the study of gender and category)

MAG

WAG

N (%)

Mean

ABS

11 (52,4)

20,87 ±5,75

MLkat

10 (47,6)

12,91 ± 0,43

Total

21 (50)

17,08 ± 5,76

ABS

16 (61,5)

16,51 ± 3,67

MLkat

10 (38,5)

12,85 ± 1,01

Total

26 (50)

15,10 ± 3,43

Gymnasts WAG were on average 15.1 years old and the gmynast MAG 17.08 years. The average age of MAG_ABS was 20.87 years and 12.91 years MAG_MLkat. In the category WAG_ABS the average age of 16.51 years and WAG_MLkat less than 13 years (Table 1). The average age is appropriate and can offer good guidelines for the studied group.

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RESULTS

Investigated parameters are described by descriptive statistics.

Table 2: Basic parameters DJ in MAG and WAG, jump height (JH), the maximum take-off force (Fmax / BW %), contact time of take-off (CT)

MAG

WAG

JH (m)

Fmax/%BW (N)

CT (s)

JH (m)

Fmax/%BW (N)

CT (s)

Min

0,18

392,00

0,14

0,18

415,00

0,15

Max

0,34

783 ,00

0,28

0,36

695,00

0,30

0,26±0,04

563,43±112,53

0,21 0,04

0,27±0,04

568,19±71,00

0,21±0,04

Mean

We noticed that competitors of WAG averagely jump higher than competitors MAG. The average height of the jump was 27 cm for women and 26 cm for men. The highest jump for WAG was 36 cm and the MAG 34. At the lowest jump both category jumped 18 cm. Looking at the parameters Fmax / % BW, it can be observed that women on average produce more force to the ground as men. At the same time, it is interesting that the maximum Fmax / BW % higher for MAG (783.00 W) than WAG (695, 00 W). Contact times are in MAG and WAG on average equal to 0,21s. Minimum CT at MAG was 0,14s and for WAG 0,15s long. Maximum CT was at MAG 0.28s and WAG 0,30s.

Table 3: Basic parameters DJ between categories, jump height (JH), the maximum take-off force (Fmax/ BW %), contact time of take-off (CT)

JH (m)

Fmax/%BW (N)

CT (s)

Mean

Minimum

Maximum

MAG_MLkat

10,00

0,23±0,03

0,18

0,28

MAG_ABS

11,00

0,29±0,04

0,22

0,34

WAG_MLkat

10,00

0,25±0,03

0,19

0,31

WAG_ABS

16,00

0,28±0,04

0,18

0,36

Total

47,00

0,26±0,04

0,18

0,36

MAG_MLkat

10,00

560,90±113,47

392,00

783,00

MAG_ABS

11,00

565,73±117,15

419,00

753,00

WAG_MLkat

10,00

584,20±76,29

458,00

695,00

WAG_ABS

16,00

558,19±68,06

415,00

648,00

Total

47,00

566,06±90,84

392,00

783,00

MAG_MLkat

10,00

0,21±0,04

0,15

0,28

MAG_ABS

11,00

0,21±0,04

0,14

0,28

WAG_MLkat

10,00

0,20±0,04

0,15

0,26

WAG_ABS

16,00

0,21±0,03

0,17

0,30

Total

47,00

0,21±0,04

0,14

,30

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Analysis between the categories do not show significant differences in the average values of gender. From the results it is evident that both the MAG as the WAG difference between the age groups in the parameter of the jump height. It is interesting that MLkat produce more force on the plate (W 584.20) as ABS (558.19 W). When comparing maximum JH between categories we can find out that the WAG competitors in both categories can jump higher than competitors MAG. We can see in comparison to the contact time that competitors MAG_MLkat have a longer contact time as the competitor WAG_MLkat and had gymnasts in category MAG_ABS shorter CT than WAG_ABS. Table 4: Testing differences between MAG and WAG Jump height (JH), the maximum take-off force (Fmax / BW %), contact time of take-off (CT) Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

0,02

3,00

0,01

5,87

0,00

0,06

43,00

0,00

0,08

46,00

4549,69

3,00

1516,56

0,17

0,91

374997,12

43,00

8720,86

379546,81

46,00

0,00

3,00

0,00

0,22

0,88

0,07

43,00

0,00

0,07

46,00

Between Groups Within

JH (m)

Groups Total Between Groups Fmax/%BW (N)

Within Groups Total Between Groups

CT (s)

Within Groups Total

We can see that there is a statistical significant difference (p <0.05) in the JH between categories MAG and WAG. At the same time we find that there is no statistically significant differences between gender and categories of parameters drop jump Fmax / % BW and CT. Table 5: Testing differences between inside kategories in MAG and WAG Jump height (JH), the maximum take-off force (Fmax / BW %), contact time of take-off (CT)

(I) kategorija

MSG_MLkat

(J) kategorija

Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error

Sig.

MSG_ABS

-0,06

0,02

ZSG_ABS

-0,05

0,01

95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound

Upper Bound

0,000

-0,1

-0,02

0,010

-0,08

-0,01

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

With Tukey HSD Post hoc test we have noticed, that there is statistical significant difference between age categories, younger MAG_Mlkat and senior MAG_ABS and between gender, MAG and WAG.

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DISCUSSION Gender and height of the jump

Arkaev and Suchilin, (2004) stated that the female gymnasts in the implementation DJ attain a height of 45 cm and male gymnasts 50 cm. We can calculate that the female gymnasts reached 90% of the jump height of male gymnasts. In our study, we found that Slovenian female gymnasts performed an average jump higher than male gymnasts. You can say that competitors MAG reached 93.3% JH of the competitors WAG. We can also compare our MAG JH parameters with the JH parameters of the Youth Team USA (Suchomel, Sands, & McNeal, 2016). After examination, we can see that the gymnast of US jumps 0.30 Âą 0.06 cm while the Slovenian gymnast are reaching height of 0.26 Âą 0,04 cm. The results show that there are apparent differences in the JH between senior categories and younger categories. We can conclude that the effectiveness of drop jump and JH is influenced by age. From the literature it can be read that boys JH increases before puberty, 5 - 10% (between 9-10 years of age) and increases to 15% more than girls after puberty (about 14 to 15 years) (Rhodri & Jon, 2013). Our study shows that there are differences in the JH between age groups in both MAG and WAG. Given that the biggest technical complexity of the gymnastics is in the senior category, and that come after 18 years of age, this is also a guideline, that it is necessary to adjust the way how the athlete will be prepared to deal with the requirements, and that gymnast will be able practiced safely. Among the categories of production relative of maximum forces on the ground we did not find significant differences. We can see the differences from the results in terms of average values between MAG and WAG. The biggest difference is in the younger categories MAG and WAG. The WAG_MLkat have produced an average of 4% more force than male competitors for the same age categories. Similar to Fmax/% BW as the parameter CT, there were no statistically significant differences. Gymnasts had similar average CT both in the absolute and in younger categories. If we compare the contact times in the literature and our own research, however, we can realize that our gymnasts had short contact times, which means that the jumps can be performed in line with expectations (Komi, 2000).

CONCLUSIONS

Results of the drop jumps after analysis showed some significant differences in the JH, while not for the other two parameters. However, we found that the highest jump was performed by MAG_ABS then WAG_ABS, followed by WAG_MLkat and MAG_MLkat. Studies also indicate higher jumps as in was in our case. The fact is that the protocols in the studies are different from those we have made in our study or protocols in other studies are different and therefore we find different heights of DJ as 15 cm, 30 cm, 40 cm, 45 cm, 60 cm from first take-off bench (Pietraszewski & Rutkowska-Kucharska, 2011; Sankey et al., 2008). At the same time, we compared the results from the literature and we found that our gymnasts have average short contact times, which may mean the success of the implementation of elements in gymnastics routines. The results of this study will be useful in interpreting rebounds for further measurements and will be refined, as to better understand and to determine the normative values we need a larger sample. At the same time it would be good to measure the counter movement jump (CMJ) and compare the parameters of the latter. So we could get a ratio of elasticity eccentricconcentric contractions of these two rebounds and perhaps more meaning of this theme.

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REFERENCES Arkaev, L., & Suchilin, N. (2004). How to Create Champions. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport, cop. 2004. Bobbert, M. F., Huijing, P. A., & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1987a). Drop jumping. I. The influence of jumping technique on the biomechanics of jumping. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 19(4), 332-338. Bobbert, M. F., Huijing, P. A., & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1987b). Drop jumping. II. The influence of dropping height on the biomechanics of drop jumping. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 19(4), 339-346. Bobbert, M. F., & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1988). Coordination in vertical jumping. J Biomech, 21(3), 249-262. Bobbert, M. F., & van Soest, A. J. (2000). Two-joint muscles offer the solution, but what was the problem? Motor Control, 4(1), 48-52; discussion 97-116. Bračič, M. (2012). Primerjava gibalnih sposobnosti med različnimi starostnimi kategorijami poklicnih gasilcev v Republiki Sloveniji. Delo in varnost, 57(1), 28-35. Carlock, J. M., Smith, S. L., Hartman, M. J., Morris, R. T., Ciroslan, D. A., Pierce, K. C., . . . Stone, M. H. (2004). The relationship between vertical jump power estimates and weightlifting ability: a field-test approach. J Strength Cond Res, 18(3), 534-539. Čoh, M. (2013). Biodinamična analiza pliometričnih skokov skakalk troskoka. Šport, 61(1/2), 99-104. Čoh, M., Bračič, M., Peharec, S., Bačić, P., Bratić, M., & Aleksandrović, M. (2011). Biodynamic characteristics of vertical and drop jumps. Acta Kinesiologiae Universitatis Tartuensis, 17, 24-36. Dolenec, A. (1999). Vpliv treniranja globinskih skokov s plantarno in dorzalno tehniko na delo gležnja pri globinskih skokih. (doctoral dissertation), Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport, Ljubljana. Gabbett, T. J. (2006). Skill-based conditioning games as an alternative to traditional conditioning for rugby league players. J Strength Cond Res, 20(2), 309-315. Gollhofer, A., & Kyrolainen, H. (1991). Neuromuscular control of the human leg extensor muscles in jump exercises under various stretch-load conditions. Int J Sports Med, 12(1), 34-40. Horita, T., Komi, P. V., Nicol, C., & Kyrolainen, H. (1996). Stretch shortening cycle fatigue: interactions among joint stiffness, reflex, and muscle mechanical performance in the drop jump [corrected]. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 73(5), 393-403. Jemni, M. (2011). The Science of Gymnastics: Taylor & Francis. Komi, P. V. (2000). Stretch-shortening cycle: a powerful model to study normal and fatigued muscle. J Biomech, 33(10), 1197-1206. Komi, P. V., & Gollhofer, A. (1997). Stretch Reflexes Can Have an Important Role in Force Enhancement During SSC Exercise. J Appl Biomech, 13(4), 451-459. Lidor, R., Arnon, M., Hershko, Y., Maayan, G., & Falk, B. (2007). Accuracy in a volleyball service test in rested and physical exertion conditions in elite and near-elite adolescent players. J Strength Cond Res, 21(3), 937-942. Lidor, R., Hershko, Y., Bilkevitz, A., Arnon, M., & Falk, B. (2007). Measurement of talent in volleyball: 15-month follow-up of elite adolescent players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 47(2), 159-168. Lidor, R., & Ziv, G. (2010). Physical characteristics and physiological attributes of adolescent volleyball players-a review. Pediatr Exerc Sci, 22(1), 114-134. Loko, J., Aule, R., Sikkut, T., Ereline, J., & Viru, A. (2000). Motor performance status in 10 to 17-year-old Estonian girls. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 10(2), 109-113. Markovic, G., Dizdar, D., Jukic, I., & Cardinale, M. (2004). Reliability and factorial validity of squat and countermovement jump tests. J Strength Cond Res, 18(3), 551-555.

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Melrose, D. R., Spaniol, F. J., Bohling, M. E., & Bonnette, R. A. (2007). Physiological and performance characteristics of adolescent club volleyball players. J Strength Cond Res, 21(2), 481-486. Motoshima, Y., Kitagawa, J., & Maeda, A. (2015). The relationship between the mechanical parameters in the take-off of a vault and the drop jump ability. Sci Gymnastics J., 7(3), 37-45. Pietraszewski, B., & Rutkowska-Kucharska, A. (2011). Relative power of the lower limbs in drop jump. Acta Bioeng Biomech, 13(1), 13-18. Rhodri, S. L., & Jon, L. O. (2013). Strength and Conditioning for Young Athletes: Science and application. New york: Routledge. Sankey, S., Jones, P., & Bampouras, T. (2008). Effects of two plyometric training programmes of different intensity on vertical jump performance in high school athletes. Serbian Journal of Sports Sciences, 2(4), 123-130. Suchomel, T., Sands, A. W., & McNeal, J. R. (2016). Comparasion of static, countermovement and drop jump of the uper and lower extremities in U.S. junior national team male gymnasts. Sci Gymnastics J., 8(1), 15-30. Tonić, M., Petković, E., Dragić, B., Ilić, S., & Tankuševa, N. (2012). The differences in the biomechanical characteristics of the drop jump from an elastic surface in women. Facta Universitatis: Physical Education and Sport, 10(1), 75-79. Weinhandl, J. T., Smith, J. D., & Dugan, E. L. (2011). The effects of repetitive drop jumps on impact phase joint kinematics and kinetics. J Appl Biomech, 27(2), 108-115. Zatsiorsky, V. M. (1995). Science and Practice of Strength Training: Human Kinetics.

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HYPERBARIC CHAMBER MEDICONET KOREJA - HYPERBARIC OXYGEN THERAPY IN SPORTS Stanojković V.1, Paravlić A.2, Gašperin U.2

HBO2T STUDIO d.o.o. - Studio for hyperbaric medicine Koper, Slovenia University of Primorska, Science and Research Centre, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper, Slovenia

1 2

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) is the intermittent exposure of the body to 100% oxygen at pressures higher than 1 atmosphere absolute (ATA). It is administered by placing the subject in a multiplace or in a monoplace (one man) chamber, with the vessels typically pressurized to 1,5-3,0 ATA, for periods between 60 and 120 minutes once or twice per day (Bennett, Best, Babul, Taunton & Lepawsky, 2005). Possible complications such as oxygen toxicity, middle ear barotrauma and/or confinement anxiety are well controlled with appropriate pre-exposure precautions (Mekjavic, Exner, Tesch & Eiken, 2000). Exposure to hyperbaric oxygen is widely accepted as a method to promote healing of bone fracture (Kawada, Wada, Matsuda & Ishii, 2013), articular cartilage injury (Ueng et al., 2013), spinal cord injury (Lu et al., 2013) and skeletal muscle injury (Asano et al., 2007; Horie et al., 2014). Recent studies also show promising benefits of HBOT in conditions such as post concussion syndrome after traumatic brain injury (Boussi-Gross et al., 2013), chronic wound healing (Thackham, McElwain & Long, 2008), inflammatory bowel disease (Dulai et al., 2014), autism (Rossignol et al., 2012), sensorineural hearing loss (Bennett, Kertesz, Perleth, Yeung & Lehm, 2012) and Bell’s palsy (Holland, Bernstein & Hamilton, 2012). For the treatment of muscle injury, Best, Loitz-Ramage, Corr and Vanderby (1998) showed that hyperbaric oxygen at 2,5 ATA with 100% oxygen accelerates morphological regeneration after injury in rats. Similarly, Gregorevic, Williams and Lynch (2002) reported that hyperbaric oxygen at 3 ATA with 100% oxygen increases the contractile property of injured muscle during the regeneration process. Recently however, Fujita, Ono, Tomioka and Deie (2014) demonstrated that even mild HBOT (at 1,25 ATA) with normal air promotes skeletal muscle regeneration in the early phase after injury. They propose this is possibly due to reduced hypoxic conditions leading to accelerated macrophage infiltration and phenotype transition. Conversely, the efficacy of this therapy in humans is controversial, as a negative effect of hyperbaric oxygen was observed on muscle regeneration in the context of muscle injury induced by eccentric contractions, also known as delayed onset muscle soreness (Germain et al., 2003; Harrison et al., 2001; Mekjavic et al., 2000). However, the reason for this might be that strong eccentric contractions cause muscle injury without leading to a severe inflammatory response or macrophage infiltration, so that muscle damage occurs only at the ultrastructural level and affects only the myofibrils and the Z line (Yu, Liu, Carlsson, Thornell & Stal, 2013; Yu, Malm & Thornell, 2002). In sports medicine, the application of HBOT has been suggested as a therapy modality – as a primary or an adjunct treatment. Although results have proven to be promising in terms of using HBOT in sportsrelated injuries treatment, the studies were limited due to the small sample sizes, lack of blinding and randomization problems (Babul, Rhodes, Taunton & Lepawsky, 2003). Few studies that refer to HBOT use in high-level athletes are found in the literature. Ishii et al. (2005) investigated the use of HBO as a recovery method for muscular fatigue during the Nagano Winter Olympics In this study seven Olympic athletes undertook HBOT for 30-40 minutes at 1,3 ATA with a maximum of six treatments per athlete and an average of two. They found that all athletes benefited from the treatment presenting faster recovery rates. These results are in agreement with those obtained by Haapaniemi, Sirsjo, Nylander and Larsson (1995) which suggested that lactic acid and ammonia were removed faster with HBOT leading to shorter recovery periods.

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In the context of injuries, its location seemed to have an influence on the effectiveness of the treatment. Post-HBOT, injuries at the muscle belly seem to have less benefit than areas of reduced perfusion such as muscle-tendon junctions and ligaments. For HBOT treatment, it is still necessary to determine the optimal conditions for these orthopedic indications, such as the atmosphere pressure, session duration, the session frequency and treatment duration. Differences in the magnitude of the injury and in the time between injury and treatment may also affect the outcome. Injuries studies involving bones, muscles and ligaments with HBOT treatment seem promising. However, they are comparatively scarce and the quality of evidence for the efficacy is low. Orthopedic indications for HBOT will be accurately defined with the perfection of the techniques for direct measurement of tissue oxygen tensions and intramuscular compartment pressures. Randomized, controlled, double-blind clinical trials with large samples (mainly of athletes) are needed in order to identify the effects and mechanisms to determine if HBOT is a safe and effective treatment for sports injuries (Barata, Cervaens, Resende, Camacho & Marques, 2011).

REFERENCES Asano, T., Kaneko, E., Shinozaki, S., Imai, Y., Shibayama, M., Chiba, T., Ai, M., Kawakami, A., Asaoka, H., Nakayama, T., Mano, Y., & Shimokado, K. (2007). Hyperbaric oxygen induces basic fibroblast growth factor and hepatocyte growth factor expression, and enhances blood perfusion and muscle regeneration in mouse ischemic hind limbs. Circulation Journal, 71(3), 405-411. Babul, S., Rhodes, E. C., Taunton, J. E., & Lepawsky, M. (2003). Effects of intermittent exposure to hyperbaric oxygen for the treatment of an acute soft tissue injury. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 13(3), 138-147. Barata, P., Cervaens, M., Resende, R., Camacho, O., & Marques, F. (2011). Hyperbaric oxygen effects on sports injuries. Therapeutic Advances in Musculoskeletal Disease, 3(2), 111-121. Bennett, M., Best, T. M., Babul, S., Taunton, J., & Lepawsky, M. (2005). Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for delayed onset muscle soreness and closed soft tissue injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev(4), Cd004713. Bennett, M., Kertesz, T., Perleth, M., Yeung, P., & Lehm, J. P. (2012). Hyperbaric oxygen for idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss and tinnitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 10, Cd004739. Best, T. M., Loitz-Ramage, B., Corr, D. T., & Vanderby, R. (1998). Hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of acute muscle stretch injuries. Results in an animal model. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 26(3), 367-372. Boussi-Gross, R., Golan, H., Fishlev, G., Bechor, Y., Volkov, O., Bergan, J., Friedman, M., Hoofien, D., Shlamkovitch, N., Ben-Jacob, E., & Efrati, S. (2013). Hyperbaric oxygen therapy can improve post concussion syndrome years after mild traumatic brain injury - randomized prospective trial. PloS One, 8(11), e79995. Dulai, P. S., Gleeson, M. W., Taylor, D., Holubar, S. D., Buckey, J. C., & Siegel, C. A. (2014). Systematic review: The safety and efficacy of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for inflammatory bowel disease. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 39(11), 1266-1275. Fujita, N., Ono, M., Tomioka, T., & Deie, M. (2014). Effects of hyperbaric oxygen at 1.25 atmospheres absolute with normal air on macrophage number and infiltration during rat skeletal muscle regeneration. PloS One, 9(12), e115685. Germain, G., Delaney, J., Moore, G., Lee, P., Lacroix, V., & Montgomery, D. (2003). Effect of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on exercise-induced muscle soreness. Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine, 30(2), 135-145. Gregorevic, P., Williams, D. A., & Lynch, G. S. (2002). Hyperbaric oxygen increases the contractile function of regenerating rat slow muscles. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34(4), 630-636. Haapaniemi, T., Sirsjo, A., Nylander, G., & Larsson, J. (1995). Hyperbaric oxygen treatment attenuates glutathione depletion and improves metabolic restitution in postischemic skeletal muscle. Free Radical Research, 23(2), 91-101. Harrison, B. C., Robinson, D., Davison, B. J., Foley, B., Seda, E., & Byrnes, W. C. (2001). Treatment of exercise-induced muscle injury via hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(1), 36-42.

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Holland, N. J., Bernstein, J. M., & Hamilton, J. W. (2012). Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for Bellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s palsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2, Cd007288. Horie, M., Enomoto, M., Shimoda, M., Okawa, A., Miyakawa, S., & Yagishita, K. (2014). Enhancement of satellite cell differentiation and functional recovery in injured skeletal muscle by hyperbaric oxygen treatment. J Appl Physiol (1985), 116(2), 149-155. Ishii, Y., Deie, M., Adachi, N., Yasunaga, Y., Sharman, P., Miyanaga, Y., & Ochi, M. (2005). Hyperbaric oxygen as an adjuvant for athletes. Sports Medicine, 35(9), 739-746. Kawada, S., Wada, E., Matsuda, R., & Ishii, N. (2013). Hyperbaric hyperoxia accelerates fracture healing in mice. PloS One, 8(8), e72603. Lu, P. G., Feng, H., Yuan, S. J., Zhang, R. W., Li, M., Hu, R., Liu, Z. S., & Yin, J. (2013). Effect of preconditioning with hyperbaric oxygen on neural cell apoptosis after spinal cord injury in rats. Journal of Neurosurgical Sciences, 57(3), 253-258. Mekjavic, I. B., Exner, J. A., Tesch, P. A., & Eiken, O. (2000). Hyperbaric oxygen therapy does not affect recovery from delayed onset muscle soreness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(3), 558-563. Rossignol, D. A., Bradstreet, J. J., Van Dyke, K., Schneider, C., Freedenfeld, S. H., Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Hara, N., Cave, S., Buckley, J. A., Mumper, E. A., & Frye, R. E. (2012). Hyperbaric oxygen treatment in autism spectrum disorders. Medical Gas Research, 2, 16. Thackham, J. A., McElwain, D. L., & Long, R. J. (2008). The use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to treat chronic wounds: A review. Wound Repair and Regeneration, 16(3), 321-330. Ueng, S. W., Yuan, L. J., Lin, S. S., Niu, C. C., Chan, Y. S., Wang, I. C., Yang, C. Y., & Chen, W. J. (2013). Hyperbaric oxygen treatment prevents nitric oxide-induced apoptosis in articular cartilage injury via enhancement of the expression of heat shock protein 70. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 31(3), 376-384. Yu, J. G., Liu, J. X., Carlsson, L., Thornell, L. E., & Stal, P. S. (2013). Re-evaluation of sarcolemma injury and muscle swelling in human skeletal muscles after eccentric exercise. PloS One, 8(4), e62056. Yu, J. G., Malm, C., & Thornell, L. E. (2002). Eccentric contractions leading to DOMS do not cause loss of desmin nor fibre necrosis in human muscle. Histochemistry and Cell Biology, 118(1), 29-34.

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GROUP ACROBATIC ROUTINES – »TEAMGYM« Šibanc K.1

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT TeamGym is a sport discipline which originates from Scandinavia. It dates back to the past, but the first official European Championship was organized in 1996. The sport began to spread quite quickly and today it is well known all over the world. Compared to Artistic Gymnastics, TeamGym is based on the teams overall performance and is known only as a team sport. The competition consists of three apparatus – Floor, Trampet and Tumbling. On each apparatus the team performs a routine to music. It is about the performance of the whole team, which is marked on the gymnastic routine and series of acrobatic elements. This will give the team a total score. The competition is for Men, Women and Mixed Teams which consist of 8 to 12 members. On the Trampet and Tumbling the team performs three different rounds of acrobatic elements. Each round is performed by 6 members of the team. The Floor Program consists of a choreographed routine that is based on different gymnastics elements where the whole body is engaged and must fulfil different requirements (Šibanc, 2014).

It is about a team sport that follows trends and global development. The way the group works, way of its actions, progress and its appearance is based on a fact that all team members work as one. It is about the fact that this sport follows the world trends of encouraging teamwork (Šibanc, 2014).

key words: teamgym, gymnastics, acrobatic

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INTRODUCTION

TeamGym is a relatively new and in the world popular sport, originating from Scandinavia, where among all the gymnastics disciplines attracts the largest number of viewers (Harringe, 2007). The term TeamGym came from “team gymnastics”. The discipline is about Group Acrobatic Routines and it is performed by groups in three events: the floor programme, tumbling and trampet. From better known and more popular artistic gymnastics is different in quite some facts. Artistic gymnastics is an individual sport, while TeamGym is a team or group sport. Besides men and women teams TeamGym includes also mixed teams, where the team consists of both male and female gymnasts. On each apparatus members of the team perform at the same time simultaneously. At youth level of performance a team consists of 8-16 boys or girls, juniors and seniors teams consist of 8-12 members of the team. All three events are the same for women, men and mixed teams. The floor routine has to be performed by all members of the team. It is the most aerobic event, and a perfectly synchronized team is important. Tumbling and trampet are explosive events. At least six members of the team perform three series of tumbles and three different vaults, in a row one by one. The team receives a total score for each event. Gymnasts at the highest level of TeamGym perform difficult skills, comparable to artistic gymnastics. The senior toplevel TeamGym gymnasts are usually older and taller and practice fewer hours per week than gymnasts of artistic gymnastics (Harringe, 2007). TeamGym competitions are organized in international and national levels. The biggest international competition for now is European Championship which is held every two years since 1996. Competitions are also organized in other parts of the world: in United States, Australia and New Zealand, South Africa. There’s an interest for TeamGym in more and more countries (Sjöstrand, personal communication, November 2013).

NORDIC COMPETITIONS IN TEAMGYM AND HISTORY Competitions in team gymnastics for men were included in the Olympic program from 1908-1920 and the athletes were competing in a number of different disciplines. Competitions in team gymnastics for women were included in the Olympic program until the Olympic Games in 1956 in Melbourne (Mattola and Sundin, 1995). In Sweden, team gymnastics, later called TeamGym, was further developed in 1966 through a television program for young boys and girls called “TV-Truppen” (in English the TV team). This was a leading point to an increasing number of participating clubs at the national competitions. The first official Swedish Championships in TeamGym took place in 1980 in Växjö in southern Sweden. In 1983 the Danish Gymnastics Federation was inviting to an Open Danish competition in Aarhus. Beside Danish participants teams there were two Swedish teams in the women’s competition and one men’s team from Norway. At this point the ideas and thoughts about Nordic Championships in TeamGym began to grow. A test competition with participants from Denmark and Sweden was organized in 1984 at the Nordic camp in Sandefjord, Norway. The women’s competition included two disciplines, floor and tumbling (at this time 12 m long and much stiffer than the acro tumbling), while the men’s competition also included trampet. The teams at this time consisted of between 6-8 gymnasts. In November the same year a kick off meeting was held in Helsingborg, Sweden, with participants from Norway, Denmark and Sweden. At the meeting they agreed to organize the first unofficial Nordic Championships in TeamGym. The countries had different traditions from practicing TeamGym and this caused some discussions. However they were all willing to compromise in order to find a way forward (Mattola and Sundin, 1995). It was decided that the Nordic competition will include floor, tumbling and trampet with vaulting horse as an additional discipline. The Swedish Code of Points served as a basis for the assessment of the programs

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and a brand new table of difficulty was evaluated. A lot of work was at that time remaining in order to find a competition format that allowed for all Nordic countries to participate. In January 1986, the General Assembly of the Nordic Gymnastics Federation, collaboration between the national federations in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland and Iceland, decided to launch the Nordic Championships in TeamGym (Mattola and Sundin, 1995). The working group for the Nordic Championships was toiling forward; the evaluation and adjustments of the rules were really needed. The number of participants was increasing and at the Nordic Championships in Eskilstuna 1987 there were 11 women’s teams and 9 men’s teams. In January 1988 the Nordic Gymnastics federation decided to form a Nordic TeamGym committee. The committee is eager and works hard with a strong desire to achieve consensus and agreement. They felt that something big and new was created. At the Nordic Championships 1990 all countries except the Faroe Islands (belongs to Denmark) were represented in the women’s section and in Oslo in 1992, Finland is participating for the first time with a men’s team (Mattola and Sundin, 1995). The quality of the competing teams has continuously improved. On trampet the teams are performing double saltos with twists, at least the men’s team and among the more skilled women’s team. On the tumbling double saltos backwards and twists were performed together with series containing a number of elements including front saltos and handsprings. The judges’ decisions in the floor discipline has long been highly controversial, especially on the men’s section, but has continuously improved through judges’ training and a lot of discussions. In floor the differences between the views of the different federations are significantly larger compared to the other disciplines (Mattola and Sundin, 1995). In 1992 the UEG established a working group for TeamGym (at the time known as Euroteam). Lectures for coaches and judges were organized and the preparations for organizing the European Championships were taking place. So in 1993 in Lisbon, 1994 in Hamburg and 1995 in Athens there were first tryout competitions for Teamgym European Championships. The number of participating teams accelerated, so in 1996 the First TeamGym European Championship took place in Finland (Bengtsson, personal communication, 2014). Since then, every two years European Competitions take place. This was at first a competition between different clubs from different countries (maximum two clubs from a country could participate), in European Championship in 2010 there was a competition where national teams competed. Besides senior teams there was also a competition in junior concurrence (Bengtsson, personal communication, 2014). In 10th European Championship in 2014 in Reykjavík, Iceland, teams from 14 countries participated: Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Netherland, Norway, Russia and Sweden (10th European TeamGym Championship Reykjavik (ISL) 2014 Oct 13-19, 2015). The 11th European Championship this year will be held in Maribor, Slovenia (www.ueg.org/en/event/ index.html, 2015).

THE DISCIPLINES Taken from the” European Championships in TeamGym Seniors and Juniors Code of Points, September 2013” (TeamGym Code of Points and Tariff Forms, 2014). As mentioned in the introduction, there’s three apparatus TeamGym consists of: floor program, tumbling and trampet. The judges have to judge difficulty, execution and composition. The Difficulty Value is added to the score for execution and composition mark, from the three panels, to get the final score.

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FLOOR PROGRAM This is a gymnastic floor routine for the whole team performed to music. The Flor Program consists of a choreographed routine that is based on different gymnastics elements where the whole body is engaged. The time limit is 2 minutes 15 seconds and 2 minutes 45 seconds. The difficulty elements must be performed by all gymnasts at the same time. In the Floor Program the difficulty can only be counted from the maximum number of elements in the following six groups: ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ ͳͳ

Pirouettes Jumps/Leaps/Hops Balance/Power Elements Acrobatic Elements Combination of Elements Group Element

2 2 2 2 1 1

While calculating the judge’s score, execution deductions are taken from 10 points; maximum deduction for Composition is 4.0. Difficulty is an open value. The execution faults are judged in precision of formations, synchronisation, line violations, good technique of difficulty elements, uniformity in execution, amplitude and extension, balanced and controlled execution, interrupting the floor program and wrong number of gymnasts. To get the full score for Composition, the performance has to be in the defined timing and with music, it has to follow the right number, shape and size of the formations. The transitions between formations must have gymnastic and rhythmic quality and form a natural part of the Floor Program. The Floor Program must include at least one series of a minimum 8 different movements or elements, which is named Moving Rhythmic Sequence. The whole team must perform the same sequence and the gymnasts must travel together at the same time across the floor area, it should have rhythmical and gymnastic quality, where the whole body is active, difficulty elements are allowed as part of the sequence and it should have at least one change of tempo. The Program must also include the gymnasts moving in different planes (e.g. forwards, backwards, sideways), levels (e.g. laying, sitting, standing and jumping) and directions (e.g. forward, backward and right or left). There must be relationship between the music and the movement. The program must give a feeling to “see what you hear and hear what you see”.

TUMBLING Each team performs three different rounds of only six gymnasts; mixed teams must have the same number of male and female gymnasts in each round. One coach must be present for security spotting on the landing mat and must take appropriate action in the event of a dangerous situation. Different gymnasts from the team may perform in each round. In first round all gymnasts perform exactly the same series (Team Round), in second and third round all gymnasts perform the same series or increase difficulty. Each series (individual routines) must consist of a combination of at least three acrobatic elements, without intermediate steps or pauses (for juniors it is allowed to perform one round with individual routines consisting of at least two acrobatic elements). The difficulty of each series is not limited. The series difficulty value is calculated from the three different elements with the highest difficulty values. Difficulty values are shown in the Table of Difficulty in the Code of Points. To form a value for the round the difficulty values for the six series in a round are summed. The three rounds are averaged and rounded down to the nearest 0.1, for the team’s final difficulty value.

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At least one round must be performed forwards and one round backwards, one of the rounds has to be performed where gymnasts perform a series that contains an element with at least 360°twist in single saltos or at least 180°twist in double saltos. After each round, the gymnasts return by jogging back to get into position for the next round. The gymnasts must return together, at the same time. The complete presentation is performed to instrumental music; the time limit is 2 minutes 45 seconds.

TRAMPET As in tumbling, each team perform three different rounds. The team presents only six gymnasts for each round and different gymnasts from the team can perform in each round. Mixed teams must have the same number of male and female gymnasts in each round. Two coaches must be presented for security spotting on the landing mat and they must take appropriate action in the event of dangerous situation. In first round all gymnasts perform exactly the same element (Team Round), in the second and the third round all gymnasts perform the same element or increase difficulty. At least one round must be performed on the vaulting table and at least one round must be performed without vaulting table. One round has to contain an element with at least 360°twist in single saltos or at least 180°twist in double or triple saltos. Aldo one round has ro contain double or triple saltos. After each round, gymnasts return by jogging back to get into position for the next round. The gymnasts must return together, at the same time.

DISCUSSION TeamGym is based on choreographed routines which consist of acrobatic and rhythmical elements. Acrobatic elements (which are included in TeamGym) are characterized by a great diversity of movements, where the dynamic and static elements interconnect and body position is frequently changing. With its many and varied elements has a very positive influence on the development of the overall coordination of body movement. For the successful execution of individual elements the muscular activity with certain intensity in a specific time and space is necessary. Acrobatic elements fully develop the ability to move in space and body control without the support phase, also to develop all forms of power, especially explosive strength and flexibility (Bolković and Kristan 2002). TeamGym is a team sport that follows trends and global development. The way that team is functioning, the way of its activity, actions and its performance, is based on a team working as a whole. Every individual matters and performance of everybody counts to the score. It’s about developing the ability to work in a group, adaptation and coordination of skills of each individual member of the team. Interaction and solidarity between all members of the team, as well as their own contribution towards the common goal is important for the success of the team (Šibanc, 2014). Teamgym as a gymnastic discipline complements the already known direction and disciplines within the large gymnastics family. It is a complementary discipline and not a competitor to existing disciplines, as it represents an excellent opportunity for gymnasts and gymnasts to stay active in gymnastics and take advantage of their knowledge to develop something new (Šibanc, 2014).

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REFERENCES 10th European TeamGym Championship Reykjavik (ISL) 2014 Oct 13-19. (2015). Retrieved from http://www. gymnasticsresults.com/euro/2014/teamgym.html Bolković, T. in Kristan, S. (2002). Akrobatika. Ljubljana, Fakulteta za šport. Harringe, M. L. (2007). Swedish TeamGym – injury incidence, mechanism, diagnosis and postural control. Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet. Mattola, S. and Sundin, N. O. (1995). Nordiska Trupptävlingar. V O. Kihlmark (Ed.), 75 år Nordens Gymnastikförbund (pp. 32-34) Stockholm: Nordens Gymnastikförbund. Šibanc, K. (2014). Skupinske akrobatske sestave – “TeamGym”. Diplomsko delo. Ljubljana, Fakulteta za šport. TeamGym Code of Points and Tariff Forms. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.ueg.org/en/page/view. html?id=169 Www.ueg.org/en/event/index.html. (2015). Retrieved from www.ueg.org/en/event/index.html

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