Island Governance by Cipriano Marin

Biodiversity and Tourism Symposium Placing Tourism in the Landscape of Diversities: A Dialogue between Nature and Culture SEPTEMBER

20-23, 2000

FRENCH ISLAND OF PORT CROS, MEDITERRANEAN

SEA

The TOTAL Foundation and the Scientitic Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) are sponsoring a debate on the evolution of island tourism, from an economic activity likely to degrade environment and culture, to a potential catalyst for biodiversity enhancement and empowerment of local people. Tourism is fundamentally dependent on diversities: biological diversity of landscapes and species, cultural diversity of local residents and tourists. Rapid changes in the post-industrial, global information society create new opportunities and new risks for the tourism industry, local cultures and society, and biodiversity. Since 1992, the TOTAL Foundation supports biodiversity conservation projects worldwide. Through scientifíe research and local development initiatives, the Foundation contributes to the conservation and restoration of mangroves and coral reefs in Thailand, Oman, and Polynesia; Ethno botanical research in Indonesian rain forests; Creation of jobs for South African youth working on management of invasive species; and Mediterranean botanical conservation in France. Today, with the collaboration of individuals qualified to discuss island tourism and biodiversity -natural and social scientists, economists, planners, tourism operators, decision-makers, and representatives of international organizations- the TOTAL Foundation is preparing the first Port-Cros Symposium on biodiversity and tourism. Thirty individuals will meet to exchange, debate, and advance our understanding of how tourism and biodiversity interactions are changing in the information society, and how they can be positive factors for island people, flora and fauna, today, and into the future. The Symposium objectives include: l. IIIustration of how tourism can be a driving force to maintain biodiversity and local empowerment, while specifying exactly what are the critical elements required for such positive interactions. 2. Analysis of case studies that highlight both the positive and negati1: .g ve outcomes of tourism on biodiversity . ••¡¡:; 3. Debate on the role of information technology on the future of the tourism industry and its implications for biodiversity management. Background documents along with Symposium fíndings will be available on the TOTAL Foundation website, in a book, and in scientifíc journals. The information will be widely disseminated for the public, natural resource managers and policy makers, the academic community, tourism operators, and tourists.

FONDATION D'ENTREPRISE

TOTAL

OPE

(f)

u edleorlaL

PIER GIOVANNI D'AYALA

The european islands and their governance: From the nation states to the european union _

unesco's

Daoe

v iJ

oosscr- ist.ono aouernances Japan's small and remote islands: Development policy and performance HIROSHI KAKAZU

JEAN-DIDIER HACHE

The recent decentralisation in greece and the impact on the islands' development perspectives

.&n---

DR. IOANNIS SPlLANIS

The case of islands under the french littoral act

EMMANUELLESAUVION

Economics the propensity for political dependence in island microstates JEROMEL. MCELROYAND MEGAN MAHONEY

East Timor: a drama, a hope NELSON EURICO CABRAL

The Governance of Small Jurisdictions; The Case of Cyprus CHRIS. 1. MAVRIS

ISLanders

worh

Kurilsky Zapovednik: The wonderful world of extreme phenomena __ GRIGORIEV E. M.

ncu.e =rrxn ono

..,

ooouc

ISLandS

The "trinomial" energy - water - tourism ----------v.wr: CIPRIANO

cuLeure

coc

~"路I~._路,路L ..

MARiN

eradltlonaL

hnowLedoe

Ecological Constraints and Human Adaptive Strategies-in a River Island Ecosystem by

LINO BlANCO

InSuLo'S

oooc

New means of transport in the cities of tomorrow A strategic question for islands

Models for European Digitallslands Medis Project

OOOh

MIGUEL MONTESDEOCA reulews

or-o

SUDDore

____

announcemencs JOln

JESURATHNAM DEVARAPALLI & R. YATHIRAJKUMAR

The significance of gift exchange in the Maltese Islands by

InSuLa

fi~~~----

73 74

rnsula International

Journal ofIsland Affairs

ISSN 1021 - 0814 July 2000 Year9 N° 1

Editorial Board Editor:

Pier Giovanni d' Ayala

The "sabina" (Juniperus phoenicea) is the emblematic tree 01 the island 01 El Hierro that has been recently declared Biosphere Reserve. INSULA collaborated in the elaboration 01 its sustainable development strategy, which resulTed to be an excellent reference joining innovation and the idea 01 conservation 01 island territories.

Co-editor:

Cipriano Marín Scientific Advisory Committee:

Prof. Salvino Busuttil, Malta Dr. Ronald G Parris, Barbados Prof. Nicolas Margaris,

Greece

Prof. Patrick Nunn, Fiji Prof G Prakash Reddy, India Prof. Hiroshi Kakazu, Japan Dr. Henrique Pinto da Costa, Sáo Tomé e Principe Prof. Lino Briguglio, Malta

Production coordinators:

Giuseppe Orlando

Graphic designer: \

Luis Mir Payá

Published by INSULA, the Intemational Scientific Council for Island Development, with the support of UNESCO. Artieles published in this joumal do not necessarily retlect the opinions of INSULA or of UNESCO. Material appearing in this joumal cannot be reproduced without the prior permission of the Editor.

Photo: INSULA

•Inaula the International

Journal of Island Affairs is distributed free to INSULA's individual and institutional members. For subscriptions and information, please write to:

tnsula c/oUNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75732 Paris, FRANCE Te!': +33145.68.40.56,Fax;

+33145.68.58.04

E-mail: insula@insula.org ". Produced

by: TENYDEA

International

Journal

S.L. Canary Islands

of Island Affairs

Island Governance

PIER GIOVANNI

D'AYALA

ISI,"d

governance is the therne chosen for debate for the present issue of INSULA the

Intemational Journal of lsland Affairs. A tricky word indeed. It incIudes local authorities policy making, the enforcement of local or national regulations, social and economic measures applied to the island context together with all practices concerning the planning and management of a given territory and its resources, natural and man made. For us and for the islanders, governance has a more complex and multi facetted meaning. It addresses not only choices but also the difficulties of choosing within a horizon of generally limited geographical space, scarce resources and time scale uncertainties. The case of the ÂŤIle d'YeuÂť off the French coast of West Brittany is, so to speak, paradigmatic. Its territory is a slim stretch of land. A national law imposes the full protection and consequent non-use of a strip of the whole island's coast extending Ă?'or 100 meters from the main sea leve\. A little bit less than one third of the island territory. The inland is occupied by the continental owners of summer houses. The fishermen cornmunity has however developed during the recent years. A profitable tuna fishing industry attracting other fishermen from the nearby islands and French coasts wishing to settle on the island. The municipal council considers this move as a sound economic diversification trend but is simply unable to provide the incomers with land where to build their homes. Facing this reality and having no other choice than to leave the island to summer houses and empty for the rest of the year the whole municipal council resigned from their elected charges, as an expressive protest. Governance is therefore something whose effects directly citizen's life and the democracy that should rule it. Governance is in other words the art of turning the island's structural disadvantages in a viable compromise made of acceptable civic life and progress. Govemance is hence also a political issue as it is well explained by Jean-Didier Hache for the European context and Hiroshi Kakazu for the Japanese one. Finally, governance is also the traditional way by which island communities deal with the optimal use of their resources, as in the case of the inhabitants of a small island on a large lndian river. An interesting and unusual experience indeed. Others authors contribute to explore, from their point of view and experience several other facets of island governance. But the debate is not cIosed, because governance inevitably invol ves future and future as we all know, calls for new and unexpected choices.

o L

o o V

un Te

h" started

The reorganisation ofthe Programme

specialized human resource is an ur-

UNESCO with a new Director General:

structures promoted by the new Direc-

gent need for the protection and man-

year 2000

Mr Koichiro Matsuura, an experienced

tor-General seems to privilege objec-

agement of fragile island and coastal

Japanese diplomat wishing to restore

tive-oriented administrative units with

Mediterranean

UNESCO in its original institutional

consistent interdisciplinary operational

role of intellectualleader and think-tank

patterns.

Such a perspective,

in the

For the "MOST" social sciences programme directed by Dr. Ali Kazancigil

of the United Nations system and be-

words of Dr. Peter Bridgewater, secre-

the cooperation with CIES

yond. INSULA wishes him best suc-

tary general of the Intergovernmental

the setting up along the Mediterranean

cess! We would suggest him al so to

Man and the Biosphere Programme (to

shores of a network of "sensors of so-

take the best advantage from the good

which INSULA is historically related),

cial change" This definition alone is we

will and dedicated work of NGO's such

will restore together with the other Inter-

believe inadequate to uncover aJl as-

as INSULA - a vital partnership indeed

governmental

pects of this challenging endeavour. In

for UNESCO, if bureaucracy does not

with the oceans

refrain the needed permanent open and

tional services

frank dialogue. The institutional

rel-

programmes 01'

dealing

with hydrology func-

best adapted

to the

ate national institutions

present needs of Member States, es-

following

pecially

protocols

aison Committee will contribute, we

States.

cooperation among our organisations.

Small Island

Developing

concerns

fact the network based upon appropri-

evance taken by the NGO-UNESCO Lihope, to enhance a recognized fruitful

common

will collect, standardized

and indicators aJl informa-

tion concerning structural and socio-

Intersectoral

economic changes especiaJly in terms

and multidisciplinary

activities have already started with IN-

of innovation. These sensors may also

On our side we look forward to Mr

SULA as a catalyser. We wish to men-

be caJled permanent observatories ena-

Matsuura's insularity, because as a Japa-

tion as an example the recent agree-

bling the elaboration of computerized

nese, Mr Matsuura is inevitably an is-

ments with the Italian CIES Centre for

forecasting scenarios that can be veri-

lander, fami liar with island problems.

economic consortium

and social engineering.

leaded by the University

try will take advantage of the informa-

ian Universities and the main public or

tion made available for its own policies.

private corporations such as Telecom,

Furthermore the information while pro-

Alitalia, etc. The agreements ,converg-

duced by the countries, will be e1abo-

ing with the European Comrnission's

rated and diffused trough the network

policies aim at the cooperation among

by a balanced

Mediterranean countries on the north-

tional source. The proposed system is

ern and southern shores including the

in our view is the best adapted to un-

The subject matters are for the MAB

of Island Affairs

interna-

derstand the trends and challenges that each single Mediterranean

country is

programme ajoint project with CIES ad-

confronted to, within a global context. Looking together to the common fu-

learning telematics- based technologies

ture means to reduce conflicts and build

of managers of protected areas such

peace.

as parks, reserves, etc. Within the phi-

Both UNESCO-CIES projects will be

losophy and experience developed by

submitted to the EU Commission for

Biosphere

Reserve

network. Such a presently insufficient

Journal

independent

dressing the training, including distant

the international

International

fied and reoriented perhaps at a two years intervalo Each participating coun-

of Calabria, bringing together other Ital-

island states of Cyprus and Malta.

areas.

shared financial support in the frame of the EUMEDIS programme.

Japan's Small and

e 10 e L v

emote Islands:

::::::l

o o o e

g (J)

V (J) (J)

o o

A'OCd;ng

HIROSHI

Hokkaido Island area, Sikoku Island

primarily aimed at reconstructing its war-

Land Agency (NLA), which is respon-

area and Kyushu

devastated

sible for Japan's

Okinawa Development

lo lb, National

land development

Island- area; The

socio-econornic

structure

& Promotion

and standard s of living to that of the prewar levels. The major focus was to

plan including small and remote islands

Special Measures Act covers 39 SRIs;

(SRIs), there are 6,852 SRIs extending

Amami Development

2,500 miles (4,000 km) from Northern

Special Measures Act covers 8 SRIs;

mandated to institute long-term as well

tip of Hokkaido to Southern tip of the

and Ogasawara Development

& Pro-

as mid-term development plans and pro-

Ryukyu archipelago.

& Promotion

increase food production.

The Law

Of which about

motion Special Measures Act covers

grams. In the process of implementing

450 SRIs are inhabited at the end of

2 SRIs. The island areas covered by

these national development plans, the

1999. The largest inhabited SRI is Sado

the Special Measures Acts were ad-

regional imbalances in terms of social

Island with land area of 855km2 and

ministered by the United States mili-

infrastructure and income became evi-

74,900 resident population, while the

tary forces after the second World War.

dent. Local governments, remote island

smallest

In this paper we would focus on the

governments in particular, strongly re-

Okinawa Prefecture with land area of

SRIs under the RIDA and Okinawa is-

quested to enact regional development

1.58km2 and 1 resident population.

lands which cover97% ofJapan's SRIs

policies focusing on smalI and remote

Japanese

one is Shinjo

Island

SRIs are so diversified

geographically, culturalIy, historically and economically,

designated

by the above

laws for

island areas. As a result, the RIDA was enacted in 1953.

policy measures.

four different na-

Five years after the defeat of the Pa-

laws and plans

cific War, the Japanese government im-

Ph.D. is Vice President

have been enforced. They are the Re-

plemented socio-economic reconstruc-

Development

mote Island Development Act (RIDA)

tion prograrns under the National Land

mally a Professor at the Graduate School

which covers 272 SRIs located in the

Comprehensive

of International

vicinity ofthe Japanese mainland area,

which was enacted in 1950. The Law

tional development

Development

Law

University.

of the Okinawa

Finance Corporation.

Development,

For-

Nagoya

KAKAZU*

THE REMOTE ISLAND DEVELOPMENT ACT (RIDA) According to the RlDA, inhabited SRIs are classified into the following four categories:

a. outer ocean islands with easy daily access to mainland city centers; b. inland ocean islands with easy daily access to mainland city centers; c. cluster of very small islands with difficult daily access to mainland city centers; d. large, isolated islands with difficult daily access to mainland city centers; and e. very small isolated islands with difficult daily access to mainland city centers. The following major criteria must be satisfied to be designated by the Act as an outer ocean island: a. it must be surrounded by ocean with population about over 100; b. it is distanced more than 5km or 3.1 miles from mainland; c. islanders'

daily life de-

pends heavily on mainland; d. transportation

system is

not reliable; and

e. SRl authorities'

Fig.J:

principIe" is adopted to be included in theRlDA. The criteria for other categories are more or less similar to the above. The

1953

followings:

Remate Islands Area

RIDA

covered

the

the welfare of the people. These devel-

be considered with a high national pri-

opment measures would at the same

ority.

time contribute to the growth of the

4. A Remote

national economy.

Council is established for the purpose

2. In order to achieve this objective,

of studying and identifying key devel-

Island

Development

the Remote Island Development Plan

opment issues and proposals.

and Project Plan are prepared.

The RlDA was revised every ten years

1. A major objective of the RlDA is to

3. The national govemment would ap-

to incorporate socio-economic changes

improve relative underdevelopment

propriate an annual budget for the im-

surrounding the SRls. The latest 1993

the SRIs through implementing socio-

plementation

under the

revisions c\early stated the three national

economic projects as to improve island-

plans. The funds for the projects re-

roles of the SRls, namely (a) national

ers' livelihoods as well as promoting

quested by the local authority would

land conservation, (b) utilization of ma-

Map a/ Japan's

"request

of projects

National Institute for Japanese Islands, Japanese Islands, Tokyo: undated, p.2.

International

Journal

of lsland Affairs

elude projects with priority. After the

conservation. Under the RIDA, ten regions were initially designated as remote island development regions for actual implementation

of the developrnent

SMALL ISLAND careful deliberation and assessments, DEVELOPMENT the NLA will determine the projects PROJECTS AND which should be subsidized and the , INCENTIVES

rine resources and (e) environmental

projects which should be implemented

e 10 e L

Currently the NLA imp1ements vari-

Q) ::::::J

should also be noted that each pre-

islands development projects, study on

o o o

mented under separate and individual

fectural government

fiscal and monetary incentive systems

government agencies. After the enact-

own SRJ projects such as subsidizing

to stimulate SRIs' economic activities,

(J)

ment of the RIDA in 1958 fiscal year,

transportation

(e) projects to facilitate exchange be-

however,

land events.

plans.

directly by the national agencies.

Initially, all SRI projects were imple-

the Economic

Planning

Agency, and currently the Division of

implements

its

costs and various is-

ous projects including (a) cornmunity

tween SRIs and the rest of the world and (d) infrastructure development.

Following

the First Ten- Year Plan

Islands Affairs of the NLA shoulders

(1953-1962)

which focused on basic

These projects are imp1emented with

the sole responsibility

human needs, the Second Plan (1963-

fiscal as well as monetary incentives

ing the island affairs ineluding planning

1972) emphasized the improvement of

such as (a) higher rate of subsidy for

and budgeting for the SRIs. The con-

basic socio-economic

infrastructure development, (b) special

in administrat-

conditions

solidation of SRI affairs into one agency

narrow the existing socio-economic

depreciation for machinery and equip-

was a remarkable breakthrough in Ja-

gaps between the remote islands and

ment for manufacturing and hotel busi-

pan's remote island development poli-

the mainland. The Third Plan (1973-

nesses, (b) exemption of special land

cies considering notorious administra-

1982) focused on improving the facili-

holding tax for manufacturing and ho-

tive

red

tape

and

cumbersome

interagency negotiations

and coordi-

nation.

THE REMOTE ISLAND DEVELOPMENT PLAN (THE PLAN) The Plan serves as the basis of such

ties for the living environment and pro-

tel related businesses, (c) national sub-

duction activities while the Fourth Plan

sidies for exempted local business and

(1983-1992) was concerned with im-

property taxes, and (d) speciallow lend-

proving social infrastructures

to im-

ing rate of the government affiliated fi-

prove the living environment.

Under

nancial institutions, and others.

the Fifth Plan, which was enacted in 1993 and will continue though to 2002, both hardware

and software

ap-

PERFORMANCE More than 40 years after the imple-

island development, and is revised ap-

proaches have been adopted so that

mentation of the RIDA and the Plans,

proximately

a more comprehensive approach to de-

the performance is mixed, As can be seen

every 10 years. These

plans are devised by the local authori-

velopment

may be taken. Thus, the

from Fig.2, the total population of the

ties, which are then presented to the

concepts of the Plans ha e changed

SRTs has continuous1y declined from

NLA which in turn presents it to the

over time to respond to specific needs

over 1 million, or 1% ofthe national to-

Diet. The Plan and programs must in-

of the SRTs.

tal in 1960 to about half rnillion, or 0.4%

Fig.2:

POPULATION

TRENDS OF JAPAN'S

REMOTE ISLANDS,

1960-1995

140.0 120.0 100.0 o o o

80.0

â&#x20AC;˘ AII Japan

60.0

â&#x20AC;˘ Remate islands

o (J) m

40.0 20.0 0.0 1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

Source:

1990

Statistical

1995

Yearbook of Remote

Islands,

1997

Q) (J) (J)

o o

of the total in 1995. The depopulation in

Table 2: EMPLOYED PERSONS

the SRIs was particularly accelerated

BY INDUSTRY, 1985-1995

(percent composition)

during the period of Japan's high economic growth in the 1960s and early 1970s. Japan needed to mobilize its human and non-human resources to catch up with the Western industrialized

1985 1990 1995

economies in a short period to time. Resources including human, technology,

Primary Industry

Remote Secondary Industry

Tertiary Industry

Primary Industry

Al! Japan Secondary Industry

34.7 31.2 27.5

21.8 21.1 21.2

43.5 47.7 51.3

9.3 7.2 6.0

33.2 33.5 31.8

Source: Statistical

capital, infrastructure were concentrated

Tertiary Industry 57.5 59.3 62.2

Yearbook of Remote lslands

in metropolitan industrial belts such as Tokyo, Oska Nagoya areas. As a result,

(Table 1), may become zero population

massi ve labour force migration from re-

islands within the foreseeable

future

away from mainland Japan. Fourth, they

mote areas began to fi11the labour de-

unless the effective policy measures are

are far distanced from each other within

mand gap caused by high economic

implemented.

Okinawa Prefecture.

growth in the metropolitan areas.

Under the plans, the National gov-

Fifth, they are

much more diversified in terrns of size,

There were many very small islands

ernment spent about 3.6 trillion yens

flora and fauna, industrial structure,

which out-migrated the entire popula-

for the period of 1953-1998 in various

income and resources

than islands

tion by the early 1970s. Japanese style

infrastructure projects such as indus-

nearby Japanese mainland. In this con-

of large-scale development process in-

trial development (45%), transportation

text, Okinawa may offer many interest-

evitably accompanied a massive relo-

(37%), land conservation

ing aspects and lessons for socio-eco-

cation of human resources from remote

social and environmental improvements

underdeveloped

areas to metropolitan

(14%) and

(4%). The amount of public expendi-

nomic development of sma11islands. The Special Measures Act have de-

high growth areas. Although the out-

tures increased from \741 million in 1953

signed (a) to narrow socio-economic

migration from the SRIs has slowed

to \167,948 million in 1998, or an in-

gaps existed between Okinawa and

down in recent years as a consequence

crease of more than 200 times. SRIs'

mainland Japan, and (b) to achieve, in

of Japan's stagnated economic growth

share of public expenditure in Japan's

a longer run, a self-sustainable devel-

rate as well as changes in lifestyle, the

total public expenditure increased from

opment. The Act mandated to draft a

population is still declining due mainly

0.73% to 1.8% during the periodo The

ten-year development plan which re-

to lower birth rateo Japan's total popu-

share is more striking considering the

newed three times. The plan is now its

lation will absolutely decline by 1907

fact that SRIs' population accounts for

last stage of the third ten-year plan

according to the National Institute of

only 0.6% of the 単ational total.

(1992-2002). In order to implement the

Population.

If current depopulation

Special Measures Act, two important

continues, those very sma11 SRIs under population

THE OKINAWA DEVELOPMENT & PROMOTION SPECIAL MEASURES ACT

less than 500, which

account for nearly 60% of the total SRIs Table 1: JAPAN'S REMOTE ISLANDS: BY SIZE OF POPULATION, 1995 Population Size (person)

Number of Islands

Percent Composition

1-99

29.8

100-500

30.2

500-999

14.2

1000-1999

7.7

2000-2999

4.3

3000-3999

3.1

4000-4999

2.5

5000-9999 10000-29999 30000-49999 50000 and over

Source: Statistical

International

mentioned,

were established

at the

same time. One is the Okinawa Development Agency (ODA) which is a central government organization directly responsible for Okinawa's overall de-

Okinawa or Ryukyu Islands are

velopment.

covered by the Special Meas-

Okinawa Development Finance Corpo-

ures Act because of special

ration (ODF) which is a government

historical,

affiliated, long-terrn development bank.

geographical

and

The other

one is the

characteris-

ODA's public investrnentin infrastruc-

tics of these small islands.

ture such as roads, sewage, harbour, ru-

Okinawa islands differ many

ral developrnent, hurnan resources, wa-

ways from those covered by

ter and housing amounted to 6 trillion

Japan's Remote Island Devel-

since the Special Measures Act implemented. On an annual basis, these pub-

socio-economic

4.0

1.8

was an independent kingdom

lic expenditures accounted for more than

1.8

until 1872. Second, Okinawa

30% of Okinawa's GDP in any given

0.6

islands were under the direct

year. The massive inflows of public ex-

325

100.0

United States military admin-

penditure together with United States

istration for 27 years after the

military expenditures and rising tourists'

Yearbook of Remote lslands

Journal

As we have

institutions

opment Act. First, Okinawa

Total

end ofWorld War 11.Third, they are far

of Island Affairs

Yonaguni islands are increasingly de-

bers of strengths that could be exploited

pend on eco-tourism,

while Minami

in the drive towards its future economic

Daito island is a large-scale producer

development. In this age ofhighly com-

of sugarcane with the highest per capita

petitive and interdependent

income in Okinawa. Except local cot-

easy and instant capital movements, and

tage industries, modern manufacturing

expanded global trade and investment

activities are not viable mainly due to

markets,

ing, in terms of per capita income and the

trends for the 21'1 Century including a

level of infrastructure, have improved

knowledge-based society, low-birth rate

remarkably during the post-reversion

and an aging society, and globalization

periods, the economy's capacity and ea-

and environmental limitations. I have

pabilities to transform from a dependency

proposed a "Diversified Development

through internally generated incomes,

posed model is intended to make full use

Okinawa's higher growth rate than that

has not been achieved successfully like

of Okinawa's strategic location, natural

of mainland. Despite higher population

many other island economies. General

and human resources capacity and ea-

growth rate than that of mainland, per

problems

pability, and aspirations. It would com-

capita income increased more than three

economy such as rising pressure on the

pete in the global market because it is

times in real term, making Okinawa's

limited land resources, rising unemploy-

designed to harness Okinawa's com-

standards ofliving comparable to those

ment, heavy reliance on government and

parative advantages in tourism through

Group Eight industrialized

countries

U.S. base expenditures as major sources

promoting tourism-related "niche" in-

whose leaders will gather in Nago,

of income and employment, reliance on a

dustries.

Okinawa in July 2000.

Limitednumber of primary products and

and characteristics

of the

The first objective of Okinawa's de-

tourism for export eamings, chronic trade

velopment plan, namely bridging socio-

balance deficits, diseconomies of scale

economic gap s between Okinawa and

and high transportation costs are still re-

Japanese mainland, has been achieved

mained unsolved. Particularly creating

with near satisfaction. The second ob-

job opportunities for the young has been

jective, namely self-sustainable devel-

the most pressing task for sr単all islands.

opment, however, is still a long way to

Despite these development problems,

go. As we have seen, economic de-

Okinawan small islands have many num-

pendency on government and U.S. miliTable 3:INCOME SHARES BY INDUSTRY: OKINAWA'S SMALL ISLANDS, FY1996 (percent)

Under the Special Measures Act, Prefectural government is responsible for drafting and implementing Okinawa's

Population

Primary

Constructior

Mfg

Tertiary

(Public

(persons)

Industry

Service)

remote island development plan. As can

AII Okinawa

1,281,766

2.3

15.2

5.2

77.3

18.7

be seen in Table 2, these major islands

Ishigaki

41,993

4.8

19.3

6.1

69.8

24.3

are diversified in population and socio-

Miyako

33,236

3.1

20.5

3.5

72.9

25.5

economic

Kumejima

9,791

6.8

26.9

7.7

58.6

12.6

Ishigaki and Miyako islands have in-

Lejima

5,067

32.1

19.0

1.7

47.2

16.5

creased

Taketomi

3,489

10.5

37.7

5.9

45.9

20.4

neighboring small islands experienced

Yonaguni

1,813

5.1

29.0

11.1

54.8

35.0

depopulation. Public expenditures, rep-

Minami Daitic

1,486

57.1

8.1

25.0

15.1

resented by construction activities and

Theya

1,448

9.8 6,4

54.2

2.7

36.7

22.2

public services, are major sources of

Aguni

966

5.2

40.6

2.8

51.4

35.5

income accounting for more than 50%

Tokashiki

710

1.7

19.0

1.3

78.0

46.5

years,

while all

for some very small islands. Some islands such as Taketomi, Tokashiki and

o e

S (f)

these

spending were the main engines of

in recent

::::J

strengths. Following Japan's anticipated

highlight

for other island economies. The pro-

opportunities, these islands must start

Model" (Fig.3) which will also be useful

Population

to more effectively

structure to self-reliance, that is to say,

structure.

e o e

financing its mounting trade deficits

past three decades.

Although Okinawa's standard s of liv-

"small, isolated markets.

tary expenditures has deepened in the

Note: lshigaki Source:

and Miyako

Statistics

Division,

islands are city areas only Okinawa

Pretecture

(f) (f)

Fig. 3:

OKINAWA:

A DIVERSIFIED

DEVELOPMENT

MODEL

TRADE- ORIENTED SFTZ, DFS, Erfrepot. 9:ockp::lint Tradng Center, Offshore 8anking

CUL TURE, WELLNESS & S'ORTS Music & Dances Historical Heriteg:s Wellness, H63Iing, ~rts

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I AGRO-I NDUSfRY H63Ithy Focx:is,Medcina Plants Tropical Fruits, Flov.ers, Ostrich Urethan Resins, Cookies

Refuse Derived Fuel GIé5SBott les, Ba;p;se Waer,Pa¡::er

Source.Hiroshi

FUTURE PROSPECTS: LOOKING TOWARDS THE 21 ST CENTURY

any Japanese

regions. Depopulation

important

current

tidal

together with a rapidly aging popula-

wave is a revolution in "Inforrnation

tion has become a source of much pes-

Technology (lT)" which may free the

simism, since it may eventually deprive

SRls from the "tyranny of distance."

SRls' socio-economic dynamism, while

The information revolution is particu-

taken up from now into the 21 SI cen-

leaving heavy welfare cost burdens to

larly important to the SRls because it

tury. These challenges are categorized

future generation. Of course, the nega-

may solve a seemingly eternal problem

into the following five components:

tive consequences of depopulation can

ofthe SRls, namely the high socio-eco-

1. "Think globally, act locally" has

be avoided if SRIs' human resources,

nomic costs arising from its smallness

been a Japanese catch world in recent

particularly women's labour force, are

and isolation. On the other hand, the

years. The Japanese island communi-

utilized more efficiently with the higher

IT revolution may bring the so-called

ties which have heavily depended on

fertility rateo

"digital divide" between mainlands and

Japan's SRls are facing many socioeconomic challenges

government

subsidies

which must be

the SRIs unless it is left for a unbridled

and special

measures are also facing the con se-

market forces.

quences of globalization and deregu-

5. Finally, the role of and relationships

lation of the Japanese economy. SRIs'

between the SRI authorities and the

future plans and programs must shift

national government must be carefully

its emphasis from a domestic orienta-

reviewed in revising development poli-

tion to a global perspective.

cies and programs of the SRIs. The

2. "Sustainable

development"

recent promulgation of"Decentraliza-

is an-

. other key word for SRls' future devel-

tion Act" encourages

more positive

opment path. The SRls are particularly

roles and initiatives

in conducting

vulnerable

socio-econornic

to environmental

disrup-

tions and natural hazards. How to bal-

development

Rishirr-tó

and environmental protection are prob-

SRIs. lt is obvious now that the winSRIs which can seize development op-

ably the most difficult tasks for all is-

portunities

land communities.

eco-business,

3. As we have seen, the SRIs are expe-

resources of biodiversity

riencing more rapid depopulation than

lnternational

JournaJ of Island Affairs

of the

ner of the 21SI century will be those

ance between economic development

4. Another

Kaka;u.

tralization.

offered by globalization, IT revolution, "niche" and decen-

'he' Europ-ean Islands anil Iheir Governance:

l) U

e 10 e L

::::J

o o o e

S (J)

from 'he Nalion Slales lo 'he European Union by

'island region', -

"y,

the European Parliament - is a segment

So what do these islands and their

how linked to the rest ofEurope by the Channel Tunnel), it covers so me 13

JEAN-DIDIER

people have in common?

of a Member State whiclt is entirely

million european citizens who live in

Their common geographical charac-

surrounded

one ofthe E.U's 21 Island regional au-

teristic, of course, and the various prob-

by sea, has no physical

links to the mainland and is not the

thorities, or in one of its many hundred

lems or hurdles they entails. As recalls

seat of the capital city of any Euro-

inshore islands. Altogether, these is-

the European Parliament resolution on

landers represent about 3~5% of the

island regions-:

Community's 380 million inhabitants.

"The handicaps from which island re-

pean Union country",' Although this definition does not in-

These islands offer the most extreme

elude the "mainland" part of the Re-

variety of population, elimate, environ-

them from mainland regions, arise -

public of Ireland, or of the Ll.K. ( any-

gions suffer, whicti clearly distinguislt

ment, economy, culture and political or

albeit in varying degrees - from the

administrative institutions. They spread

limited availability of usable land and

(for example) from the Isle of Wight, 3

fisheries

miles from the South-East of England,

water and energy supplies,

to Reunion Island, in the Indian Ocean,

and coastal pollution, a particularly

9.400Km away from the French Main-

difficult waste and sewage manage-

land. They range from the 5 million in-

ment problem, depopulation,

habitants of the Sicilian archipelago, to

erosion, the shortage of skilled labour;

resources

and of potential marine

coastal

the few hundreds of the coastal islands

the fact that businesses have no possi-

ofIreland or Brittany; or offer a popula-

bility of benefiting from economies of

tion density from over 3201Km2 of Ma-

scale, additional transport and com-

deira, to under 10 in the Westem Isles

munications

of Scotland. As for the island' s elimates,

vantaged

costs, the doubly disad-

status of smaller

islands

they span from the tropical environment of Martinique or Guadeloupe

(in the

Executive-Secretary

West Indies), to the frozen seas of the

Commission

Baltic for Gotland, Bornholm or the

ripheral

Ă land islands. And so forth ...

(CPMR).

of the ÂŤlslands

of the Conference

Maritime

Regions

of Pe-

of Europe

l) (J) (J)

o o

HACHE*

forming part of an archipelago ('dual

border areas which, on one hand, had

insularity'] and the higñ cost of infra-

to be controlled for strategic reasons

islands played a key role in the Greek

structures, to which, in some cases in

but, on the other hand, were difficult

national struggle for liberation, with

the North, must be added isolation in

and expensive to control.

some of them (such as Crete, or the 10-

winter caused by ice".

Being instrumental in the protection

nian Islands) having brief spells of in-

But seen from a political angle, Eu-

of Europe's maritime highways or trad-

dependence.

rope's island regions also have another

ing routes, in the shaping of it's na-

Sardegna also played an important part

largely shared characteristic:

in spite

tions colonial empires, or in the defence

in the movement towards Italian na-

of belonging to countries of widely dif-

(or attack ) of the neighbouring main-

tional unity. In the XIX and XX cen-

In Italy,

Sicily

and

ferent histories, cultures and institu-

land of warring States, the majority of

tury, the Áland islands were succes-

tions, they have, in their vast majority,

Europe's islands have had a turbulent

sively Swedish, Russian and eventu-

a special polítical and administrative

history of conquest, occupation,

and

ally Finnish, but witha special regime

status or regime of some sort within

liberation. Such circumstances proved,

of autonomy and demilitarisation guar-

in many case, a suitable background

anteed by the League of Nations.

their own nation. Moreover, this characteristic

is not

for the emergence of different forms of

Together with this historical back-

just the remnant of a distant historical

administration. Forexample, in islands

ground, other factors played an impor-

inheritance, but it has followed the po-

with a colonial past, such as the Fae-

tant role in the shaping of special re-

litical evolutions of Europe, and in par-

roes, Greenland, or the French West

gimes in many islands territories. One

ticular the process of European inte-

Indies or Réunion, original statuses

was the usually distinct cultural iden-

were inherited through the process of

tity of the island's inhabitants or even

managed to "worm" themselves into the

decolonisation.

In islands such as the

their linguistic difference. Another was

Treaties shaping the European Union,

Channel Islands, they were a legacy of

their reluctant acceptance of central

first individually, through the adhesion

mediaeval privileges granted to ensure

government rule, hence the consider-

negotiations of their country, then col-

the goodwill

and

able lore - mythical or real - surround-

lectively, through the inclusion of spe-

their loyalty in wartime. In the Canary

ing the tradition of"rebellion", "piracy"

cific articles and declarations

gration. Progressively,

islands have

in the

of the inhabitants

Islands special rights were conceded

or "banditry" in many of these commu-

more recent Maastricht and Amsterdam

because of the archipelago's

impor-

nities, from Crete to the Hebrides. And,

Treaties.

tance as a trading outpost. The fortunes ofEuropean wars, poli-

the mere difficulties and costs associ-

THE RECOGNITION OF ISLANDS AS SPECIAL CASES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE NATION-STATES The statuses or regimes which the majority ofEuropean island regions enjoy are diverse in nature and intensity. Some of them are very extensive, up to the point of infringing upon the borders of State prerogatives. Others are just a mild form of decentralisation, or even a different

shaping of administrative

boundaries. Yet, from Greece to lreland, from Portugal to Finland, their is an acceptance - even if a limited or grudging one - that islands must be somewhat treated differently. How did this come?

A new phenomenon with old roots. Probably, the most prevalent factor to explain this situation is that, by their very nature, European

French. In the XIX century the Greek

International

Journal

islands were

of Island Affairs

more prosaically, there were of course

tics and diplomacy shaped the identity

ated with the administration

and institutions

of many

remote territories.

through comple

and numerous up-

While the roots of the phenomenon

heavals. For example, in the Course of

generally run deep in history, most Eu-

islands

of such

the XVIII century, Corsica was succes-

ropean islands which have acquired a

sively Genoese, independent, under the

special political and administrative sta-

influence of Britain, and eventually

tus have nevertheless done so compara-

Wight, Bornholm, Gotland, the Ionian are generally under 200.000 people, and often under 50.000) would benefit from

a separate regional authority. More than likely, they would be considered as "too small", and probably be integrated into broader and more populated administrative units. The acceptation that islands are requiring special treatment has also influenced the structure of central government itself in some countries. In Greece, a specific Ministry has been set up in 1985 to deal with the development of the Aegean lslands. In Finland, there is an "Islands

Commission"

tively recently. This process, which took

of the taxes which, in the rest of the

within the Ministry of Interior to deal

place essentially in the second part of

country, pertain to the State. In a

with the countries

the XX century, must be associated of

number of cases, islands also ben-

"part-island" municipalities. In Ireland,

course with the emergence of demo-

efit from national laws providing

one of the government Ministers has

cratic, modern, and decentralised forms

them with special direct or indirect

special responsibility over all the small

of government in Europe. Thus, Sicily

tax regimes, or specific legislation to

inshore islands, and in Denmark there

and Sardegna became autonomous re-

support economic development and

is a special Parliamentary Committee to

gions in 1948. The Faeroes also became

reduce transport costs.

deal with the small islands.

fifty "island"

autonomous in 1948, to be followed by

• Last but not least, the most exten-

It can henceforth be said that, across

Greenland in 1979. TheAzores, Madeira,

sive autonomy statuses also involve

the European Union, Member States

the Canary Islands and the Balearics

the possibility of being consulted or

have usually accepted that the island

acceded to autonomy in the 1970's, with

associated in international

negotia-

factor was worth so me form of recog-

the downfall of the dictatorships

tions affecting directly the island's

nition. Though the roots of this recog-

Salazar and Franco. In France, it was in

interests.

nition are generally old, it is by no mean

...

the 1980's that Corsica and the French

an anachronism, but a lively and ongo-

(D.O.M)

Of course, in Europe, autonomy or

ing process. There are - usually pas-

were conceded a special status of some

special statuses are not limited to is-

sionate - debates in many islands on

sort, in the wake of a general decentrali-

lands only: for example, a number of

how the existing politico-administra-

sation reformo

Spanish or Italian mainland regions with

tive status is going to be improved,

"special identity" also have different

how the islander's interests are going

regimes (e.g: Catalonia,

to be safeguarded,

Départements

d'Outre-Mer

Some original forms of Island governance. The extent of political concessions granted to islands varies from one case to another according to circumstances,

Lombardia,

and on how their

etc.). Moreover, not all European is-

autonomy

lands have a recognisable

these lines are being written, the French

home rule

status or special regime. Nevertheless,

should be extended.

Parliament has to decide the modifica-

even in those who

e o e

Islands or the Aegean Islands (which

tion of the law regarding the D.O.Ms,

but, while it would be difficult to as-

don't, there are perhaps more discreet,

while

sess them without undertaking

indi-

but nevertheless real forms of differ-

Territoriale is debating whether or not

vidual as well as comparative studies,

ence. Thus, while most of the smaller

it should require legislative powers. In

a general pattern may be outlined.

sized European Island regions do not

Sweden, Gotland is one of the selected

• Islands with some degree of autonomy

Corsica's

Collectivité

have any special form of self-govern-

local authorities experimenting a new

usually have legislative powers of

ment, they undoubtedly

owe to their

form of local government. In Scotland,

some kind, or may at least propose

insularity their mere existence as re-

the Western Isles and Orkney expect

amendments to national legislation.

gional authorities. It is doubtful that,

some form of recognition within the new

• They also tend to have a higher de-

should they live on the mainland, the

autonomous Scottish institutions. And

gree of financial autonomy as they

populations of areas such as the West-

in Denmark, the Faeroes are presently

may receive the proceed from so me

ern Isles, Orkney, Shetland, the Isle of

negotiating independence ...

:::J

o o e

S (f) L Q) (f) (f)

o o

ISLANDS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: INTEGRATION OR DIFFERENTIATION?

In fact, those Islands which were mentioned in the original Treaty were largely dealt with as an inheritance from the colonial past of the founding Mem-

Over the last forty years, Europe has

ber-States.

undertaken a major political upheaval with

First of all, Part 4 of the Treaty dealt

the building, through successive Trea-

with the "Association of the Overseas

ties, of the European Economic Commu-

Countries and Territories", all depend-

nity (later European Union). But in inte-

ant territories, most of which were is-

grating 6, then 9, then 10, 12 and eventu-

lands. All these Territories ( such as the

ally 15 Member States (and tomorrow

Dutch West Indies, French Polynesia or New Caledonia, British Bermuda, etc.)

perhaps up to 25 ... ), the European Community also had to take on board their islands ... and their differences. How could it do so? To what extend was it prepared to accept that islands were different, and adjust its institutions,

It is no understatement

were not integrated into the Community, but declared "Associated Territories", As such, they could freely export into the Common Market, maintain duties

to say that,

and tariffs against European imports to

its laws and its policies to that effect?

at its inception in 1957 with the Treaty

protect their industries, but were to have

Was the recognition of islands as "cases

of Rome, the European Community had

only minimal access to European Funds.

apart", observed in many national poli-

hardly any interest in its islands. Nei-

The Treaty ofRome also dealt, some-

cies, going to be echoed in the work-

ther, in fact, had it any interest in its

what surnmarily and imprecisely, through

ings of this supranational structure?

regions.

Treaty

article 227.2 with the four French Over-

stated the general principIe of promot-

seas Departments (3 of which are is-

Two patterns were to be observed.

While the original

The first one was that of the recogni-

ing "an harmonious

tion of individual islands' case in the

economic activities", it was not before

RĂŠunion). Significantly, the issue ofthe

development

lands: Martinique,

Guadeloupe,

and

various Treaties of Adhesion. Such rec-

1975 (17 years later!) than one saw the

D.O.M was raised alongside French AI-

ognition took place in the course of the

emergence

geria, which was to become independ-

negotiation

of a meaningful

regional

process, when candidate

development policy, with the creation

Member-States asked that, as a condi-

of the European Regional Development

tion of their own adhesion, specific pro-

Fund.

visions should be granted to some of

ent a few years later- . Matters began to change in 1972 with the integration ofthe United-King-

Such a situatiorÂĄ may easily be ex-

dom, Denmark and Ireland, which gave

their island territories. As a result, those

plained. The fundamental

islands were given the benefit of more

the Treaty was to establish a freedom

EEC. All these three countries were

or less extensive derogation to the com-

of circulation of goods, people, capital

made, in totality or in parts, of islands.

mon rules (such as the right not to ap-

and services, and these aims appeared

Also, the two former one had sover-

purpose of

a stronger mari time emphasis to the

ply Value Added Tax, or Excises Duty).

so ambitious and far reaching at the

eignty over islands which were either

Others were even given the option of

time, that little effort was spent consid-

very remote and/or enjoying special

not integrating the Community, and to

ering the potential economic and so-

status: Denmark with the Faeroes and

have a limited relationship with it.

cial implications of such policies at re-

Greenland, the Ll.K. with the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.

The second pattern was the even-

gionallevel, not to mention on the more

tual inclusion in European legislation

remote outposts of Europe. Moreover,

Consequently, special protocols had

of provisions acknowledging

4 of the original 6 countries of the Eu-

to be included into the 1972 Treaty of

ropean Economic

Adhesion to take the situation of these

that is-

lands or outermost regions were, as a

Community

(Ger-

whole (and not as individual excep-

many, Holland, Luxembourg, and Bel-

islands into consideration. Strikingly, alJ

tions) territories deserving special con-

gium) were hardly concerned by islands.

of these islands decided that they were

sideration.

In France,

Thus, E.U islands which

Corsica,

then under

better off outside, than within the EEC.

were unable to benefit from specific

strongly centralised form of govern-

Their motivations were diverse. In the

measures

ment, had no special status, and was

Faeroes and Greenland, the issue of the

not remotely

right to retain control over fishing re-

when their Member State

joined the Community became covered

The European integration process and the islands: Europe 110 la eerte",

in position to suggest

- although to a much lesser extent - by

specific policies. Even Italy, which had

sources - vital for the economy of these

these provisions. Of a much more re-

two major island regions, Sardinia and

communities, was a major point of con-

cent origin, this second pattern took

Sicily, both enjoying an autonomy sta-

flict. Yet, in the Faeroes as in Jersey,

considerable efforts to materialise.

tus since 1948, did not raise the issue.

Guernsey and the Isle of Man, another

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

crucial point was the potential threat of

degree of centralisation

prevailing in

or America. Moreover, these regions had

a restriction to local autonomy through

that country at the time, and perhaps

markedly different climate, agriculture

European legislation. When it had taken

by a certain lack of foresight. There is

and economy. This situation gave rise

years, if not centuries, to achieve an ex-

little doubt that a different

to the notion of "Ultraperipheral

tensive sharing of powers and respon-

would prevail today, considering

sibilities with the State, could this be

involvement

of the later days Greek

progressively in the implementation of

put in jeopardy with little or not guarán-

governments

to raise island issues at

specific policies to their benefit.

tees? How could a decision taken in a

the table of the Council of Ministers.

attitude the

"Outerrnost")

(or

Regions", and resulted

e o e L Q)

=:l

o o o e

The island issue arose once again with

European Council of Minister, or a leg-

A new turn took place in 1985 with the

the adhesion of Finland, Sweden and

(f)

islation drafted by a European official

adhesion of Spain and Portugal. Both

Austria to the European Union in 1994,

from an unknown country take into ac-

countries had archipelagos, character-

with the inclusion in the Treaty of a spe-

count the islands' special needs and

ised by their extreme remoteness in the

cial Protocol for the Áland Islands (Pro-

situation? How could an impersonal re-

case of the Canary Islands, Madeira and

tocol N°2), which was granted to Áland

lationship with Brussels administration,

Portugal. Emerging from a long period

should the islands decide to join the E.U.

replace an old - even if at times difficult

of undemocratic and extremely central-

It excluded them from the implernenta-

- special relationship with the central

ised form of governments, both Spain

tion ofEU Directives in the field of indi-

government of their country? As a consequence,

the Channel Is-

and Portugal had granted their islands

rect taxation (VAT,Excise duty...).lt also

(albeit in varying ways) substantial au-

enabled them to keep their special rules regarding the right of settlement, land

lands and the Isle of Man opted to stay

tonomy status. Consequently,

out. Under Protocol 3 of the Treaty, they

negotiated special dispositions for the

agreed to be part ofthe Community for

Canary Islands under Protocol 2 (but

lt is interesting to point out that this

trade, but for nothing else. The Fae-

not for the Balearic Islands Islands)."

Protocol was granted "because of the

roes eventually decided in 1974 not to

Portugal requested the approval of a

special status which the Aland Islands

integrate the Community,

and later

«Joint Declaration» on the situation of

enjoy according to international law",

signed a trade agreement with it. Green-

Madeira and the Acores, and various

and not as a recognition of their insu-

land, when granted its status of au-

measures in their favour were included

larity. By contrast, Gotland which re-

tonomy so me years later (1979), con-

in the Treaty. The arrival of Madeira, the Acotes and

quested to be granted the benefit of a

draw, and did so in 1995 to become an

the Canary islands also had the con se-

was to be ignored.

Associated Territory.

quence of highlighting the situation of

Consequently,

firmed by referendum its wish to with-

Spain

purchase, etc.

specific Protocol and Joint Declaration' one cannot but ob-

That trend was not followed up in

the French D.O.M. The European Com-

serve that, since the inception of the

1979 when Greece, the "island" coun-

munity now had a whole group of Re-

European Community in 1958, all is-

try par excellence joined the EEC. No

gions, mostly islands (with the excep-

lands which have been given specific

special measures for islands were re-

tion of French Guyana), which were an

recognition in the Treaty are islands

quired by the then Greek government

integral part of its political territory, but

which, in their past, were granted a

during the negotiation

of adhesion.

yet located so far away frorn its shores

strong status of autonomy

This may be explained by the extreme

that most of them were closer to Africa

Member State. In the reverse, all the

by their

islands which had not previously been granted a special status of autonomy were unable to obtain any form of recognition in the EU Treaty when their Member State decided to join the European Cornmunity".

The formal recognition of islands regions in the Treaty The acceptance ofthe special dimension of islands by European legislation has been a long, slow, arduous affair. It is still very much an ongoing process. As already referred to important factor has been the implementation of spe-

Q) (f) (f)

o o

cial provisions for a specific island or island group in the Treaties of adhesion signed by the Member States. But, beyond individual cases, there has also been a growing acknowledgement, expressed on diverse occasions by various European Institutions, that insularity as a whole was a factor which deserved special consideration. Various factors led to this recognition. The first one was probably the emergence of islands regions as a small, but dedicated, political lobbying force in the Community. Such a move was a novelty, for if neighbouring European in the

in the Baltic Sea, the IMEDOC group

inclusion of an article 129b (now 154)

Baltic Sea or in the Atlantic) tradition-

for the Western Mediterranean Islands.

on "Transeuropean

ally had trading, and more rarely politi-

There is al so a specific cooperation

underlined that such networks would,

cal links, there had never been a join

structure for the Outermost Regions.

amongst other consideration, have to

islands (in the Mediterranean,

all

These moves and representations got

pay special attention to the need oflink-

from North to

some echo in the European Parliament,

ing island regions to the central regions

South, and East to West. These devel-

which

ofthe Community.

opments fostered in the fold broader

number

political approach encompassing these communities,

structures

or organisations

such as,

initially, the Standing Conference

produced of reports

over the years

and resolutions

In 1997, an important breakthrough

stressing the need for specific policies

occurred with the Inter Governmental

for islands. The Harris Report (1983), the

Conference

and the adoption of the

Local and Regional Authorities of the

Barret Report (1987) or, more recently,

Amsterdam Treaty. After considerable

Council ofEurope, and such as the Con-

the Viola Report (1998) are some of the

lobbying efforts - once again spear-

ference ofPeripheral Maritime Regions.

most noticeable examples. It is also note-

headed by the action of Greece -, Arti-

worthy that the European Parliament

cle 130a (now 158) of the Treaty deal-

strumental in bringing the island issue

eventually set up within its ranks an "Is-

ing with the Community social and eco-

to the fore by organising, in 1981, a first

land Intergroup", gathering island Euro

nomic cohesion was amended to in-

"European Islands Conference" which

MPs across national or party political

elude a specific reference to islands.

was held in Tenerife, and which issued

divides. This concern for islands was

an important Declaration. More confer-

also expressed by the European Com-

"... the Community shall aim at reduc-

ences were organised later on in the

mittee the Social and Economic Com-

ing disparities between the le veis of

The Council of Europe role was in-

Acores and in the Áland Islands. The Conference of Peripheral Maritime Regions (CPMR), born in 1973,

The article now specified that:

mittee (Vassilaras Report, 1987), and was

development

later addressed by the Committee of

and the backwardness of the least fa-

of the various regions

Regions when it was set up.

voured regions or islands"

acting in close relation with the Coun-

It was thanks to these initiatives and

cil ofEurope, also furthered and devel-

lobbying efforts", that the concern for

oped this action. In 1980, it created

islands rase gradually in Europe over

Governmental

within its ranks an "Islands Commis-

the years, to reach eventually the table

Joint Declaration

sion'? which now gathers every sin-

ofthe Council ofMinisters. This resulted

which stated :

Amsterdam also resulted in the Inter Conference approving n030 on Islands,

gle regional island authority ofthe E.U,

in the adoption of a number of modifica-

"The Conference recognises that island

as well as a number of other European

tions in the European Treaty itself.

regions sujfer from structural handicaps

islands. The lslands Commission

The first move was made in 1988, at

linked to their island status, the perma-

the initiative of the Greek government,

nence of which impairs their economic

group, entirely directed and financed

when the European Council of Heads

and social development.

by the Island Regions. Other lsland

of Governments, which met in Rhodes

The Conference accordingly acknowl-

groupings were also set up in Europe

issued a first declaration underlining

edges that Community legislation must

in various geographical zones at a later

the special situation of islands. Then,

take account of these handicaps and

date: the «Baltic 7» Island association

in 1993, the Maastricht Treaty saw the

that specific measures may be taken,

now the main European Island pressure

Networks" which

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

wherejustified, infavourofthese

re-

power costs, and with whom they

the POS El, contradiction grew more acute

gions in order to integrate them bet-

have very little trading links.

between the need to apply special rules to

ter into the internaL market on fair

The term "ultraperipheral"

conditions" .

The issue of Ihe "Outermcs}" regions

tU U

answer the needs of these regions, and the

e 10 e

did not appear in the original Treaty

trend to greater legislative harmonisation

of Rome, which nevertheless granted

at Community leve\. The Ultraperipheral

so me specific measures to the French

Regions considered that the existing legal

regions

:::J

o e

D.O.M; but, as we have seen before,

framework was getting progressively out-

In parallel with these moves to

the concept arose when the adhesion

dated or unsatisfactory. New instruments

achieve some recognition for islands

of Spain and Portugal in 1985 brought

had to be provided within the Treaty itself

(f)

in European legislation, a specific lob-

the Canary Islands, Madeira and the

to cater for their condition, and provide a

bying took place in favour of the

Azores.

sound basis for specific legislation.

Ult:raperipheral Regions. The Ultraperipheral

The issue ofthe ultraperipheral (or or " Outer-

"outermost")

regions was first tack-

The first move in that direction was taken at the opportunity of the Maastricht Treaty,

most" regions

are the 4 French

led by the Member States and the

under the pressure of France, Spain and Por-

"D茅partements

d'Outre-Mer",

Commission in 1986 by the setting-

tugal. lt materialised with the approval of a

the

Canary Islands, the Azores and Ma-

up on a "Interservices"

group within

Joint Declaration acknowledging their excep-

d~ira. Their total population is about

the European Commission, to co-or-

tional difficulties, and stating that specific

3,5 mili ion people, scattered across

dinate and monitor the implementa-

measures

the globe from the Indian Ocean to

tion of Community policies in these

ultraperipheral regions in order to enable

South America, those seven regions

regions. In 1989, the first of an impor-

them to integrate better the Community in-

belonging to France, Portugal and

tant set of legislative proposals was

ternal market, and catch-up with their social

Spain.

conceived with the POSEI, or "Pro-

and econornic difficulties.

----

While 6 of them are islands, one

grammes ofOrientation specific to re-

could

applied

to the

Further political action to obtain a instru-

(French Guyana) is not. AlI these re-

moteness and insularity." There was

ment of a more legally binding nature than

gions also share a number of com-

to be one of such programme for each

a Joint Declaration was undertaken in the

mon characteristics: while being an

country

1989,

course of the lnter Governmental Confer-

integral part ofthe European Uni贸n",

POSEICAN and POSEIMA in 1991).

ence. The outcome was the redrafting of

(POSEIDOM

they are located well beyond the geo-

A Programme ofCommunity lnitiative

article 227(2) (now 299b)) by the Amster-

graphical confines of Europe, and are

named REGIS was also set up in 1990

dam Treaty. This article reads:

either totally isolated in the Atlantic

for the benefit of these regions, to be

"2. The provisions ofthis Treaty shaLLappLy

Ocean, or close to the shores of Af-

followed-up by a second one in 1994.

to the French overseas departments, the

rica and America. Moreover,

they

The POSEl provided the letal back-

have a distinct tropical climate, spe-

ground for substantial measures, ei-

However, taking account of the structuraL

cific agricultural productions;

they

therfinancial or juridical, which were

sociaL and economic

are prone to natural disasters such

well justified by the extreme condition

French overseas departments, the Azores,

as cyclones or volcanic eruptions;

met by the ultraperipheral

regions,

Madeira and the Canary IsLands, which is

and their immediate neighbours are

whose characteristics were so mark-

compounded by their remoteness, insuLar-

less developed countries with whom

edly different from those of the rest

ity, smaLLsize, difficuLt topography and cLi-

they cannot compete in term of man-

of the European Community. Yet, with

mate, economic dependence on afew prod-

Azores, Madeira and the Canary IsLands. situation

of the

ucts, the permanence and cambination of which severeLy restrain their deveLopment, the CounciL, acting by a quaLified majority on a proposaL from the Commission and after consulting the European ParLiament, shaLL adopt specific measures aimed, in particuLar, at Laying down the conditions of application of the present Treaty to those regions, incLuding common policies. The CounciL shaLL,when adopting the reLevant measures referred to in the second subparagraph,

take into account areas

such as customs and trade policies, fiscal poLicy, free zones, agricuLture and fisher-

(f) (f)

The answer to this question lies be-

ies policies, conditions for supply of

hind the way the E.U will -or won't-

raw materials and essential consumer goods, Sta te aids and conditions of ac-

implement effectively, in its legislation

cess to structural funds and to hori-

and in its policies, the various instruments concerning islands recently laid

zontal Community programmes.

out the Treaty.

The Council shall adopt the measures

referred

to in the

second

Notes

subparagraph taking into account the sp ecial

characteristics

and con-

straints of the outermost regions with-

of issues involving its own governance

out undermining the integrity and the

and its own institutions (can Europe'

coherence of the Community legal or-

Member States still retain a right of veto

lslands", Luxembourg, 1994 (see the lore-

on certain decisions? How should the

word

votes be shared in a Council of Minis-

Christophersen) .

der, including the internal market and common policies. "

ters where sit countries of widely dif-

CONCLUSION

28/5/98. Such a delinition was also applied by EUROSTAT in its book "Portrait 01 the

States having responsibilities

and

tota. In fact, one had to wait till 1978 for a Europea n Court 01 Justice ruling to decide that

over is-

affect the islands, because the new

-albeit in

members (with the exception of Malta and Cyprus, and but for two small is-

ries were deserving some form of spe-

land regions in Estonia) are massively

cial consideration in political and ad-

mainland based. The balance of power in the EU will geographically

Millan

The process of enlargement will also

many varying ways- that these territo-

lands have acknowledged

by Commissioners

ferent size and influence? ...).

In their vast majority, the European

the "O.O.M" were eventualiy fu"'! ;:~..• ~the European Community. 4

The Canary Islands were then excluded from the implementation of policies as the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy, and were kept outside the Customs area. This status was modified in

shift

1991, at the request of the Spain and of the

The process of European integration

"eastward", and the already small in-

Canary Islands. AII EU policies now apply

has given a new dimension to the is-

tluence of islands will still diminish in

to these islands, but with specific provi-

sue of island governance by raising the

proposition. In such a context, asking

ministrative terms.

question of how a supranational body

for special treatment for islands in Eu-

of380 million inhabitants.

ropean policy and legislation will prove

Confronted

with such a major up-

increasingly difficult. So will access to

sions regarding the implementation of EU , law. 5

C.f., Gotland's White Paper «Gotland in the

On 11 European Island Regions with no

Baltic Sea, in Sweden and in Europe», 1994.

have

European Funding, as an increasing

special status in nationallaw, none got any

fought to reiterate, in a supranational

portion of Europe's Structural Funds

recognition in the Adhesion Tretay of their

context, this request for special con-

will go to the Eastern Countries which

heaval,

the European

islands

sideration. In doing so, they have de-

are much poorer that the existing 15

veloped politicallinks

Members.

with each other

which were hitherto unknown, or even unthinkable. This struggle has met with some success, first with the inclusion

in the

Member State. On 14 Island Regions or groups with a status of autonomy, only 3 (the Balearics, Sicily and Sardegna) did not get any recognition. These figures exclude

While the enlargement will undoubt-

those islands listed as Associated Territo-

edly have great benefits for the Com-

ries in the original Treaty (French Polynesia,

munity, it will most likely favour those

the Outch West Indies, etc.)

areas in the heart of mainland Europe

Treaty of a number of derogations and

which have a sizeable market and pro-

measures

duction capacity, and have privileged

concerning

individual

is-

For further information

on CPMR, see

www.crpm.org . 8

This lobbying process has been described in Fernandez Martins's book, "Les lIes et

lands, then with the adoption of some

acccss to the futures territories of the

provisions raising the issue of islands

Union. Such is not, for obvious rea-

Européenne», Editions de l'Aube, 1999. For

sons the case with the islands.

an online reading, see www.eurisles.com .

and outermost

regions

as a whole.

More substantial instruments were also

So is there a risk that the islands will

included to deal with the specific case

loose out, and be -politically as well as

of the Outermost regions.

economically

-be

increasingly

les Régions Ultrapériphériques de l'Union

Unlike other territories such as New Caledonia, French Polynesia, the Falkland Islands, the Outch West Indies,etc ... which are under the sovereignty of a Member State,

marginalised in a broader Community?

but only Associated Territories of the Com-

what extent the European Union will

Faced with such a prospect, will the

munity.

go to implement these measures.

European institutions ignore the needs

The question now is, of course, to

At the present time, the European

Resolution on the problems 01 island regions 01 the European Union, A4-0118/98,

of these communities? Or will they ac-

This paper is an abstract 01 a larger paper pub-

Union is striving to enlarge itself pro-

cept, more than ever, that they consti-

gressively to up to 25 members. This

tute a special case deserving special

Editions de L'Harmattan, Paris,2000. The views

will raise even more acutely a number

consideration or policies?

expressed hereby are the author's own.

International

Journal of Island Affairs

lished in "What Status for Europe's lslands?»,

I Ă&#x201C; N

I O

'he Islan s Perspectives::' K

G",ece;,

well known from the big Mediterranean

DR.

IOANNIS

islands along

Finally, in the Ionian Sea, more or less

the numerous islands and islets sur-

with Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica and Cy-

closed to the coast of western Greece,

rounding the country, extending its ex-

prus- is a section of the southern exter-

there are 15 islands of different size,

clusive economic zone far beyond its

na! borders of the EU with Africa. Crete

grouped in 4 departments

land area. 112 of those islands are in-

is also one of the thirteen Greek regions

Ionian Islands' Region.

habited today, while another 107 - once

(peripheria), composed of four depart-

Among a!l the Greek islands, the ma-

inhabited - still keep the administrative

jority (73 islands) have less than two

status of a settlement. 78 of them are

ments (nomos). " In the Western Aegean, relatively

the seat of at least one autonomous

close to the coast, there are several is-

and ten thousand, 9 between ten and

local authority (community or demos).

lands under the adrninistration of dif-

fifty thousand and 6 with more of fifty

Roughly

ferent departments of the mainland -

thousand: Crete, Corfou, Lesvos, Rodes

3% of the population

within the

thousand inhabitants, 24 between two

Greece lives on those islands (1.489.230

mainly Attiki, Magnissia

and Evia-,

and Evia. 54 of them are smaller than 25

people -census 199 J), occupying J 9%

named "coastal islands". The rest of

km", 3 1are between 25 and 100 km2 and

of its territory (24.739,4km

Excluding

the Aegean Sea, lying between Greece

only Crete is bigger than 5.000 km'.

Evia - which is not considered as an

and Turkey, with an area of approxi-

2).

How these islands are adrninistrated?

island according to EUROSTAT, since

mately 480.000km , is scattered with 58

Besides the fact that the different islands

it is linked to mainland Greece by a

smalJ and medium-sized inhabitant is-

are depending from regional authorities

bridge - and Crete, which both have a

lands and a multitude of non-inhabit-

of different adrninistrative level, they are

large surface area and population size,

ant ones. They are grouped into 5 de-

managed in the same way as all the other

we are referring to a large number of

partments and 2 Regions, which are

equivalent

small and medium-sized islands. These

exclusively insular: Cyclades and Do-

Greece. The Greek politica! system has

islands comprise about 50% of the to-

decanese

tal land surface of the islands and re-

South Aegean, and the departments of

composing

spective populations (Spilanis, 1999).

Lesvos, Samos and Chios composing the Region of North Aegean. These de-

istrative situation can be found in the

partments, with the exception of Cyc-

Greek archipelagos.

lades are a section of the eastern exter-

Aegean, Crete, - which is ranked among

administrative

entities in

the Region of

Islands of different types and adrninIn the South

SPILANIS*

nal borders of the European Union.

Assistant Professor Laboratory of Local and Insular Development Department

of Environmental

Studies

University of the Aegean Mytilini, Greece

been marked by the concentration

The first level is a decentralised tier of

power at the level of the central admin-

the state administration

istration and the government, without

others are part of local governance.

regional differentiation. During 1833, the

The Region as level of administra-

newly independent Greek state adopted

tive division has very short tradition in

the French system of centralised state

the country, granted the fact that it was

with power vested in the centre and the

established

control exercised over the periphery by

come into effect in 1987 with the divi-

a "prefectoral"

sion of the country into 13 regions.

system. The local au-

as recently as 1986 and

thorities, whose origins come from the

Structures

administrative system that existed dur-

General Administration, Regional Ad-

ing the Ottoman Empire, used to have

ministration)

similar to the Region (as were introduced in the

until recently very restricted economic

past, lasted only for very short periods

and political power.

oftime(l912-15,

1935-36,1941,1970-

This situation can be explained pri-

73) (Velonias, 1988). The creation of the

marily by the fact that when the new

region as a political authority and an

Greek state became independent

administration

body beca me almost

especially

the Mediterranean

ones

necessary for the implementation of the

36% of the present territory. The re-

(Monteiro

Da Silva (ed), 1993 and

regional programs funded by the EU's

mainder was added after regional or

EURISLES' Network website).

1832, its surface area consisted of only

Structural Funds (precisely the Medi-

In the following paragraphs, firstly,

terranean Integrated Programs). Their

The most recent an-

we will try to describe the most impor-

regulations had initiated the concepts

nexation took place in 1947 and con-

tant modifications and the actual struc-

of subsidiarity and partnership among

cerned Dodecanese, that was still re-

ture of the three levels of regional ad-

the different levels of european and

ministration and, secondly to evaluate

national adrninistration,

world wars and revolts against different occupants.

maining under Italian governance. Secondly, the fact that Greece has not

how these modifications

have or can

frontiers with any western european

influence the development

democratic state, but was surrounded

of the islands.

strategies

to be an important argument for the preservation of this very centralised administrative system. The ruling elite-a small number of families of notables-, interested in maintaining their control

The General Secretary of the Region, who is appointed and removed from office by the Government, heads each region. He (or she) is the representa-

by real or potential enemies -as the excommunist countries and Turkey- used

THE STRUCTURE OF THE REGIONAL ADMINISTR'ATION WITHIN THE GREEK ISLANDS: THE NEW COMPETENCEl

tive of the Government within the region, presides over all civil, police and port services at the department level as well as of the inter-departmental (named now regional) services. The planning and the co-ordination

all over the different levels of adminis-

The structure and the philosophy of

of regional development, but also the

tration and the implementation of poli-

the regional adrninistration of the coun-

control of the implementation of the re-

cies, was tended to view any demand

try are specified in the artieles 101, 102

gional and sectorial operational pro-

for more local autonomy as a threat to

and 118 of the constitution of Greece

grammes financed by the Structural

the integrity of the nation.

of 1974, as amended in 1985. Although

Funds, were assigned, by the law 1622/

The stabilisation of the internal de-

the constitution specifies in artiele 101

86, as the most important domains of

mocracy after the fall of the military gov-

that "the administration ofthe state op-

responsibility for the Region. The Di-

emment (1974), create a favourable con-

erates under the decentralised system",

rectorate

text for more distribution of power and

however both the analysis of the legal

(Regional Service ofthe Ministry ofNa-

consequently for more decentralisation.

frame work in force and the daily real-

tional Economy) has the administrative

So a progressive change began during

ity can hardly confirm the wording of

duty of these responsibilities. The Re-

the 80's who has modified substantially

the constitution.

gional Council, that is responsible for

Three are the levels of the regional

the administrative map of Greece. Even though, almost no differentiation was

administration

accepted in the structure and the com-

the Department and the Municipality.

petence between insular and mainland 1

and the two

in Greece: the Region,

This paragraph is principally based on the

of Regional

the regional

Development

planning

and develop-

ment, is composed of the General Secretary as chairman, of representatives offirst- and second-levellocal

authori-

regional administration as airead y ex-

study of the Committee of the Regions, 1998,

ties and of representatives of business

isted in all the other european countries,

Regional and local democracy in the EU.

and professional bodies.

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

lJ U

By the law 2218/94, who established ment level, the regions become areas

e 10 e

of state administration and by the law

the elected authorities

at the depart-

:::J

trative entity with its own organisation,

o o

its own budget (the regional develop-

ment fund) and its own staff. Gradu-

.'S

2508/97 the region become an adminis-

ally, the transfer of competence con-

(J)

cerning the regional affairs form the

Ministries, have to complete the decen-

(J) (J)

tralisation of power and the ameliora-

tion of the effectiveness of the hole administrative system. The Department (or Prefecture) has been, since the establishment

of the

Modern Greek State until today, the institution that provided the stable intermediate level of administration be-

when there was not the seat of the Pre-

"demos" has actually less than 5.000

tween the central state and the local

fecture. The creation of the Districts was

inhabitants. This was the result of the

authorities. Till 1994, the department

the only measure witch differentiate the

migration

movement

that happened

was a decentralised body of the cen-

islands' administrative system from the

during the 20 century from the rural

tral administration headed by a gover-

rnainland's.justified

areas towards towns - specially Ath-

nor (nomarchis or prefect), agent of the

transportation between islands and the

ens' and Thessaloniki's

additionaJ cost occurred to the citizens!!!

tions - and abroad. Even if this move-

government with the responsibility for co-ordination

of the activities of the

central departments

in his territory.

by the difficulty of

agglomera-

After the application ofthe law 2218/

ment is now slowed down, the size of

94 at the 1st of January 1995, the elected

the rnajority of the local authorities is

From the '50s, some administrative de-

Prefects and Prefectoral Councils run

very smal\. According to 1991 census

centralisation

turned the prefectures

almost all the competence of the "old"

from 5.775 municipalities (688 on the

into a level ofplanning and implemen-

Prefectures, except those concerning fi-

islands except Crete), 79% has less

tation when each prefecture was allo-

nance affairs (p.ex. perception oftaxes).

than 1000 inhabitants and other 17%

cated a separate public works budget

In an equivalent way, the prefectoral

between 1000 and 5000 people (Min-

(Vernay and Papageorgiou, 1992). Dur-

administration depending till 19940n

istry of Interior, Public Sector and De-

ing the '80s the Consultative

the central Ministries, became the au-

centralisation,

ture Councils have been established

tonomous executive body of the new

palities were extremely fragmented,

with decision-making power in the plan-

local government. The preparation and

their human, technical and financial

ning process and the transfer of funds

the implementation ofthe development

resources

Prefec-

for public works (infrastructures)

in-

creased in a substantial way. By the law 1622/86, the Districts

1997). As the munici-

were limited. So, no sub-

plan remain the most important compe-

stantial action was possible to be un-

tence of the "new" entity, as no finan-

dertaken in order to fulfil their obli-

cial and legislative

gations towards their citizens for eco-

power has been

nomic and social development.

(Eparhio) were established as adminis-

transferred. The budget of the Depart-

trative entities depending from the pre-

ment is totally financed by national and

The reforms undertaken during the

fectures for the islands regions with two

european resources, through an algo-

'80s went towards two main directions.

or more islands. These very tiny enti-

rithm based mainly on the population

Firstly, the transfer of resources and

ties -rniniature of a Department- were

and the GDP per persono

the enlargement of competence, con-

created firstly in order to provide the

The Municipalities

(Demos

and

cern especially the possibility:

Koinotita) have always been self-ad-

a. to create municipal enterprises as an

ers without being obliged to move away

ministrated

in the local

attempt to develop more flexible ways

from home and secondly to run local

leve\. "Demos" are supposed to be the

of providing services, by their own or

affairs, as development

basic administrative services to island-

authorities

urban entities with more than 5.000

jointly with private entrepreneurs, co-

Districts have been created in the big-

people

operatives etc.,

ger islands as Lemnos, Naxos, Ikaria,

ones. In practice, this rule is not en-

b. to create development

tirely

mainly in collaboration with other bod-

planning. 14

Kos, Santorini, Thassos, Kythira etc,

and "Koinotites" respected

the rural

and the half

agencies,

In order to facilitate the new municipalities to face the new reality, the governrnent provides for thern, during the hole face of implementation of the program- (1999-2006), with: • technical equipment, • financial resources for investments in basic infrastructures of local interest, • scientific staff specifically trained in order to be able to undertake development initiatives and to manage the new "enlarged" municipalities. To day, after only one year from the beginning of the implementation ofthis historical reform, the first outputs are airead y obvious, even if, a lot of problems remain. These problems have to be solved in order to maximise the overall ies in the level of the department, in

• there is not enough human resources

order to undertake development initia-

able to exploit all the possibilities of-

ti ves,

fered by the new legislation,

impact for the revitalisation and the development specially of the rural areas. Finally, the establishment of the Min-

C. to draw up planning contracts with

• the measures did not last for long

istry of the Aegean in 1985, has to be

the public sector bodies in order to co-

time, as ten years later, in 1994, the

added to this brief description, even if

ordinate the provision of a service or

collaboration became obligatory be-

it can not be considered as part of the

to implement different aspects of a de-

tween municipalities leve!.

regional administration, but of the cen-

velopment programme.

in national

tral one. It is not the only "territorial" ministry existing in Greece, as another

Secondly, the facilitation of the col-

Nevertheless, the ten years of expe-

one, the Ministry of Makedonia and

laboration between the local authori-

rience with voluntary co-operation be-

Thrace, has been created almost 35

ties, in order to reinforce their capabil-

tween communities, was extremely valu-

years before for the same purposes. Its

ity for intervention, by:

able because it made people aware, es-

role is to analyse the specific problems

a. encouraging the voluntary amalga-

pecially in rural areas, that the problem

of the Aegean islands and to propose

mation between municipalities,

of strengthening the municipalities had

specific and adequate policies.

b. encouraging the voluntary collabo-

to be faced in some way. In 1997, the

ration between them in associations,

government decided to accelerate the

had to face:

in order to obtain grants form the pub-

movement towards bigger and more

a. the hostility of the "classic" secto-

lic investment prograrnme.

powerful

rial Ministries to accept the transfer of

AII these measures, even ifthey were

and to

change completely the map ofthe local

competence

administration

measures for the islands (p.ex. for the

by merging them into

and/or to adopt specific

very important, didn't had as signifi-

only 900 municipalities and 133 com-

taxation, or the agriculture) and

cant impact as hoped, because:

munities. Ir was considered necessary

b. the lack of sufficient public funds in

• the central government did not fulfil

to create units big enough, able to face

order to implement the specific policies

the new opportunities

that are necessary to overcome the is-

all the engagements towards the ap-

and threats

plicants. So, some ofthem have been

within the EU for the 21 st century. On

lands' disadvantages, its action can be

disappointed and a lot of others have

the islands, 135 municipalities

were

globally evaluated rather as positive.

been dissuaded,

formed and 20 communities were main-

The Ministry of Aegean has contributed

• the local "elites" were more or les s

tained, especially in the small islands.

to the recognition of the "insularity" as

opposed to the "fusion" of their com-

Now, only the a few medium and all the

a particularity -and not as a handicap-

munity, for fear that they would loose

big islands have more than one munici-

that can be overcome with a specific and

their identity,

local authorities

Even if the Ministry of the Aegean

.pality on their territory.

coherence policy. This idea was sup-

The program is named "Ioannis Kapodistrias" who was the 1" Governor 01the modern greek state in 1828.

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

ported from the Greek and other Gov-

definitely more important in the Greek

cal Park, Chamber of Cornmerce and

ernments during the Inter-Governmen-

regions. This is true especially within

Industry, Innovation Centre, Chamber

tal Conference of 1996. The result of this

the EU structural policy, where the ap-

of Agriculture, etc).

e 10 e

initiative was the adoption of an explicit

plication of the subsidiarity's principIe

An other main problem was the diffi-

reference of the island problem in rela-

not only permits but also calls for ac-

culty to find the necessary resources

:::::l

tion with the economic and social co-

tive local participation.

in order to finance the participation in

herence in the Amsterdam Treaty (arti-

strong enough regional authorities has,

meetings, the preparation of proposals

o o e

de 158) (Spila.rus 1996). In the nationallevel, the Ministry has

The lack of

(f)

tor of the evolutions.

other local authorities

used to have

tion was particularly obvious, used to

very good ideas have never been trans-

2006) financed by the EU, ofthe prior-

be the interregional co-operation on the

formed into operational programs.

ity axe "Island's space". The Ministry

european leve\. Difficulties has existed

has recently launched the programs

for an active participation in the differ-

"Asterias" and "Hippocrates"

the regional

managed to acquire useful experiences

as the Committee of the Regions, the

that will certainly be exploited in the

health

Assembly

future by the "new" more powerful au-

Region, the

telematics and other modern organisa-

Conference of Peripheral Maritime Re-

tional schemes involving directly the

gions (CPMR) and the Conference of

In the national level, the participa-

municipalities.

the Regional and Local Authorities of

tion of the local authorities in the deci-

the Council ofEurope. The treated sub-

sion system during last decade has

THE NEW COMPETENCE, A TOOl FOR DEVElOPMENT?

jects in these forums were for the Greek

permitted them to influence the regional

The decentralisation

of competence

thorities.

case usually of the competence of the

policy for transport infrastructure, for

national government

the protection of the environment, for

and where was

needed a high level of preparation and

tourism and agricultural development,

expertise of the regional administration,

for culture, for education, for research

ministration towards the different lev-

that in a Greek region simply did not

and innovation etc. Naturally, this in-

els of regional authorities is of course

existed. Difficulties of the same nature

tervention was not always very suc-

a positive evolution, as more democ-

were faced for the participation

cessful, as the lack of experience and

racy is introduced within the decision

interregional projects, werethe domain

competent staff in the matter, are still

process system of local affairs. The lo-

for action proposed by the different

significant. Therefore it was extremely

cal societies can now express more eas-

participants are in relation with their

difficult for them to elaborate a strategic development

and the

plan with coherent

ily their wishes and their expectations

competence

for the future of their own and their re-

expertise that could found either in the

gion through the different levels of re-

administration or in the collaborating

translated into operational programs.

gional authorities. They can participate

institutions (i.e. University, Technologi-

The presence of the University of the

on the decision concerning

for intervention

o o

authorities

ent interregional political organisations of European

Q) (f) (f)

In spite of all these obstacles and handicaps

to reorganise the administrative and the

from the central governm~nt and ad-

the region had not a budget and the

Regional Development Program (2000-

using

and the implementation of projects, as

money only for running costs. So, many

on islands

until the recent years, marginalised the

One of the domains where this situa-

services

Greek islands to the role of the spectacontributed to the inclusion in the new

in order

goals and objectives,

that could be

the eco-

nomic development, the environmental policy, the social intervention etc. Is it enough and is it a more efficient system capable to drive the islands towards more development?

Can the is-

lands decide now on the development strategy they would Iike to follow? A clear response is extremely difficult, as, everyone knows, that now-days

the

globalisation of the economic system impose severe Iimits to the degree of freedom of any regional entity. But, given these limits, and in comparison with what used to happened a few years before, now the degrees of freedom are

acteristics of insularity and mainly the lack of an «insular development theory» capable to transform them fram handicaps to comparative

advantages that

can be exploited taking in account all the technological

changes that trans-

form the activities and their location (Spilanis 1999). These obstacles could be overcome only if the collaboration among the islands is strengthened with the use of interregional organisations and institutions.

References - Committee

of the Regions,

1998, Re-

gional and local democracy

in the Eu-

ropean

Union,

Bruxelles,

nancial power and the transformation

Union,

p.335.

- EURISLES

Aegean could cover this lack, but the

European

website,

(www.

eurisles.

com) - Ministry of the Interior, Public Service

collaboration with the local authorities

of each island into a place where the

was accidentally.

citizen can resolve a important part from

and Decentralísation,

his transaction with the administration.

tation of the elected departmental

It has to be stressed that even if the perspectives are better than previously

A special care has to be given to differ-

after the administrative reform, it does

entiate the sectorial policies in order to

not mean that the reform was sufficient.

incorporate the islands' particularities.

A lot of local affairs are still run by the central administration that is not ready to share its power.

Finally, there are two main obstacles that keep away from achieving goal for a sustainable

the

development

of the Interior, Public Service

and Decentralisation, modernisation

tion and local authorities,

tive structure and competence for main-

able human resources able to under-

land and islands, is an other point that

take all the necessary initiatives to make

Delgada,

have to be discussed shortly. The rein-

the islands attractive places for the in-

Azores, p.187

forcement

stallation of new (modem) activities and new people ready to cope with the char-

Athens, p.92

- Monteiro Da Silva (ed), 1993, The polití-

european

especially with so me legislative and fi-

1997, For ths

of the greek administra-

cal

of the elected bodies and

au-

thorities, Athens, p.91 - Ministry

process on the islands: the lack of suit-

The maintain ofthe same administra-

1994, Implemen-

administrative island

of the Ponta

Autonomous

1, 1996,

- Spilanis european

For

Region

islands'

policy, Greek Center of Eu-

ropean Studies, - Spilanis

systems regions,

p.32

1, 1999, Islands' space, study

for the Regional

Development

Greece 2000-2006,

Plan of

Mytilíni, p.85

ta-

bles, - Spilanis l., 1999, Qualité versus quantité: une stratégie durable pour les 1Ies, in - Velonia, tration,

E. (1988), Regional Adminislocal self-government:

current

in the administrative

reform,

situation Athens

- Verney S. - Papageorgiou fecture Councils sation

F, 1992, Pre-

in Greece: Decentrali-

in European

Community

Con-

text", Regional Politics and Polícy, vol.2, nos 1-2, p.109-137. - Review "Local tralisation",

lnternational

Journal

of Island Affairs

Government

different articles

- Decen-

QJ U

e o e L

::::::l

o o o e

S (j) L

'he case of Islands under Ihe French LiHoral Acl *

(j) (j)

o o

The

small French islands

situ-

EMMANUELLE

agement, protection and development

ofthe littoral depending on the proxim-

ated not far from the coast do not enjoy

ofthe littoral", called "Littoral Act", also

ity to the shore. The closer the land is to

a specific legal status. As France is a

applies to the small French coastal is-

the sea-shore, the more the protection

one and indivisible Republic

regulations are restrictive.

(Section

lands. The well know provisions of this

2, Constitutional law 1958), the law is

Act regulate the limits of littoral urban

uniformly applied through the whole na-

development in order to protect the at-

unanimously

tional territory, except for the Overseas

tractiveness of the coast and to prevent

session, the implementation ofthis Act

Dominions

anarchic urbanisation, These legal pro-

has caused many disagreements

visions establish a different treatment

tween the French government which is

and Overseas Territories

(DOM and TOM). Therefore, ''The man-

In spite of having

been adopted

by the 1986 legislative be-

responsible for its enforcement and loLa Meule harbour

(August

/990).

cal coastal authorities in charge of its practical implementation. local representatives

Even if the

agreed with the

objecti ves of the Littoral Act, they had some reservations, particularly in the island cornmunities. In fact the 1986 legal provisions ignore the special case

of islands. The case of the Ile d'Yeu is a good example of a small coastal island where the reactions to the Act were particularly strong.

*The management,

protection and devel-

opment of the littoral Act, 1986, published in the Official Journal

of the French Re-

public (JORF) 4 January 1986, page 200.

SAUVION

To the south of the Loire estuary, eighteen kilometres from the nearest VendĂŠe coast, the IIe d'Yeu Island has about five thousand inhabitants (Ogiens or Islais) in an area of twenty-three square kilometres. The two principal urban areas are Port Joinville and Saint Sauveur. The charm of the island is a result of the diversity of its landscapes. Facing the Ocean, there are sheer and sharp cliffs of granite covered with heather. Facing the continent, there are long beaches of fine sand and dunes. Small white houses with blue shutters and roofs of round tiles, green forests of pines and oaks and mimosas and oleanders, all endow it with a very Mediterranean look. Since the end of the First World War the island has definitively tumed from agriculture to fishing, especially tuna fishing' . Tourism? is the other pillar of the insular economy.

Fort-Joinville.

The following arguments try to pro ve and explain to what extent the French

cerning the littoral, which is a very at-

Littoral Act has disregarded the insu-

tractive area. The Government's

larity question.

IS THE INSULAR DECENTRALlSATION FICTITIOUS? The Littoral Act appears as a real challenge for the principie of decentrali-

posi-

munities actions, the prerogatives of the

tion in the preparation of the Act has

State representative cannot be avoided.

been influenced by these responsibili-

In addition to the legal provisions

ties. The Government has ensured its

that confer on the State a real right of

preerninence in order to better super-

inspection of the local authorities' de-

vise the autonomy of the local authori-

cisions, the interpretation of the provi-

ties, which is against the decentralisa-

sions made by the state services and

tion reform ofthe '80's.

the administrative judge have caused

sation. The French Government is guar-

The objecti ve of the 1986 legal meas-

the disagreement of the insular repre-

antor of the national equilibrium and

ures is to limit the prerogatives-of the

sentatives. The text of the Act contains

interests. It is responsible for the arbi-

local authorities, in order to protect the

many vague terms and concepts. In

littoral environment. The local and the

several situations the authorities have

insular representatives

consider these

to request an opinion from the State

legal provisions a denial of their pow-

services, which opinion they will be

ers. They considered themselves as le-

obliged to follow in most cases. This

gally in charge ofthe community ground

procedure allows the administration to

tration of the different interests con-

urban planning, but in fact they are

impose its own reading of the law, to

bound by the evaluations of the central

pro pose its interpretation

!nternationaJ

JournaJ

of !sJand Affairs

and to de-

govemment services. Indeed, consider-

velop a local doctrine on the Littoral

ing the importance of the central gov-

Act implementation. The local elected

ernment

in the

officials consider themselves dispos-

dĂŠpartement, it can be questioned if the

sessed of their powers by the Prefect's

Government has not resumed its pow-

authority and also by the administra-

ers concerning the littoral urban plan-

tive judge when he censures a deci-

ning. Since then the interaction between

sion on the grounds of a breach of the

the central administration services and

legal provisions.

and

its services

the local authorities is out of balance.

control over the legality of the local com-

The judges are responsible for the

Due not only to the rnechanism of "in-

enforcement

of laws and regulations

forming the prĂŠfect"? but also by the

and have to sanction any behaviours

much as possible the whole coastline from aesthetic and ecological deterioration. In order to manage the urbanisation economically, it is not enough to forbid to building. It is more efficient

selected according to legal and juris-

small French coastal islands. Nevertheless, so me protection measures raise doubts concerning their pertinence in the insular territories. Two examples follow to illustrate the difficulties that the law has to adapt itselfto the various aspects of the coastallandscape. Except for the land aIready urbanised, building is forbidden in a 100 metres land strip from the high tide limitofthe shore. Therefore, the Littoral Act reserves from urbanisation a littoral band Therefore, this control of the legality question is the only way for the judge to influence behaviour. The adminis-

The insular authorities in charge of

bordering the shore. But it is possible to modify the limitation by enlarging this land strip. In the islands, this legal division of the territory depending on

trative judges are reproached for hav-

the implementation

ofthe Littoral Act

the distance from the shore implies a

ing used the law as a "weapon" to pro-

consider that the coastal rules are con-

concentric vision of the land. The whole

tect the environment.

straints imposed by the State without

coastline is a circle. In an island this

Due to the im-

precision of the law, the judges have

taking into account their special situ-

100 metres land strip become a not

gi ven themsel ves prerogati ves that

ation. As the islands do not comprise

building area that surrounds the whole

they are not supposed to have. The

large areas of land which could be

insular territory. On a small island,

administrative judge not only has in-

available for urbanisation (urban plan-

where the concept of space has a dif-

terpreted the law in a protectionist way

ning), the Littoral Act adds legal restric-

ferent value, this 100 m land strip can

but also has assumed

tions to the physical ones. The Littoral

become disproportionate and arbitrary.

"preacher" in littoral rules. The adrnin-

law intends to promote an integrated

That is why the Littoral Act allows ex-

istrative jurisprudence

coastal-zone management to protect as

ceptions to this rule.

the role of is a reference

code, a guide to interpret and to implement the law. However as long as the judge's present tendency does not turn into absolute protectionism, it is exaggerated to fear a "governrnent of the judges" on the littoral. Not always welcomed or badly interpreted, the Littoral Act has caused many disagreements between the local authorities and the services of the central administration.

There have been

disagreements on the I1e d'Yeu. As a result of the conflicts brought about by the Littoral Act, the town representatives resigned in summer 1996.

:::::l

opment by giving to each specific area,

suitable to the insular territories of the

A CERTAIN FAILURE IN ADAPTING THE LAW TO THE INSULAR CONTEXT

e 10 e L v

to limit it in order to control its devel-

development plan. These goals seems

which is contrary to the legal provisions.

o o

prudential criteria, a place in the urban

Anse des Soux.

e (J)

v (J) (J)

the insularity to a "particular constraint

Iinked

to the lie of the land". The

word is

just mentioned once, in the section stipulating the construction

A greater

islands

as specific

entities

could

of answering

the identity demands of the islands, but it could also risk marginalizing them. Due to the absence of a special status for islands, there is a gap between the theoretical provisions and the local implementation.

The Littoral Act

ofthe Littoral Act that il-

new roads cannot be situated too near

denies that the islands are living terri-

lustrate the failure to adapt the theory

the coastline unless the lie of the land

tories of insular communities. The hu-

to the reality of small coastal island, is

imposes its proximity for practical rea-

man side of living in an island is for-

the "land near the shore" concepto This

sons. The legislator stipulates one sub-

gotten. The richness

idea is usually applied to the land fac-

sidiary exception to constraints linked

heritage

deserves

of the insular

to be protected.

ing the sea with a dominating relation

to the lie of the land and that is for is-

However this protection cannot give

with it. There is neither a legal nor geo-

lands. Therefore, in the Littoral Act in-

the islands a "natural sanctuary" sta-

graphical definition of these "near the

sularity is just considered as a special

tus, which would be Iike an artificial

shore" territories. Jurisprudence

topographicaJ situation, a particular lie

status for the coast. The islands de-

different factors (distance, visibility, re-

of the land.

mand the recognition of their singu-

lief and lĂe of the land ... ). However none

Insularity

uses

is not recognized

at all

ofthese criteria is decisive in itself. It is

within the provisions

a question of defining the relations be-

Act. Insularity does not involve any

of the Littoral

larity in order to protect their living environment

without

having to re-

. nounce their economic and social de-

tween the community territory and the

legal mechanism to relax the legal pro-

velopment. The LittoraJ Act does not

seaside. Is it fair to identify such "near

visions apart from this section con-

provide the means to highlight the in-

the shore" spaces on islands when the

cerning the building of new roads. Is

sular specificities within the manage-

totality of the land can be incIuded in

it necessary to assimilate,

ment/littoral protection "tandem".

this category? The entire area of small

the insularity to an objective and spa-

coastal islands must be considered as a

tial dimension?

to reduce

Would a greater con-

The populations of the small islands are aware of the importance of sus-

"land near the shore" category due to

sideration of insularity risk the effec-

tainable protection of their territory,

the sea influence in the insular life: spe-

tiveness

but they expected more from the law,

cific vegetation, continuity of the land-

Which legal qualification

scape, protection barriers against the

in order to taking into account the

action of the waves, urban planning influenced by the existence of harbours. To assert the existence of the "land near the shore" category there should exist other land not "near to the shore". In insular territories the determination of such "land near the shore" is quite discretionary. The provisions of the LittoraI Act do not take

account

of the

complexibility of urban planning, protection and improvement of a smaIl island.

THE NEGATION OF THE INSULARITY PHENOMENON The case of islands is ignored by the Littoral Act. The legal provisions of 1986 do not address the specificity of the coastal islands, thus reducing

of new

roads along the littora\. The

other rule

phenornenon"?

legal recognition of the small coastal present the advantage

"insularity"

An-

"insularity

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

and thĂŠ- scope of the law? is suitable

which

they soon discovered

only

made the situation more complicated. The "Notre

Dame de Bonne Nouvelle"

chape/o

The Littoral Act cannot meet French law commit itself to a

e o e

better recognition of the insu-

lar phenomenon? To what ex-

:::::::l

all these demands.

Should

tent should be this official recognition without making all the small islands exactly alike? Each island claims to be unique, indeed. Do the islands really want to share a common legal status? Moreover by trying to "disinsulate" the small coastal islands is to betray their difference. Finally, perhaps the real charm of these small coastal islands wouldn't it be that they consider themselves

beyond

the law? Cóte saLlvage.

THE OPPORTUNITY OF A DEEPER APPRECIATION OF INSULARITY

hoped that tourist activity will not transform islands into territories with just a recreational function. In Ile d'Yeu the

The richness and diversity of the in-

vacancy residences represent the 51 %

sular heritage do not compensate for

of the habitat (total housing). The is-

its fragility. Thus, the small coastal is-

land cannot become a tourist site empty

lands should not have to bear all the

of its native population, which has mi-

expense of environmental

protection.

At the same time a strengthened protection does not resolve the land management problem. To conciliate eco-

grated due to unemployment and overpriced real estate. The badly regulated flow of tourists brings on the saturation

of the

nomic development with preservation

insular equipment and infrastructure.

of the insular identity is the daily chal-

Drinking water, the waste treatment

lenge of the island authorities. Faced

and wastewater drainage system raise

with the decline of traditional activities,

serious problems.

tourist specialisation of islands is una-

connected to the continent through a

voidable. But the multiform pressure of

drinking-water

the tourism can be devastating.

ter-treatment

Notes 1

The Ile d'Yeu is

Fishermen of lIe d'Yeu use drift nets for the capture of tuna. From January 2002, it will be prohibited to use this fishing-tackle (Decision of the Euroean Union Council of

pipe. However its wa-

Ministers dated 08/06/98). Fishermen of lIe

network is not finished

d'Yeu appealed against this decision they

The organization of the tourism visits

and its waste treatment site is obso-

is a core challenge in sustainable devel-

lete. To satisfy the summer demand

Instance of the European Community filed

opment terms for most of the small

on infrastructure

the appeal (22/02/2000). The future of this

French coastal islands. The tourism op-

the permanent community of the is-

consider prejudicial but the Court of First

is too expensive for

tions that are chosen will affect the fu-

lands. Besides over construction

ture of each island. The Littoral Act pro-

infrastructure

fishing and its market is in danger

if the

fishermen of lIe d'Yeu do not take mesures

to diversify their fishing methods.

can risk damaging the 2

Concerning tourism, the 2000 season risks

littoral and make it too artificial. Ifthe

to be perturbed by the shipwreck of the oil

dation capacity and aims to set up an

island looses its authenticity,

tanker Erika along the coast of Bretagne

acceptable tourist development depend-

also loose the reason for the success

last winter. At the opening of the season,

ing on the forms of tourism. Even if for

as tourist

all beaches of the island are cJosed to the

many small coastal islands are losing

tempting to hold back the island in a

vides for the study of tourist accommo-

destination.

it will

Without

at-

public. 3

Translator's note. Préfect is the head of a

population due to rnigration, and even

rigid past it is necessary to preserve

though tourism

its uniqueness which is also its prin-

départements (admnistrative divisions) in

cipal econornic resource.

France.

is the only way to

achieve economic development,

it is

lJ U

Préfecture, which administers each of the

o o o e

:9 (f)

L lJ

(f) (f)

Economics 'he Propensity

lor Polilical Dependence in

Island Microslales by

JEROME L. MCELROY

AND MEGAN MAHONEY

INTRODUCTION

(1988), the Dutch Antilles (1993, 1994),

tonorny." Few authors emphasize the

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands

role that territorial economic advan-

territories (DTs) have achieved inde-

(1993), and in Bermuda (1995).3 Out-

tages play in the politics of depend-

pendence.'

comes have been similar in the Pacifico

ence.?

Since 1960 over 60 former dependent Roughly

two dozen of

these have been island microstates di s-

According to Connell, « ... demands for

tributed rather evenly between the Car-

greater incorporation

into the centre

ibbean and the Pacifico Since 1983,

have been stronger than pressures for

however,

independence.

no Caribbean

island has

With the principal ex-

This paper argues 1. that the key determinant of continu-

achieved autonomy and, with the ex-

ception of New Caledonia, independ-

ing dependence

ception of the move to Free Associa-

ence movements in,small island territo-

awareness

tion with the United States by mem-

ries are absent. ..»~.

economic benefits associated with ter-

bers of the former U.S. Trust Territory (Federated States ofMicronesia, Palau, Marshalllslands),

the situation is simi-

lar in the Pacific.?

ELECTORAL

RECORD

As a result, there remain over 40 de-

is the islanders'

of the substantial

socio-

ritorial status.

DETERMINANTS

2. that such affiliation provides a le-

A variety of factors have been sug-

gal/institutional

framework especially

gested to explain this propensity for

conducive to mass tourism develop-

dependence.

ment, the postwar strategy of choice

In the Caribbean litera-

ture, the external determinants

range

for small dependent microstates.

from deliberate metropolitan attempts

In the first case, the general socio-

to thwart independence,' to a lack of

economic advantages of dependence

across the globe. Although they vary

overall status strategy and/or neglect."

are substantial for particularly small,

in size and colonial history, they are

The internal determinants include prag-

resource-poor

relatively small (usually less than 1 mil-

matism and political conservatism, lack

free trade and export preferences for

pendent

S'COPE

oceanic

islands

scattered

islands. They include

lion in population) and share a propen-

of consensus

among pro-independ-

island produce and manufactures, ac-

sity for dependence. This is repeatedly

ence groups,

inter-island

cess to lucrative metropolitan capital

evident from electoral results. In recent

archipelagic states where secessionist

and labour markets, grants and wel-

Caribbean status referenda, independ-

tendencies are more apparent, and even

fare assistance, the subsidized provi-

ence failed to garner more than a quar-

demands for greater assimilation such

sion of quality infrastructure, external

ter of the votes in the French Antilles

as in the French Antilles and Puerto

defence, and disaster relief. In the sec-

rivalry in

Rico.? In the Pacific, internal ethnic

ond case, two inter-related

Saint Mary's College

cleavages and the acculturation proc-

have considerably

Notre Dame, Indiana

ess of «Europeanization»

USA

edly delayed

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

progress

have allegtoward

au-

forces

stimulated the de-

velopment of dependent islands in the postwar

era: the robust worldwide

growth of international the transformation

tourism and

Table 1: AVERAGE INDICATORS

of insular econo-

DEPENDENT

mies. Since 1960 tourism has grown in

VERSUS

CARIBBEAN

FOR

INDEPENDENT

ISLANDS*

excess of 5 percent per year. It has be-

Indicator

come the largest global industry ac-

Area (km

1,232

9,936

counting for 10 percent ofworld GDP

Population

(000)

451

1,764

and 7 percent of capital spending.!"

Population

Density (km2)

323

195

This same period has witnessed the

Per Capita GDP ($US)

11,214

5,898

restructuring

Migration

of small island econo-

mies away from traditional

colonial

Rate

Unemployment

Rate

monocrops (sugar, copra) to tourism,

Visitar Spending

related construction

External Debt Per Capita

and off-shore fi-

Per Capita

4.5

-9.0

11.1

22.4

4,727

1,390

2,055

1,030

nancial services. As a result, tourism

Life Expectancy

75.7

69.4

now dominates the landscape and fi-

Infant Mortalitv

12.3

27.0

nances of the DTs.11

Crude Birth Rate

16.0

22.1

6.3

7.0

Crude Death Rate

METHOD In order to indirectly quantify the socio-economic differences assumed to be the result of these general and specific (tourism-induced) territorial concessions, a group of 39 islands was selected based on data availability. This group was divided into Caribbean (22) and Pacific (17) subgroups. Each subgroup was divided into dependent and

Rate of Natural Increase Adult Literacv Telephones/1,000 Radios/1,000 TVs/1,000

POPo

Popo

9.7

15.1

94.6

86.3

364

126

600

765

361

SOURCES: Calculated from raw data in Compendium and C/A World Fact Book (1997).17

Independent

Dependent 2)

of Tourism Statistics

(f)

S (f)

208 (1997)'6

*DTs include Anguilla, Aruba, Bermuda, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, Caymans, Curacao, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Turks/Caicos and U.S. Virgin Islands; Independents include Antigua/Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican R., Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, SI. Kitts/Nevis, SI. Lucia, SI. Vincent and Trinidad/Tobago.

independent clusters: I l each for the Caribbean and 10 and 7 respectively for the Pacifico On the basis of these clus-

the independents while the unemploy-

tem that is well documented: from An-

ters socio-economic comparisons were

ment rate is only half as large (11 % vs.

tigua/Barbuda

and St. KittslNevis to

made of average behaviour across 17

22%). This contrasting economic per-

the U.S. Virgin Islands, from Dominica

indicators for the Caribbean islands and

formance is primarily due ID the aggres-

to St. Maarten/St. Martin, from Haiti to Turks and Caicos and so on."

15 for the Pacifico To preserve uniform-

sive specialization ofthe dependencies

ity and reliability in so far as possible,

in rapid tourism growth. Average per

all data were taken from two standard

capita visitor spending is over three

social quality of life measures. Aver-

sources: the CIA Fact Book (1997) and

times the level of the more diversified

age life expectancy is over six years

the World Tourism Organization's Com-

and balanced independent economies.

longer in the Dts while the average in-

pendium ofTourism Statistics (1997).

In addition, the Dts have been able to

fant mortality rate is half (12.3 vs. 27.0).

RESULTS

and enjoy significantly higher rates of

The same contrast emerges from the

leverage twice as much debt per capita Despite the relatively small number of observations and the potential for

telephone and TV usage. The emphasis on labour-intensive

mean distortions, the contrasts in socio-

tourism services for export also largely

economic performance are visible and

explains the sharp differences

in the

striking. For example, in the Caribbean

average migration rate, 4.5 per 1,000 net

according to Table 1, results indicate

immigration into the territories versus

the considerably smaller average popu-

9.0 per 1,000 net emigration from the

lation size (25%) and resource base

sovereign islands. This may reveal one

(12 %) of the Dts as well as their mark-

of the more telling contrasts between

edly higher population density and as-

the two island subgroups: the propen-

sumed poorer labour/land ratios. On the

sity to migrate from independent

other hand, per capita income in the

lands to their more affluent dependent

is-

territories is nearly twice the level of

neighbours. This is an inter-island pat-

The social standard of living con-

Rico and the mainland to set up and

trasts are also analogous to the Carib-

staff tourist related businesses. Citizen-

bean pattern. Life expectancy

in the

ship, along with geographical proxim-

average five years higher

ity, also enabled the USVI to gain a

while infant mortality is nearly halfas

strong foothold in the lucrative U.S.

low than in sovereign

islands. Both

travel market. It eased the burden of

birth and death rates are lower in the

mainland tourists who still make up 85

Dts, but the rate of natural increase

percent of the Island's total annual visi-

average s roughly the same. Adult lit-

torso They enjoy a common currency, a

eracy in the dependencies

common

territories

averages

about five points higher (90% vs. 85%).

language,

no passport re-

quirement, the farniliarity of similar US-

On this and several other socio-eco-

VI regulatory regimes, and of course

nomic indicators, the Pacific depend-

the protection ofthe U.S. flag."

ent approach levels achieved by the

There are other territorial

advan-

independent islands in the Caribbean.

tages. U.S. visitors receive roughly

U.S. VIRGIN

for personal goods bought in the USVI

twice the duty-free customs allowance

ISLANDS

Although it is difficult to specifically pinpoint the impact of the territorial

US competing

ther along the demographic transition,

package of concessions on dependent

They also receive a significantly higher

another index of modernity. For exam-

island tourism development and the is-

duty-free liquor allowance. The USVI

pie, birth rates are significantly lower

landers' standard of living, the experi-

also enjoys a special «freeport» legacy

and the rate of natural increase about

ence of the U. S. Virgin Islands (USVI)

inherited from its Danish past. As a re-

half the level for the independents (9.7

is presented as illustrative of similar

sult, gifts, liquor and other luxury

vs. 15.1). Finally, adult literacy in the

cases in other small U.S. Territories

goods enter the Territory with low or

dependencies

averages

(Guam, Northern Marianas, American

no tariffs. This preferential treatment,

points

and approaches

higher

over eight

tourist destinations.

the

Samoa), and analogous to the experi-

along with other concessions,

standard s (95%) that obtain in affluent

ence of British (Bermuda, Caymans,

helped establish the American Virgins

industrial societies.

Cook Islands),

within the space of a generation as the

Similar socio-economic differences are

Maarten,

Dutch

(Aruba,

Curacao),

St.

French

apparent in the Pacific figures although

(Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Poly-

the level of modernization is a rung be-

nesia) and other dependencies.

has

luxury ghopper's premier bargain paradise in the Caribbean.

CONCLUSION

low the Caribbean. Among other things,

TheAmerican Virgins were purchased

this is partly due to the remoteness of

from Denmark in 1917. In the 1960s the

In the postwar era, island societies in

the Pacific islands, their relatively long

former sugar exporter experienced a mas-

the Caribbean and Pacific have been en-

tradition of subsistence agriculture, and

sive tourism boom stimulated in part by

gaged in political and econornic moderni-

their relatively brief colonial exposure

the U.S. embargo of Cuba, America's

zation. They have followed two distinct

and tourism experience. The small Pa-

former Caribbean paradise. During the

paths. The larger, more resource-rich is-

cific Dts record significantly higher lev-

decade, the annual number of visitors

land nations have opted for independ-

els of per capita income, visitor spend-

increased five-fold, personal income

ence and diversification of the colonial

ing, and external debt by multiples of

rose four-fold, and the population and

export base with an emphasis on manu-

two, three and larger. They also enjoy

housing stock doubled. Hotel and in-

facturing and import substitution, and

markedly higher rates of telephone, ra-

frastructure construction, fed by irnmi-

tourism to a lesser extent. The smaller,

dio and TV usage in comparison with

gration and foreign public and private

more vulnerable microstates have opted

their independent

As a

capital flows, were at an a11-timehigh."

for continuing dependence and prima-

result, the differential migration rate (0.9

Much of this growth was facilitated

rily a strategy of export substitution, i.e.

vs. -1.9) again may suggest the pos si-

by the territorial connection. One new

replacing the tradition colonial staples

bility of emigration from the autono-

airport was built and another signifi-

with tourism and related services.

mous to the dependent territories (as weU

cantly expanded while a modern road

As a result of this wholesale restruc-

as elsewhere). According to ConneLI,13

network was established through reli-

turing, the Dts have experienced supe-

«.... approximately

versus those purchased on other non-

The territories have also proceeded fur-

counterparts.

halfthe population of

ance in great part on U.S. federal dol-

rior economic performance and social sta-

American Samoa has migrated from

lars. U .S. citizenship allowed the immi-

tus in comparison with their sovereign

Western Samoa .... »

gration of many nationals from Puerto

island neighbours. Their success has

International

Jo~r~al

of Island Affairs

been partly due to the buoyant growth

Table 2: AVERAGE INDICATORS

of worldwide tourism, their leading sec-

PENDENT

tor of choice, and partly due to the pack-

Indicator

age of concessions embedded in the ter-

Area (km")

ritorial relationship that facilitate the ges-

Population

(000)

tation of rapid, mass tourism development. Small islanders' awareness of-t6eir

Population

Density (km2)

58,471

702 110

443 6,148

3,218

0.9

-1.85

3,125

146

5,882

1,607

63.9

Infant Mortality

23.8

41.0

Crude Birth Rate

27.1 5.3

29.6 7.4

Rate of Natural Increase

21.8

22.2

Adult Literacy

89.6

85.3

Migration

combination with the expected expansion

Rate Per Capita

of tourism in the 21'1 century, suggests

External Debt Per Capita

they will continue to vote their pocket-

Life Expectancy

books in favour of the status quo for the

Crude Death Rate

has stalled at the

Independent

e 10 e

2,630

Visitor Spending

It is small wonder, then, that the march

iIJ

PACIFIC ISLANDS*

Per Capita GDP ($US)

foreseeable future.

VERSUS INDE-

Dependent

lucrative dependent political economy, in

of decolonization

FOR DEPENDENT

shores of small dependent oceanic is-

Telephones/1,000

lands. Despite their periodic chafing

Radios/1,000

Popo

TVs/1,000 Popo SOURCES:

Calculated

from raw data in Compendium

156

363

337

180

of Tourism Statistics

(1997)16

and C/A Wor/d Fact Book (1997)-" *DTs include American

Samoa, Cook Islands, Micronesia,

Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, pendents

include

Northern

Marianas,

French Polynesia,

Guam,

Palau and Wallis/Fortuna;

Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon

Inde-

Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu,

and Western Samoa.

and complaints of neglect, territorial

remain unwilling to trade the visible se-

residents-in

curity, affluence and standard of living

the face of intensifying

destination competition for tourist dol-

of affiliation for the less tangible but

lars and the pressures of globalization-

more costly rewards of autonomy.

Notes 1

..,

G. Boughton

and P Leary, A Time for

pp. 42-50; and U.S. Government Account-

Indian Migration to the United States Vir-

Change: Relations Between the United

ing Office, U.S. Insular Areas: Development

gin lslands,» International Migration Review

States and American Samoa, Guam, the

Strategies and Better Coordination Among

Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico and the

U.S. Agencies are Needed (Washington,

J. Connell, op. cit., p. 138.

United States Virgin Islands (Atlanta, GA:

D.C.: GAO/NSIAD, 1994.

J. McElroy and J. Tinsley, «United States

CBW-Elbow Graphics, 1993).

16 (1982): 61-101.

F P Constant, «Decolonization Revisited:

Virgin lslands,» in S. B. Seward and B. K.

Ibid.

The Case of the Non-Sovereign

West

Spinrad, eds., Tourism in the Caribbean:

J. McElroy and K. de Albuquerque, «The

lndies,» Caribbean Affairs 3(1990): 151-162.

The Economic Impact (Ottawa, CA: Inter-

Social and Economic Propensity for Politi-

See also Constant's «Alternativa Forms of

national Development

cal Dependence in the Insular Caribbean,»

Decolonization in the East Caribbean,» in

1982),23-65.

Social and Economic Studies 44 (1996):

Hintjens and Newitt, eds., pp. 51-63.

167-193. 4

Virgin lslands,» in S. B. Seward and B. K.

seas Frontier (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

Spinrad, eds., Tourism in the Caribbean:

ment, Autonomy and the Ties that Bind,»

University Press, 1992).

The Economic Impact (Ottawa, CA: Inter-

R. Aldrich and J. Connell, The Last Colo-

national Development

J. Scnernbri, eds., The Development Proc-

nies (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer-

1982),23-65.

ess in Small

sity Press, 1997).

Island

States

(London:

Routledge, 1993). 135-136.

ism: An Economic Perspective (New York:

Political Economy of Small Tropicallslands.

St. Martin's Press, 1995).

See D. Marlow, «Constitutional

change,

External Assistance, and Economic Development

Research Centre,

W. Boyer, America's Virgin Islands: A History of Human Rights and Wrongs. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1983.

World Tourism Organization, Compendium

J. McElroy and P Olazarri, «Developinq a

of Tourism Statistics (13th Ed.) (Madrid,

Tourism Penetration Index for Small Island

Spain: WTO, 1997).

Destinations,» Journal of the Academy of

in Small Islands: The Case of

Montserrat,» in Hintjens and Newitt, eds.,

F Vellas and L. Becherel, International Tour-

H. M. Hintjens and M. D. D. Newitt, The

Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1992. 6

R. Aldrich and J. Connell, France's Over-

J. McElroy and J. Tinsley, «United States

J. Connell, «lsland Microstates: Develop-

in D. G. Lockhart, D. Drakakis-Smith and

Research Centre,

Centrallntelligence Agency, The CIA World

the Social Sciences Vol. (1997): 66-75.

Fact Book (Washington, DC: Government

K. de Albuquerque and J. McElroy, "West

Printing Office, 1997).

L iIJ

=:l

o o e

S en L iIJ

en en

o o

M A R

S F

Newcal1le

NELSON

EURICO

THE DRAMA

ope

CABRAL

The U.N. Commission

on Human

Vieira de Mello,

seconded

by the

Since the referendum of 30 August

Rights have been trying to determine

former french prefect M. lean Chris-

1999, opting for the independence of

if the Indonesian forces are responsi-

tian Cady, UNTAET has the responsi-

the east part of Timor, the anti-inde-

ble for the atrocities; even now about

bility of management

pendence milicia backed by part of In-

one hundred thousands east timorese

tional period and preparation

entire sovereignty of the country.

of the transiof the

donesian army has destroyed about 70

are hostage in western part. On Sep-

percent of the official buildings, 40 per-

tember l S" the Security Council au-

cent of the city civil houses and dis-

thorized deployment of a multinational

.Nacional de Resistencia Timorense) is

placed more or less 80 percent of the

force (MNF) which arrived in situ on

improving itself with a view to assum-

urban and semi-urban

population.

On the national side, CNRT (Conselho

ing the totality of power after independ-

Among the displaced people 60 per-

the UNTAET (Unjted Nations Transi-

ence; it has been strongly supported by

cent have survived eating the wild in

tional Administration

the Catholic Church and several na-

the through forests, the rest are ac-

was established

counted for missing.

Headed by the Brazilian

September

20, and establishment

for East Timor) 25.

tional associations, working mainly in

M. Sérgio

the field of health and education. The

on September

task is enormous because not only have Rebuilding

the museum

buildings

been destroyed,

but al so

documents, administrative files, registries and cadastral survey have been bumed. The choice of the official language and education is also a «cassetéte» since 1974, when Indonesia, taking the opportunity of the collapse of colonial dictatorship

in Portugal, in-

vaded East Timor and forbid the use of Portuguese which was the official language during the 400 years of colonialism. CNRT has restored the Portuguese, again as the official language and the national one. Nelson Eurico Cabral Specialiste UNESCO

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

du Programme

SHS/CFD

WlIte"o

v U e 10 e

But officials insist that the young Indonesian educated people will not lose anything, because never they would

cornmit the same rnistake as did Indone-

sia in 1974, related to Portuguese.

::::J

CHALLENGE

o e

Nacionalleaders such as Nobel peace

~ (J)

laureates Bishop Ximenes Carlos Belo, Ramos Horta and Xanana José Gusmáo,

former guerrilla leader imprisoned in Ja-

(J) (J)

karta, have worked closely with senior

UNTAET staff to start programmes on

education, health, building reconstruction and the establishment of adminis-

Dili harbour

trative structure in Dili, the capital as well as in the countryside. Dili was par-

port; Frank Fowlie acting administra-

are still waiting for the total execution

tially destroyed, including the colonial

tor of the Dili district and his staff, in-

of decisions taken by donors, in Tokyo in December 1999.

adrninistrative building called «Casa do

cluding

Govemador»; for the moment priority

Rurniana Decheva, as public service

has been given essentially

to recon-

the very motivated

Miss

Portugal, which ruled Timor under

officer, are dealing daily with security,

colonial

struction and projects that could regen-

civil administration,

years and is sometime accused of aban-

erate intensive labour, but for the mid-

cial problems. In spite of difficulties

doning the colony in 1974, without any

die and long term plan s, education has

same progress has became visible in

negotiation

the favour of all partners.

the city. The museum will be open soon

nevertheless gave rnillions of dollars

and the administrative

last year to its old colony. The Presi-

The reconstruction

of Dili is going

housing and so-

building

on, with the active determination of lo-

completly

cal authorities and U N T A E T sup-

problems of employment and education

restored,

but the crucial

administration

during 400

with national leaders .It

dent of Portugal, Dr. Jorge Sampaio, during his official visit to Dili from 12

Dili. Administrative

city burned down by militias.

The old Polytechnic

school destroyed

by militias

Director of Human Affairs, defined, in

ment of co-operation with CNRT and

consultation with timorese representa-

for grassroots

UNTAET, mainly by sending additional

tives, some specific areas in which the

ban junior civil servants and social

leaders, rural and ur-

troops to support peacekeeping force,

Organization

expects to act as a spe-

workers. In the field of culture, CNRT

(INTERFET), estimated at about 9,000.

cialized Agency, as soon as possible.

'(National Committee ofTimor Resist-

Portugal is also training hundreds of

Now the urgent task is to convince

ance, after rehabilitation

teachers for primary and secondary

donors about the efficiency of its pro-

seum, (burned during the conflict), has

schools in Timor.

posals, mainly with the support of the

requested Unesco support to develop

UNTAET Inforrnation

di-

cultural values in view of consolidat-

according to an executi ve of FRETLIN.

UNESCO

EXPECTATION

The entire U.N. System has been

Service,

Unesco is invited to participate

mobilized to contribute to the restora-

the present

gency education programme with the

setting-up

of the mu-

ing national identity and sovereignty,

rected by Mr. Manuel Almeida.

tion of East Timor, according to their fields of competence.

of an erner-

Further building restoration, opening of hospitals

and c1assic schools

On the invita-

view to open c1asses al! over the coun-

needed, local representatives

tion ofUNTAET, Unesco has sent sev-

try, early in October 2000. Priority is

as UNTAET agree that technical as-

eral missions to Dili, to evaluate, in

also given to communication

sistance should be provided to design

situ, the national

formation, including the utilization of

needs within the

and in-

institutions

as well

at the sub-regional,

re-

framework of its mandate. To ease this

gional and nationallevels

approach a Task Force on East Timor

forcement of state as well as decen-

Rumiana Decheva,

UNTAET service officer,

was set up, headed by the Assistant

looking al the desolation

Director General for the Programme for

front

Freedom of Expression,

Democracy

of the Dili harbour

of Timor people in

for the rein-

tralized structures Iike municipalities and regional administrations. In the short term the task is to set

and Peace, Mr. Alain Modoux. The last

up training in different areas to assure

Unesco

good governance, democracy and the

intersectoral

mission,

co-

ordinated by the head of Jakarta of-

observance

of human rights; In the

fice, Mr. Stephan Hill, after discussion

long term, it will be to develop cur-

with M.M. SĂŠrgio Vieira de Mello and

ricula on major disciplines in social and

Jean Christian

economic sciences, as well as in those

Cady, respectively

UNTAET Administrator Administrator,

radio and T.Y. for training programme

to 14 Feb. 2000, promised the reinforce-

International

and Deputy

Mr. Cecilio Adorna,

Journal

of Island Affairs

concerning technologies.

the natural sciences and

'he Gove nance of IlIIall JurISlllctlon.; pZ;-:

e e

L Qj

lile ea.

PENINSULA

o o o e

S (f) L Qj (f) (f)

o o by

PROF.

CHRIS.

l. MAVRIS*

The objective of this paper is to deal with the governance of small jurisdictions in the case of Cyprus, with particular reference to the new institution of the Ombudsman (Commissioner of Public Administration) and his jurisdiction in the public administration and management of Cyprus. Reference is made for comparative analysis to the EU Countries, the Scandinavian region, Australia, Canada, the United States, Africa, Israel, India and Poland. INTRODUCTION General Introduction

Assyrians,

Persians,

the

higher than most of its neighbours, with

of Alexander

Egyptians,

the

the exception of Israel. This progress

The island of Cyprus lies in the east-

Great and his successors, the Roman

was substantially assisted by various

Greek monarchies

ern Mediterranean, about 40 miles (64

Empire from its successive capitals of

agencies of the United Nations, operat-

kilometres) south of Turkey, about 40

Rome and Constantinople, French Cru-

ing through the UN Development Pro-

miles westofSyria, and some 480 miles

saders, Genoese,

Turks,

gramo Generous financia! assistance was

southeast of mainland Greece. Its maxi-

and, more recently, the British. Britain

given by the World Bank and the Inter-

mum length, from Cape Arnauti in the

Venetians,

maintains two military bases, at Akrotiri

national Monetary Fund in the form of

west to Cape Andreas at the end of the

and Dhekelia, in the south of the is-

loans for specific development projects

northeastern peninsula, 140 mi les; the

land. They have a combined area of 99

(electricity supply, port development

maximum north - south extent is 60

square miles. (Tornarides, 1974 and

and sewerage among others). Aid was

miles. With an areaof3,5n

Alastos, /976)

square miles

also made available by individual for-

(9,25 I square kilometres), it is the third

The British rule began in 1878 and

eign countries. Experts were provided

largest Mediterranean island (after Sic-

ended in August 1960, when Cyprus

to advice on economic planning and to

ily and Sardinia). The general pattern

became independent as the Republic

initiate productive projects, and schol-

of its 486 miles coastline is indented

of Cyprus, with its capital at Nicosia.

arships and grants encouraged training

and rocky, with long sandy beaches.

The long-standing conflict between the

for Cypriot specialists. During this pe-

(Greek Heritage ofCyprus,

Greek-Cypriot

the

riod, the gross domestic product grew

Turkish-Cypriot minority intensified, in

at an average annual rate of over 7 per-

Neolithic period, at a date now calcu-

1974 an invasion by Turkish troops

cent, and capital national income by

lated as well before 6000 Be.. The im-

produced an unrecognized partition of

about 6 percent annually. Agricultural

migration of settlers from Greece, which

the island. (Koumoulides,

production doubled industria! produc-

began in about 1200 Be. let to the foun-

Eric Soisten, /993)

tion and exports of goods and services

dation of Greek kingdoms covering al-

more than trebled. Tourism became the

most the whole of the island and to the

The Economy

largest single eamer of foreign exchange.

dominance

The econorny after independence

(Christodoulou,

1964)

The first human settlement was in the

of the Greek language.

majority

and

1986 and

Since then Cyprus has come under the

Between J 960 and 1971, the Republic

influence or control of the various peo-

of Cyprus, operating a free enterprise

pies that have exercised power in the

economy

eastern Mediterranean

trade, achieved a standard of living

Phoenicians,

based on agriculture

and

Coordinator Cyprus

1992)

Tourism Studies,

College

Effects of partition

majority began to

The Judicial power of the Republic

The Turkish occupation of 37 per-

regard many ofthe provisions, particu-

of Cyprus is exercised by the Supreme

cent of the country in 1974, involving

larly those relating to finance and to

Constitutional Court and by the High

the displacement of about a third of the

local government, as unworkable. Pro-

Court and its subordinate Courts.

population, dealt a serious blow to eco-

posals for amendment were rejected by

nomic development. Losses of land and

the Turkish Cypriot community in late

The main jurisdiction' of the supreme Constitutional Court relates to

the Greek-Cypriot

personal property in the occupied ar-

1963 and the constitution went largely

the determination whether a law or de-

eas were very great. The gross domes-

into abeyance. In the territory control-

cision of the House of Representatives

tic product of the free areas of the re-

led by the government ofthe Republic

is either in toto or in any part thereof

public of Cyprus dropped sharply, the

of Cyprus after the Turkish occupation

contrary or repugnant to any Consti-

reduction amounting to 33 percent (at

of 1974, the constitution's

tutional provision.

constant 1973 prices) between 19p and

are considered as still in force where

provisions

1975. By vigorous efforts, real growth

practicable; the main formal change has

ther on a recourse judicial proceeding

was resumed in the area left under the

been the gradual increase of the number

by any party thereto (Under article 144

control of the government of the Re-

of seats in the House of Representa-

of the constitution).

public of Cyprus, and between 1975

tives, all of which are held by Greek

and 1983 the annual rate of growth was

Cypriots. (Eric Solsten, 1993)

The per capita Gross National Product

If the law or decision is declared by the Supreme Constitutional

estimated to average about 8 percent.

unconstitutional

Local government

Court as

in the case of a re-

course by the President of the Repub-

(GNP) was US$7,200 in 1988, and the

Local government in the Republic of

lic under Article 137 and 138 in respect

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was

Cyprus is at the district, municipal, ru-

of the Budget for discrimination, the

US$5.3 billion in 1990. (Eric Soisten,

ral municipality, and village leve!. Dis-

law

1993)

Government conditions

and social

Greek-Cypriot

President

and

decision or the Budget is an-

trict officers are appointed by the gov-

nulled". (Tornarides 1968,1975, 1977. May 1977, 1979, 1980, Loizou (1989)

are the mayors

and Evangelides

of municipalities.

1972)

(1996))

The Supreme Constitutional

Court

furthermore shall have exclusive juris-

The constitution of the Republic of the executive power be exercised by a

01'

ernment; local councils are elected, as (Tomarides,

Cyprus, adopted in 1960, provided that

JUSTICE

diction to adjudicate finally on a re-

The legal code of Cyprus is based

course made to it on a complaint that a

on Roman law. Judges are appointed

decision, act or omission of any organ,

Turkish-Cypriot Vice President, elected

by the government, but the judiciary is

authority or person exercising any ex-

to five-year terms by universal suffrage,

entirely independent of the executive

ecutive or administrative authority is

and that there be a Council of Minis-

power. There are a Supreme Court and

contrary to the Constitution

ters

an appeals court, district assize courts

or is made in express or abuse of power.

(Cabinet)

comprising

Greek-Cypriot Turkish-Cypriot

and

seven three

members. There was

01'

any law

handling criminal matters and district

Upon such recourse the Court may

courts exercising summary jurisdiction.

confirm, or annul such decision or act

also to be an elected House of Repre-

The Constitution

estab-

or declare that such omission ought not

sentatives with 50 seats, divided be-

lished a tripartite system of govern-

to have been made and that whatever

tween Greek and Turkish Cypriots in

ment. The Executive Power with the

been omitted should have been per-

the proportion of 35 to 15 and elected

President, the independent

formed. (Article 146).

for five years. (Tornarides, The constitution,

1974)

derived from the

of Cyprus

Judiciary

System and the Parliamentary System, that legislates and passes laws.

The jurisdiction

thus given to the

Supreme Constitutional Court is simi-

negotiation in Zurich in 1959 between

lar to the revisional jurisdiction of the

representatives of the governments of

Conseil d' Etat in France or the State

Greece and Turkey, did not inspire en-

Council in Greece, the decisions of

thusiasm among the citizens of the new

which have been guided the Supreme

republic, however. The Greek Cypriots,

Constitutional Court in the exercise of

whose struggle against the British has

such administrative jurisdiction' .

been for enosis (union with Greece) and

Such determination shall be made ei-

Apart for the aforementioned juris-

not for independence, regretted the fail-

diction the Supreme

ure to achieve this national aspiration.

Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction

As a result it was not long after the

to adjudicate on a recourse made in

establishment

connection with any matter relating to

lnternational

of the republic before

Journal

of lsland Affairs

Constitutional

any conflict or contest of power or

ministration self-control that takes the

competence arising between the House

form of the hierarchical control, when

of Representatives and the Cornmunal

this is enforced inside the framework

Chambers or any of them or any other

of the hierarchical relationship of one

organs or authorities of the Republic

organ with the other or one employee

(Article 139) on any election petition

with the other, or the public adminis-

e 10 e

L Q)

::J

o e

(Article 145) and on any conflict be-

tration supervision, when this is exer-

tween the two official texts ofthe Con-

cised from the state administration to

stitution (Article 149).

the self-managed public organizations.

(J)

Any decision of the Supreme Con-

by his Deputy, all of whom are ap-

The most spread form of "out of court

stitutional Court on any matter within

pointed by the President of the Repub-

control" of public administration is the

its jurisdiction shall be binding on aiy

lic. The first two are not removable from

institution of the Ombudsman as this

courts, organs, authonties and persons

office except on the same grounds and

is internationally known and also men-

in the Republic (Article 148)

through the same procedure as a Judge

tion as Commissioner of Public Admin-

ofthe High Court. (Artieles 112-121).

istration.

The High Court shall be the highest appellate court in the Republic

and

There shall be a Public Service Com-

The Word Ombudsman is a Swedish

shall have jurisdiction to hear and de-

mission consisting of a Chairman and

word and origin, meaning the repre-

nine other members appointed for a term

sentative ofthe "citizen" and which the

the Constitution and of any Rules of

of six years by the President. It shall be

free translation is "Lawyer of the citi-

Court, appeals from any court other

the duty of the Commission to make the

zen". This is a form of "out of court

than the Supreme Constitutional Court.

allocation of public offices and to ap-

control" ofthe public administration in

The High Court shall have also origi-

point, confirm, emplace on the perma-

addition to the Judiciary

nal and revisional jurisdiction as pro-

nent or pensionable establishment, pro-

public administration and management.

vided in the Constitution

mote, transfer, retire and exercise disci-

A different form of "out of court con-

Control of

provided by a law and it has also power

plinary control over, ineluding dismissal

trol" of public administration

to issue orders in the nature of habeas

or removal from office of, public offic-

applied in the British Legal Justice Sys-

corpus, mandamus,

that is

quo

ers. (Artieles 122-125). The decisions of

tem is that of Commissions of Inquiry.

warranto and certiorari. (Articles 152 -

the Commission shall be taken by abso-

In Cyprus still applies the Inquiry

156). The subordinate courts shall be

lute majority vote of its members.

prohibition,

TheAuditor-General

provided by law. The High Court constitutes also the Supreme Council of Judicature for the

and his Deputy,

though not independent

Comrnittee Law, which is the chapter 44 of the Laws in Cyprus under the ar-

officers, are

tiele 188 of the Cyprus Constitution.

appointed by the President of the Re-

With this law, many inquiry comrnittees

appointment, transfer, removal and dis-

public but they are subject to, the dis-

were formed till today. The most impor-

ciplinary control over judges of the

ciplinary control of the Public Service

tant was the one that was formed in

subordinate courts (Article 157) The disciplinary

control over the

Commission. These officers shall man-

1980 to inquire

age and supervise all accounting op-

Co-operative (Co-op) Movement.

judges of the High Court exercised by

erations

the Supreme Constitutional Court and

126-128).

of the Republic

(Articles

The independent officers of the Republic shall be the Attorney-General of the Republic assisted by his Deputy, who shall be the legal adviser of the Republic and of all its organs and authorities and shall have, in his absolute discretion, the charge of all criminal prosecutions, the Auditor-General

the actions

of the

In addition, "out of court control" of the public administration is the control exercised by theAuditor-General ofthe

over the Judges of the Supreme Constitutional Court by the High Court.

(J) (J)

termine, subject to the provisions of

or may be

THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE COMMISSIONER OF PUBLlC ADMI N 1STRATION (OMBUDSMAN) IN THE REPUBLlC OF CYPRUS Except the judicial control, the "out

Republic, according to Artieles 115 and 116 of the Constitution. The AuditorGeneral is not confined in the econornic control only, but expands in issues of efficiency, productivity ment control.

and manage-

The Auditor-General is an independent comrnissioner

of the State. He is

not a judiciary organ, as in the case

assisted by his Deputy who shall exer-

of court control" of the public adminis-

cise the general audit of the Republic

tration, also exist. In the term "out of

Although there is no a general ac-

with the State Council in Greece.

but shall not have any prior prohibi-

court control" it does not inelude the

ceptable model of Ombudsman, every

tive control" and the Governor of the

internal control undertaken inside the

country adjusted

Issuing Bank of the Republic assisted

public administration or the public ad-

cording to its own Constitutional and

its institution,

ac-

Political measures, however in the fu-

de Justica (Justice Defender). In addi-

ture to be regarded as an Ombudsman

tion to being an examiner of complains

the following

conditions

is a member of the National Council and

have to be

observed:

the High Justice Council under the

a. The Ombudsman has to be an inde-

president of the Republic and has ju-

pendent figure of the state.

risdiction with the Public Administra-

b. The work is to research complaints

tion appointments, transfers, and dis-

and to suggest recommendations to the

ciplinary control of the judges. Between

Public Administration.

the jurisdictions

c. Is accountable with official reports

Justica is the exarnination of the condi-

of the Provedor de

to the Parliament and to the President.

tional aspects of the law and he has

d. This is readily available to the pub-

the status of the Minister.

lic without any mediation of anybody. Norway: In Norway the Ombudsman From the above it is deduc~

was institutionalized in June 1962. The

that

the institution of the Ombudsman

Norwegian

Ombudsman

undertakes

necessary in countries where Admin-

complaints against the "Public Adrnin-

istration Courts exist, such as France,

istration". It is not under his jurisdic-

where the Council d'Etat operates, in

tion the acts of Parliament (Storting),

Greece where the State Council oper-

the King's decisions at the State Council of the operation of the courts and

ates and in Cyprus where the High Court operates. The jurisdiction of the Ombudsman does not substitute the jurisdiction the Administration

Court, but it com-

THE FUNCTIONING OF THE INSTITUTION OF OMBUDSMAN IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

"Defensor del Pueblo" was introduced

does not have an

Sweden: In Sweden exist Ombudsmen

acts as an independent commissioner

He cannot annul an

with the title Justitieombudsman (Orn-

although his budget is part of the Parlia-

The Ombudsman annuljurisdiction.

Act. The Ombuds-

man's control inquiry is wider than that undertaken

Spain: In Spain the institution of the by the Cortes Generales (Parliament). He

pletes its work.

Administration

the General Auditor.

by an Administration

Court, both in spectrum, as well as,

budsmen for Justice). Each has jurisdic-

ment Budget. His jurisdiction ineludes

tion of a separate sector of Public Ad-

the Ministers. Under his jurisdiction are

ministration that ineludes the Courts, the

the "lndependent Communities", as well

Public Prosecutor and the Local Govem-

as the constitutionality of the law.

ment Administration. The Govemment,

substance. The Ombudsman's

inquiry does not

get confine in the control of the Ad-

the Ministers and the Directorofthe control Bank of Sweden are exeluded.

HoUand: In Holland exists the institution of the National Ombudsman elected by the Parliament. The personnel of the

ministration Acts only. It does not get confine in examining the substance of

Finland: In Finland exists the "Parlia-

Ombudsman is chosen by the Queen,

the complaint,

mentary Ombudsman" with executive

subject to his recornmendations, under

within

the narrow

framework that this is filed, but pen-

powers with his jurisdiction covering

rusjurisdictions are the Ministers but not

etrates in the whole Administration Act

the Ministers as well, except the Presi-

the Judges and he does not examine ac-

to examine it, in depth and irrespec-

dent and Chancellor of Justice.

tions under general govemment policy.

tive ofthe claims ofthe one, filing the complaint.

Denmark:

In addition the procedure the Ombudsman

in front

is simple and inex-

pensive.

is elected

The Denmark Ombudsman by the Parliament

(the

Austria:

In Austria the institution of

the Ombudsman was introduced in July

Folketing). From his jurisdiction are ex-

1977, with the establishment

cluded the Judges and high ranking

"Volksanwaltschaft" (Lawyers Office of

of the

The person filing the complaint does

officers of the Courts. Within his juris-

the People), consisting of three Om-

not need to pro ve anything, because

diction are the ministers and the local government.

budsmen, elected for six years and hav-

Portugal:

U.K: In England exists since 1967 the

is the responsibility ofthe Ombudsman

ing the status of Minister.

to find out whether any wrong doing against the person was committed.

The Portuguese Ombuds-

and

man is elected every 4 years by the

institution of the Parliamentary Com-

Charalambous lnterview in Sept. 1999)

Parliament and he is called Provedor

missioner of Administration.

(Charalambous,

International

Journal

1995

of Island Affairs

In addi-

tion since 1987 exists a Health Service

Australia:

Commissioner

for England, Scotland

of the Ombudsman exists at both the

and Wales. The Parliarnentary Comrnis-

federal and state level and this system

sioner has a limited Jurisdiction over

is very much affected by the New Zealand model.

governmental departments for acts of "Maladrninistration",

In Australia the institution

Canadá:

made by an M.P. and the Ombudsman

the Ombudsman

not

act

with

self-action

In Canada the institution of

Israel: In Israel the Public Accounting Controller (Comptroller) executes the sioner for Complaints from the Public).

is not introduced at

Federallevel, but exists at state level in

such as that of the Ombudsman in 1I states, called Lokayukta. The first state

reaches the 65th year of his age. In

ommendations ofthe Law assembly. In

that introduced

England exists also the function

Alberta are the headquarters of the In-

Maharashtra in 1971 followed by Bihar

"Commission for local Adrninistration".

ternational Ombudsman Instit~e.

in 1973.

Germany: In Germany there is no Fed-

United States: In the U.S. the institu-

Poland: Poland is the first country of

eral Ombudsman. The job of the Om-

tion of the Ombudsman exist at state

Central and East Europe that introduced

budsman is undertaken by the Com-

level and not federallevel. The institu-

the institution of the Ombudsman, the

mission ofComplains ofthe Bundestag

tion of the Ombudsman exists in spe-

"Comrnissioner for the protection ofthe

(Federal Parliament), Consisting of 33

cialized

Human Rights" established on 15 July

members ofParliament, accepting com-

Lawyers Associations,

plaints by individual s and submits re-

the Local Government.

this institution

1987 and consolidated by the Constitution in 1989. The function of the Polish Commissioner is based on Scandinavian

sion does not deal with legal com-

Africa: The institution ofthe Ombuds-

prototypes, and is appointed by the Par-

plaints as these are taken up by the

man is adjusted in the specialized state

liarnent for 4 years of services. The Com-

Laender (Local Parliaments). At the 10-

conditions of the various countries and

missioner has an extensive jurisdiction

callevel the institution of the Ombuds-

was introduced at the African Conti-

that includes also the administration of

man exists in Rhineland - Palatinate.

nent. The first country to introduce

the courts, such as for example the slow

this institution was Tanzania with the

judgement

cases. The Commissioner

France: In France, since 1973, the law

setting up of the "Permanent Commis-

can take a case to the "Constitutional

No 73-6 provides for the appointment

sion of Enquiry" in 1966, followed by

Courts", as well as, the "High Adminis-

of "Médiateur de la Republique" (Par-

Zambia in 1973 with the Cornmission of

tration Courts" and can request the dis-

liamentary Commissioner) with the ba-

Investigations,

ciplinary prosecution ofthe public serv-

sic jurisdiction

Zimbabwe and Uganda, that in 1988

plaints

to undertake

of People

Com-

that are passed

and Ghana, Nigeria,

ants. He can act either subject to complaints or by self initiative. The institu-

through an M.P. The Jurisdiction of the

tion des pite the great difficulties that

Médiateur covers all the levels of gov-

met, had succeeded, due to the great

ernment, and he is appointed for six

prestige possessed by the first two per-

years only, with no right to be renewed.

sons that were appointed consecutively.

New Zealand: New Zealand is the first

Epaminondas,

(Charalambous,

1995

and

1994)

country of the Commonwealth that introduced the institution budsman

on the Om-

(Parliamentary

Commis-

sioner) in 1962, and it follows to a large

THE EU OMBUDSMAN The European Ombudsman in one of the most important

new institutions

extent the Scandinavian prototype es-

introduced by the Maastricht Treaty.

pecially that of Denmark.

He is ap-

Its origins can be traced back to the

pointed by the General Governor with

Spanish proposal on European Citizen-

the recommendations of the Parliament.

ship submitted in the framework of the

The Ministers are not included under

Intergovernmental

his Jurisdiction and unlike his English

litical Un ion in 1991.

counterpart, he examines complaints for not following the law.

::::J

o o e L

many areas, and he is elected by the

ports to the Parliament; the Commis-

Assistant Governor following the rec-

Hospitals and

pointed and holds his position until he

areas such as Universities,

India: In India exists similar institution

self-initiative. The Ombudsman is ap-

e 10 e

General of Government.

institution ofthe Ombudsman (Commis-

and he is elected

by the Queen. The complaint has to be can

created the institution of the Inspector

Conference on Po-

The working document - The European

Ombudsman

-by Maria

en en

o o

Petitions of the European Parliament.

Subsequently the E.O. submits a re-

Cited: MariaA. Epaminondas -Editor-

port to the EP, which can include rec-

, "The European Ombudsman ", The

ommendation

European Institute of Public Adminis-

the person who filed the complaint to

as well, with a copy to

the E.O. At the end of each EP year the .

tration (1994). The European U nion treaty that was

E.O. submits to the E.P. and annual re-

signed in Maastricht in Holland on 7

port, for his yearly action and specifi-

February,

cally for the results of his investiga-

1992, made provision be-

tween other matters, for the setting up

tions.

ofthe European Ombudsman (E. O.). The EU citizen can complain to the E.O. for practices of bad Administration (maladministration)

in any of the

member states. The E.O. is appointed

The institution was first introduced in 1972 with the law Number 107 of

by the European Parliament (EP) for the

1972. It was never implemented due o

Epaminondas (1994) contains the pa-

duration of the European Member of

lack of political will and reservation as

pers presented at the colloquium

or-

Parliament (E.M.P.) period and he can

to its objective and usefulness taking

ganized by the European Institute of

be re-eligible. He is paid like a Judge of

into account that the Cyprus Repub-

Public Administration's

Antenna Lux-

the E.D. He is acfng with complete free-

lic was created in 1960. In 1991 with a

embourg on the European Ombudsman.

dom and takes no orders from any gov-

new law, law number 3, the Commis-

The colloquium was chaired by the Di-

ernment or body. The complains can

sioner of Public Administration

rector General of Research of the Euro-

be either directed through an E. M. P.,

budsman) is an independent commis-

pean Parliament, G.R. Ramsay. The Conclusions by the EIPA Direc-

(Om-

within a two years limit from the date of

sioner of the Cyprus Society, who can

the events that taken place. The E.O.

control

the Public

Administration

tor - General, Spyros A. Pappas clearly

has

with

within the framework that is set and

pointed out the progress from national

self-initiative, and can collect any in-

allowed by the Presidential System of

to European Ombudsman, which is an

formation or document from any Com-

element indispensable for the deepen-

munity or National Authority.

jurisdiction

act

Government that exists in Cyprus and . within the Cyprus

Constitution

the

which the principIe of separation of

The Ombudsmen of Sweden, Spain,

E.O. informs the public service con-

power exists in strict terms. (i.e. the

Ireland, Portugal and of the Flemish

cerned, submits also suggestions / rec-

Presidential System, the Parliamentary

Community

are among the contribu-

ommendations foe necessary measures

System and the Judiciary System of government and power).

ing of the European integration.

In cases of maladministration,

torso The Scandinavian Model, as well

that needs to be taken. The public serv-

as, the German and Luxembourg cases

ice concerned is obliged to give ajusti-

are also examined. The European Om-

fied answered within 3 months.

budsman competences

and relations

The new law make provision for a 6 year appointment for the Cyprus Ombudsman, who is appointed jointly by

with the other Cornmunity Institutions

the President of the Republic and the

and Bodies are discussed, as well as,

Cyprus Parliament,

the New Model of the Ombudsman for

that the Cyprus Ombudsman in an in-

Multinational Companies.

dependent Commissioner

to demonstrate of the Cy-

The research of this working docu-

prus Society; The Cyprus Ombudsman

ment focus on the office of Ombuds-

does not come under the jurisdiction

man, both at National and European

of either the Executive Power or the

Union leve!. They analyze the function-

Parliamentary

Power or the Judiciary

ing and experiences of the national Om-

Power. The introduction of the Cyprus

budsmen and try to draw conclusions,

Ombudsman

which can be of value for the function-

vacuum in the Structure of the Cyprus

ing of the European Ombudsman.

Society.

This research publication also examines the independence,

The introduction of the institution in Cyprus

competence,

comes to complete

Is a creation of need. The need of establishment

of effective method of

privileges and irnmunities of the Euro-

"out of court control" of public admin-

pean Ombudsman, as well as, his fu-

istration actions that necessitated by

ture relations with the Committee on

the accrued experience from the action

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

of different Cyprus Society Institutions

further del ay the institution ofthe Com-

these services are, correctly and accord-

during the 30 years of the Cyprus Re-

missioner of Administration.

ing to the laws and the principies of just

QJ U

e o e

With the institution of the Ombuds-

and fare administration. This is an inno-

man, the objective is the safeguarding

vation of the Cyprus Law that was im-

tion from a lecture by Mr. G. Pikis, given

of the maintenance of principies of law

plemented to underline the uniqueness

in 1978 with the subject "Equality of

and justice and fair administration that

of the institution of the Cypriot Com-

Citizens against the Law, as part of se-

is the basis of the state of justice. MI.

missioner of Adrninistration, that acts

curing a State ofLaw" published in the

Nicos Charalambous

(the first Om-

within the framework ofthe presidential

"Issues of Cyprus Law and justice",

budsman that served in Cyprus) in his

system of govemment (artieles 5 (1)(b».

(j)

volumeB, pp. 219-239:

book The Action and Control of Public

The definition of "service" according

Administration published in Nicosla in

to artiele 2 ineludes not only the public

publico Characteristic

is the following sec-

"The experience of other countries with long tradition in the field of Ad-

1995, and in a personal interview he

service, but also the Public Education

ministration Justice, proved, that the

had with me in September 99, in his of-

Service, the PoI ice and the National

existence of the Administration Courts

fice now as acting - Attorney General

Guard. It does not inelude the Authori-

only, is insufficient to safeguard an ef-

argued that if the above objective is

ties of the Local Self-Administration,

fective control of the actions of admin-

achieved the "moral face" ofthe Public

such as the Councils, Area Improvement

istration. It does not cover all the as-

Administration Service will be change

Councils, the Village Authorities and

to the better,

Local Cornmunities.

pects and issues of the administration

argued that in

They do not fall under the Commis-

ther the private or public justice, that

this, both the (a) Exercise of the Om-

sioners Jurisdiction, the actions of in-

are not inplimenatators, in other words

budsman's powers and (b) The exist-

dependent

does not create rights and therefore can

ence of the Institution of the Ombuds-

such as the Attomey General, the Gen-

not become subjects to be refereed to

man itself, wi 11act as reverse factor for

eral Auditor, the Director of the Central

a revise court. Is worth noting that in

bad administration.

Bank, the independent authorities such

actions e.g. decisions in the field of ei-

Mr. Chara~bous

executives

of the state,

The Commissioner of Administration

as the Commission of the Public Serv-

Courts with great tradition, it was de-

is destined to complete and help the

ice, the President of the Republic, the

cided as necessary

the

powers of the Republic. The services

Council of Ministers, the Parliament

Scandinavian institution of "Ornbuds-

of the Commissioner of Administration,

and the Courts.

man" revised to the needs of the French

are completing, the control of the Ad-

Within the Commissioner's jurisdic-

System with the title "Médiateur" for

ministrative acts that the High Court

tion falls the action of the Ministers,

the safeguarding of the principies of

exercises. The institution of the Om-

unless these actions relate to subjects

budsman will help the Council ofMin-

of general government policy or their

isters to exercise control over the pub-

actions as members ofthe Ministers of Council.

France who operate Administration

fair justice."

to introduce

(See- the Mediator:

French Ombudsman

(1974) 90 Law

lic services that is assigned to it by the

Quarterly Review p.211). The institution ofthe "Ombudsrnan"

Artiele 54 of the Constitution. It will

The Commissioner, as it applies in

has the objective of an independent

help the Parliament to exercise parlia-

England, does not have the authority

Commissioner

mentary control to the extent that this

to act with his own initiative. This is a

take place in the state system, which is

weakness of the institution that it is

undertake

of the Society with to

with

bureaucratical

summarital

way

procedures of citizens

the presidential. Basic jurisdiction

hoped to be corrected in future, when

complaints against the administration

the Ombudsman is to control, after the

the commissioner's

for the good of law keeping and effec-

submission, of a complaint from a citi-

established.

tive protection of citizens rights.

zen of an act of the administration

And in Cyprus it was found neces-

whether

this violate the individual

sary to introduced similar institution in

rights, or whether this is done in viola-

the form of Commissioner of Adminis-

tion of the law or regulations of just

tration and relevant law was adopted

and fair administration and the correct

in 1972 (Law 107/72). Despite the pas-

behaviour and treatment towards the

sage of 6 years from the day of its crea-

Employees (artiele 5 (1)(a».

tion, it has not yet been operated nor

In addition, the Commissioner can in-

there has been appointment of Com-

vestigate, after directions from the Coun-

missioner of Administration. It was be-

cil of Ministers, any subject that relates

Iieved at the time, that it was in the Pub-

to the functioning of any public serv-

lic Interest to introduce without any

ice, with the view to find out whether

~ •••••

f /'

institution is well

QJ ::::J

o o o e

QJ (j) (j)

o o

Services has the duty to provide any

possible criminal human rights offence

necessary information, when asked by

is committed, by the relevant Author-

the Commissioner (artide 8 (7)).

ity, the Cornrnissioner sends a copy of

He will always support the work of

his report to the Council of Ministers,

the public service and the public serv-

the House or Parliament and to the At-

ant against whom the action is directed. If during the investigation, the Cornmissioner judge that is possible that a

Every month the Commissioner sub-

criminal or disciplinary act was commit-

mits a summary report to the Council

ted, he will report the matter to the At-

of Ministers and the House of Parlia-

tomey General or the relevant author-

ment, with special reference to irnpor-

ity, according to the case (artide 8 (3)).

tant cases, according to his judgement (artide 6 (10)). Finally the Commissioner

The investigations carried out by the Commissioner are not public. The Law

submits every year to the President of

protects the Commissioner of Adrnin-

the Republic

an Annual Report, in

istration, such as by artide 10 that holds

which the Commissioner does not stop

certain actions that prevent the Corn-

to the events but also makes general

missioner to exercise his duties, unlaw-

observations, suggestions with regard

The Law provides the Commissioner

fuI and artide I I that protect him in the

to existing law and operating ways of

the discretionary power to examine or

cases of "revolution" against him due

the various public services. This An-

not a complain, despite the fact that

to his actions/ investigati~s

nual Report is copied to the

during his

fails within rusjurisdiction (article 5 (3)).

good faith mission of exercising his

House ofParliament, in which Parlia-

As a guide will always be the interest

duties. The Commissioner writes a re-

ment, a Parliamentary Committee and, a

of the employee in relation to the public interest.

port according to each specific case

"Cornmittee of PrincipIes, Values and

that he investigated, and is submitted

Cornmissioner of Administration" exist,

to either:

who examines the Annual Report of the

A complaint can be filed by any person that Iives in Cyprus, irrespective

a. to the Council of Ministers,

with

Cyprus Ombudsman and makes up a

as to whether this person is a citizen of

copy sent to the House of Parliament

路relevant Report that submits to all the

the Republic or not or is a physical or

(artide 5 (1) (B) and article 6 (4)) or

Members ofParliament. (Charalambous

law persono Basic precondition is that

b. to the relevant Authority with copy

1995, Charalambous lnterview in Sept.

the complain has to do with an action

sent to the relevant person (article 6

1999, Various Working Documentsfrom

that affects immediately and personally

(5)).

the Office ofThe Cyprus Commissioner

so me persono

of Public Administration (Ombudsman)

The complaint can be filed by a rnem-

When with the completion of his in-

ber of the Parliament or a Lawyer on

vestigation the Commissioner finds out

and Loizou,1989)

CONCLUSIONS:

behalf of the person that is affected by

that an act of injustice was committed

the action. Law persons such compa-

against the affected person he may rec-

The cases of different Small Island

nies, union etc can file complains when

ommend to the relevant Authority that

States need to be examined and should

a substantial part of their members is

this be rectified within a certain time

be the basis offuture research, in order

affected.

lirnit set by the Commissioner,

to compare and contrast their individual

With regard to the procedure to be followed, the Commissioner

torney General of the Republic (artide 6 (9)).

uses his

When his suggestion is not irnple-

and unique characteristics

of system

mented by the relevant Authority, the

of public administration and manage-

discretionary powers to choose accord-

Commissioner

can submit a report to

ment and it's control through the insti-

ing to the characteristics of each indi-

either the Council or Ministers as well

tution of the Commissioner of Public

vidual case (article 8 (5)).

as the Parliament (article 6 (8)). When a

Administration (Ombudsman).

During the investigation, the Corn-

In addition one has to take into con-

mission has the power to invite any

sideration both the maturity and size of

public servant or any other person, to

a Democratic State, when considerating

provide any evidence

these aspects for comparative analysis

or documents

that relate to the case. The Cornmis-

(i.e. How does one compare for example

sioner has the right to take information

a relatively newly created Island State

from any person or services he consid-

with a matured European Union Coun-

ers right, that relate to the case. The

try with many years of established in-

International

Journal

of lsland Affairs

stitutions and democratic functions and

able public administration institutions

systems of public administration

and

with long-term perspective, are issues of

government. A good example of this is

politica! stability, security and coopera-

Cyprus Island State as compared with

tion in the Eastern Mediterranean. In or-

E.U. Countries in its efforts to enter the

der to understand these aspects of secu-

E.U. family of nations).

rity and cooperation in the Eastern Medi-

e 10 e L v =:l

o o e

An ECPR. Workshop entitled: "Gov-

terranean and their influence, one needs

ernance- new patterns of interaction

to view the work of Theophanous and

between government and society", in

Van Coufoudakis (1997), as well as, the

(J)

Essex, England, in April 1991 (cited:

work of Speros Vryonis entitled "Cyprus

kooiman, 1993), deals with many issues

between East and West: A politica! and

of modern governance (new govern-

moral dilemma". The past as prologue to

ment and society interactions), as well

the present" published for The AIexan-

democratic society that is maturing and

as, with conceptualizations

of Govern-

der S. Onassis Center at New York Uni-

airning to become an EU Member State

and therefore

versity, by Crete University Press, (1991).

soon. Hence the need for comparing

provides a good background research

Relevant to this is al so the work of

Cyprus with EU and other matured

for new thought and body of knowl-

Demetrios Theophylactou (1995) entitled

States in the international world arena

edge. A number of important issues are

"Security, Identity and Nation Building".

and world trade.

ance and Governability

considered including:

S V (J) (J)

A good practical example of the ef-

a. Public Policy Planning and Problem

fectiveness

of Governance.

institution of the Ombudsmanin

b. Women's Emancipation as a Ques-

prus, was the recent case of a Russian

of the application

of the 1

tion of Governance. C.

Public-Private partnership : a model

for the Management of Public -Private

Cy-

Supreme Constitutional

Court cf. its ob-

servations in Kyriakides v. the Republic 1

Greek family, living in Paphos, in which case it was proved by the Office of the

Regarding the jurisdiction in general 01the

R.S.C.C. p. 69; 2

The law is not annulled erga omnes the American

Ombudsman, that this family was dis-

system

being

Freund. Southerland.

by public administration,

adopted

cp.

Hew and Brown:

Cooperation (This can be the basis of

criminated

future research for the case of Cyprus

justice

in its transitional efforts to EU acces-

when the man ofthe family was treated

bridge'1955

sion).

unfairly and unlawfully, by deported

The constitution

d. Governance in Interaction: Public

overseas. The State following the At-

1964 pp. 627 seg.

Tasks and Private Organizations

torney general's ruling and recommen-

So the principie 01 separation 01 powers,

e. Public Management and Tnnovation

dations reinstated the famjly, by bring-

f. Governance and the Problem of Rep-

ing the man back to his family with

resentation in Public Administration

State expenses and by paying the re-

sion thereol as contrary to the Constitu-

g .. Modes of Governance and Admin-

quired Compensation, recognizing the

tion is 01 a judicial and not 01 a legislative

istrative Change

physical and psychological

h. The Governance ofEducation Cases

Constitutional

and poi ice mismanagement,

law vol. 1 Boston 1961 p.

112 seg; Schwartz: Constitutionallaw. Camp.9 seg; Small and Jayson: 01 U.S.A. Washingron

adopted by the Constitution is maintained as the decision 01 the Supreme Constitutional Court declaring a law or any provi-

nature CI. 1923 p. 338; Balladore Palliera

hardship

op. cit. p. 342 seg. lor a comparative re-

the family had suffered.

view cf. Mortari: Istituzioni di diritto pubblico

are provided from the UK, Germany,

The conclusion here is that although

Netherlands, Ireland, Finland, Scotland,

the Cyprus Island State taken the politi-

France, Belgium and Denmark, indicat-

cal decision relatively late, for introduc-

law as unconstitutional

ing the variety and different experi-

ing the institution of the Ombudsman,

omnes (art 136 cf. Ballochi e Rovai. La

ences of different democratic states.

this institution since it was introduced

Costituzione italiana e gli statuti regionali

proved to be working effec-

Milano 1956 p. 42T the annullment 01the

The major political systems of Europe

vol.

cases of public ad-

in the interesting work of Beer, Ulan,

ministration

Berger and Goldman (1973) and aspects

mismanage-

of the EU institutions, functions and ad-

ment in a

Padova 1969 pp. 1250 - 1252.

On the contrary in Italy the declaration 01a operates

erga

law takes effect ex nunc and not ex tunc:

dealing with variety of

and patterns of government are given

Giuliani: op, cit p. 19. The same applies in Austria (art 140 01the constitution) and in Turkey: (Art. 15201 the constitution) 3

el. For details in Tornaritis: Influence 01 Greek law on contemporary, Cypriot institutions, extract Irom the Minutes 01 the

ministration are given in the work of

First International Conlerence on Cyprus

Nelsen and Stubb (1994). Other interesting dimensions for con-

o o

Studies cited Appendix on pp. 393 to 399. 4

cf. Tornaritis: The legal position 01the Au-

sideration and examination in the efforts

ditor - General 1963 and it's constitutional

ofSmall Island States in establishing reli-

and legal problems cited pp. 64 - 68.

References - European Institute of Public Administration

"The

European

Working

Ombudsman",

document

edited

Epanimondas A. Marias, 1994 Maasticht, The Netherlands, - Brent F. Nelsen

Union",

ropean

Court

Cyprus

Union in ComparaAvebury,

USA, 1995;

ISBN 1 85972 175 3.

Cyprus and its Constitution", presented

Berne,

(Switzerland)

Doctoral

at the University in January

under the supervision

1996

of Prof. Dr. Peter

Salad in.

and Judiciary

Government";

Coufoudakis operation

Andreas

and

Van

(Editors) Security and Co-

in the Eastern Mediterranean

Intercollege velopment

Press; Research

and De-

Centre Nicosia, 1997; ISBN

9963-7982-7-6.

sioner

served

and West:

be-

Present",

of the Republic

S. Onassis

of Cyprus).

Herakleion,

Conference November

Greece,

1994; A

held in New York City on 16-17. 1991.

Cyprus,

of Cyprus",

Nicosia,

1968 and it's Constitutional

other legal problems",

Nicosia,

c) "The local Self-Administration

d)"Cyprus Nicosia,

and 1977. in Cy-

1972.

and

its

Constitution",

of Cyprus

and it's Law Impacts", f) "Peculiarities

Republic

Nicosia, 1979.

of the Cyprus Constitu-

tion and the Impacts in the Harmonious Operation

of the State", Nicosia, 1980.

Evolution

Nicosia,

of Human

Rights",

May 1977; (Lecture delivered

at PEON on the 6th of May 1977).

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

Published

Examination

Di-

to the

for The Alexander

Centre at NYC (New York Press,

1994.

of various working

docu-

Past and

Department,

Chamber,

Nicosia,

Zeno Publishers,

1976.

- Koumoulides

John. T.A. "Cyprus in Tran-

(1960-1985)", London,

Published

1986.

- Soisten Eric "Cyprus: a country study", area handbook

series,

Library of Congress,

Division,

Federal

Re-

U.S.A., 4th Edition, 1993. - Christodoulou

Demetrios

"Inside

Minnesota

the

Mediterra-

nean and East European

Monographs,

University of Minnesota,

U.S.A, volume

2, 1992. - Cyprus

Constitution,

prus Republic liamentary

and Various

Cy-

Laws, from Cyprus Par-

Archives.

- Pikis G. "Equality of Citizens against the Law, as part of Securing a State of Law" , published

in the "Issues of Cyprus Law

and Justice",

tice System, as well as, examination various

working

with the Institution 'in various comparative Ombudsman

Cyprus Miracle",

1974.

e) "The Creation

on the Island's Publications

vey of 5,000 years",

sition

prus", Nicosia,

at Mr.

- Alastos Doros "Cy.prus in History: a sur-

Trigraph,

b) "Cyprus

Tourism),

1964.

a) " Constitutional in the Republic

the Past as Prologue

Crete, Greece,

Charalambous office, in Nicosia, Cyprus".

of the Republic of Cyprus): and Legal Problems

and Moral

ments dealing with the National Legal

London,

- Tornaritis G. Criton (Attorney - General

between East

Justice Systems and the EU Legal Jus-

and

Greek Communal

at New

Center, 1995.

(Coordinator of Tourism Studies, Prof. of

Alexander

University

Development

Re-

Management

PresentÂť,

Centre

Van

and Coopera-

University) , by Crete University

Nicosia, 1995.

b) "Interview taken by Prof. Chris Mavris

Random

and

Press, Nicosia,

a Political

lemma,

Handbook

by Crete

"Security

- Vryonis Speros "Cyprus

and now the Assistant Attorney-General

tween East and West" Published for the S. Onassis

Andreas

and

Intercollege

tween 15 March 1991 to 15 March 1997,

lic Administration",

of Europe",

Coufoudakis

of Administration)

The Major Politi-

tion in the Eastern Mediterranean",

Ch. Nicos (The first ap-

- Greek Heritage of Cyprus ÂŤCyprus - A

York University,

Systems

- Theophanous

and Kapodestrian

(Commis-

1993.

House, New York, 3rd edition, 1973.

University of Athens.

- Vryonis Speros Jr. (Editor) "Cyprus Be-

g)"The

cal

of the High

pointed Cyprus Ombudsman

London,

terns of Government:

April 1989 in the field of Public Jus-

tice of the National

Governance:

Society Interactions",

Sage Publications,

Control

Court Mr. A. N. Loizou at the Seminar of

Jan "Modern

- Beer, Ulam, Berger and Goldman "Pat-

Introductory

of the President

a French Ombudsman

New Government

and

a) The Action and Control of the Pub-

- Theophanous

Press,

Rights,

- Kooiman

of the High Court of Cy-

- Charalambous

Petros "The Republic

Thesis,

of the

- The Mediator-

(1975) 90 Law Quarterly Review p. 211.

(Judge of the Eu-

of Human

Administration)

Speech

"Security,

and Nation Building",

and the European

- Louizou N. Andreas

Forms

1975.

Ex-President

A. Demetrios

- Evangelides

and

prus), Public Justice, "(Judge and Fair

C-G.

don, Uk, 1994; ISBN 0-333-64675-4.

tive Perspective,

System

ISBN 90-6779-083-4

Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, Lon-

Identity

Federal

and Alexander

Stubb (Editors) "The European

- Theophylactou

h) "The

There of", Nicosia, Cyprus,

vol. B; pp. 219 -239.

documents,

dealing

of the Ombudsman

countries

and the EU for

analysis from the Cyprus Archives.

L o

Kurilsky :3 ~~,~~,"%apovednik o ~:;¡e Wonderful S (;;: World of ,/:~· Extreme ~::f;;::' Phenomena LJ

10 (f)

,,o

(f)

•..ó8\O.

0511\011

~ ~

~ ,.o~~t

(.~

ffi

OS~1J"'~~1tJl

•

~~T

GRIGORIEV

strophic events of various intensity,

parts on the most southern island of the

unique creation of nature, a necklace

The eruption of voIcanoes result in a

Bolshaya Kurilskaya ridge, Kunashir

of islands extending for 1,200 km be-

great amount of mineral matters which

Island (the total area of the island is 120

tween Hokkaido Island and the south-

later determine the high fertility of soils

thousand ha, the length is 123 km, the

he Kurilskaya

ridge is a

and the huge productivity of offshore

width is from 8 to 30 km) and also the

waters. The region can be considered

islands of Demina and Oskolki. Under

are within the influence oftsunami, the

one of the most productive districts of

the jurisdiction ofKurilsky Zapovednik

invasion of strong storms, intensive

the world's ocean.

there is also Malye Kurily Zakaznik in-

ern end of Karnchatka Peninsular. Being at the oceanfront these areas

tidal currents, eruption of voIcanoes

The territory of Kurilsky Zapovednik

cIuding the territories of all the islands

and earthquakes, so they are the scene

incIudes parts of some southern Kurils.

of the Malaya Kurilskaya ridge, among

of an active manifestation

They are the northern and southern

them a greater

of cata-

Shikotan

part of the area of

Island.

The area of the

zapovednik is 65,365 ha. The area ofthe protected zone of the zapovednik

41,475 ha. The area ofthe zakaznik is 45 thousand ha. The nature of the Kurils shows inimitable contrasts of natural complexes and features of the flora and fauna. Here waterfalls (up to 65 m height) aIong the island coast and mountain river beds neighbour lagoon and voIcanic lakes. The transparent streams with fresh water flow side by side with smoky multicoloured mineral springs. Here the mountain ranges with wild dark coniferous taiga slip into the forbs- meadows on

* Cien

s spruce

wirh Usnea sp. lichen

Photo by Yu. Merkulov

Director, "Kurilsky"

State

Nature

Reserve

E. M. *

northern and southern species. Here lies the northern border of spreading of a huge number of species found, besides the Southern Kurils, also in Japan, Korea, and China. In addition to that the kurilsk species are represented by the populations adapted to the peculiar island conditions of life. A small area of the Southern Kulils ( compared with the other territories of the Far East) has hardly influenced the richness of their flora. It is noticeably richer than that of Sakhalin Island in the taxonomic diversity and little yields to it in the number of species despite such a great difference between their areas. The differences of a zonal character influence the fact that the flora of waterfatl al a shore of the Pacific Ocean

Photo by Yu. Merkulov

the Southern Kurils (1,215 species) is richer than that of Kamchatka (963 spe-

the seashore. The gigantic grasses raise

benches, flats, spits, barrier beaches,

cies) and the Aleutians (431 species).

over man's height while trees may hardly

tomboloes, lagoons, sea terraces, tidal

Kunashir Island and Shikotan Island

teach rnari's knee or be of about 30 m

bore niches etc.

(Kurilsky Zapovednik and Malye Kurily are the richest in species

Kunashir Island has four active vol-

island shore there is a chain of numer(

canoes. Three of them are on the terri-

among all the islands of the Kurilskaya

ous inlets and coves where the sea-

tory of Kurilsky Zapovednik: l. Volcano

ridge .The greatest number of rare spe-

c1ean, beautiful and amazing in all sea-

Tyatya (1819 m) is the most beautiful

cies of plants of Sakhalin and all the

son s- lips. On fine days one can see the

vol cano of the Kurils.

Kulils is also concentrated on the is-

neighboring islands from mountain tops

Golovnina (586 m), a magnificent vol-

- the islands of the Earth among the

cano-caldera with two minerallakes, is

24 species of vascular plants found

boundless ocean.

the most accessible for tourists of all

on the protected areas of the Southern

the

Zapovednik

territory

Kurilsky

the volcanic phenomena

2. Volcano

lands of Kunashir and Shikotan.

ages. 3. Volcano RUfUi(1456 m), located

Kurils are globally rare and endangered.

in impenetrable

They have been listed in the Red Book

forests, is unstudied

and awaits

manifestations:

Stolbchaty is interesting and surpris-

to be especially strictly protected. On

ern, from local ones( fumaroles, mud

ing being an assembly

of extrusive

the territory of the zapovednik and the

pools, thermal springs) to those occu-

forms characterized by a very regular

zakaznik there are 47 species of mush-

pying large-scale areas (caldera, vol-

pillar c1eavage. These forms are located

rooms, higher and lower plants Iisted

canic ridges, big zones of changes and

on a rather limited area ofthe Okhotskoe

in the Red Book ofthe Russian Federa-

secondary mineralization of rocks). The

Sea shore.

tion. Concentrated here there is a great

geomorphological

shears they have fantastic shapes and

number of vascular species (37), rare

from ancient to mod-

peculiarities of the

its investigators.

Depending

Cape

of IUCN and have been recommended

are represented in the diversity of their

on surface

territory visually reflect the character

form a stone symphony of «castle ru-

for the territory of Russia, also Kurilsky

of ancient and modern relief-forming

ins», «stone organs», «piles of logs»,

Zapovednik exceeds in their quantity

processes displayed within the island

«giants' pavements» etc

ares. The relief here graphically reflect

Zakaznik)

height in some forest areas. Along the

Thanks to a special distribution of

the results of volcanism, tectonic ac-

the sea currents,

tion, abrasion and accumulation activi-

Bolshaya

on almost all the

most of Russian zapovedniks yielding only to zapovedniks of the Caucasus. 10 species of the 37 listed in the Red

ridge from its

Book of the Russian Federation can be

ties of the sea. Today's seashore of

northern islands to Iturup Island there

found in Russia only on the island of

Kunashir Island is a c1assical site rep-

are no such strong differences in the

Kunashir and they are located on the northern border of their areal,

Kurilskaya

resenting the seashore processes un-

structure of the plant and animal world

der a high tectonic mobility ofthe terri-

as it can be seen on Kunashir Island.

tory. We can see here the formation of

The biocenoses of Kunashir Island are

perate zone of the Earth are large-grass

such forms of a sea relief as cliffs,

the result of a surprising mixture of

cenoses characteristic of the Southern

International

Journal

of Island

Affairs

A natural phenomenon of the tem-

Kulils. They have a landscape signifi-

of subtropical complex (Pacific saury,

the Russian

eance and define the vegetation pecu-

sardines (Sardinops sagax), tuna, Japa-

mostly the waterfowl

liarities of the region. Under rocks,

nese mackerel) feed in water areas of the

birds fond of fish: Steller's sea eagle,

shore terraces, along the mouths of riv-

zapovednik and the zakaznik. It is here

white-tailed eagle, osprey, black kite,

ers and springs there are thickets of

that the salmon spawning migration

fishowl.

Numerous

many species of strong tal! grasses

routes of the most shoals of the Far East

marila»,

«Anas penelope»,

reaching the height of 2 to 2.5 meters

acuta»,

lie.

or sometimes even 4 meters. The Far

The global significance of this area

East large grasses being a relic archaic

lies in the faet that the Kurils is one of

community,

the parts of a transcontinental

differ from other tal! -

Federation).

They are

and predatory

are

«Aythya

gulls, cormorants,

herons.

Only two pairs of Japanese «Grus japonensis»

«Anas cranes

nest on the island

flyway

of Kunashir, and several pairs nest in

grasses of the Altai, the Sayans, the

of the birds making their seasonal mi-

Malye Kurily Zakaznik In winter one

Caueasus and the Alps in their original

grations to the northern regions of the

can

floristic

see dozens

of white

swans

Far East. The offshore waters of the

«Cygnus cygnus» among ice and snow

unique for herbaceous plants, and gi-

islands are the Far East's biggest loca-

in the sea bays. «Ceryle lugubris»

gantie morphostruetures.

tion for a winter stay of sea birds {dueks

dwells along the river banks. In sum-

(Aythynae), divers, cormorants, gulls,

mer one can hear asad song of «Tregon

fulmars, guillemots}.

sieboldii» coming from the depths of

eomposition,

their height,

The fauna of invertebrates of the indicated site is definitely unique, but it

the forest. Clear warbles of larks ring

has hardly been studied yet. According

The number of birds gathering here

to a preliminary estimate, on the Kurils

during their seasonal flyways in spring

above fields in spring. Dwellers of the

one can expect the minimum of 5 to 6

and autumn is enormous. About 260

Kunashir

thousand species of terrestrial and am-

species can be seen here at that time

(about 25 pairs) of a rare island sub-

phibious insects, 3/4 of them being

(21 speeies listed in the Red Book of

speeies of fishowl «Ketupa blakistoni

Island are the population

found only on the Southern Kurils. The diversity of species of entomofauna of the Southern Kurils is 10 times as big as

that of the Middle and Northern Kurils. 37 species and subspecies of endemic insects were discovered on the Southern Kurils only in the last few years. 45% of all the mollusc fauna of the Southern Kurils are endemic species. Besides the taxonomie diversity and the presence of endemic species, the peeuliarity ofthe Kunashir mollusc fauna is a mixture of southern Japanese elements and the taxa spread more to the north. The true richness ofthe Kurils are the representatives

of its ichthyofauna

Va/cano Tyarya. September

Photo by t. Nevedomskaya

Salmonidae. The local populations of humpback and chump are characterized by the highest reproduction in the world. Besides, it is the humpback and chump, biggest in all the populations ofthe species known in the Far East, that get into the rivers and lakes of Kunashir Island. In addition to real salmons (ehump and humpback)

East Siberian

char and

Sakhalin taimen also spawn in the rivers and lakes ofthe zapovednik. Numerous shoals of fish both of ternperate-cold eomplex

(pollack,

cod,

navaga,

greenlings, plaice, halibut, salmons) and

Kurilian

bear al a shore of the Sea of Okhotsk

Photo by A. Klitin

L. L

:3 U 10 (f)

~ (f)

Caldera at the Golovnin's volcano.

Photo by Yu.Merkulov

Lake Goryachee

Seeb.» (listed in the Red Book ofIUCN,

Malaya Kurilskaya ridge. The terres-

and invertebrates of all the Kurils are

1 category of rarity). The areal of this

trial flora of the Kurilsky Zapovednik

found here,. So the nature protected

bird's habitat is confined to the islands

and the Malye Kurily Zakaznik

areas of Southern Kurils thanks to the

of Kunashir and Hokkaido.

counts

On Kunashir Island about 200 brown

ac-

for about 60% of the total

number of species of the flora of all the

the

presence

active

bears live, also there are sable, red fox,

Kurils. The terrestrial flora of Kurilsky

volcanism, the extreme natural phenom-

hare, Japanese mouse and so me spe-

Zapovednik and Malye Kurily Zakaznik

ena, the great diversity of econiches, a

cies of shrews «Sorex». On the entire

comprises

combination

Southern Kurils there are numerous

number of species of the flora of the

Korean on the

of comfort and severe

conditions, is an ideal natural model of

entire Kurils. AIso all species of the

the North Pacific island ecosystems,

Kulil ichtio- and-herpeto fauna (100%)

the gene pool of the original species of

of Shikotan

and the majority of the species of birds

flora and fauna.

island

shicotanensis»

about 60% of the total

rufocanus», but only

red-backed

«Clethryonomys

mouses «Cl.

The presence of the contradictory

build real «fortifica-

tions» (the system ofholes, paths, feed-

actions of natural factors: great water

ing grounds).

On the islands of the

areas and the underground heat; rela-

Malaya Kurilskaya ridge there are the

tively severe climate and the location in

biggest rookeries ofKuril seals «Phoca

the southern latitudes; fertile ash beds

vitulina stejngeri» (2,500) and Steller's

and the concentrations of gases, acids

sea lions «Eumetopiasjubatus»

and other products of volcanic activi-

(1,000)

(both species are in the Red Book of

ties fatal to living organisms; very un-

IUCN) in the region of the Southern

even relief and frequent winds; endemic biological features and the influence of

Kurils - Northern Japan. According to the specialists' estima-

adjacent contrasting and different na-

tion, 96% of all species of submerged

ture zones, are the specific nature con-

sea fauna (invertebrates)

and 66% of

ditions that have resulted in the appear-

the sea fauna of the Southern Kurils

ance of this quite unique Kuril word of

are located on the littoral zone of the Kunashir Island and the islands of the

peculiarities of their geographical 10cation,

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

Lizikhiton

kamchatsky - a common plant

Kuril islands. May.

Photo by Yu. Merkulov

the extreme phenomena that Kurilsky Zapovednik is called to conserve.

(f)

'he

S (f)

ÂŤIrinomialÂť energy water tourism The "Mediterranean Energies"

Conference

on Policies

o o 10 D

e 10

(L (f)

:3u e

and Strategies

for Desalination

was held on 21-23 June 2000 on the Greek island of Santorini,

and Renewable

organised

by RENES1.

This event has been the starting point of a strategy of future for islands, which integrates aspects like water and energy management

essential

in its development. 1

National Technical University 01Athens - RENewable Energy Sources Unit.

RENES is partner 01INSULA within several projects and programmes

related with water and energy management

on islands.

the last years, the trinomia en-

UNESCO's International Hydrological

C/PRIANO

The most frequent values for the Medi-

ergy-water-tourism has been represent-

Programme, these difficulties are spe- .

terranean are between 400 and 600 mm.

ing a great challenge for islands. New

cially expressed by islands maller than

But the worst is that the largest differ-

productive

such as

1,000 km2 and narrower than 20 km.

ences can appear in successive years

tourism or the rapid population growth,

Local hydrological values are also very

or on two different sides of the island

place islands in an extremely vulner-

different from one island to another.

or even at different altitudes.

specializations,

able position. Energy and water, because of their territorial, environmental and economic implications, have always represented a central element of the insular dilemma. The interdependence increasingly

water-energy

evident on islands, and

sometimes it even brings to a single management system for both. It is a determining factor of present development models. The problem of freshwater

supply

affects small islands more than big ones, as they have a large part of the water-related problems. According to the works

developed

* Vice Secretary-General

within of INSULA

the

Seawater

MARĂN*

desalination

plant powered

by photovoltaic

Pozo Izquierdo

installations.

- Gran Canaria (ITC)

To overcome these difficulties small Mediterranean

the

islands have de-

the World Tourism Organization,

is-

lands are nowadays the second world

must be added. In Ma-

veloped a very complex culture of wa-

tourist

after the block

in 90,000 cubic metres in winter and

ter to take maximum advantage fram

formed by the historical cities. The Eu-

rise to 130.000 in the tourist season.

destination

their scarce resources: tanks, rainwa-

rapean Travel Monitor says that more

This effect of tourism is even more

ter reservoirs, impluvia, etc .. Further-

than 50 mili ion of tourists visited the

obvious in small islands: Porquerolles

more, we know the need to use solu-

Mediterranean coast; an important part

(a little French island), for example,

tions as the water transportation

of them was directed to islands.

has a domestic water daily consump-

tank ships employed fram long time

To get an idea of the island tourism

to bring water to small Italian and

importance, if we compare usual tour-

Greek islands, or submarine water con-

ist island densities within the European

tion of 150 m3 in winterthat in summer increases to 600 m'. But the influence of tourism is not

ducts bringing water frorn the con ti-

Union we find densities reaching 150

only limited to a greater number of con-

nent to the islands of Elba, Tabarca or

beds per square kilometre, higher in

sumers: it also affects the type of con-

to some Dalmatian islands for exam-

many cases than density in many popu-

sumption. Normal islanders' standards

pie. An extreme example of this last

lated areas of the continent.

(l00-125Iitres)

But in

are multiplied afterthe

case can be found in the island of

terms of tourist flow, the results are a

arrival oftourism, and often exceed 250

Djerba: in 1966 began the rapid tourist

lot more striking: Greek islands receive

litres.

grawth and the authorities had to mo-

more international tourism than Brazil,

Furthermore, we must take into ac-

bilize on a large scale the water re-

the Balearic Islands host as many tour-

count that tourism demands an end-

sources of the near continent, and the

ist as Portugal and the Canary Islands

less supply and, because of the lei-

situation has not changed until today.

duplicates the 6 million of international

sure facilities such as swimming pools,

There are several cases showing the

tourists that receives South Africa, the

golf courses and greens, even when

great emerging destination.

there is enough water, there are high

km2 and a population density higher

CorfĂş

70.000 beds

has been the central

than 1,200 people/krrf outside the tour-

Minorca

20 km

82.000 beds

twenty-second

ist area. The island is in reality a great

Elba

223 km2

21.000 beds

eral Assembly, within the special ses-

caIcareous slab, fissured and therefore

Rhodes

1.398 km

80.000 beds

sion exclusively dedicated to islands,

with Iittle capacity to retain water. Or

Tenerife

2.036 km2

150.000 beds

whose objective was the re-examina-

To these new needs of the tourist

great portion of the world's islands

extreme water-dependency

of islands.

losses in main supply. This subject

Malta, for example, has an area of246 592 km2

area of900 km2 where water supply for its more than 70,000 tourist beds and 90,000 inhabitants comes almost exclusively from desalination. c1early show the current trend of a large part of the Mediterranean

and Euro-

pean islands, and exemplify possible risks and dependences of the future. Nevertheless, the grawing water deficit on islands generates new risks. It is evident that new demands in island economies introduce a factor of competition with the traditional agricultural activities. It is also serious that vital water supplies are diverted fram fragile ecosystems and high-value wetlands, and we know well the risks deri ved fram water extractions in the coast. But we must take into account another factor: tourism. It is a factor of particular importance for Mediterranean islands. According to the statistics of

International

Journal

demand,

prob lerns Inverse

caused osmosis

by experimental

declared that aspects related to tourpla-n connected

Pozo Izquierdo

These are extreme cases but they

of lsland Affairs

idea of the

United Nations Gen-

tion of the Barbados Action Plan. A

Lanzarote, an Atlantic island with an

seasonality

jorca water consumption is estimated

the wind power plant. - Gran Canaria (ITC)

On the other hand we have the fol-

O ~

lowing advantages: • Abundant renewable energy sources • Modularity and adaptability to the is-

land scale of the solutions and tech-

nologies based on renewable energies. • Island economies

O ~

don't have any

sector with high energy demando

• If we consider islands as a whole, their

water-renewables combined market is

possibly the largest in the world.

This attitude is reflected by one of

the most important conclusions of the

e 10

Minorca's

European

Conference

Sustainable Island Development.

:j Within this context, mentioned insu-

larity features are in favour of an advisable alliance between renewable energies and water production through desalination.

An alliance that is still

more necessary in the increasing tourist specialisation framework of many isSeawater desalination Pozo Izquierdo

systenc-Electrodialisis

- Gran Canaria

lands.

plant powered by aerogenerators.

(ITC)

There are many economic and technological reasons supporting this idea.

ism, water and energy management will

the island ofTenerife,jointly

organised

Typical data per cubic meter of fresh

c1early determine island future sustain-

by ITER, INSULA, the Tenerife Island

water are 8-15 kWh for commercial dis-

able development.

Government,

the UNESCO

and the

tillation (heat consuming

processes)

World Solar Programme. This was one

and 4-7 kWh for commercial membrane

of the most important

island issues

systems (electricity consuming proc-

Small Island Developing States, revised

approached during its course, During

esses). These numbers show the large

during that special session, establishes

the Summit, many outstanding cases

amount

two pressing objectives:

on the relationship

The report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable

Development

of supplementary

energy

existing between

needed by certain islands in order to

• Encourage the development and ac-

water and energy on islands were dealt.

secure themselves a sufficient water

quisition of appropriate technology

That is why the line upheld by the Clean

supply.

and training

Energy and Water Programme in the

for cost-effective

desalination and rainwater collection

framework

of the World Solar Pro-

to provide sufficiently high quality

gramme was considered

potable freshwater, including oppor-

lands.

tunities for technology interchange

vital for is-

For island people, it's now evident

But we also know that wind energy is a high competitive form of producing energy, even in islands with a low average wind speed. The usage ofwind turbines

to power

medium

sized

among Small Island Developing

the need to give a reasonable answer

desalination plants is perfect, and sev-

States.

to two problems posed at the some time.

eral pilot plants are being developed,

From now on, we must speak of water

as well as hybrid systems using PV

and energy on the same planeo

panels and wind generators to produce

• Improve access to environmentally sound and energy efficient technologies for the production and delivery of freshwater.

From the energy point of view, we know that islands are characterised by:

fresh water. We should also take into account that

• Isolation and dependence

water storage, compared to electricity

• Limited range of energy resources

or heat, has the added advantage of

• Specialisation of economies

being quite a simple matter. Desalinated

and perfectly fit into the new view of

• Limited markets

water storage is a simple issue for most

islands' energy perspective. Last year

• Highly sensitive environment

islands, and is an excellent solution to

the Island Solar Summit took place on

• Inefficient use of energy resources

technologically

These aspects related to water management demand pressing

attention

harmonize the use of

renewable energy sources on a large

The wor/ds'

scale and guarantee freshwater supply

other renewab/e

under small islands' variable consump-

emerging with the promise of eeonomie and environmenta/ viability on

tion conditions. We already know that

sea/e.

renewable energy sources suffer from

water needs are inereasing technotoqies

1. The pressing water needs in most countries

ported.

oping nations, exemplified

Water production plants may playa

/arge

of the warld and particularly the devel·

to the increasing

and the

energy needs and is equally worri-

some. 2. An urgent challenge energies.

for longer periods, water

duction rates.

is economic

This highly

development

demand peak s do not affect water pro-

and sustainable

promising

option

strong environmental

concerns,

efficient for all schemes featured on is-

be increasingly

powered

lands.

environmentally

friendly

• Centralised production and distribution

nomic costs.

production

adequate

with renewable

resources

far further

targets laid down in the Kyoto protocol and

future water desalination

around the world should

by wind, solar and other clean natural resources. systems

are now becoming

potentially

Such

available

at eco-

4. Solar thermal pilot systems in Abu Dhabi and other countries as well as wind and PV powered

• or Combined centralised and decen-

reverse osmosis desalination

are currently

tralised pro~on Under these circumstances, the com-

water desalination

requires

in arder to prove its viability.

3. Keeping in mind the climate protection

This shows us that this alliance is

• Decentralised

production

peaks. As water can be stored without difficulties

are rapid/y

by reviews of the situation in the Mediterranean

Middle East can be compared

major role as variable loads for any systo absorb

that ean be used for desa/ination

in Santorini, Greece 23,d June 2000.

creasing demand for water, the penetra-

tem, helping

New wind, solar and

Message from the Desalination and Renewable Energy Conference

irregularenergy supply. But with an intion of renewable energies can be sup-

dramatieally.

demonstrating

5. There is a need to accelerate

bination of RE and desalination is vi-

from renewables

pilot units in the Canary islands and Greece

potentially

cost effective commercial

the development

systems.

of novel water production

systems

and in particular

able end effective for small and mediumsize islands. This is therefore a right

•

solution for the management of elec-

include a closer collabaration

tricity and water demand. On a small scale several important

in Europe, which should

between the RE and Desalination

Industries, together

with research institutes. •

mixed projects have already been carried out, and demonstrate both techni-

A much stronger effort in R&D and D currently inadequate

Capacity terranean

•

buildinQ and co-operation

namely with Europe's

neighbours

in the Medi-

area and Middle East and Africa

Acceleration

of information

dissemination,

education

and training.

cal and economical viability of these solutions. But on a large scale, we are witnessing the arising of important initiatives that endorse these hypotheses. A demonstration project that can be used as an exampie is the initiative that is being carried out by the island of El Hierro, a mixed wind-hydraulic project with the objective 100% renewables. It includes the desalination plants in the system and also the decentralised production. As things stand, desalination strategy through renewable energies is an option of sustainable development not only for islands. It is the only reasonable solution for the next future. From there the importance that INSULA and its associates are giving to this subject within the initiatives: European Island OPET and the Altener project named "Island 2010", whose objective is to pro mote Renewable energy sources on a large scale on island territories.

International

Journal

of lsland Affairs

Ecological Constraints and Human Adaptive Strategies in a River Island Ecosystem

O O ~

L -.J

o..J

e o

& R.

JESURATHNAM DEVARAPAW*

YATHIRN

u L ::J

KUMAR**

::J

s ands are d; sti OC'; ve en ti ti e,

marked with isolation. limited and/or

tation of socio-cultural the natural

institutions to

environment

(Bennett

(bee Fig-2 & Photo-2). The centrally 10cated portion of the land is highly fer-

special resources, restricted area etc.

1969: 14 Orlove 1980:25 1).According to

tile which is black alluvial with a thick

They exhibit distinctive man -environ-

Cohen (1968) cultural behaviour is re-

layer of humus.

mental relationships, warraE!0g suitable adaptive strategies.

adapted systems are established upon

The river island ecosystem, like any

extensive cultural control over environ-

of the island is arranged in different gra-

mental exigencies.

dients with varying concentration

other ecosystem is subjected to ecological constraints

egies by the inhabitants to cater to their needs. The constraints

Here mostly coconut groves are grown (see Photo-3). The peripherallandscape of

sand giving the soil a loose texture. The

and fluctuations

that necessitate suitable adaptive stratsocio-cultural

sponsible for human adaptation and well

THE ISLAND

outerrnost portion of the island periph-

The study is carried out on Ayodhya

ery is devoid of soil and is mere sand

lanka - a river island of Andhra Pradesh,

dune. As such the physical terrain of

may be in the form of availability or

which is located in Vasista Godavari a

the island differentially

non-availability of a resource, the very

branch of river Godavaris India ( See

pattern and doesn't favour a steady irri-

support crop

nature of the available resource and the

Fig-I & Photo-I). The island is elon-

gation due to its elevation above the

natural barriers. This paper specifically

gated over a length of about 6 Km. and

river bed and due to a vast stretch of

of about three quarters of a Kilometre

sand beach separating land mass; lift-

strategies of a river island population

width at it's widest point and is sur-

ing water from river for irrigation is not

to overcome the ecological constraints.

rounded by water round the year. The

feasible. Moreover, the ground water on

island population

to 2768

the island is with varying concentrations

upon socio-econornic fabric of the peo-

persons comprising four major caste

of salinity and is not suitable for irriga-

pIe living in a particular environrnent.ln

groups viz., Kapu, Settibalija, Mala and

tion at many locations. Due to the loose

attempts

to analyse

the adaptati ve

The ecological factors have a bearing

accounts

ahuman ecological niche, environmen-

Marakallu. The first three castes are

nature of the soil the sort ground water

tal limitations, ecological diversity and

agriculture

available at certain points cannot be

natural calamities are successfully met

subsists on fishing.

by the thriving population through the

based while the last one

The island ecosystem, though hav-

mechanism of socio-econornic adapta-

ing fertile soil is constrained in its prop-

tion(Leach 1961;Ward 1970;Brown 1978

erties and profile such as nature of the

scholar

in the Department

and Johnson 1982). Anthropologists

terrain, unsuitability for a steady irri-

pology,

Andhra

used the word 'adaptation'

to refer to

gation system, loose soil that quickly

Visakhaptnam

two distinct sets of relationships, one

absorb water, salinity of water to pro-

530 003, India.

between human physiological

duce staple food except 'budama' (un-

and

socio-cultural

(Bargatzsky

needs

institutions

1984:402; Laughlin and

Brady 1978:3). The second is the adap-

desired country variety rice). The soil

* Dr. Jesurathnam

Devarapalli is research

Andhra

of AnthroUniversity,

Pradesh,

Pino

Dr. R. Yathiraj Kumar is professor

the

department

of the island differs in its composition

Andhra

and fertility from one part to the other

Andhra

University, Pradesh,

Anthropology, Visakhaptnam,

Pino 530 003, India.

like low productivity

are adjusted

through complex forms of exchange and subsistence specialisation. The propo-

o N

sition that ecological feasibility is a requisite for the existence and continuation of an exchange system is further

lIt

strengthened by the observation made 3 KM

2 t

•.

by Abruzzi (1989).

16· 40'

The following discussion attempts toanalyse the systems of exchange in Ayodhya lanka to cope with the ecological constraints

categorising

into

three types - Intra-island, Inter-island and Island-mainland.

l. INTRA-ISLAND EXCHANGE The interdependency of the islanders 16· 35'

32· O'

in a number of seasonal and day-to-day life activities display s a good sense of cooperation

and coordination.

The

movement of goods and labour takes

place across the lines of farnily, lineage and caste. The intensive nature of the existing seed cultivation process require a large amount oflabour force which cannot adequately be met by the family alone, especially in the case oflarge land Fig. J Loca/ion

map of Ayodhya

holders. The spatial distribution of fields

Lanka

also compels the farmer to rely for help conducted

to certain

distances.

The different sequences in the culti-

such, more number of water lifting points

vation process

are to be identified - some farmers get-

takes place in quick succession, if not

A number of activities involving ex-

ting more than one and so me others

the farmer incurs losses. These time

change of materials and services take

none. The staple food rice which re-

bound, brisk agricultural activities si-

place among the islanders in the agri-

quires

multaneously occuring all over the is-

culture enterprises. The smallland own-

land calls for a high degree or, coop-

ers depend

water stagnation

cannot

grown profitability. For a long time, the islanders were

of these cash crops

tive of lineage and caste.

upon the large farmers

eration. coordination and interdepend-

(Kapu/Settibalija)

having an insecure life with hand to

ence. AII these processes can be well

ploughs. The mutual relationship and

mouth existence in the light of these

explained under the exchange system.

understandings play an important role

constraints. But the whole scenario has undergone a sea change with the adop-

for bulls

and

in the timely supply of these and at

EXCHANGE

SYSTEM

times tolerance to delayed payment.

tion of a new technology in the form of

In all human societies procurement

'seed cultivation' (production of qual-

of the scarce commodities and disper-

by all the households,

ity seed especially jowar and maize with

sal of the surplus productions is well

shared in critical times of need, with

The farm tools are generally possessed they are still

assistance ensuring high

served through systems of exchange.

underlying expectation of others to be

profit margins). The existing ecologi-

The exchange systems are consider-

equally generous (Sahlins 1965).

government

cal conditions are beneficially utilised.

ably influenced by the physical condi-

In the process, the people have suc-

tions of the area and other ecological

cessfully adapted new behaviour pat-

factors, apart from the socio-cultural

terns. The following description dwells

and political circumstances

upon those socio-economic

adapta-

tions to overcome these limitations.

upon his neighbouring farmer irrespec-

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

Location

of Pump

Sets

Lifting of ground water with the help

(Harding

of diesel engines is the main mode of

1970; Sahlins 1970:79). Moran (1991)

irrigation on this island. A filter point is

observes that the ecologicallimitations

located basing on the availability ofthe

Q.J

copious water with mínimum salinity,

married girls and the aged. Both cul-

or two and in return he is allowed to

which on average can cater the irriga-

tural as well as physical factors have a

cut a bundle of fodder from the farrn-

O O

tion needs of a 10 acre plot.

bearing on the team composition. The

er's field. A similar case is reported by

.-J

In case of multiple ownership of the

teenage girls are not allowed to far

Layton et al. (1991) where the Hutu

plot, cooperation is exhibited by the farm-

away places on the mainland to work,

provided

the Tutsi with labour and

ers such that any one of the farmers can

while the aged women feel it difficult to

agricultural products, while the Tutsi

install the diesel, engine bearing its pro-

walk long distances for work. The age-

provided the Hutu with custodianship

curement and installation costs. It is

old ties between the farmers and the

of cattle.

open for free utilisation by other land

labourers with an underlying principIe

owners, paying a nominal rent along

of mutuality play considerable role to

with bearing fuel costs. Though the rent

provide

payment is unequal a trend towards

cheaper wages.

the labour

at a relatively

Q.J

:3O c::

L .-J

c:: O lJ

Transport of Agricultural Producfs

lJ prod-

negative reciprocity, both motor and

A person who has limited resources

ucts especially, maize and jowar re-

land owners display cooperation and

to feed his cattle often goes to the field

quires the formation of two groups - a

10 Q.J

generosity

and work with the farmer for an hour

small group carrying goods from fields

due to scarce

copious

The transport of agriculture

ground water. As all the farmers sow seeds almost simultaneously the water lf one farmer starts watering his farm first generally the one close to the filter point, the rest of them follow him. This helps the farmers at the tail end not to spend more on fuel to keep the chagjjel wet and maintain flow.

The institution of Maistry The demand for wage labourers is high on the island during the time of the plants,

turning the soil upside down, weeding and laying the bunds along the rows of jowar or maize. AII these agriculture activities should be carried out at the right time, any delay in their execution results in poor yields and reduced income. The labour shortage during this critical period is accentuated

by two

major factors. The Kapu women not taking part in farm labour due to cultural sanctions and the agriculture labourers are pulled towards the attractive wages of the mainland. This critical period of labour shortage is observed to overcome by the large land owners

through

"maistry!" patron-client

the institution

marked

with

relationships.

age old Maistry

leads a team of women - usually un1

Maistry is a person who heads a team of labourers and gets work contracts from the big farmers and is normally an active, senior and entrepreneuring

woman.

~ ~ ~

requirements also arise at the same time.

sowing seeds, manuring

c::

LEGEND

6""'"

flOOO

:::.:::;;:

RIVER COUI!IlE

-:.-r.: O

PATH

r;-;1

l..:!::!J

e,C#...NTY SOlL

l> •••••O MA!19

w.•.,.(fIt.

&I..AOI< SOn. • &ANO'"

.01L.

Fig. 2 Ayodhya Lanka map

$UllEME"r

to the river bank and a little bigger group

tige. Often the vegetable growers from

Though the islanders are aware of the

carrying from river bank to the disposal

lower castes gives vegetables as gift

difference, they are still obliged for it is

point on the mainland. The farmers who

to their trusted kapu master (Maa kapu)

practical and easy way of disposing the

produce small quantities ofjowar/maize

to win his favour.

home produced coconuts.

constitute a small group such that their

It is also noticed at the local provi-

collective produce would become a cart

sions shop that women and little chil-

load so that the cart hire can be mini-

dren coming with one or two coconuts

mal per head. This group on reaching

to exchange them for provisions. This

Agriculturists and fishermen relations Apart from the intra-island exchange

the river bank dissolves to form bigger

sort of barter system is resorted to, by

practices

group to engage a lorry to reach the

the low-income farnilies, the coconuts

groups, we also find limited interde-

actual disposal point.

among

the agriculture

are often under valued. The barter sys-

pendence

tem though viewed as primitive type of

fishermen

members of the first group are present

transaction by many anthropologists,

eco-niche populations).

in the second group. These groups com-

Humphrey argues that ethnographic

An interesting observation is that no

between

agricultural

communities

and

(different

The dependency of fishermen on their

position is merely based on urgency of

diversity and complexity of distribution

own caste men is more, than on other

the need ignoring kinship of caste tieso

are recognised

castes due to occupational specialisa-

The reason for such a speedy formation

(Thurnwald 1932; Sahlins 1972etc ..). But

tion. However, there are a few areas of

and dissolution of transport groups is

in the present context the barter prac-

interdependency

that sudden precipitation merit the dis-

tice is serving the immediate domestic

and agricultural castes, through money

qualification and rejection of wet jowar

requirements ofthe poor families in the

media. One area of such interdepend-

or maize by the purchasing agency.

ecosystem which doesn't facilitate easy

ency is ferrying across the river. The

contact with the mainland.

villagers have collectively presented 6

Exchange of ~ consumption goods and Pelly Trade

in barter

system

between the fishing

The coconut trees around the house

acres to the terry men for their services.

produce one ripe bunch every I or I 1/2

The edible agriculture produces of the

months. Due to water barrier it is an un-

island are the reserves of carbohydrates

The intra-island exchange can yet be

profitable and difficult affair for the is-

and tile agriculture communities depend

seen in three different areas like pas-

landers to carry these coconuts to the

oil the fishermen community for their

sage of vegetables as gifts, exchange

mainland market, northe mainIand mer-

.protein requirements. Though a number

of coconuts for provisions and petty

chants visit every household to collect

of cattle are found on the island, eating

coconut trader-client

them. This situation has given rise to

beef is a social denigration and chicken

water salinity in some parts of the is-

the development of petty coconut trad-

and mutton involve economic consid-

lands does not facilitate the growth of

ers within the isla単d. Every petty trader

erations. So the only cheaply available

vegetables.

Vegetable

relations.

gardens

The

are

has his own set of clientele to whom he

protein resource for the islanders is fish.

raised at soft water locations by small

advances loans free of interest and col-

The nutritive requirements ofthe differ-

and marginal farmers. They provide

lects coconut in retum at the rate of Re.

ent eco-niche

vegetables to others as a matter of pres-

1/- below the prevailing market price.

through exchange

populations

are met

system (Peterson

1978: 339 and Service 1978).The protein Photo 1: Island - Ayodhya Lanka in the river bed of Godavari.

needs of the agriculture castes and the money needs of marakallu are satisfied through fish trade. There is one other area of interdependence where both agricultural and fishing communities together depend upon an immigrant unqualified Brahmin medicine mano Water barrier restricti ng the transi t, the islanders solely depend upon this medicine man for medical needs as there are not even visiting physicians from the mainland. He is readily available round the clock and every day visits all the ten settlement to meet the primary medical needs of the islanders.

InternationaI

JournaI

of Island

Affairs

It is observed that

'Satyanarayana Vratam' a religious cer-

O O

emony is being utilised by the medicine man to receive remuneration

Q) -.J

3 O e .:c

exchange of his round the year medical services. The time selection for the ceremony is also important,

that by

-.J

November all the farmers get financial

cine mano The intra-island exchange

o o 10

relations discussed so far, show the

L LJ

nature of interdependence,

assistance from tile banks and will have

sufficient money for gifts to the medi-

tion and coordination

coopera-

e 10

among the is-

land agricultural castes on one hand

and in between agricultural and fish-

ing castes on the other. This mecha-

:J~

nism of exchange within the island is

to counter the natural Iimitations on the island with special reference to the agriculture activities and in meeting to certain extent the dietary requirements. Photo 2: l. Black alluvial soil

11. INTER-ISLAND EXCHANGE

2. Sandy soil followed

Rather each river island is integrated

ÂĄO

the left of the two men.

by sand mass and river course behind the boy.

111. ISLAND-MAINLAND RELATIONS

A chain of islands are found in Vasista

with the adjacent mainland village for

Godavari which are separated from each

assistance and information. It is easier

other by varying distances of less than

to reach a mainland village rather than

In the light of ecological constraints

half a kilometre to a few kilometres. From

the adjacent island due to the reason

explained, the islanders meet most of

Siddantam bridge down to Razole there

of conveyance problems. The only way

their needs mainly through interaction

are as many as seven islands namely

to reach a neighbouring i land is first

with mainland. In the realm of subsist-

Udimudi lanka, Pedamallam

lanka,

to cross the river at his own island then

ence and consumer goods requirements

Ayodhya

lanka,

walk along the river bank and again

and the needs that arise out of the mod-

Kanakaya lanka, Marri lanka and Indira

cross river to enter the destiny island.

ern methods of cultivating cash crops,

lsland / Razole lanka. Of these, there

Moreover,

the islanders

lanka,

Maddi

all the islands are at the

mostly depend on the

are no settlements on Maddilanka due

same level of the technological devel-

to its small size, while Marri lanka and

opment. None of these islands has be-

Contacts with the mainland, however

Indira island are scarcely populated and

come political or power centres in the

are observed to vary depending on the

the rest of the islands are thickly popu-

region nor provides

special skilled

location of the settlement on the island

lated. Though these islands are cIosely

workers to have attracted other island-

and also commercial importance of the

located, the interaction between differ-

ers. The other important reason for the

place on the mainland. The seven set-

ent islanders and the dependency

mainland.

limited inter-island dependency is the

tlement dwellers of Marrimula part of

one island upon the other is very mini-

prevalence of more or les s similar eco-

the island purchase consumer goods

mal arid negligible. PoweU's (1965) criti-

logical conditions.

from Gannavaram due to comprehen-

cal observation of inter-island cultural

It may be concIuded from the above

sive availability of goods there and are

and economic exchanges is not directly

description that the inter-island rela-

relatively cheaper. People ofthe remain-

applicable to the braided system of the

tions are mini mal for they could not

ing three settlements get their require-

river. A few reasons may be attributed to the negligible inter-island

account for any of the benefits like

ments from Nagula lanka, Jaggannapet

socio-economic or technological. More

oroBhimalapuram. Nevertheless, some

relations.

importantly, an ecological constraint is

of the vendors from Gannavaram visit

The chain of islands does not function

observed to have bearing on the negli-

the island on non shandy days selling

as integral wholĂŠ Iike the archipelagos.

gible inter-island relations.

aluminium vessels, cloth, ice fruit and

ers are able to minimise the rat menace, ensuring optimum returns. The "Gollalu" (sheep rearing caste) of Doddipatla and Valluru on the west bank and of Kanakaya lanka comes with their flocks to the island during summer every year leading to a mutually beneficial relation. The interaction has not only economic benefits but al so involves ecological and religious parameters. The droppings and urine of these flocks serves as natural manure, enriching the soil fertility. The big farmers encashes this opportunity by providing the shepherds with basic amenities and draw them to camp in their fields for many days indicating differential access to an agricultural input. Photo-3:

/. Jowar and MairÂŤ fields 2. Tal! palms

represent

black alluvial

sandy soil.

On the other hand, the very, small

soil.

grass difficult to pull out is grazed by other edibles

for children

mostly

and Thumma (Acasia arabica) pro-

the sheep, converting it into an avail-

through bartering agriculture products.

duced on the island is sold off to the

able protein in the animals and manure

This type of transaction is rrt.ereprofit-

visiting mainland timber merchants as

to the soil. But the goats fondly feed

able to the mainland vendors. Many of

the islanders are devoid of the neces-

on leaves of seemachinta. The shep-

the requirements that arise out of vari-

sary ski lis to carve them into furniture.

herds are skilful in cutting down the

ous agricultural operations and fishing

The transactions

with the

branches ofthese tall thorny trees. The

endeavours are procured from main-

brick makers and wood merchants are

lea ves being grazed, the branches are

land. In all the island-mainland interac-

more explicit with expectation of imme-

used by the farmers to fence their gar-

tions money is the medium.

diate returns a case of balanced reci-

denso Thus, mutually beneficial ex-

procity (MarshaI196).

change exists between the islanders

Seasonal

visitors

Due to the availability of natural resources such as tile and brick making

Baskets are comrnonly used by al-

and the herdsmen, and a profitable uti-

most all the islanders for both domes-

lisation of by products of the natural

tic and occupational

The

resources such as waste grass, lea ves,

purposes.

clay, basket making fronds and sum-

'Yerukula',

a pig rearing and basket

animal droppings, fencing material etc.

mer grass the skilled workers and shep-

making plains tribe visit the island

Every year the shepherds from each

herds who can effectively make use of

every summer in search of the country

of these three villages present a goat

these resources not only for themselves

date palms which are profusely round

or sheep to the island deity Gogulamma

but also for the benefit of the islanders

on the island. They give a few baskets

as a gesture of solidarity and integra-

visit the island establishing a mutually

free to the owner of the palm and the

tion with the island cornmunity. Two of

profitable relation. The rat menace to

rest are disposed on the island itself.

these animals are sacrificed to the de-

the groundnut farming invites the main

The situation points out that in spite

ity and the third animal is later disposed

land rat trapper.

the availability of a natural resource the

and the amount is equally distributed

In recent years, some of the families

islanders do not possess the necessary

by the priest and the temple treasury.

on the island with increased prosper-

skills to mould it into a daily needed

The flesh ofthese sacrificed animals is

ity started building brick walls and roof-

commodity. As a result, they adopted a

shared equally among the temple staff

mechanism by utilising the services of

and village service castes. The shep-

Though clay, the raw material required

visiting professionals.

herds by providing the sacrificial ani-

for making bricks and tiles, is found on

face rodent menace especially to their

mal s to the island deity strengthen their

the island, the islanders have to engage

groundnut gardens as tile rats eat away

ties with the island community ensur-

ing their houses

involved,

with burnt

tiles.

Local farmers

mainland skilled workers to manufac-

nuts and cuts off the roots To capture

ing continuing free accessibility to the

ture them for a direct payment. Simi-

these rats and minimise the menace the

island and feed to their flocks during

larly, the Seemachinta (Pithacalobium

islanders

rat

lean season. The foodstuffs and other

dulcis), tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

trapper on wages. Thus the island farm-

domestic and agriculture needs are ob-

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

employ a professional

tained

through

direct

payment

money. Taking the advantage of the

References

Abruzzi W. S., 1989 - Ecology, resource

island situation, which doesn't permit

redistribution

easy transportation, the mainland rov-

in north eastern Arizona. American An-

ing vendors makes exorbitant profits, while the islanders get access to these

and Mormon

thropologist Bargatzsky,

settlement

ment and the ills of adaptation.

time and energy. The unutilised

Anthropology

sources on the island such as pastures, country date palms and clay are put to productive use by the seasonal immigrants such as shepherds, basket makers, brick and tile manufacturers

etc.,

paving way for mutually beneficial relationships and in the process catering

environCurrent

Bennett, T. w., 1969 - Northern Plains men: Adaptive strategy and agrarian life. Chi-

Edt. Yehudi

The cultural

A. Cohen,

Chi-

Ferdon Jr. N. Edwin, 1957 - Notes on the present

day Eastern

The exchange system of the river is-

Western

Journal

land community is based on the natu-

223-238 Harding,

T. G., 1970 - Trading

east New Guinea.

In Cultures

Pacifico Edt. Thomas Ben J. Wallace,

and caste. The institution of maistry

South 13:

in north of the

U. Harding

and

New York, The Free

C., 1985 - Barter and eco-

nomic disintegration.

American

during the critical periods of agricul-

tural ecology: The Amazon case. Current

ture. The water course round the is-

Anthropology

Paterson,

Laughlin, C. D. Jr. and 1. A. Brady, 1978 Dia Phasis and Exchange

tion. pp. 139 -236.

society.

physiographic

conditions

for the

Edt.

Univ. Press.: 1-48

Layton, R. F. and E. Williams, 1991 - The

of resources.

their dependency

266-274.

upon the mainland

In Extinction and population.

hunting and gath-

ering and the specialized Current

and

New York, The free

London

Service, E. R., 1978 - Profiles in ethnology, New York, London,

Press.

growth of staples gave ample scope for

of the

G. Harding

1972 - Stone age economics,

tive Communities.

between

in cultures

Press.

New York, Colombia

transaction

distribution and power

Edt. Thomas

Charles D. Laughlin and Ivan A. Brady,

the

Edt.

London Tavistock Publica-

since similar economic, ecological and of

In the relevance

of models for social Anthropology.

1970 - Production,

husbandry

Anthropology:

Happer and

Row publ. Thurnwald, R., 1932 - Economics

in Primi-

London, Oxford Univ.

Ward, R. G., 1970 - Distribution sity of population.

and den-

In An Atlas of papua

and New Guinea. Edt. M. G. Ward and WAX. Lea Dept. of Gegr. Univ. Papua, New Guinea. PP 8-10.

for their fool requirements. The locally unutilised

resources

like tiny grass,

The river isJand community was hith-

country dates, clay etc., act as a bridge

erto at hand to mouth subsistence level,

gation thus elevating

technology sol ved the probJem of irrithe economic

in establishing a mutual exchange rela-

making a passive adaptation to the eco-

position of the cornmunity. Inspite, eco-

tionship between the islanders and the

logical constraints which greatly hin-

JogicaJ constraints are manifest in the

mainlanders. Thus, the ecological con-

dered the traditional farming system.

intra-island and island-mainland

straints clubbed with the social situa-

The same ecological constraints round

tions of the people in their pursuits of

tion of the island enforce an exchange

to be beneficial in the sphere of agri-

procuring

system, which in itself is an adaptive

culture with the introduction of seed

socio-cultural

mechanism of the isJand people.

cultivation and the application of new

island resources.

=:J ~

M. D., 1965 - On the sociology

M. Banton,

=:J

65: A -99.

ers. The island-island relations are weak

unsuitability

Oberoi ' s Politics of the Kula ring. Man.

in human population. in human

10 L

e 10

gist. 80: 355-356.

Pacific

farmer exchange. American Anthropolo-

Sahlins,

O lJ

J. T., 1978- Hunter-gatherer

survival

The

anthro-

Tavistock.

23: 413-428. \

-Introduction:

93:

In Ann. Rev. of Anthropology.

unqualified medical man and petty trad-

eral.

Anthropologist.

in turn encouraged the functioning of

technological conditions prevail in gen-

black water eco-

Orlove, B. S., 1980 - Ecological

Ben J. Wallace,

Man: 48-72.

Johnson, Allen, 1982 - Reductionism in cul-

land acts as a barrier due to the lack of

system.

in primitive

Press. Humphrey,

meets the labour demand on the island

proper cornmunication facilities which

egies in Amazonian

of primitive exchange.

tern of the Island. The new and scienoutside the lineage

islands.

of Anthropology

water conditions decides the crop pat-

interdependency

Africa. 31: 231-249.

Powell, H. A., 1965 - Review of J. P.Singh

cago: Aldine Pub.

tific methods of farming expands the

9: 235-273.

Cohen, T. A., 1968 - Culture as adapta-

e L. ....J

Anthropology

7: 263"291.

:3O

Kung Bushmen.

pology.

present.

such as soil and

Univ.

D ~

giving: Relief of social tensions among

ogy, Society and Culture. Ann. Rev. of

munity.

logical constraints

Cambridge

361-382.

cago: Aldine. Brown, Paula, 1978 - New Guinea: Ecol-

tion. In Man in adaptation:

ral and social environment. The e~o-

Cambridge,

Press.

Moran, E. F., 1991 - Human adaptive strat-

25: 399-415.

to some of the needs of the island com-

SUMMARY ANO CONCLUSION:

Ceylon.

Marshall, L., 1961 - Sharing, talking and

91: 642-655 T., 1984 - Culture,

commodities at their doorstep saving re-

Leach, E. R., 1961 - Pul Eliya: A village in

consumption

rela-

goods,

needs and in utilising

Biodiversity and Tourism Symposium Placing Tourism in the Landscape of Diversities: A Dialogue between Nature and Culture SEPTEMBER

20-23, 2000

FRENCH ISLAND OF PORT eROS,

MEDITERRANEAN

SEA

Annotated agenda 1- The growing importance of tourism in the information society. Tourism currently represents the economic sector with the fastest rate of expansion and growth in a context of globalization. Tourism is strongly stimulated by more permeable frontiers, cheaper and easier transportation and communication systems, and the increased free-time availability of a wealthier and ageing world population. Tourism is potentially the main economic sector able to make investments for landscape management and biodiversity conservation in the large areas of the world where agriculture and industry are no longer economically feasible. Tourism is a main driving force for cultural exchange among peoples. 2- Analysis of case studies of success and fai/ure of tourism development. Tourism massiveness, intensification and monoculture represent a self-destructing cycle, which results in the degradation of the diversity of both local environrnent and local culture. Loss of diversity due to tourism progressively kills tourism itself as an economic activity. There are, however, several cases of success stbries in the interactions between tourism and diversities. Success is evidenced by the persistence over time of an economically wealthy tourism, the cultural enhancement of local cultures, and the conservation of biodiversity. Factors that have led to either failure or success of tourism development will be singled out through analysis of documented case studies, particularly from the Mediterranean Sea, the European Atlantic coasts, the Caribbean, Polynesia, and Seychelles. 3- Towards an information-rich tourism. Richness of information in tourism depends on the variety of attractors and the diversity of interactions and situations: diversity of local ecosystems, species and landscapes, cultural diversity of residents because of historical traditions, archaeological remains and the subsistence of living cultures and arts, food and gastronomic diversity, cultural diversity of tourist visitors, tourism assiduity and use throughout the year, and ample possibility of mutually-enriching interactions between visitors and residents. Tourism based on a single attraction, the usual triple-S equation (Sun, Sand, Sex) for instance, leads to uniformity and massiveness, and does not ensur sustainability. A new information-rich tourism is in line with the emergence of an information society. lnformation is diversity. 4- Empowerment of local people and cultural adaptation to change. Fair interaction with visiting tourists and responsible care put on local ecosystems and cultures are only possible when local people themselves are strongly involved in, and committed to, tourism deve!opment. Empowerment of local people is based on their renewed awareness and pride on the universal value of their culture and their environment. Empowerment facilitates local peoples becoming actors and operators of entrepreneurial tourism activities, so that economic wealth primarily benefits local societies. Empowerment is promoted through permanent education and capacity building, including on specific tourism skillfulness, distance learning, cross-cultural and inter-cultural exchanges. Culture is the main force pennitting specific and innovative adaptations to change. 5- Use of information technology. Many tourism operations, e.g., tourism advertisement, trave! and hotel reservations, are progressive!y driven and made cheaper and more accessible by new tools of information technology. lnformation technology provides new mechanisms for quality-control of tourism activities. Lnformation now flows in transversal, non-hierarchical ways, and is potentially available even in remote places. This trend facilitates local initiatives and operations of small tourism entrepreneurs, with no need of middlemen or international business chains. Tourism operations become less massive, more diversified and more diffused. Local empowerment and control of local environment improve, and visitor-resident interactions lead to enriching cultural exchanges. Isolated and fragmented populations sharing the same culture and development aspirations can be connected through electronic communication tools, so that they reach a critical size for tourism diversification of products and services. 6- Conclusions: towards sustainability. Tourism is based on the exchange of information among visitors, residents and the environment. A sustainable tourism is foreseeable only through the cultural attachment and commitment of local people, together with diversity of visitors, diversity of ecosystems, species and landscapes, diversity of products, and diversity of uses, from a seasonal to a permanent tourism. Tourism is diversity, and the science of diversity is the foundation for tourism. In a rapidly changing world's system, cultural adaptation to change is the foundation for sustainability. For suggestions and remarks on the symposium program and agenda, contact Francesco di Castri (fdicastri@wanadoo.fr)

FONDATION D'ENTREPRISE

TOTAL

OPE

'he Significance of Gift Exchange in Ihe Mal'ese Islands

CJl D U

3 O r+ f-

a e

...J

a L o D

e a Qj

::J

=:j by

::J

LINO BIANCO*

mode of

was subjected by the world powers of

change has left a mark on linguistic us-

'buying off sorneone's favour as a form

the time were vigorous attempts to con-

age and thus may be examined from the

ofbribery.

trol trade and power in the Mediterra-

The

phenomenon of giftex-

semantic dimension. Besides, it a~so has anthropological

connotations

It is however a recognised

The Maltese archipelago consists of

nean. The population

is ethnically a

Malta, Gozo and Comino with an area

mixture absorbing Phoenician, Arab,

which can be fitted within the context

of246 km2 , 67 km2 and 2.6 km2 respec-

ltalian and British heritages. With an

of Malta's national identity. The prac-

tively. Malta lies in a strategic position

area of 316 km2 and a population of over

tice itself is seen by the Maltese peo-

in the central Mediterranean, about 290

a third of a million, the population den-

pie as carrying both positive and nega-

km north of Libya and 93 km south of

sity of the Islands is significantly high

tive connotations. A distinction is put

Sicily. Its strategic

as compared to other Island States.

forward between gift giving and gift

cross-roads

location

at the

between Italy and North

The inhabitants are descendants of

exchange. Gifts may be a manifestation

Africa strongly dictated its fate histori-

the ancient Phoenicians who carne to

of 'social solidarity'. The giving of gifts

cally. Its potential as a trading centre

Malta circa 800B.C. The Phoenician oc-

to establish hegemony over other indi-

was exploited since the Neolithic Revo-

cupation was subsequently followed by

viduals for the sake of humiliate him!

lution. The numerous invasions and

the Carthaginian and the Roman. It was

her socially is not a common practice.

foreign domination to which the lsland

conquered by the Arabs (870A.D.), the Normans (1090A.D.), and the Spanish (1282) and occupied by the Knights of

MALTESE ARCHIPELAGO AREA (km")

GOZO

MALTA GOZO COMINO

POPULATION

246

320.000

25.000

2.6

the Order of St. John (l530A.D.), the French (1 798A.D.) and annexed to the BritishEmpire(l814A.D. until1964A.D.).

Historically, the roots of the Maltese national identity are grounded linguistic-cultural

in a

dichotomy. Malta's

geographical position is vital in studying the interplay between the North and South of the Mediterranean,

between

Christianity and Islam. The native language, Maltese, is not European. It is essentially

a Semitic language with

*Lino Bianco is Visiting Lecturer at the Mediterranean Malta

Institute,

University of

offering is done in a generous manner

strong Romance elements and using Latin alphabet, and it is believed to be

and that no haggling is present be-

grounded in ancient Phoenician. As a

tween the giver and the receiver.

language, it is older than either Arabic

Such meanings ofthe word rigal are

or Italian, which have both greatly in-

rather positive. They do not reflect the

fluenced it. Although, the language is

negative connotation which is linked

mainly of the South, the official religion

with it and otherwise manifested in Mal-

is ofthe North. In this geocultural con-

tese proverbs, the reflection of folk cul-

text, the dichotomy between language

ture and tradition. Two such proverbs

and culture widens as the entire popu-

are Ir-rigali

lation is staunchly

fl-ghajnejn

Roman Catholic

and

u bzar l r-rig ali

rather than Muslim. Sant Cassia (1989

jaghmull-ghajn (Aquilina, 1972 pp. 52).

pp. 88) argues that the emphasis on

The former proverb is translated as

Malta's Catholic identity has been de-

"Presents are [like] chains on the hands

liberately used to counterbalance Mal-

and pepper in the eyes" while the latter

ta's linguistic ties with the Arab world.

is translated

The merging ofEuropean Christian and

eye", that is, presents are given as a

Arabic Islamic traits is evident also in

The word 'gift' is translated into Mal-

Maltese traditional townscapes. Secu-

tese as ghoti, haga moghtija, ... rigal

lar vernacular architecture is typically

price

for

as "Presents conniving

blind the at

abuses

(Aquilina, 1972 pp. 52). These are the

(Psaila, 1947 pp. 532). Also, Maltese dis-

only proverbs on rigal(i) given in this

regional Arabic in outlook while reli-

tinguishes between ghoti b'xejn and

Dictionary and they are found in the

gious architecture is baroque - a legacy

ghoti 'l ura (Serracino Inglott, 1976 pp.

chapter entitled 'Craft and EviJ'. The

of Christian culture on the Continent

232). The first signifying a gift given

position of these proverbs with respect

imported in Malta by the Knights of St.

gratis, usually referred to as rigal, while

to the above meaning of rigal throws

John. Parish churches are usually at the

the other signifies a gift given in return

light and elaborates

on this transfer

centre of the town with secular archi-

for something else, that is, a counter gift,

where the giver apparently 'doesn't get

tecture growing

as a radd, hlas, tpattija (Serracino

anything'. Its elaboration partly states

organical~-ÂŞ.round

them. Building forms are cubic save for

Inglott, 1976 pp. 232). Thus, the action

what the giver does in fact get - In this

the circular/oval forms of the baroque

of giving is classified in terms of what

context rigal is a form of bribe. It is

churches fabrico

the giver is going to gain.

which dominate the urban

In many cultures and civilisations one encounters

the phenomenon

essentially a means of corruption. In

Rigal is a voluntary giving of a gift

agreement with the current usage of the

whereby the gi veris not expecting any-

word bribe in 1535, a rigal can be said

thing in return. The giving of a rigal is

to signify "a reward given to pervert

have la-

a demonstration of friendship, respect,

the judgement or corrupt the conduct'

belled as gift exchange. In all socie-

and/or love. Such is the case when the

(Johnson, A Dictionary ofthe English

ties, a gift is a mode of maintaining

godfather gives a rigal to his godson

Language, cited in The Shorter Oxford

social relationships. "Material objects

on his Confirmation. The second mean-

English Dictionary on Historical Prin-

are the chains along which social rela-

which social anthropologists

ing which ll-Miklem Malti (Serracino

cipIes). Hence, here, for a rigal the giver

1940

Inglott, 1981 pp. 355) gives is kull haga

does in fact get something in return.

pp. 89). In Western societies, gift ex-

moghtija la' xejn, b 'xejn, jew mibjugha

Often, the same proverb may be found

change is not a voluntary statement

wisq inqas minn kemm tiswa, jew tkun

in other variants. In Malta this may be

of affection by the giver but a socially

meqjusa ti tiswa.fis-suq;

which essen-

due to the national currency of Classi-

anticipated dimension of certain rela-

tially means something free or sold at a

cal and Biblical sayings. In the Old Tes-

tionships. A theory of the significance

token price. This meaning, together

tament one finds at least two instances,

of gift exchange was first put forward

with the former, further shows that the

both cited in Aquilina's Dictionary (1972

tionships run" (Evans-Pritchard,

by Mauss (1925). His study on simple

pp. 52), which express a spirit found in

societies

the above mentioned proverbs. These

stimulated

anthropologists

to study other systems

ktajjen fi-idejn

of gift ex-

are "A man's gift enlargeth his way and

change. This short paper is concerned

maketh him room before princes" (Pro v-

with this phenomenon

erbs, XVIII.l6) and "Presents and gifts

as it occurs in

Maltese society, with particular refer-

blind

ence to semantic and anthropological

(Ecclesiasticus, XX.31). These are strik-

connotations.

ing not only when contrasted with the

InternationaI

JournaI

of IsIand Affairs

the

eyes

judges"

References AQUILlNA,

J., A Comparative

ary of Maltese

Proverbs.

Diction-

Malta:

The

Royal University of Malta, 1972. EVANS-PRITCHARD,

E. E., The Nuer.

Oxford University

Press, 1940.

and published

under the title The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies.

PSAILA,

C., Dizzjunarju

Ingliz

u Malti,

vol./. Malta, 1947.

contemporary positive meaning of rigal,

hances social relationships and prestige

Sunday

but also in view of the fact that the posi-

rather than being an advantage in mate-

pp. 12-13, 1985.

tive ways of looking at gift giving also

rial, economic wealth. Although this fur-

found in the Bible such as "it is more

ther contributes to a fairer distribution

I-Habi."

In Cortis,

T. (ed) L-Identita

blessed to give than to receive" (Acts

of wealth, the donor's

Kulturali

ta' Malta.

Malta: Dipartiment

20:35) are left unnoticed.

strengthened - it was one of the roads

Times [ot Malta],

January

Ghoti 'l ura is cIearly a transaction.

to leadership. In this setting the giver not onIy 'buys' friendship but also glory.

grounds - the main ones are social, eco-

"Giving implies friendship not hos-

SERRACINO INGLOTT, E., II-Miklem Malti,

nomic anc\/or political. Friends expect

tility". To a certain extent, this is true.

Vol. VII. Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin, 1981.

Yet, it is also true that sometimes, in

needed. Exchange of gifts to establish

certain cultures, one gives in order to

given who seeks out his opponent. The giver 'gets his back on' at his oppo-

propriate occasions such as birthdays,

to his friend but also to his opponent

nent by giving him so much that the

Christmas, etc. It is a social event where

in order to 'shame' him. In turn, not to

giver crushes him, and he cannot make

people broaden and revive relation-

remain

a larger return gift (Sant Cassia, 1985

ships with one another.

presents the giver with arl'-even more prestigious gift. He who is not able to

'garne' which is maintained in various

make an equal or larger gift, loses pres-

societies is not present in Malta.

make a money repayment of a gift, his

tige and becomes a 'client' ofthe more

Malta is governed by social considera-

gift given, to maintain a balance be-

tions. In fact it is nowadays a mutual

tween the value of the two. Implicitly,

expression

and maybe unconsciously, there is an

tween partners. However, there still

element of chalIenge present - A chal-

persists a certain negative connotation

of 'social solidarity'

::J ::J

be-

lenge not in the sense that the receiver

which implies the 'buying' offavours,

is in competition

with the giver but

especially in dealing with the wielders

rather a return of a gift to cancel obli-

of power. 'Buying off' favours is usu-

gation. Furthermore, if the counter gift

ally through either gifts or money (as

is not at least a balancing one, the re-

distinguished

ceiver ofthe first gift will be 'shamed'.

ĂŠtrennes), a traditional money gift, al-

from strina [French:

Yet this is not the case where the first

ready customary

gift is given on purpose to 'sharne' the

century, given to children and members

receiver. Within the Maltese context,

of the household on New Year's day).

refusal to accept a gift is a refusal of

Furthermore,

in mid-eighteenth

through gifts, one may

'buy over' a persono In these negative

social relations or a protest. trenched notion that gift exchange en-

In modern usage, gift exchange in

counter gift financialIy wilI be worth the

In Malta there still existed the en-

pp. 12). This sort of gift exchange

the recei ver does not

Also, in this social fact one notices that although

powerful donor. It is the man who has

prestige and 'sharne' the receiver.

the .opporient

Vol. '" Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin, 1976.

The giver does not only give presents

'shamed',

SERRACINO INGLOTT, E., II-Mikiem Malti,

is manifested in presents given on ap-

or renew existing social relationship~gain

O LJ

1989.

Such a transaction may have various

to give and receive help when this is

Sant Cassia, P.,"L-Ghana: bejn II-Folklor u

ta'i-informazzjoni,

Sant Cassia, P., "Fighting with Gifts," The

position was

L LJ

111., 1954.

Glencoe,

:3O

MAUSS, M., Essai sur le Don. 1925. Translated by lan Cunnison

O Q) ~

A vernacular

street in Rabat, the capital city

01 Gozo showing Semitic

origino

a rypical urban setting

respects, gift exchange

acquires the

significance of cIientelism and bribery.

New means

o, Iransport in the cities of tomorrow A sir legic ues i n for islands Reading sions

of the concluthe

"Bilbao

2000" Conference Challenge

(The

for cities in

the 21st Century: Transport,

Ener gy and Sus-

toinable Development}, moderated

and coordi-

nated by the representative of INSULA (Cipriano Marin}. Among the Con[erence

pur端ciponts

where

representatives of

European

cities, of the

European

Commission

and Parliament,

o] the

Committ ee of Regions and also big

managers

demonstration

projects

dealing

transpon

and the city of

with

the future.

On,

ofthe moststriking mes-

For

this

sages that carne out of the United Na-

reason,

the

tions Habitat 11 Conference

fact that the

was that

the sustainability battle will be lost or

European

won in cities. This is an idea that the

Conference

French philosopher,

on "The chal-

Henri Lefebvre,

surnrnarised decades ago when he re-

lenge for cit-

ferred to town- planning and the city

ies in the 21 SI Century" is being held in

meeting. The Guggenheim museum is

by saying that "in order to change our

the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, un-

a building that 1 would even dare to

lives we rnust first change our urban

derlines to an even greater degree, the

cIassify as one of the first urban cathe-

areas".

importance and opportune nature of the

drals ofthe new millennium.

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

The challenges that modern cities are

sponsibility in the global effect of emis-

facing are of such magnitude that if we

sions reflected in the Kyoto protocols,

are to resolve them, we will have to face

the pressing need to increase the liv-

up to the problem of sustainability from

ing quality and habitability of our cit-

many different dimensions. Amongst

ies and obviously our duty to advance

these dimensions, transport and energy

towards more efficient technologies

are at the heart of the dilemma for de-

from an energy and environmental point

signing tomorrow's cities -cities that are

ofview.

Hybrid

doubled in the last twenty years and it

of urban transport have been broached

port is a conditionant of the quality of

now accounts for approximately

one

from many fronts. These are challenges

life of islanders, determining and limit-

third of all energy used in Europe and

that concentrate mainly on the neces-

ing possibilities for a balanced development.

is on the increase. If this tendency is

sary promotion and implementation of

not reversed, the least optimistic fore-

more efficient and cleaner public trans-

There are many reasons why the Eu-

casts foresee that by the year 2020, the

port systems that use new technologies.

ropean Union should give priority to

consumption of energy in the transport

The experimental and developmen-

these matters. The first is that it is in an

sector will have increased by another

tal levels reached allow us to state quite

urban setting that the problems inher-

35% in comparison to its current level,

clearly that within Europe mature tech-

ent to economic,

whilst the total arnount of energy con-

nologies are available in a whole range

graphic developments, excessive con-

sumed by other sectors

of applications to build vehicles with

sumption of natural resources and en-

greater than 24%.

will be no

tion are concentrated. And yet the con-

unquestionable

ing increasingly visible in urban areas.

reality that is becom-

etc. We have seen how a major part of this tremendous

innovation capacity

Many modern cities are dominated by

has been brought together and pro-

ideal places for innovation, creativity

cars that run on highly polluting,

moted within the framework of projects

and communication. And what is more,

ergy-guzzling, internal combustion en-

such as Jupiter, Zeus, Entire, Belt and

we should not forget that for over a dec-

gines. The chaos produced by trans-

Centauro

ade, the service industry has been the

port and its related effects (pollution,

What is more, the appearance of new,

sector that has most contributed to GDP

noise, the availability of public space)

more powerful telematic resources has

en-

generation within fundarnentally urban

are the things that most affect the hab-

shown over recent years that there is

surroundings, with the logical result that

itability of our cities. This is a tendency

the possibility of emerging technologi-

the cities with the best services gener>-,

that will have to be reversed quite dras-

cal alliances of unlimited scope. The

ate greatest economic activity.

tically for several reasons: our joint re-

development of advanced vehicles and

is also an asset

new fuel technologies is being perfectly

which in the long term and with an ap-

supplemented by the use of telematic

proach aimed at careful conservation,

technologies able to improve manage-

will have to become profitable. If fact,

ment, planning and user information as

already in the 5 Frarnework Programme

well as to promote intermodality be-

on Innovation and Technological De-

tween public and private transport with a view to obtaining a necessary reduc-

velopment, the matter of "The City of euROPfAN CONfERENCf 8ilbaoIGuggenheim

Tomorrow and cultural heritage" was a

tion in the amount of traffic.

matter which a great deal of importance

In fact this meeting in Bilbao is a wa-

was attached to. Transport has a key

tershed. Once the technological feasi-

strategic role to play in this new dimen-

bility of change has been proven, once

sion.

the means to overcome barriers in terms

We know that transport accounts for

brid vehicles, electric cars, ultra-lights,

tellectual resources in cities malee them

heritage

(f)

zero or ultra-Iow emissions, such as hy-

These are figures that back up an

centration of economic, material and in-

Cultural

S:J

included in Therrnie, the new challenges

cial importance for islands, where trans-

ergy and waste production and pollu-

(f)

ropean trial projects, especially those

buses

ality. the above reflections are of spe-

social and demo-

I recent years thanks to the main Eu-

more habitable, active and innovative at alllevels of social and economic re-

...-..

of research have been found and once

61lBAO

30% of total energy consumption for

the efficiency of the trial projects devel-

developed nations, and on islands it

oped over recent years has been proven,

often go beyond 50%. Energy con-

new challenges will concentrate on the

sumption in the transport sector has

ability to promote the introduction of

new technologies onto the market and

example, in the Conference on Energy

to pinpoint the most appropriate people

Transport and Telematics in Historie

for accepting change.

Cities (SaJamanca 1998- INSULA-EC-

The step which has to be made from

UNESCO), we were able to see that af-

theory to practice is being widely taken

ter the demonstration projects, the new

so the next stage will have to concen-

alliance between the past and the fu-

trate on overcoming risks and reduc-

ture based upon telematic technologies

ing related costs with the introduction

Guggenh eim Museum

and transport, starts to become an area

this

looked at several organisationaJ mod-

tention

the existence

of new technologies transport

operators.

for cities and Inevitably,

pretension presupposes

where we necessarily have to pay atbeauty

els for local public transporto Amongst

spots that contain a large part of Euro-

of a critical mas s that allows the reduc-

the conclusions

obtained it is worth

pea n cultural heritage are going to be

tion of production costs and that lays

highlighting that restricted competition

regenerated and undergo an increase

down the vital foundations for the de-

is the best model to follow "if the po-

in value. The successful outcome of

velopment of a true market. In this con-

litical will and the technicaJ competence

projects, many of which were carried

text, we have seen how the programmes

of the authority are present".

out under the Thermie framework in

of the future will have to include large

It is obvious that the aim of recuper-

such cities as Caen, Ferrara, Trento,

scale demonstration projects in the real

ating the role of cities at all levels is

Evora, Salamanca,

world, once the stage of implementing

behind these strategies. They are strat-

Genoa and Dublin are plain to see.

specific one-off projects

egies that have a direct effect on two

have been

passed. In this sense it is important to remember the European Commission's

Venice, Bilbao,

1should also like to highJight the case

aspects that are essential for improve-

ofEuropean islands as another area that

ment: the environment and the recov-

requires urgent restructuring as far as

paper

ery of cultural heritage. These factors

its transport strategy goes. This is es-

entitled "The urban question, guide-

obviously affect the quality of Iife but

pecially true of those islands that have

lines for a debate" (1998) in which the

what is more they especialJy affect com-

undergone a sudden increase in tour-

following two, very new lines of work

petitiveness

ism and have adopted internal trans-

and economic

develop-

were proposed:

ment in an urban, service-based soci-

port systems that are based on imported

â&#x20AC;˘ Strengthen the role of local councils

ety.

un-adapted

transport which in so me

as main players in technologicaJ de-

With these premises, our accumulated

cases is leading to the island's opera-

velopment and the demonstration of

experience has been able to single out

tional collapse. The enormous environ-

new technologies,

quite specific ĂĄreas of application. For

mental impact and inefficiency of con-

in close connec-

tion with industrial and service companies with a view to meeting thepublic's needs in an efficient a way as possible.

ISIS terminal

ventional transport in places such as the Canary Islands and other islands in the Mediterranean,

with the conse-

quential deterioration

of the founda-

â&#x20AC;˘ Search for ways for consol idati ng the

tions of the tourist industry caJls for a

roJe of towns as places for experi-

complete turnaround in public trans-

menting with and disseminating new

port policy.

sustainable urban technologies,

es-

pecially in all the transport and energy technology-related

if these exceptional

These cases, together with clear situations in which inefficient transport leads to social exclusion, force us to

aspects.

The promotion of new public-private

reconsider the role of local and national

partnerships (PPP) clearly replies to this

governments and the European Com-

strategy. New types of formal associa-

mission in this field. These are situa-

tions able to bring together all the ac-

tions which we can include as candi-

tors in volved will undoubtedly

open

dates for the necessary development

new areas of technology for co-opera-

of large-scale, integrated demonstra-

tion and will allow the designing of in-

tion projects such as Targeted Trans-

novative ways offinancing investment

port Projects. The possibility that in the

in city transporto In this area, we shouJd

future our cities are going to be more

not forget to mention, as an example,

sustainable, fairer, habitable and com-

that the ISOTOPE project in the FP4

petitive depends upon the appropriate

Transport

choice of these projects.

lnternational

Research

Journal

Programme

of lsland Affairs

has

Secure

Web

Local administration lauthorlties

and SQL

server, e-cemmerce, databases. Platform

Otstrlbuled dalabases

Interfaces

Models lor

E A

e H

Schools

•

of commerce and

industry

::::::::=::::::::::-t=~-+~-

Telecentres

1()

=:J

Digital Islands Medis

Local

- r.presentatfve en1ltles

European

Chambre

Q.J

Proiect INSULA co-ordinates Framework

a new action in favour of islands that is being developed

Programme

(Information

Society

European islands' competitiveness,

Technologies)

of the European

within the V

expected results are considered

as a

their jobs, their quality of life and the

basic precondition

sustainability

communities, isolated regions and their

of growth, depend on

to provide island

they being at the leading edge of the

administrative

Information

integrated, multiservices telematic plat-

Society

Technologies.

organisations

MIGUEL

MONTESDEOCA*

Commission

with an

• Comparing the results with the figures provided at nationallevel by the European Survey of the Information Society. • Profiling alternative network telecom

developed

form and an "easy to use" set of tools

infrastructure

during the last years have demon-

that would allow them to share re-

European islands with potential for

strated that viability of telematic serv-

sources, to be competitive, innovative,

ices for islands depends largely on the

global and connected instead of iso-

integration of new services and prod-

lated, playing an active role in the in-

lic strategies from infrastructure con-

ucts and improving the existing ones,

formation society.

ditioned to service oriented.

Projects and experiences

in the

use in IS applications. • Helping local authorities to shift pub-

• Defining and evaluating new models

as well as from ~h~acceptance of such services by the concerned communi-

and services

THE

OBJECTIVE

oftelecommunications

networks and

telematic services for European is-

tieso It also depends on their introduc-

MEDIS' main aim is to expedite the

tion in as many islands and archipela-

contribution ofWormation Society Tech-

lands and other isolated

gos as possible to generate demand,

nologies to the death of isolation, by:

graphically dispersed areas, where

and on the availability of adequate tel-

• Providing an advanced picture ofthe

tele-education,

or geo-

tele-training,

tele-

state of the art about telecommuni-

work and e-commerce will not be the

cations and telematic infrastructures

final objective but a set of useful in-

regions are innovating at such a pace

and services in European islands.

struments used for the benefit of the

that only common effort can allow our

• Facilitating the provision of commu-

local communities and local authori-

islands and isolated regions to develop

nity services and the use of telematics

and keep up with the solutions, meth-

in different

ecommunications

infrastructures.

The more technologically developed

ods and models of innovation

that

tieso

sectors and activities

such as health,

social exclusion,

New models

and methodologies

would satisfy present and future needs.

transport and business. Related to

adapted to specific characteristics and needs of European islands and other

The aim of the MEDIS project is to gen-

commercial

erate an advanced picture of the state

participation of local authorities and

of the art about telecommunications

public bodies (i.e. chambers of com-

and telematic infrastructures and serv-

merce, regional development agen-

ices needs in European islands. The

cies, etc.) is a key aspect.

systems and business,

isolated areas will be defined and ana-

MEDIS - Project Manager

Iysed during the project activities. The results wil\ contribute to emphasise the

5HARE

TO COMPETE

an integral platform, enabling them to

Many initiatives are to be developed

local and regional aspect ofthe emerg-

in the European islands mainly in the

ing

field of tourism, but more is needed in

Information

Society,

and

act as a catalyst

for developing

telematics in their regions. For island communities,

the high

multicultural vision ofEurope. Not only

other areas such as health, education,

risks involved in investing in infrastruc-

because the local community and re-

training, the promotion oflocal and tra-

tures and interactive information sys-

gion is the foremost point at which di-

ditional products, etc. The problems

tems, oblige the local administrations

versity can be nurtured, enhanced and

arising out of these isolated initiatives

to take the lead and open up new mar-

integrated within the global cornmunity,

are, among others, duplicity of efforts,

ket opportunities路for

private partner-

but also because we wil\ increase the

greater cost and lack of local resources,

ships in the development, implementa-

potential for bridging space and dis-

restricted application of results, which

tion and maintenance of such systems.

tance associated with the new ICTs.

cannot be applied to other European

They also must act as catalyst for in-

The final result will be a "planning

regions.

novators and the private sector at 10-

manual".1t wil\ inc\ude worksheets for

By simultaneously

implementing

callevel. But their resources and knowl-

use during the planning process, de-

technological solutions, infrastructures

velopment

tools and tech-

and services, they will be able to link

available can not be tested at all the

niques, a list of existing and emerging

telematics to cultural heritage, the pro-

European

planning

edge are limited, and any of the options islands because it means

technologies, telematic services, refer-

vision of services, education, training,

duplicating efforts. Sharing experiences

ences to European Standards and or-

health, business and commercial sys-

and resources is a requisite to improve

ganisations and a self-appraisal checklist.

tems and to provide people and enter-

their knowledge and thus invest and

prises with access to tools and re-

stimulate in the correet direction.

WHY

cornmerce.

sources Jike tele-work and electronic

15 IT NECE55ARY?

The last years have seen the emergence of the "Information

Society",

The MEDIS initiative will provide a set of information, statistics, models,

Project activities wilI be carried out colIaboratively

across European

is-

methodologies

and

evaluation

protocols related to telematic services

where the key element is the informa-

lands in order to provide an European

for European islands, These results will

tion, and more of our daily activities

added-value,

enable governments, public agencies,

are dependent on access to informa-

terms of resources and users, and es-

business associations

tion. Broadening this access to all Eu-

tablish

island regions to implement or use ad-

reach a critical mass in

consensus

for sustai nable

and citizens of

ropean Islands is not only the final

growth and standardisation.

objective ofMEDIS project through the

to meet the needs and expectations of

share models that meet their needs and

European Telematic Island Service Net-

island communities for high quality and

expectations,

work, but also an essential social and

affordable services of general interest,

services and applications and promote

In order

vanced

applications

and services,

accredit the quality of

political challenge. We begin to wit-

networking will be an essential aspect

the development, demand and use of

ness the evolution of the "Information

to be taken into account.

efficient telematic systems and serv-

Society" into the "Knowledge

Based

Island peculiarities,

along with a

ices.

Society", and it is obvious that access

grpwing integration and convergence

One outstanding final result of the

to information alone is not the answer.

of information technology and commu-

MEDIS initiative will be the creation

What European islands need are the

nications, make it necessary to define

ODIN Consortium (Open and Digital

tools and skills, which will enable them

new service models and to provide the

Islands Network), a tool of high strate-

to turn that information into knowledge.

local authorities

gic interest for the support of European

Telematic applications and services will

with a set of instruments, designed as

of Europe's

islands

islands in these subjects.

enable cornmunities on islands to overcome isolation and to compete in the

MAIN PARTNERS OF THE PROJECT ANO AREAS OF INFLUENCE

global economy escaping to the risk of unequal regional development.

PROOOOS:

lonian and Aegean islands and archipelagos

The growing importance of informaCIES:

Small islands and archipelagos surrounding Italy

be considered as a necessary criterion,

ITER:

Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Balearic Islands

notjust when the service is first imple-

SILTANET: Baltic islands, including Saaremaa, Str贸mstad (Koster), Aland, ...

tion/content

means that quality must

mented, but also in all processes of in-

INSULA

dissemination.

French Antilles, Dutch Antilles

International

Journal

of Island Affairs

(co-ordinator):

Other European islands, including British islands,

formation acquisition, up grading and

owing to extremely different reasons and following various modalities, are facing the management of these isolated territories, the solution of their complex problems and the obstinacy of their inhabitants, which affirm their specificity and their difference.

::::J

lJ L L

The Resourcefulness of Jurisdiction EDITED BY GODFREY

The question of island management

(f)

Lessons Irom the Polltlcal Economy 01 5mall Islands:

DAVID

O O O

BALDACCHINO

MILNE

is not recent; it is neither an extraordinary case nor an exclusive subject of

Small islands often enjoy a distinct

only one State. Nevertheless, within an

juridical

European Un ion in rapid evolution, is

fully sovereign

What status lor Europe's Islands?

still a subject far from being regulated.

deploy this "gift of jurisdiction" to eco-

Quel statut pour les ¡'es d'Europe?

Community construction process, ask

tentially adverse effects of smallness,

themselves:

isolation and peripherality. These le-

BY JEAN-DIDIER

Islands for their part, looking at the

What should be the relationship with

HACHE

QUEL STATUT POUR LES tLES D'EUROPE?

offsetting the po-

gal powers, reflected

in supportive

ants,

economic resources in a development

not much

sensible

to their

singularities and the fragility of their

strategy. This book thus argues that

insular condition?

jurisdictional

most of which has been written by the island political

responsibles

them-

selves.

status is, in itself, a re-

source critical for economic development. The book documents

such lessons

from a most unlikely group of North Atlantic islands. It focuses on the experience of six, North Atlantic, cold-

ISLAND'S?

"What statusfor Europe's Islands?

L'I-t::natlan

The status of European Islands has evolved a lot during the last thirty years, and it is still evolving. These not

water islands boasting distinct consti-

- Quel statut pour les lles d' Europe?"

tutional

is a joint publication coordinated by

comparative

Jean-Didier

SOIJSLA HACHE

changes have their repercussions

nomic advantage,

policy and culture, are themselves key

found between the lines of this book,

OliVMGE co~"..ld.Aust COORDI.">ATION DE JEAN-DlOIER

Many, whether

or not, successfully

this Europe and its 380 million inhabit-

Answers to these questions can be

WHAT STATUS FOR EUROPE'S

personality.

- subjects of

research under the aus-

witñ the "Is-

pices of the North Atlantic Islands Pro-

lands Commission" ofthe Conference

gramme, co-ordinated by the Institute

of Peripheral Maritime Regions of

of Island Studies at the University of

Europe. This bilingual (FrenchlEng-

Prince Edward Island, in collaboration

lish)

with Nord-Refo, the Nordic Council for

book

Hache,

arrangements

has been published

byl'Harmattan, Polytechnique,

)

5-7 rue de l'Ecole Paris, France.

Regional Policy Research. The constitutional status of the target islands ranges from full sovereignty (Iceland), to federation (Prince Edward Island;

only within the State's national frame-

Newfoundland

work, but also at the European Union leve\.

federacy or home rule status (Faroe Is-

In the ministerial

lands; Isle of Man;

Áland Islands).

in the

The text explores how the different con-

services, in the public

stitutional, political and cultural fea-

administrations and in the Parliaments,

tures of these islands are deployed in

political

strategic economic thinking and plan-

Commission's

and

cabinets,

& Labrador)

administrative

responsibles asked, are asking and will

ning, leading these jurisdictions to craft

keep asking themselves: is it necessary

a real "political economy".

to conceive a particular statute or system for each island? One of the objectives of this collec-

Basingstoke, Macmillan Press (UK) & New York, St Martin 's Press (USA).

tive work is to reassure them: through-

ISBN - 0-333-77817-0

out Europe the responsible authorities,

Published: June 2000

CRES-Seminar

RES-Powered desalinalion Syslems in Ihe Medilerranean Region: From idenlificalion lo proiecl implemenlalion Limassol-Cyprus, 1-2 September, 2000 Renewable Energy Sources and in

of the seminar in-

The seminar is organised by the Cen-

tute a "clean" and economically feasi-

Pramotion and dissemination of the

(CRES) with the support of the Euro-

ble supply of energy for desalination and

results, findings and case studies of

pean Comrnission, in cooperation with

provide a reliable tool for rural applica-

the MEDCODESAL project

the NationaJ Technical University of

tions. The understanding of the relation-

• Highlight the tool importance

particular wind and solar energy consti-

elude:

tre for Renewable Energy Resources

and

Athens, EMC (Environmental Manage-

ship between sustainable development,

especially GIS tools in the analysis

ment Consultants),

water management and energy use is

of regional water problem and the

Ingénierie Développement and Forma-

the central objective of the MEDCO-

support of water management deci-

tion) and the UNESCO.

sions and policies.

For information:

DESAL project. It aims to identify and

SIDEF (Service

quantify current and future trends on

• Presentation ofthe international state-

water shortage prablems in the Eastern

of-the-art of the existing desalination

Te!.: +30 1 6039900 Fax: +30 1 6039911

Mediterranean countries.

policies and technologies.

E-mail: minadaki@cres.gr

9th Inlernalional

world's reef resources

Coral Reef Symposium

during the next cen-

The lndonesian government, with the support from the lndonesian scientific cornmu-

The objectives

CRES (Mrs. D. Minadaki)

tury. This initiati ve is of particular tance

for

imporislands,

which, as a whole.Jiost a great part of the coral communities ofthe world. The International Coral ReefInitiative

nity and the International Society for

is a partnership among nations and or-

Reef Studies wilI host the 9th Interna-

ganizations seeking to implement Chap-

tional Coral Reef Symposium, that will

ter 17 of Agenda 21, and other interna-

be held in Bali on 23-27 October 2000.

tional conventions and agreements, for

The International Coral Reef Syrnpo-

the benefit of coral reefs and related eco-

sium is heId every four years. Growing

systems.

from humble beginnings in India in 1969,

ments - Australia, Franc~apan,

the most recent, held in Panama City in

maica, the Philippines,

June 1996, attracted around 1500 par-

United Kingdom and the United States

environmental and developmental NGOs

ticipants - especially

of America - the ICRI was announced at

and the private sector.

scientists,

stu-

Founded

by eight governJa-

Sweden, the

dents, managers, policy makers and

the First Conference of the Parties of

conservationists. Coral reefs are in seri-

the Convention on BiologicaJ Diversity

ous decline globally, especially those

in December 1994, and at the high level

near

segmentofthe U.N. Comrnission on Sus-

Hotel Wisata lnternational,

populations. It has been estimated that

tainable Development

Suite 302, J!. M.H. Thamrin

10 percent ofthe Earth's coral reefs have

Meeting in April 1995. Since then, the

shallow

shel ves and

dense

Intersessional

Contact 9th lnternational Royalindo

Jakarta

Coral Reef Symposium

lnternational

INDONESIA

Attention of Ms. Evita Nursanty,

already been seriously degraded and a

ICRI has come to encompass the par-

much greater percentage is threatened.

ticipation of additional partners from

If alIowed to continue, this decline is

governments, United Nations organiza-

Fax: (62 - 21) 334470,3150886

likely to lead to the loss of most of the

tions, multilateral development banks,

email: evita@royalindo.co.id

International

Journal

of lsland Affairs

Managing

Director

Te!.: (62-21) 3140982

European Islanders call lor IWhite Paper on Islands

(f)

On the ll-13th of May, at the invita-

The outcome of the Kos conference,

States have adopted two artieles (arti-

tion of the Ministry for the Aegean,

which was attended by representatives

ele 154 and 158) and a Joint Declara-

elected representatives corning from all

of the Greek government

tion (Deelaration N°30) addressing the

the European island regions have gath-

various European Institutions,

ered in the island ofKos (South Aegean),

call for the European Commission to

for the XXth annual conference of the

draft a "White Paper" on the practical

cluded to deal with the issue of "outer-

"Islands Comrnission" of the Conference

implementation of the E.U Treaty arti-

most" regions (i.e: the Canary Islands,

ofPeripheral Maritime Regions (CPMR).

eles regarding islands.

Madeira,

The Islands Cornmission of CPMR is

and of the was a

It will be remembered that, succes-

the main Islands "lobby group" within

sively, in the course of the Maastricht

the European Union, and has 25 mem-

Treaty and of the Amsterdam Treaty,

ber regions.

the European

Community

Member

issue of Europe's Islands. Furthermore, a specific article (article 299§2) was in-

the Azores, or the French

Départements

d'Outre-Mer)

most of

which are islands. For further information:

www.crpm.org

Sustainable Hotels lor Sustainable Destinations International

Conference,

Maspalomas (Canary Islands) October 26-28,

2000 Hotels for Sustainable Destinations"

This Conference will be held on 26-

The reason why this Conference is

28 October 2000. Main actors for in-

held in the world's biggest island tour-

will be not only to get together and

novation in responsible

tourism will

ist resort is related to the size of such a

publicize these experiences, but also to

meet in Maspalomas (Gran Canaria -

big change and the new alliance be-

face in a different way the new techno-

Canary Islands): hotel companies, tour

tween technology and tourism in fa-

logical challenges of a responsible ho-

operators, institutes working on new

vour of sustainable mento

tel industry.

technology

research

and develop-

ment, representatives of Governments and tourist destinations,

island develop\

The title of the Conference is "Sus-

Conference's main working areas are

consultants,

tainable Hotels for Sustainable Destina-

centred on:

service suppliers and manufacturers.

tions", It is being organised by the In-

• Renewable Energy Sources

It will be an excellent opportunity for

stitute of Responsible

• Rational use of energy: energy sav-

the establishment of joint actions and

Municipality of S. Bartolorné de Tirajana

ing and efficiency

real practices of co-operation

and the Canary Islands Government,

• Water management:

in the

Tourism, the

key sector of the tourist destinations'

with the sponsorship of UNESCO and

evolution at the threshold of the new millennium,

INSULA

Hoteles Sesteníbles para Destinos Sosteníbles Suslllinable

HOT~151lJr

Sastaínabíe Deslinations

thecooperation ofUN-DSD (SIDS Unit). supports

this Conference

saving, recu-

peration and purification • Waste management: reduction, recyeling and re-using

through the European Islan¿ OPET (Or-

• Bio-elimatic architecture

ganisation for the Promotion of Energy

• Alternative transports in tourist des-

Technology),

which co-ordinates

is-

lands' energy actions within the Euro-

tinations. Low and zero emission • Telematic tools

pean Comrnission contexto "From Theory to Practice" is the cen-

.M~~,:~~?~ ,~

..._,.~..;''''''''''=~lIWm'WAIN

One of the final objectives of the

tral idea of this meeting. Now, almost

Conference will be the consolidation

ten years after Rio and five years after

of the Sustainable Hotels Forum, espe-

the World Conference on Sustainable

cially directed to the hotel and tourist

Tourism, we can witness several suc-

service sector.

cessful initiatives of responsible tourism. The final target of "Sustainable

Web site: www.shforum.com

u e :::J

e e 10

New Cenlury, New CII.llenge. On 17 December 1998, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted resolution 53/202 by which it decided to designate the 55th session the General Assernbly to be opened on 5 September 2000 as " The Millennium Assembly of the United Nations" and to convene a "Millennium Summit ofthe United Nations", In endorsing the proposal for the Millennium Assembly and Millennium Summit, which has been put forward by the Secretary-General,

the Gen-

eral Assembly decided that the tum of the century constitutes a

ahead.

unique and symbolically compelling moment for the membership of

challenges, if its Members share a renewed sense of

The United Nations can help meet those

the United Nations to articulate and affirm an animating vision for

mission. Founded to introduce new principies into

the United Nations in the new era.

international

relations in 1945, the UN has suc-

The new millennium, and the Millennium Summit, offer the world's

ceeded better in some are as than others. This is a

peoples a unique occasion to reflect on their common destiny, at a

chance to reshape the United Nations so that it can

moment when they find themselves interconnected

as never be-

fore. They look to their leaders to identify and act on the challenges

make a real and measurable difference to people's lives in the new century

Businea and Invest.enl Fo•••• for Re~ewa"leEnergy and Energy EfRci~ in AsIa and 'he Paclflc

WORLD

( It will be held in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) on 4-7 September 2000. The Forum's objective is to serve as a platforrn for establishing

adequate

Secretariat of the Malaysian Organising Cornmittee 35-2nd Floor Jalan Ara

laysia,

The event is organised

Director-General

SD 7/3A Bandar Sri Damansara 52200

the Secretary-General

Kuala Lumpur Malaysia

the

UNESCO,

business and in-

United Nations, the Executive Director of UNEP and the President of World Bank.

implementation

of various renewable

energy and energy efficiency (RE & EE) projects throughout the world, particu-

under the

auspices of the Prime Minister of Ma-

vestment opportunities to support the

funding, financing,

For information contact: Business

and Investment

Forum

for REE&EE in Asia and The Pacific

the Pacifico

2000

Journal

of Island Affairs

Tel: Fax:

larly in 48 member countries of Asia and

International

SOLAR PROGRAMME 1996-2005

(603) 635 8187

(603) 635 8068 / 635 1187

E-mail: reee2000@ecoenergy.com.my Website: reee2000

www.eco-energy.com.my/

-.Joln ond SUDDOrC InSULo

JOln and SUDDort, InSULa

International Scientific Council for Island Development (INSULA) was formally created in November 1989 as an international non-governmental organisation whose aim is to contribute to shape island awareness and develop islands' common future, supporting necessary co-operation and information actions in the scientific and technological fields. The aims of INSULA are to contri bute to the econornic, social and cultural progress of islands throughout the world, as to the protection of island environment and the sustainable development of their resources. Within such a context, INSULA cooperates with UNESCO and other international organisations, as well as institutions at the national or regional level sharing the same goals and interests. Through its international and multidisciplinary network of experts and research.ers, INSULA contributes towards balanced, sustainable development initiatives undertaken by island authorities. Through its initiatives, INSULA seeks to facilitate or favour:

•Inaula ,

the International Journal of Island Affairs, is published by the IntemationaI Scientific Council for Islands Development. The aim of the joumal is to create a worIdwide forurn for all those who consider islands as an irnportant part of mankind's heritage deserving majar attention. Contributors can use the Joumal to share news and views about the islands of the worId frorn a variety of perspectives, including the following: t-

Z LLI

• Environmental management

• Natural resources conservation

• Water • Liquid and solid waste management

Z lI:lIIi:

> Z

• Prevention of natural hazards

LLI

O ~ ....•

• Technical co-operation in all fields relating to sustainable

:::l A.

island development with a special interest in island cul-

O A.

• Demographic trends • Health • Human geography, human resources • Education and training • Culture • Traditional knowledge

tures and human resources development. • The exchange of information and experience through the publication and diffusion of periodicaljournals,

books and

reports, using the international and multidisciplinary

net-

work represented by INSULA members.

• General economics • Tourism and Transports • Agriculture and aquaculture • Fishing and ocean resources

• Inter-island agreements directed towards the defence of

• Bio-technologies

islands' common interests in the framework of sustainable

• Industry and mining

development, at level of governments and public adminis-

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trations as well as technical and scientific institutions.

• Renewable energy

For the attainrnent of its aims, INSULA promotes intemational co-operation projects, assists islands directly, organises seminars and conferences at national, regional and intemational levels and promotes a direct dialogue with and between the authorities and the populations of different islands and island groups. It also promotes co-operation and exchange of experience and expertise between islands of a given region as well as at the inter-regionallevel. INSULA's task is to favour the passage from theory to practice, supporting the actions which contribute to a sustainable and fair development of every island of the world.

Join and support

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The journaI will publish articles and communications that provide new insights and understanding about the subjects mentioned above and invites authors to submit their studies and comments. Guidelines of style can be obtained from the editorial office at the address appearing below. INSULA • The International loumal of Island Affairs is distributed free of charge to members of INSULA

•Inaula,

For individual and group membership in INSULA, see overleaf.

~oln ono suooorc InsuLa APPLlCATION

FOR MEMBERSHIP OF INSULA

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Tel: (331) 45 68 40 56, Fax: (331) 45 68 58 04; email: insula@insula.org

International

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of Island Affairs

I I I I I I I I ~I

2010 ISLANDS 2010 is an initiative developed by INSULA and the ITER with the support of the ECls Altener programme

Renewable Eneroy Sources lor Island Sustainable Development Towards 1 00% RES solutions Our objective is to help giving an answer to tnese questions:

hat are the most appropriate technologies? Which specific regulations do we need? W at are our reference experiences? W~ich market strategies we should follow? Wl1at are the island priorities in 1+ D? Instruments

European Island Agenda on RES Island 2010 Virtual Centre 100% RES Guideline of Islands of Europe

o::::

w !::::: ~ •

Instituto Tecnol6g1co y de Energías Renovables S.A.

•msula * *