Mythological underground 2 by procedural

Mythological Underground

Chapter 1

Greek underworld For other uses, see Underworld (disambiguation). The Greek underworld, in mythology, is an otherworld where souls go after death, and is the original Greek idea of afterlife. At the moment of death the soul is separated from the corpse, taking on the shape of the former person, and is transported to the entrance of the Underworld.[1] The Underworld itself is described as being either at the outer bounds of the ocean or beneath the depths or ends of the earth.[2] It is considered the dark counterpart to the brightness of Mount Olympus, and is the kingdom of the dead that corresponds to the kingdom of the gods.[3] Hades is a realm invisible to the living, made solely for the dead.[4]

1.1 Geography 1.1.1

Rivers

There are five main rivers that are visible both in the living world and the underworld. Their names were meant to reflect the emotions associated with death.[5] • The Styx is generally considered to be one of the most prominent and central rivers of the Underworld and is also the most widely known out of all the rivers. It’s known as the river of hatred and is named after the goddess Styx. This river circles the underworld seven times.[6] • The Acheron is the river of pain. It’s the one that Charon, also known as the Ferryman, rows the dead over according to many mythological accounts, though sometimes it is the river Styx or both.[7] • The Lethe is the river of forgetfulness. It is associated with the goddess Lethe, the goddess of forgetfulness and oblivion. In later accounts, a poplar branch dripping with water of the Lethe became the symbol of Hypnos, the god of sleep.[8] • The Phlegethon is the river of fire. According to Plato, this river leads to the depths of Tartarus. • The Cocytus is the river of wailing. • Oceanus is the river that encircles the world,[9] and it marks the east edge of the underworld,[10] as Erebos is west of the mortal world.

1.1.2

Entrance of the Underworld

In front of the entrance to the underworld live Grief, Anxiety, Diseases, and Old Age. Fear, Hunger, Death, Agony, and Sleep also live in front of the entrance, together with Guilty Joys. On the opposite threshold is War, the Erinyes, and Eris. Close to the doors are many beasts, including Centaurs, Gorgons, the Lernaean Hydra, the Chimera, and Harpies. In the midst of all this, an Elm can be seen where false dreams cling under every leaf. The souls that enter the Underworld carry a coin under their tongue to pay Charon to take them across the river. Charon may make exceptions or allowances for those visitors carrying a certain Golden Bough. Charon is appallingly 2

1.2. DEITIES

ﬁlthy, with eyes like jets of ﬁre, a bush of unkempt beard upon his chin, and a dirty cloak hanging from his shoulders. Although Charon embarks now one group now another, some souls he grimly turns away. These are the unburied which can't be taken across from bank to bank until they receive a proper burial. Across the river, guarding the gates of the Underworld is Cerberus. There is also an area where the Judges of the Underworld decide where to send the souls of the person — to Elysium, the Fields of Asphodel, or Tartarus.[11]

1.1.3

Tartarus

While Tartarus is not considered to be directly a part of the underworld, it is described as being as far beneath the underworld as the earth is beneath the sky.[12] It is so dark that the “night is poured around it in three rows like a collar round the neck, while above it grows the roots of the earth and of the unharvested sea.”[13] Tartarus is the place that Zeus cast the Titans along with his father Cronus after defeating them.[14] Homer wrote that Cronus then became the king of Tartarus.[15] While Odysseus does not see them himself, he mentions some of the people within the underworld who are experiencing punishment for their sins.

1.1.4

Asphodel Meadows

The Asphodel Meadows was a place for ordinary or indiﬀerent souls who did not commit any signiﬁcant crimes, but who also did not achieve any greatness or recognition that would warrant them being admitted to the Elysian Fields. It was where mortals who did not belong anywhere else in the Underworld were sent.[16]

1.1.5

Mourning Fields

In the Aeneid, the Mourning Fields (Lugentes Campi) was a section of the underworld reserved for souls who wasted their lives for unrequited love. Those mentioned as residents of this place are Dido, Phaedra, Procris, Eriphyle, Pasiphaë, Evadne, Laodamia, and Caeneus.[17][18]

1.1.6

Elysium

Elysium was a place for the especially distinguished. It was ruled over by Rhadamanthus, and the souls that dwelled there had an easy afterlife and had no labors.[19] Usually, those who had proximity to the gods were granted admission, rather than those who were especially righteous or had ethical merit. Most accepted to Elysium were demigods or heroes.[12] Heroes such as Cadmus, Peleus, and Achilles also were transported here after their deaths. Normal people who lived righteous and virtuous lives could also gain entrance such as Socrates who proved his worth suﬃciently through philosophy.[12]

1.1.7

Isles of the Blessed

The Fortunate Isles or Isles of the Blessed were islands in the realm of Elysium. When a soul achieved Elysium, they had a choice to either stay in Elysium or to be reborn. If a soul was reborn three times and achieved Elysium all three times, then they were sent to the Isles of the Blessed to live in eternal paradise.

1.2 Deities 1.2.1

Hades

Hades (Aides, Aidoneus, or Haidês), the eldest son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea; brother of Zeus and Poseidon, is the Greek god of the underworld.[20] When the three brothers divided the world between themselves, Zeus received the heavens, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld; the earth itself was divided between the three. Therefore, while Hades’ responsibility was in the Underworld, he was allowed to have power on earth as well.[21] However, Hades himself is rarely seen outside his domain, and to those on earth his intentions and personality are a mystery.[22] In art and literature Hades is depicted as stern and digniﬁed, but not as a ﬁerce torturer or devil-like.[21] However, Hades

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was considered the enemy to all life and was hated by both the gods and men; sacriﬁces and prayers did not appease him so mortals rarely tried.[23] He was also not a tormenter of the dead, and sometimes considered the “Zeus of the dead” because he was hospitable to them.[24] Due to his role as lord of the underworld and ruler of the dead, he was also known as Zeus Khthonios (“the infernal Zeus” or “Zeus of the lower world”). Those who received punishment in Tartarus were assigned by the other gods seeking vengeance. In Greek society, many viewed Hades as the least liked god and many gods even had an aversion towards him, and when people would sacriﬁce to Hades, it would be if they wanted revenge on an enemy or something terrible to happen to them.[25] Hades was sometimes referred to as Pluto and was represented in a lighter way – here, he was considered the giver of wealth, since the crops and the blessing of the harvest come from below the earth.[26]

1.2.2

Persephone

Persephone (also known as Kore) was the daughter of Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, and Zeus. Persephone was abducted by Hades, who desired a wife. When Persephone was gathering flowers, she was entranced by a narcissus flower planted by Gaia (to lure her to the Underworld as a favor to Hades), and when she picked it the earth suddenly opened up.[27] Hades, appearing in a golden chariot, seduced and carried Persephone into the underworld. When Demeter found out that Zeus had given Hades permission to abduct Persephone and take her as a wife, Demeter became enraged at Zeus and stopped growing harvests for the earth. To soothe her, Zeus sent Hermes to the Underworld to return Persephone to her mother. However, she had eaten six pomegranate seeds in the Underworld and was thus eternally tied to the Underworld, since the pomegranate seed was sacred there.[28] Persephone could then only leave the Underworld when the earth was blooming, or every season except the winter. The Homeric Hymns describes the abduction of Persephone by Hades: I sing now of the great Demeter Of the beautiful hair, And of her daughter Persephone Of the lovely feet, Whom Zeus let Hades tear away From her mother’s harvests And friends and flowers— Especially the Narcissus, Grown by Gaia to entice the girl As a favor to Hades, the gloomy one. This was the flower that Left all amazed, Whose hundred buds made The sky itself smile. When the maiden reached out To pluck such beauty, The earth opened up And out burst Hades … The son of Kronos, Who took her by force On his chariot of gold, To the place where so many Long not to go. Persephone screamed, She called to her father, All-powerful and high, … But Zeus had allowed this. He sat in a temple Hearing nothing at all, Receiving the sacrifices of Supplicating men.[1] 1. ^ Leeming, Demeter and Persephone

1.2. DEITIES

Persephone herself is considered a ﬁtting other half to Hades because of the meaning of her name which bears the Greek root for “killing” and the -phone in her name means “putting to death.”[21]

1.2.3

Hecate

Hecate was variously associated with crossroads, entrance-ways, dogs, light, the Moon, magic, witchcraft, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, necromancy, and sorcery.[29][30]

1.2.4

The Erinyes

The Erinyes (also known as the Furies) were the three goddesses associated with the souls of the dead and the avenged crimes against the natural order of the world. They consist of Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone. They were particularly concerned with crimes done by children against their parents such as matricide, patricide, and unfilial conduct. They would inflict madness upon the living murderer, or if a nation was harboring such a criminal, the Erinyes would cause starvation and disease to the nation.[31] The Erinyes were dreaded by the living since they embodied the vengeance of the person who was wronged against the wrongdoer.[32] Often the Greeks made “soothing libations" to the Erinyes to appease them so as to not invoke the wrath of Erinyes, and overall the Erinyes received many more libations and sacrifices than other gods of the underworld.[33] The Erinyes were depicted as ugly and winged women with their bodies intertwined with serpents.[34]

1.2.5

Hermes

While Hermes did not primarily reside in the Underworld and is not usually associated with the Underworld, he was the one who led the souls of the dead to the underworld. In this sense, he was known as Hermes Psychopompos and with his fair golden wand he was able to lead the dead to their new home. He was also called upon by the dying to assist in their passing - some called upon him to have painless deaths or be able to die when and where they believed they were meant to die.[35]

1.2.6

Judges of the Underworld

Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus are the judges of the dead. They judged the deeds of the deceased and created the laws that governed the underworld. However, none of the laws provided a true justice to the souls of the dead, and the dead did not receive rewards for following them or punishment for wicked actions.[36] Aeacus was the guardian of the Keys of the Underworld and the judge of the men of Europe. Rhadamanthys was Lord of Elysium and judge of the men of Asia. Minos was the judge of the ﬁnal vote.

1.2.7

Charon

Charon is the ferryman who, after receiving a soul from Hermes, would guide them across the rivers Styx and/or Acheron to the underworld. At funerals, the deceased traditionally had an obol placed over their eye or under their tongue, so they could pay Charon to take them across. To the Etruscans, Charon was considered a fearsome being - he wielded a hammer and was hook-nosed, bearded, and had animalistic ears with teeth.[12] In other early Greek depictions, Charon was considered merely an ugly bearded man with a conical hat and tunic.[37] Later on, in more modern Greek folklore, he was considered more angelic, like the Archangel Michael. Nevertheless, Charon was considered a terrifying being since his duty was to bring these souls to the Underworld and no one would persuade him to do otherwise.

1.2.8

Cerberus

Cerberus (Kerberos), or the “Hell-Hound,” is Hades’ massive multi-headed (usually three-headed)[38][39][40] dog with some descriptions stating that it also has a snake-headed tail and snake heads on its back and as its mane. Born from Echidna and Typhon, Cerberus guards the gate that serves as the entrance of the Underworld.[21] Cerberus’ duty is to prevent dead people from leaving the Underworld.

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Heracles once borrowed Cerberus as the ﬁnal part of the Labours of Heracles. Orpheus once soothed it to sleep with his music.

1.2.9

Thanatos

Thanatos is the personiﬁcation of death. He guards the Doors of Death.

1.2.10

Melinoë

Melinoe is a chthonic nymph, daughter of Persephone, invoked in one of the Orphic Hymns and propitiated as a bringer of nightmares and madness.[41] She may also be the ﬁgure named in a few inscriptions from Anatolia,[42] and she appears on a bronze tablet in association with Persephone.[43] The hymns, of uncertain date but probably composed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, are liturgical texts for the mystery religion known as Orphism. In the hymn, Melinoë has characteristics that seem similar to Hecate and the Erinyes,[44] and the name is sometimes thought to be an epithet of Hecate.[45] The terms in which Melinoë is described are typical of moon goddesses in Greek poetry.

1.2.11

Nyx

Nyx is the goddess of the Night.

1.2.12 Tartarus A deep abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suﬀering for the wicked and as the prison for the Titans,[46] Tartarus was also considered to be a primordial deity.

1.2.13

Achlys

Achlys is the personiﬁcation of misery and sadness, sometimes represented as a daughter of Nyx, sometimes as an ancient being even older than Chaos himself.

1.2.14

Styx

Styx is the goddess of the river with the same name. Not much is known about her, but she is an ally of Zeus and lives in the Underworld.

1.2.15

Eurynomos

Eurynomos is one of the daemons of the underworld, who eats oﬀ all the ﬂesh of the corpses, leaving only their bones.

1.3 The dead In the Greek underworld, the souls of the dead still existed but they are insubstantial and they ﬂitted around the underworld with no sense of purpose.[47] The dead within the Homeric Underworld lack menos, or strength, and therefore they cannot inﬂuence those on earth. They also lack phrenes, or wit, and are heedless of what goes on around them and on the earth above them.[48] Their lives in the underworld were very neutral, so all social statuses and political positions were eliminated and no one was able to use their previous lives to their advantage in the underworld.[36] The idea of progress did not exist in the Greek Underworld – at the moment of death, the psyche was frozen, in experience and appearance. The souls in the Underworld did not age or really change in any sense. They did not lead any sort of active life in the Underworld – they were exactly the same as they were in life.[49] Therefore, those who

1.4. GREEK ATTITUDES

had died in battle were eternally blood-spattered in the underworld and those who had died peacefully were able to remain that way.[50] Overall the Greek dead were considered to be irritable and unpleasant, but not dangerous or malevolent. They grew angry if they felt a hostile presence near their graves and drink offerings were given in order to appease them so as not to anger the dead.[51] Mostly blood offerings were given due to the fact that they needed the essence of life to become communicative and conscious again.[36] This is shown in Homer’s Odyssey, where Odysseus had to give blood in order for the souls to interact with him. While in the underworld, the dead passed the time through simple pastimes such as playing games, as shown from objects found in tombs such as dice and game-boards.[52] Grave gifts such as clothing, jewelry, and food were left by the living for use in the Underworld as well since many viewed these gifts to carry over into the Underworld.[49] There was not a general consensus as to whether the dead were able to consume food or not. Homer depicted the dead as unable to eat or drink unless they had been summoned; however, some reliefs portray the Underworld as having many elaborate feasts.[52] While not completely clear, it is implied that the dead could still have sexual intimacy with another, although no children were produced. The Greeks also showed belief in the possibility of marriage in the Underworld, which in a sense describes the Greek Underworld having no difference than from their current life.[53] Lucian described the people of the Underworld as simple skeletons. They are indistinguishable from each other, and it is impossible to tell who was wealthy or important in the living world.[54] However, this view of the Underworld was not universal – Homer depicts the dead keeping their familiar faces. Hades itself was free from the concept of time. The dead are aware of both the past and the future, and in poems describing Greek heroes, the dead helped move the plot of the story by prophesying and telling truths unknown to the hero.[49] The only way for humans to communicate with the dead was to suspend time and their normal life to reach Hades, the place beyond immediate perception and human time.[49]

1.4 Greek attitudes The Greeks had a deﬁnite belief that there was a journey to the afterlife or another world. They believed that death was not a complete end to life or human existence.[55] The Greeks accepted the existence of the soul after death, but saw this afterlife as meaningless.[56] In the underworld, the identity of a dead person still existed, but it had no strength or true inﬂuence. Rather, the continuation of the existence of the soul in the Underworld was considered a remembrance of the fact that the dead person had existed, yet while the soul still existed, it was inactive.[57] However, the price of death was considered a great one. Homer believed that the best possible existence for humans was to never be born at all, or die soon after birth, because the greatness of life could never balance the price of death.[58] The Greek gods only rewarded heroes who were still living; heroes that died were ignored in the afterlife. However, it was considered very important to the Greeks to honor the dead and was seen as a type of piety. Those who did not respect the dead opened themselves to the punishment of the gods – for example, Odysseus ensured Ajax’s burial, or the gods would be angered.[59]

1.5 Myths and stories 1.5.1

Orpheus

Orpheus, a poet and musician that had almost supernatural abilities to move anyone to his music, descended to the Underworld as a living mortal to retrieve his dead wife Eurydice after she was bitten by a poisonous snake on their wedding day. With his lyre-playing skills, he was able to put a spell on the guardians of the underworld and move them with his music.[60] With his beautiful voice he was able to convince Hades and Persephone to allow him and his wife to return to the living. The rulers of the Underworld agreed, but under one condition – Eurydice would have to follow behind Orpheus and he could not turn around to look at her. Once Orpheus reached the entrance, he turned around, longing to look at his beautiful wife, only to watch as his wife faded back into the Underworld. He was forbidden to return to the Underworld a second time and he spent his life playing his music to the birds and the mountains.[61]

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1.6 References [1] Long, J. Bruce (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 9452. [2] Garland, Robert (1985). The Greek Way of Death. London: Duckworth. p. 49. [3] Fairbanks, Arthur (1 January 1900). “The Chthonic Gods of Greek Religion”. The American Journal of Philology. 21 (3): 242. JSTOR 287716. doi:10.2307/287716. [4] Albinus, Lars (2000). The House of Hades: studies in ancient Greek eschatology. Aarhus University Press: Aarhus. p. 67. [5] Mirto, Maria Serena; A. M Osborne (2012). Death in the Greek World: From Homer to the Classical Age. Normal: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 16. [6] Leeming, David. “Styx”. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2 December 2012. [7] Buxton, R.G.A (2004). The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 209. [8] “Theoi Project: Lethe”. Retrieved September 30, 2012. [9] The Iliad [10] The Odyssey [11] http://www.maicar.com/GML/Underworld.html [12] Buxton pg.213 [13] Garland pg.51 [14] Garland pg.50 [15] Albinus pg.87 [16] The Greek Underworld [17] Wordsworth, William. Knight, William (edit.). The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, Volume 6. MacMillan & Co. 1896; pg. 14. [18] Virgil. Fairclough, H. Rushton (trans.). Virgil: Eclogues. Georgics. Aeneid I-VI. Vol. 1. William Heinemann. G.P. Putnam’s Sons. 1916. [19] Albinus pg.86 [20] “Theoi Project: Haides”. Retrieved December 2, 2012. [21] O'Cleirigh, Padraig (2000). An Introduction to Greek mythology : story, symbols, and culture. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 190. [22] Mirto pg.21 [23] Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities. Harper. p. 761. [24] Garland pg.52 [25] Hades [26] Peck pg.761 [27] Leeming, David. “Demeter and Persephone”. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2 December 2012. [28] Pﬁster, F (1961). Greek Gods and Heroes. London: Macgibbon & Kee. p. 86. [29] “HECATE : Greek goddess of witchcraft, ghosts & magic ; mythology ; pictures : HEKATE”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [30] d'Este, Sorita & Rankine, David, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009. [31] “Theoi Project: Erinyes”. Retrieved October 8, 2012.

1.6. REFERENCES

[32] Fairbanks pg.251 [33] Fairbanks pg.255 [34] Theoi Project: Erinyes [35] Garland pgs.54-55 [36] Long pg.9453 [37] “Theoi Project: Kharon”. Retrieved December 2, 2012. [38] “Cerberus”. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2009-07-16. [39] “Yahoo! Deducation”. [40] Cerberus definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. [41] Orphic Hymn 70 or 71 (numbering varies), as given by Richard Wünsch, Antikes Zaubergerät aus Pergamon (Berlin, 1905), p. 26: Μηλινόην καλέω, νύμφην χθονίαν, κροκόπεπλον, ἣν παρὰ Κωκυτοῦ προχοαῖς ἐλοχεύσατο σεμνὴ Φερσεφόνη λέκτροις ἱεροῖς Ζηνὸς Κρονίοιο ᾗ ψευσθεὶς Πλούτων᾽ἐμίγη δολίαις ἀπάταισι, θυμῷ Φερσεφόνης δὲ διδώματον ἔσπασε χροιήν, ἣ θνητοὺς μαίνει φαντάσμασιν ἠερίοισιν, ἀλλοκότοις ἰδέαις μορφῆς τὐπον έκκπροφανοῦσα, ἀλλοτε μὲν προφανής, ποτὲ δὲ σκοτόεσσα, νυχαυγής, ἀνταίαις ἐφόδοισι κατὰ ζοφοειδέα νύκτα. ἀλλἀ, θεά, λίτομαί σε, καταχθονίων Βασίλεια, ψυχῆς ἐκπέμπειν οἶστρον ἐπὶ τέρματα γαίης, εὐμενὲς εὐίερον μύσταις φαίνουσα πρόσωπον. [42] Jennifer Lynn Larson, Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 268. [43] Radcliffe G. Edmonds III, “Orphic Mythology,” in A Companion to Greek Mythology (Blackwell, 2011), note 58, p. 100; Apostolos N. Athanassakis, The Orphic Hymns: Text, Translation, and Notes (Scholars Press, 1977), p. viii. [44] Edmonds, “Orphic Mythology,” pp. 84–85. [45] Ivana Petrovic, Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (C.H. Beck, 1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 16. [46] Georg Autenrieth. "Τάρταρος". A Homeric Dictionary. Retrieved 7 April 2012. [47] Mikalson, Jon D (2010). Ancient Greek Religion. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 177. [48] Garland pg.1 [49] Albinus pg.27 [50] Garland pg.74 [51] Garland pgs.5-6 [52] Garland pg.70 [53] Garland pg.71 [54] O’Cleirigh pg.191 [55] Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Eleni Tsilika; Efi Parpa; Emmanuel Katsouda; Lambros Vlahos (1 December 2004). “Death and Grief in the Greek Culture”. Omega: the Journal of Death and Dying. 50 (1): 24. doi:10.2190/YYAU-R4MN-AKKMT496. Retrieved 4 December 2012. [56] Mikalson pg.178 [57] Mystakidou pg.25

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[58] Mystakidou pg.24 [59] Garland pg.8 [60] Albinus pg.105 [61] Hamilton, Edith. “The Story of Orpheus and Eurydice”. Retrieved December 2, 2012.

1.7 Bibliography • Albinus, Lars (2000). The House of Hades: Studies in Ancient Greek Eschatology. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. • Buxton, R (2004). The complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. • Camus, Albert. “The Myth of Sisyphus”. Retrieved 3 December 2012. • Fairbanks, Arthur (1900). “The Chthonic Gods of Greek Religion”. The American Journal of Philology. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 21 (3): 241–259. JSTOR 287716. doi:10.2307/287716. • Garland, Robert (1985). The Greek Way of Death. London: Duckworth. • Leeming, David. “Demeter and Persephone”. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2 December 2012. • Leeming, David. “Styx”. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2 December 2012. • Long, J. Bruce (2005). “Underworld”. Encyclopedia of Religion. Macmillan Reference USA. 14: 9451–9458. • Mirtro, Marina Serena (2012). Death in the Greek world : from Homer to the classical age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. • Mikalson, Jon D (2010). Ancient Greek Religion. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. • Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Tsilika, Eleni; Parpa, Eﬁ; Katsouda, Elena; Vlahous, Lambros (2004–2005). “Death and Grief in the Greek Culture”. Omega. Baywood Publishing Co. 50 (1): 23–34. doi:10.2190/yyau-r4mnakkm-t496. • O’Cleirigh, Padraig, Rex A Barrell, and John M Bell (2000). An introduction to Greek mythology : story, symbols, and culture. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. • Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities. Harper. • Pﬁster, F (1961). Greek Gods and Heroes. London: Macgibbon & Kee. • Scarfuto, Christine. “The Greek Underworld”. Retrieved 3 December 2012. • Schmiel, Robert (1987). “Achilles in Hades”. Classical Philology. The University of Chicago Press. 82 (1): 35–37. JSTOR 270025. doi:10.1086/367020.

1.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hermes Psykhopompos sits on a rock, preparing to lead a dead soul to the Underworld. Attic white-ground lekythos, ca. 450 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2797)

CHAPTER 1. GREEK UNDERWORLD

The Rape of Persephone: Persephone is abducted by Hades in his chariot. Persephone krater Antikensammlung Berlin 1984.40

1.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 1. GREEK UNDERWORLD

Orestes at Delphi ﬂanked by Athena and Pylades among the Erinyes and priestesses of the oracle, perhaps including Pythia behind the tripod - Paestan red-ﬁgured bell-krater, c. 330 BC

1.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hades with Cerberus.

CHAPTER 1. GREEK UNDERWORLD

Chapter 2

Acheron “Acheron River” redirects here. For other uses, see Acheron (disambiguation). The Acheron (/ˈækərən/; Ancient Greek: Ἀχέρων (Acheron)[1] or Ἀχερούσιος (Acherusius); Modern Greek: Αχέροντας (Acherontas)) is a river located in the Epirus region of northwest Greece. Its source is near the village Zotiko, in the southwestern part of the Ioannina regional unit it ﬂows into the Ionian Sea in Ammoudia, near Parga.

2.1 Mythology In ancient Greek mythology, Acheron was known as the “river of woe”, and was one of the five rivers of the Greek underworld. In the Homeric poems the Acheron was described as a river of Hades, into which Cocytus and Phlegethon both flowed.[2][3] The Roman poet Virgil called it the principal river of Tartarus, from which the Styx and Cocytus both sprang.[4] The newly dead would be ferried across the Acheron by Charon in order to enter the Underworld.[5] The Suda describes the river as “a place of healing, not a place of punishment, cleansing and purging the sins of humans.”[7] According to later traditions, Acheron had been a son of Helios and either Gaia or Demeter, who had been turned into the Underworld river bearing his name after he refreshed the Titans with drink during their contest with Zeus. By this myth, Acheron is also the father of Ascalaphus by either Orphne[8] or Gorgyra.[9] The river called Acheron with the nearby ruins of the Necromanteion is found near Parga on the mainland opposite Corfu. Another branch of Acheron was believed to surface at the Acherusian cape (now Karadeniz Ereğli in Turkey) and was seen by the Argonauts according to Apollonius of Rhodes. Greeks who settled in Italy identified the Acherusian lake into which Acheron flowed with Lake Avernus. Plato in his Phaedo identified Acheron as the second greatest river in the world, excelled only by Oceanus. He claimed that Acheron flowed in the opposite direction from Oceanus beneath the earth under desert places. The word is also occasionally used as a synecdoche for Hades itself. Virgil mentions Acheron with the other infernal rivers in his description of the underworld in Book VI of the Aeneid. In Book VII, line 312[10] he gives to Juno the famous saying, flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo: 'If I cannot bend the will of Heaven, I shall move Hell.' The same words were used by Sigmund Freud as the dedicatory motto for his seminal book The Interpretation of Dreams, figuring Acheron as psychological underworld beneath the conscious mind. The Acheron was sometimes referred to as a lake or swamp in Greek literature, as in Aristophanes' The Frogs and Euripides' Alcestis. In Dante's Inferno, the Acheron river forms the border of Hell. Following Greek mythology, Charon ferries souls across this river to Hell. Those who were neutral in life sit on the banks. 17

CHAPTER 2. ACHERON

William Blake's depiction of “The Vestibule of Hell and the Souls Mustering to Cross the Acheron” in his Illustrations to Dante’s “Divine Comedy” object 5 c. 1824-27. The original for the work is held by the National Gallery of Victoria.[6]

2.2. GALLERY

Following Greek mythology, Charon ferries souls across the Acheron to Hell. Those who were neutral in life sit on the banks

2.2 Gallery

â&#x20AC;˘

Acheron river

CHAPTER 2. ACHERON

•

Truss bridge over the Acheron river

•

Eurasian penduline tit nest above the river

2.3 References [1] Of uncertain etymology (R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 182). [2] Homer, The Odyssey x. 513 [3] Pausanias, Description of Greece i. 17, § 5 [4] Virgil, Aeneid vi. 297 [5] Virgil, Aeneid 6. 323 [6] Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi (eds.). “Illustrations to Dante’s “Divine Comedy”, object 5 (Butlin 812.5) “The Vestibule of Hell and the Souls Mustering to Cross the Acheron"". William Blake Archive. Retrieved January 25, 2015. [7] Suda On Line [8] Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 539 [9] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 33 [10] Line 312 in the conventional lineation, see J.W. Mackail (Editor and Translator), The AEneid (Clarendon press, Oxford: 1930), p. 271.

2.4 External links • Theoi Project - Potamos Akheron • L'Achéron, Viol Consort

Chapter 3

Cocytus Cocytus /koʊˈsaɪtəs/ or Kokytos /koʊˈkaɪtəs/ (Ancient Greek: Κωκυτός, literally “lamentation”) is a river in the underworld in Greek mythology.[1] Cocytus ﬂows into the river Acheron, on the other side of which lies Hades, The Underworld, the mythological abode of the dead. There are ﬁve rivers encircling Hades. The River Styx is perhaps the most famous; the other rivers are Phlegethon, Lethe, Acheron and Cocytus.

3.1 In literature The Cocytus river was one of the rivers that surrounded Hades. Cocytus, along with the other rivers related to the underworld, was a common topic for ancient authors. Of the ancient authors, Cocytus was mentioned by Virgil, Homer, Cicero, Aeschylus, Apuleius and Plato, among others.[2] Cocytus also makes an appearance in John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost. In Book Two, Milton speaks of “Cocytus, named of lamentation loud / Heard on the rueful stream”.[3] It is also mentioned in William Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus and in Rick Riordan's The House of Hades. Cocytus also appears in Friedrich Schiller's poem “Gruppe aus dem Tartarus": …Hohl sind ihre Augen—ihre Blicke/ Spähen bang nach des Cocytus Brücke…

3.2 In The Divine Comedy Main article: Divine Comedy In Inferno, the ﬁrst cantica of Dante's Divine Comedy, Cocytus is the ninth and lowest circle of The Underworld. Dante and Virgil are placed there by the giant Antaeus. There are other Giants around the rim that are chained; however Antaeus is unchained as he died before the Gigantomachy. Cocytus is referred to as a frozen lake rather than a river, although it originates from the same source as the other infernal rivers, the tears of a statue called The Old Man of Crete which represents the sins of humanity. Dante describes Cocytus as being the home of traitors and those who committed acts of complex fraud. Depending on the form of their treachery, victims are buried in ice to a varying degree, anywhere from neck-high to completely submerged in ice. Cocytus is divided into four descending “rounds,” or sections: • Caina, after the Biblical Cain; traitors to blood relatives. • Antenora, after Antenor from the Iliad; traitors to country. • Ptolomea, after Ptolemy, governor of Jericho, who murdered his guests (1 Maccabees); traitors to guests. Here it is said that sometimes the soul of a traitor falls to Hell before Atropos cuts the thread, and their body is taken over by a ﬁend. • Judecca, after Judas Iscariot; traitors to masters and benefactors. 21

CHAPTER 3. COCYTUS

Dante’s Cocytus, as illustrated by Gustave Doré (1832-1883).

Dante’s Satan is at the center of the circle buried waist-high in ice. He is depicted with three faces and mouths. The central mouth gnaws Judas. Judas is chewed head foremost with his feet protruding and Satan’s claws tearing his back while those gnawed in the side mouths, Brutus and Cassius, leading assassins of Julius Caesar, are both chewed feet foremost with their heads protruding. Under each chin Satan ﬂaps a pair of wings, which only serve to increase the cold winds in Cocytus and further imprison him and other traitors. Dante and his guide Virgil proceed then to climb down Satan’s back and into Purgatory, though Dante is at ﬁrst confused at their turning round, but Virgil explains it is due to the change in forces as they pass through the centre of the Earth.

3.3 References [1] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cocytus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 631– 632. [2] “KOKYTOS”. Theoi Project. Retrieved 2009-12-08. [3] Milton, John (2005). Paradise Lost. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 591.

Chapter 4

Eridanos (river of Hades) This article is about the mythological river. For the geological rivers, see Eridanos (geology) and Eridanos (Athens). The river Eridanos /əˈrɪdəˌnɒs/ or Eridanus (/əˈrɪdənəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἠριδανός, “Amber”) is a river in northern Europe mentioned in Greek mythology and historiography.

4.1 Ancient references Hesiod, in the Theogony, calls it “deep-eddying Eridanos” in his list of rivers, the offspring of Tethys and Oceanus.[1] Herodotus suspects the word Eridanos to be essentially Greek in character, and notably forged by some unknown poet, and expresses his disbelief in the whole concept—passed on to him by others, themselves not eye witnesses—of such a river flowing into a northern sea, surrounding Europe, where the mythical Amber and Tin Isles were supposed; he upholds the belief in the abundance of natural goods at the world’s ends though, to be found in the north of Europa as well as in India (east: big animals, gold, cotton) and Arabia (south: incense, myrrh, etc.).[2] The Eridanos was later associated with the river Po, because the Po was located near the end of the Amber Trail. According to Apollonius of Rhodes[3] and Ovid,[4] amber originated from the tears of the Heliades, encased in poplars as dryads, shed when their brother, Phaethon, died and fell from the sky, struck by Zeus’ thunderbolt, and tumbled into the Eridanos, where “to this very day the marsh exhales a heavy vapour which rises from his smouldering wound; no bird can stretch out its fragile wings to fly over that water, but in mid-flight it falls dead in the flames";[5] “along the green banks of the river Eridanos,” Cygnus mourned him—Ovid told—and was transformed into a swan. There in the far west, Heracles asked the river nymphs of Eridanos to help him locate the Garden of the Hesperides. Strabo commented disregardingly on such mythmaking: […] one must put aside many of the mythical or false accounts such as those of Phaethon and of the Heliades changed into black poplars near the Eridanos (a river that does not exist anywhere on earth, although it is said to be near the Po), and of the Islands of Amber that lie off the Po, and of the guineafowl on them, because none of these exist in this area. ([…] τὰ δὲ πολλὰ τῶν μυθευομένων ἢ κατεψευσμένων ἄλλως ἐᾶν δεῖ͵ οἷον τὰ περὶ Φαέθοντα καὶ τὰς Ἡλιάδας τὰς ἀπαιγειρουμένας περὶ τὸν Ἠριδανόν͵ τὸν μηδαμοῦ γῆς ὄντα͵ πλησίον δὲ τοῦ Πάδου λεγόμενον͵ καὶ τὰς Ἠλεκτρίδας νήσους τὰς πρὸ τοῦ Πάδου καὶ μελεαγρίδας ἐν αὐταῖς· οὐδὲ γὰρ τούτων οὐδέν ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς τόποις.)[6] Virgil introduced it as one of the rivers of Hades in his Aeneid.[7]

4.2 “Starry Eridanus” Main article: Eridanus (constellation)

CHAPTER 4. ERIDANOS (RIVER OF HADES)

When in Nonnus' fourth- or ﬁfth-century CE Dionysiaca the vast monster Typhon boasts that he will bathe in “starry Eridanus”, it is hyperbole, for the constellation Eridanus, represented as a river, was one of the 48 constellations listed by the second-century astronomer Ptolemy; it remains one of the 88 modern constellations.

4.3 Real river There have been various guesses at which real river was the Eridanos: these include the Po River in north Italy, and the Rhone, in France. The Eridanos is mentioned in Greek writings as a river in northern Europe rich in amber.[8] A small river near Athens was named Eridanos in ancient times, and has been rediscovered with the excavations for construction of the Athens Metro.

4.4 Cenozoic river Main article: Eridanos (geology) Eridanos is the name that has been applied by geologists to a river which ﬂowed where the Baltic Sea is now,[9] a river system also known simply as the “Baltic River System”.[10]

4.5 References [1] Theogony XI, 334–345. [2] Histories III, 115; cfr. ibd. 106 f. [3] Argonautica IV, 597ff. [4] Metamorphoses II, 367–380. [5] Argonautica IV, 599–603. [6] Strabo, Geography V, 1, 9. [7] Aeneid VI, 659. [8] “The holy isle of Elektris”, named for elektron (“amber”) off the mouth of the Eridanos, was reached by the Argonauts, who were fleeing from the Colchians, in Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica, Book IV; their return trip from Colchis, in which they passed “the farthest reaches of the stream Eridanos” (IV, 597), can probably not be made to coincide with actual geography. [9] Overeem, I., Weltje, G.J., Bishop-Kay, C. & Kroonenberg, S.B., 2002. “The Late Cenozoic Eridanos delta system in the southern North Sea Basin: a climate signal in sediment supply?" Basin Research 13: 293–312. [10] Bijlsma, S., 1981. '"Fluvial sedimentation from the Fennoscandian area into the North-West European Basin during the Late Cenozoic”. Geologie en Mijnbouw, 60: 337–345.

4.6 External links • "Eridanus". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.

Chapter 5

Lethe For other uses, see Lethe (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Leath or Water of Leith. In Greek mythology, Lethe /ˈliːθi/ (Greek: Λήθη, Lḗthē; Ancient Greek: [lɛ́ :tʰɛː], Modern Greek: [ˈliθi]) was one of the five rivers of the underworld of Hades. Also known as the Ameles potamos (river of unmindfulness), the Lethe flowed around the cave of Hypnos and through the Underworld, where all those who drank from it experienced complete forgetfulness. Lethe was also the name of the Greek spirit of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often identified. In Classical Greek, the word lethe literally means “oblivion”, “forgetfulness”, or “concealment”.[1] It is related to the Greek word for “truth”, aletheia (ἀλήθεια), which through the privative alpha literally means “un-forgetfulness” or “un-concealment”.

5.1 Mythology 5.1.1

River

Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, was one of the five rivers of the Greek underworld, the other four being Styx, Acheron (the river of sorrow), Cocytus (the river of lamentation) and Phlegethon (the river of fire). According to Statius, it bordered Elysium, the final resting place of the virtuous. Ovid wrote that the river flowed through the cave of Hypnos, god of sleep, where its murmuring would induce drowsiness.[2] The shades of the dead were required to drink the waters of the Lethe in order to forget their earthly life. In the Aeneid, Virgil writes that it is only when the dead have had their memories erased by the Lethe that they may be reincarnated.[3]

5.1.2

Goddess

Lethe was also the name of the personiﬁcation of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often associated. Hesiod's Theogony identiﬁes her as the daughter of Eris (“strife”), and the sister of Ponos (“Hardship”), Limos (“Starvation”), Algea (“Pains”), Hysminai (“Battles”), Makhai (“Wars”), Phonoi (“Murders”), Androktasiai (“Manslaughters”), Neikea (“Quarrels”), Pseudea (“Lies”), Logoi (“Stories”), Amphillogiai (“Disputes”), Dysnomia (“Anarchy”), Ate (“Ruin”), and Horkos (“Oath”).[4]

5.2 Role in religion and philosophy Some ancient Greeks believed that souls were made to drink from the river before being reincarnated, so they would not remember their past lives. The Myth of Er in Book X of Plato's Republic tells of the dead arriving at a barren waste called the “plain of Lethe”, through which the river Ameles (“careless”) runs. “Of this they were all obliged to 25

CHAPTER 5. LETHE

drink a certain quantity,” Plato wrote, “and those who were not saved by wisdom drank more than was necessary; and each one as he drank forgot all things.” [5] A few mystery religions taught the existence of another river, the Mnemosyne; those who drank from the Mnemosyne would remember everything and attain omniscience. Initiates were taught that they would receive a choice of rivers to drink from after death, and to drink from Mnemosyne instead of Lethe. These two rivers are attested in several verse inscriptions on gold plates dating to the 4th century BC and onward, found at Thurii in Southern Italy and elsewhere throughout the Greek world. There were rivers of Lethe and Mnemosyne at the oracular shrine of Trophonius in Boeotia, from which worshippers would drink before making oracular consultations with the god. More recently, Martin Heidegger used “lēthē" to symbolize the “concealment of Being” or “forgetting of Being” that he saw as a major problem of modern philosophy. Examples are found in his books on Nietzsche (Vol 1, p. 194) and on Parmenides.

5.3 References in literature Many ancient Greek poems mention or describe Lethe. The river is also referenced in more recent novels and poetry. Simonides of Ceos, an ancient Greek lyrical poet, references Lethe in the sixty-seventh fragment of one of his poems. Publius Ovidius Naso, known as Ovid, in his description of the Underworld in his Metamorphoses, includes a description of Lethe as a stream that puts people to sleep. Aeneas, the protagonist of Virgil’s epic Latin poem, Aeneid, travels to Lethe to meet the ghost of his father in Book VI of the poem. “The souls that throng the flood Are those to whom, by fate, are other bodies ow'd: In Lethe’s lake they long oblivion taste, Of future life secure, forgetful of the past.” [6] Virgil also writes about Lethe in his didactic hexameter poem, the Georgics.[7] In the Purgatorio, the second cantica of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Lethe is located in the Earthly Paradise atop the Mountain of Purgatory. Dante, held in the arms of Matilda, is immersed in the Lethe so that he may wipe out all memory of sin (Purg. XXXI). After being washed in the Lethe, penitents are washed in the Eunoe, a river of Dante’s own invention. The Lethe is also mentioned in the Inferno, the first part of the Comedy, as flowing down to Hell from Purgatory to be frozen in the ice around Satan, “the last lost vestiges of the sins of the saved”[8] (Inf. XXXIV.130). The recent Heroes of Olympus series and a short story by Rick Riordan for children and young adults mention Lethe as a river in the Underworld.

5.4 Real rivers Amongst authors in Antiquity, the tiny Limia River between Northern Portugal and Galicia (Spain) was said to have the same properties of memory loss as the legendary Lethe River, being mistaken for it. In 138 BC, the Roman general Decimus Junius Brutus sought to dispose of the myth, as it impeded his military campaigns in the area. He was said to have crossed the Limia and then called his soldiers from the other side, one by one, by name. The soldiers, astonished that their general remembered their names, crossed the river as well without fear. This act proved that the Limia was not as dangerous as the local myths described.[9] In Cadiz (Spain), the river Guadalete was originally named Lethe by local Greek and Phoenician colonists who, about to go to war, solved instead their diﬀerences by diplomacy and named the river Lethe to forever forget their former diﬀerences. When the Arabs conquered the region much later, their name for the river became Guadalete (River Lethe, in Arabic). In Alaska, a river which runs through the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is called River Lethe. It is located within the Katmai National Park and Preserve, in Southwest Alaska.

5.5. SEE ALSO

Lima Bridge on Lima River in Ponte de Lima, Portugal

5.5 See also • River Lethe in popular culture • The Golden Bough (mythology)

5.6 References [1] λήθη. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [2] “LETHE : Greek goddess of the underworld river of oblivion ; mythology”. Retrieved 2010-02-06. [3] Day-Lewis, Cecil (trans.) (1952). Virgil’s Aeneid. p. 705. [4] Richard Caldwell, Hesiod’s Theogony, Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company (June 1, 1987). ISBN 978-0-941051-00-2. [5] http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.11.x.html [6] http://classics.mit.edu/Virgil/aeneid.6.vi.html [7] “LETHE : Greek goddess of the underworld river of oblivion ; mythology”. www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2016-03-13. [8] John Ciardi, Purgatorio, notes on Canto XXVII, pg. 535 [9] Strabo iii. p. 153; Mela, iii, 1; Pliny the Elder H.N. iv. 22 s. 35

Chapter 6

Phlegethon In Greek mythology, the river Phlegethon (Φλεγέθων, English translation: “flaming”) or Pyriphlegethon (Πυριφλεγέθων, English translation: “fire-flaming”) was one of the five rivers in the infernal regions of the underworld, along with the rivers Styx, Lethe, Cocytus, and Acheron. Plato describes it as “a stream of fire, which coils round the earth and flows into the depths of Tartarus".[1] It was parallel to the river Styx. It is said that the goddess Styx was in love with Phlegethon, but she was consumed by his flames and sent to Hades. Eventually when Hades allowed her river to flow through, they reunited.

6.1 Literary references In Oedipus by Seneca the Younger, the first singing of the chorus, which mainly describes the plague that has settled in Thebes, includes the line, “Phlegethon has changed his course and mingled Styx with Theban streams.” While this is not essential to the plot of the play, the line figuratively serves to suggest Death has become physically present in Thebes. The line also reveals the common preoccupation with death and magic found in Roman tragedy. In Dante’s Inferno Phlegethon is described as a river of blood that boils souls. It is in the Seventh Circle of Hell, which punishes those who committed crimes of violence against their fellow men (see Canto XII, 46–48); murderers, tyrants, and the like. By causing hot blood to flow through their violent deeds in life, they are now sunk in the flowing, boiling blood of the Phlegethon. The depth at which each sinner must stand in the river is determined by the level of violence they caused in life; Dante sees Attila the Hun and Alexander the Great up to their eyebrows. Centaurs patrol the circle, firing arrows at those who try to rise above their allotted level in the river. Dante and Vergil cross Phlegethon with help from Nessus. In Spenser’s The Faerie Queene the Phlegethon is to be found in hell, and is portrayed as a “fiery flood” where “the damned ghosts in torments fry” (Canto V, 291–291). In Paradise Lost (II, 580) John Milton names the Phlegeton (sic) as one of the rivers of Hell, which bold adventuring demons explore while Satan’s flight to Earth begins. Milton also mentions the Rivers Styx, Acheron, and Cocytus. The river Lethe is also counted among the rivers of the underworld. In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story "Descent into the maelstrom,” the narrator, looking down on the whirlpool from a mountain, refers to the water as “the howling Phlegethon below,” signifying its danger and coiling effect. In the novel Inferno by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, Phlegethon is guarded not by centaurs, but by military officers taken from all eras of history (with instructions to shoot anyone who tries to escape). There is also a wooden sailing ship sunk on the other side, which is inhabited by the souls of slave traders. In the first arc of the Curse of the Spawn series, the Spawn’s creator Plegethonyarre was named after the mythological river. Track 5 of The Residents' 2011 CD The Rivers of Hades is called “Phlegethon River”. In H.P. Lovecraft's short story “The Other Gods,” one of the characters, when discovered by the Outer Gods, makes “a cry as no man else ever heard save in the Phlegethon of unrelatable nightmares,” demonstrating that in an instant he has suffered tortures normally reserved for the damned. 28

6.2. SEE ALSO

6.2 See also â&#x20AC;¢ Greek mythology in popular culture

6.3 References [1] Plato. Phaedo. 112b.

Chapter 7

Styx “River Styx” redirects here. For the band, see Styx (band). For other uses, see River Styx (disambiguation) and Styx (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Styx (/stɪks/; Ancient Greek: Στύξ [stýkʰs]) is a deity and a river that forms the boundary

Etching by Gustave Doré

between Earth and the Underworld (the domain often called Hades, which also is the name of its ruler). The rivers Styx, Phlegethon, Acheron, Lethe, and Cocytus all converge at the center of the underworld on a great marsh, which sometimes is also called the Styx. According to Herodotus, the river Styx originates near Feneos.[1] Styx is also a goddess with prehistoric roots in Greek mythology as a daughter of Tethys, after whom the river is named and because of whom it had miraculous powers. 30

Waters of Styx on the Aroanian mountains

CHAPTER 7. STYX

7.1 Significance of the River Styx The deities of the Greek pantheon swore all their oaths upon the river Styx because, according to classical mythology, during the Titan war, Styx, the goddess of the river, sided with Zeus. After the war, Zeus declared that every oath must be sworn upon her.[2] Zeus swore to give Semele whatever she wanted and was then obliged to follow through when he realized to his horror that her request would lead to her death. Helios similarly promised his son Phaëton whatever he desired, also resulting in the boy’s death. Myths related to such early deities did not survive long enough to be included in historic records, but tantalizing references exist among those that have been discovered. According to some versions, Styx had miraculous powers and could make someone invulnerable. According to one tradition, Achilles was dipped in the waters of the river by his mother during his childhood, acquiring invulnerability, with exception of his heel, by which his mother held him. The only spot where Achilles was vulnerable was his heel, where he was struck and killed by Paris' arrow in the Trojan War. This is the source of the expression Achilles’ heel, a metaphor for a vulnerable spot. Styx was primarily a feature in the afterworld of classical Greek mythology, similar to the Christian area of Hell in texts such as The Divine Comedy and Paradise Lost. The ferryman Charon often is described as having transported the souls of the newly dead across this river into the underworld. Dante put Phlegyas as ferryman over the Styx and made it the fifth circle of Hell, where the wrathful and sullen are punished by being drowned in the muddy waters for eternity, with the wrathful fighting each other. In ancient times some believed that placing a coin (Charon’s obol) in the mouth[3] of the deceased would pay the toll for the ferry to cross the river, which would lead one to the entrance of the underworld. If someone could not pay the fee it was said that they would never be able to cross the river. This ritual was performed by the relatives. The variant spelling Stix was sometimes used in translations of Classical Greek before the 20th century.[4] By metonymy, the adjective stygian (/ˈstɪdʒiən/) came to refer to anything dark, dismal, and murky.

7.2 Goddess Styx was the name of the daughter of Tethys and Oceanus, the goddess of the River Styx. In classical myths, her husband was Pallas and she gave birth to Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia (and sometimes Eos). In those myths, Styx supported Zeus in the Titanomachy, where she was said to be the ﬁrst to rush to his aid. For this reason, her name was given the honor of being a binding oath for the deities. Knowledge of whether this was the original reason for the tradition did not survive into historical records following the religious transition that led to the pantheon of the classical era.

7.3 Science As of 2 July 2013, Styx oﬃcially became the name of one of Pluto’s moons.[5] The other moons of Pluto (Charon, Nix, Hydra, and Kerberos) also have names from Greco-Roman mythology related to the underworld.

7.4 See also • Kormet • Rasā • Sanzu River • Burial jar depicting a boatman with passenger

7.5 Notes [1] Herodotus, Histories 6. 74. 1, http://www.theoi.com/Khthonios/PotamosStyx.html [2] Hesiod, Theogony 383 ﬀ (trans. Evelyn-White)

7.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] No ancient source says that the coins were placed on the dead person’s eyes; see Charon’s obol#Coins on the eyes?. [4] Iliad(1-3), Homer; H. Travers, 1740 [5] “Pluto moons get mythical new names”. BBC News.

7.6 External links • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Styx". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 8

Acherusia In Greek mythology, Acherusia (Greek: 'Αχερουσια λιμνη or 'Αχερουσις), was a name given by the ancients to several lakes or swamps, which, like the various rivers called Acheron, were at some time believed to be connected with the lower world, until at last the Acherusia came to be considered to be in the lower world itself. The lake to which this belief seems to have been ﬁrst attached was the Acherusia in Thesprotia, through which the river Acheron ﬂowed.[1] Other lakes or swamps of the same name, and believed to be in connection with the lower world, were near Hermione in Argolis,[2] near Heraclea in Bithynia,[3] between Cumae and cape Misenum in Campania,[4] and lastly in Egypt, near Memphis.[5] In Greek mythology, it was also the name of an underground cavern, through which Heracles dragged Cerberus as one of his Twelve Labors.

8.1 References [1] Thuc. i. 46; Strab. vii. p. 324. [2] Paus. ii. 35. § 7. [3] Xen. Anab. vi. 2. § 2; Diod. xiv. 31. [4] Plin. H. N. iii. 5; Strab. v. p. 243. [5] Diod. i. 96.

8.2 Sources • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "article name needed ". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

Chapter 9

Lerna For other uses, see Lerna (disambiguation). In classical Greece, Lerna[1] (Greek: Λέρνη) was a region of springs and a former lake near the east coast of the Peloponnesus, south of Argos. Its site near the village Mili at the Argolic Gulf is most famous as the lair of the Lernaean Hydra, the chthonic many-headed water snake, a creature of great antiquity when Heracles killed it, as the second of his labors. The strong Karstic springs remained; the lake, diminished to a silt lagoon by the 19th century, has vanished. Lerna is notable for several archaeological sites, including an Early Bronze Age structure known as House of the Tiles, dating to the Early Helladic period II (2500–2300 BC).

9.1 Mythos The secret of the Lernaean spring was the gift of Poseidon when he lay with the “blameless” daughter[2] of Danaus, Amymone. The geographer Strabo attests that the Lernaean waters were considered healing: Lake Lerna, the scene of the story of the Hydra, lies in Argeia and the Mycenaean territory; and on account of the cleansings that take place in it there arose a proverb, 'A Lerna of ills.' Now writers agree that the county has plenty of water, and that, although the city itself lies in a waterless district, it has an abundance of wells. These wells they ascribe to the daughters of Danaus, believing that they discovered them ... but they add that four of the wells not only were designated as sacred but are especially revered, thus introducing the false notion that there is a lack of water where there is an abundance of it.[3] Lerna was one of the entrances to the Underworld, and the ancient Lernaean Mysteries, sacred to Demeter, were celebrated there. Pausanias (2.37.1) says that the mysteries were initiated by Philammon, the twin “other” of Autolycus. At the Alcyonian Lake, entry to the netherworld could be achieved by a hero who dared, such as Dionysus, who, guided by Prosymnus, went that way in search of his mother Semele. For mortals the lake was perilous; Pausanias writes: There is no limit to the depth of the Alcyonian Lake, and I know of nobody who by any contrivance has been able to reach the bottom of it since not even Nero, who had ropes made several stades long and fastened them together, tying lead to them, and omitting nothing that might help his experiment, was able to discover any limit to its depth. This, too, I heard. The water of the lake is, to all appearance, calm and quiet but, although it is such to look at, every swimmer who ventures to cross it is dragged down, sucked into the depths, and swept away.[4] At Lerna, Plutarch knew (Isis and Osiris), Dionysus was summoned as “Bugenes”, “son of the Bull" with a strange archaic trumpet called a salpinx, while a lamb was cast into the waters as an oﬀering for the “Keeper of the Gate.” The keeper of the gate to the Underworld that lay in the waters of Lerna was the Hydra. 35

CHAPTER 9. LERNA

9.2 Archaeology

Stairs to an upper ﬂoor in the Early Helladic House of the Tiles

Excavations at the site were initiated under John L. Caskey in 1952, whose efforts initiated the series of publications of Bronze Age Lerna, Lerna I-V, inspiring many other publications. Lerna was occupied in Neolithic times, as early as the fifth millennium BCE, then was abandoned for a time before the sequence of occupation from the Early Bronze Age (Helladic period through the Mycenaean). On-site techniques of flint-knapping with imported obsidian and chert attest to cultural continuity over this long stretch of time, with reduction in the supply of obsidian from Melos testifying to reduced long-distance trade at the end of Early Helladic III, corresponding to Lerna IV.[5] Lerna has one of the largest prehistoric tumuli of Greece, accumulated during a long Neolithic occupation; then its crest was levelled and extended — as at Early Helladic Eutresis and Orchomenus[6] — in a new settlement: this stratum, called Lerna III in the site’s stratigraphy, corresponds with Early Helladic II at other sites. Lerna III lacks signs of continuity with the previous occupation; it is the site of a two-storey palace or administrative center[7] that is referred to as House of the Tiles, for the terracotta tiles that sheathed its roof (an early example of tile roofing). This strongly fortified[8] power center dates to the Early Bronze Age culture called Early Helladic, ca 2500 - 2200 BCE. Though five stages of occupation at Lerna have been identified, the site of “House of the Tiles”, after it had been destroyed by fire,[9] was not rebuilt upon, whether through respect[10] or fear, until, at the end of the Middle Helladic period, shaft graves were cut into the tumulus of the House of Tiles, indicating that the significance of that monument had been forgotten. Lerna was used as a cemetery during the Mycenaean age, but was abandoned about 1250 BCE. Ceramics of Lerna III include the hallmark spouted vessels that archaeologists name “sauceboats”, with rims that sweep upwards into a curved spout, as well as bowls with incurving rims, both flat-bottomed and with ring bases, and wide saucers, sometimes with glazed rims, more pleasant for the drinker’s lips. Jars and hydria have swelling curves. Painted decoration is sparse; stamped sealing form decorative patterns on some pieces, or rolled scribed cylinders have been used to make banded patterns. Remarkably, banded patterns made with the self-same seal have been found at Lerna, Tiryns and Zygouries.[11] The burning of the House of Tiles brought the Third Period at Lerna to a decisive close; a low round tumulus marked its undisturbed, apparently sacrosanct site. Lerna IV (Early Helladic III) marked a fresh start, not as a fortified seat of central authority this time, but as a small town, with houses of two and three rooms with walls of crude brick set upon stone foundations; several had central circular hearths. Narrow lanes separated houses. A great profusion of unlined pits (bothroi) was characteristic of this phase: eventually they became filled with waste matter, bones, potsherds, even whole pots. The pottery, markedly discontinuous with Lerna III, shows a range of new forms, and the first signs— regular spiral grooves in bases and

9.3. ETYMOLOGY

parallel incised lines— marking the increasing use of the potter’s wheel. Painted linear decoration in dark glaze on the pale body is characteristic of Lerna IV. Caskey identiﬁed[12] early examples of the ware that in Middle Helladic contexts would be recognized as Minyan ware, and, among the few examples of imported pottery, a winged jar characteristic of Troy, perhaps Troy IV. Lerna V is continuous with the preceding phase, distinguished largely by new styles in pottery with the sudden, peaceful introduction of matte-painted ware, the thick-slipped Argive version of gray Minyan ware, and a vigorous increase in the kinds of imported wares, coming from the Cyclades and Crete (Middle Minoan IA). A new custom of burying the dead in excavations within the houses or between them is universal at the period. Modern geological techniques such as core drilling have identiﬁed the site of the vanished sacred Lake Lerna, which was a freshwater lagoon, separated by barrier dunes from the Aegean. In the Early Bronze Age Lake Lerna had an estimated diameter of 4.7 km. Deforestation increased the rate of silt deposits and the lake became a malarial marsh, of which the last remnants were drained in the nineteenth century.

9.3 Etymology The name Lerna is suggested to be connected with the Hattic plural preﬁx le- plus arinna, arna 'spring', 'pool', 'well', 'source'.[13]

9.4 Notes [1] Corinthian Lerna was a summer resort near Corinth. [2] Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 3rd ed. 1922:334; Jane Ellen Harrison credited Gilbert Murray with the observation concerning that “blameless” (άμύμων) was an epithet of the heroized dead, who were venerated and appeased at shrines. Zeus even applies the epithet to Aegisthus, the usurper, Harrison observes. “The epithet άμύμων in Homer is applied to individual heroes, to a hero’s tomb [Odyssey xxiv.80], to magical, half-mythical peoples like the Phaeacians and Aethiopians [Iliad x.423] who to the popular imagination are half canonized, to the magic island [Odyssey xii.261] of the god Helios, to the imaginary half-magical Good Old King [Odyssey xix.109]. It is used also of the 'convoy' [Iliad vi.171] sent by the gods, which of course is magical in character; it is never, I believe, an epithet of the Olympians themselves. There is about the word a touch of what is magical and demonic rather than actually divine.” [3] Strabo, Geography 8.6.8. [4] Pausanias, 2.37.4. [5] Britt Hartenberger and Curtis Runnels, “The Organization of Flaked Stone Production at Bronze Age Lerna” Hesperia 70.3 (July 2001:255-283). [6] John L. Caskey, “The Early Helladic Period in the Argolid” Hesperia 29.3 (July 1960:285-303); Caskey, the excavator, oﬀers an overview of Lerna. [7] Its walls were just under a meter thick; the structure measured 12 m wide by 25 m long; only the great tholos at Tiryns. 28 m. in diameter, compares with its scale (Caskey 1960:288). [8] A double ring of defensive walling, with towers, enclosed the site (Caskey 1960:289). [9] “Violent destruction appears... to have occurred about the same time at Lerna, Tiryns, Asine, Zygouries, Aghias Kosmas and perhaps at Corinth. Stratigraphic evidence for this period is inadequate at Asea, Prosymne and Mycenae" (Caskey 1960:301 [10] The “quite extraordinary respect paid to its ruins” is noted in Caskey 1960:301, who concludes “that a foreign invasion created widespread havoc in this region.” [11] Caskey 1960:293. [12] Caskey 1960:297. [13] Forrer, Glotta Volume 26, 1938

CHAPTER 9. LERNA

9.5 Further reading • Kerényi, Károly (1999). The Heroes of the Greeks. Peter Smith Publisher. ISBN 0-8446-6947-4.

9.6 External links • Carlos Parada, “Greek Mythology link": Lerna • Perseus Site: Lerna • Eberhard Zangger, “Prehistoric Coastal Environments in Greece: The Vanished Landscapes of Dimini Bay and Lake Lerna”: (Abstract)

Chapter 10

Cape Matapan “Tainaron” redirects here. For the novel, see Tainaron (novel). Cape Matapan (Greek: Κάβο Ματαπάς, or Ματαπά in the Maniot dialect), also named as Cape Tainaron

Cape Matapan.

(Greek: Ακρωτήριον Ταίναρον), or Cape Tenaro, is situated at the end of the Mani Peninsula, Greece. Cape Matapan is the southernmost point of mainland Greece, and the second southernmost point in mainland Europe. It separates the Messenian Gulf in the west from the Laconian Gulf in the east.

10.1 History Cape Matapan has been an important place for thousands of years. The tip of Cape Matapan was the site of the ancient town Tenarus, near which there was (and still is) a cave that Greek legends claim was the home of Hades, the 39

CHAPTER 10. CAPE MATAPAN

Location of Cape Matapan.

god of the dead. The ancient Spartans built several temples there, dedicated to various gods. On the hill situated above the cave, lie the remnants of an ancient temple dedicated to the sea god Poseidon (Νεκρομαντεῖον Ποσειδῶνος). Under the Byzantine Empire, the temple was converted into a Christian church, and Christian rites are conducted there to this day. Cape Matapan was once the place where mercenaries waited to be employed. At Cape Matapan, the Titanic's would-be rescue ship, the SS Californian, was torpedoed and sunk by German forces on 9 November 1915. In March 1941, a major naval battle, the Battle of Cape Matapan, occurred oﬀ the coast of Cape Matapan, between the Royal Navy and the Italian Regia Marina, in which the British emerged victorious in a one-sided encounter. The encounter’s main result was to drastically reduce future Italian naval activity in the Eastern Mediterranean. More recently a lighthouse was constructed, but it is now in disuse. As the southernmost point of mainland Greece, the cape is on the migration route of birds headed to Africa.

10.2 See also • Battle of Matapan • Battle of Cape Matapan

10.3. EXTERNAL LINKS

10.3 External links • Images of Cape Matapan Coordinates: 36°23′06″N 22°28′58″E / 36.38500°N 22.48278°E

Chapter 11

Aornum THRACE

Propontis

Hebrus

ILLYRIA

Cicones

Drys

Nestos

Mt. Pangaion Macedon

Pieria

Samothrace Mygdonia

Pella

Methoni

Dion Mt. Olympus Lebeithra Epirus

Sys

ASIA MINOR Methymna

Antissa Lesbos

Tempe

Thessaly Aornum

Aegean Sea

Iolcos Pagasae

Smyrna

Dodone

Ionia

Acheron

Ionian Sea

Mt. Parnassus Delphi

Thebes Athens

Aegina

Argolis

Life of Orpheus

Cicones; Tribe he ruled Dion, Pimpleia; Birthplace & early abode Mygdonia; Kingdom of Oeagrus or Apollo Parnassus; Residence with mother, Calliope, taught to sing & given lyre by Apollo Pella; Pierus, his grandfather by Calliope Pagasae; Set sail with the Argonauts Death; Pieria, Pangaion or Aornum by suicide Lesbos; Limbs buried & lyre, later constellation Lyra Tomb; Lebeithra & relics in Lesbos & Smyrna Athens; Son, Musaeus of Athens Thebes; Brother, Linus Lesbos, Antissa; Oracle & Temple, later of Apollo Murikaios Drys; Oaks of Orpheus 0

Laconia Sparta

Taenarum

Crete

100 km

Tempe; Eurydice dies Samothrace; Daktyloi mysteries initiation Acheron; Mourns and fasts for 7 days Aornum & Taenarum; Entrances to Hades Methymna, Lesbos; Head turns to stone Sys; River that destroyed Lebeithra Sparta; Introduces worship of Cthonian Demeter Aegina; Introduces worship of Hecate Methoni; Founded by Methon, ancestor of Orpheus Smyrna; Homer's birthplace, descendant

Orpheus’s life

Aornum (Ancient Greek: Ἄορνον) was an oracle in Ancient Greece, located in Thesprotia in a cave called Charonium (Χαρώνειον ἄντρον or χάσμα) which gave forth poisonous vapours.[1] The name of the cave, "Charon's Cave”, reﬂects the belief that it was an entrance for Hades, the Greek underworld.[2] In a version of the myth, Orpheus travels to Aornum to recover his wife, Eurydice, from Hades.[3]

11.1 See also • Leibethra 42

11.2. REFERENCES

• Pimpleia

11.2 References [1] The Oracles of the Ancient World: A Comprehensive Guide (Duckworth Archaeology) by Trevor Curnow,2004,page 184,”... outside it, to the N, there is a place called Aornum, with a sacred cave called the Charonium which emitted deadly vapours..."" [2] The Greek Myths (Volume 1) by Robert Graves, 1990),page 112: "... He used the passage which opens at Aornum in Thesprotis and, on his arrival, not only charmed the ferryman Charon...” [3] Pausanias, Description of Greece,Boeotia9.30.1,[6] Others have said that his wife died before him, and that for her sake he came to Aornum in Thesprotis, where of old was an oracle of the dead. He thought, they say, that the soul of Eurydice followed him, but turning round he lost her. The Thracians say that such nightingales as nest on the grave of Orpheus sing more sweetly and louder than others.

11.3 External links • Greek Mythology Link, Orpheus

Chapter 12

Lake Avernus Lake Avernus (Italian: Lago d'Averno) is a volcanic crater lake located in the Avernus crater in the Campania region of southern Italy, around 4 km (2.5 mi) northwest of Pozzuoli. It is near the volcanic ﬁeld known as the Phlegraean Fields (Campi Flegrei) and comprises part of the wider Campanian volcanic arc. The lake is roughly circular, measuring 2 km (1.2 mi) in circumference and 60 m (213 ft) deep.

12.1 Roman era Avernus was of major importance to the Romans, who considered it to be the entrance to Hades. Roman writers often used the name as a synonym for the underworld. In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas descends to the underworld through a cave near the lake. In Hyginus' Fabulae, Odysseus also goes to the lower world from this spot, where he meets Elpenor, his comrade who went missing at Circe's place.[1] Despite the alleged dangers of the lake, the Romans were happy to settle its shores, on which villas and vineyards were established. The lake’s personiﬁcation, the deus Avernus, was worshiped in lakeside temples. A large bathhouse was built on the eastern shore of the lake. In 37 BC, the Roman general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa converted the lake into a naval base named the Portus Julius after Julius Caesar. It was linked by a canal to a nearby lake (Lucrinus Lacus) and, from there, to the sea. The lake shore was also connected to the Greek colony of Cumae by an underground passage known as Cocceio’s Cave (Grotta di Cocceio), which was 1 km (0.62 mi) long and wide enough to be used by chariots. This was the world’s ﬁrst major road tunnel; it remained usable until as recently as the 1940s.

12.2 Italian era The Borboni, the Naples-ruling members of the House of Bourbon, owned the lake until 1750 when they ceded it to another aristocratic family, who in turn sold it, in 1991, to the Cardillo family. In 2010, a 55-hectare (0.55 km2 ) tract of land – including the lake, a lakefront restaurant, B&B and disco – was seized by the police after the owner was accused of being a maﬁa frontman (for the Casalesi).[2] In the pre-modern era, Italian geographers also called Lago Averno, the: Lago di Tripergola.[3][4][5] It was named after the nearby village of Tripergola, which was destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1538.[6]

12.3 References [1] hyginus, fabulae 125 [2] The Guardian (11 July 2010). “Italian police seize land around Lake Avernus on suspicion of maﬁa links” [3] Dictionnaire mythologique universel (in French). F. Didot frères. 1846. p. 62. Le lac est encore connu aujourd'hui sous le nom de lago d'Averno ou lago di Tripergola. [="The lake is still known today under the name of lago d'Averno or lago di Tripergola."]

12.3. REFERENCES

Lake Avernus I by Richard Wilson, c. 1765

[4] Brewster, David (1830). The Edinburgh Encyclopædia. 3. p. 97. [The lake Avernus] is situated near Puzzuoli in the province of Terra di Lavoro, and is called by the modern Italians Lago d'Averno and Lago di Tripergola. [5] Ricciolio, Giovanni Baptista (1661). Geographiæ et Hydrographiæ Reformatæ Libri duodecim. (in Latin). ex typographia Haeredis Victorii Benatii. p. 608. Lago di Tripergola. Avernus lacus. Campaniæ. [6] The Quarterly journal of science, literature and art. 1822. p. 424. Account of the Rise of Monte Nuovo, in the Year 1538 [...] the earth opened near Tripergola with a terrible sound like thunder

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). “Averni”. Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (ﬁrst ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.

Chapter 13

Heraclea Pontica Heraclea Pontica (/ˌhɛrəˈkliːə ˈpɒntᵻkə/; Greek: Ἡράκλεια Ποντική Hērakleia Pontikē) was an ancient city on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the river Lycus. It was founded by the Greek city-state of Megara[1] in approximately 560–558 and was named after Heracles whom the Greeks believed entered the underworld at a cave on the adjoining Archerusian promontory (Cape Baba). The site is now the location of the modern city Karadeniz Ereğli, in the Zonguldak Province of Turkey. The colonists soon subjugated the native Mariandynians but agreed to terms that none of the latter, now helot-like serfs, be sold into slavery outside their homeland. Prospering from the rich, fertile adjacent lands and the sea-fisheries of its natural harbor, Heraclea soon extended its control along the coast as far east as Cytorus (Gideros, near Cide), eventually establishing Black Sea colonies of its own (Cytorus, Callatis and Chersonesus). The prosperity of the city, rudely shaken by the Galatians and the Bithynians, was utterly destroyed in the Mithridatic Wars. It was the birthplace of the philosopher Heraclides Ponticus. The Greek historical author Memnon of Heraclea (fl. 1st century AD) wrote a local history of Heraclea Pontica in at least sixteen books. The work has perished, but Photius's Bibliotheca preserves a compressed account of books 9–16, seemingly the only ones extant in his day. These books run from the rule of the tyrant Clearchus (c. 364–353 BC) to the later years of Julius Caesar (c. 40 BC) and contain many colorful accounts including the Bithynian introduction of the barbarian Gauls into Asia where they first allied themselves with the Heracleans and later turned violently against them. At present, it is the Turkish city of Karadeniz Ereğli.

13.1 See also • Clearchus of Heraclea • Amastrine • Dionysius of Heraclea • Timotheus of Heraclea • Oxyathres of Heraclea • Heraclides Ponticus • Memnon of Heraclea

13.2 Notes [1] For report of Boeotian involvement see Pausanias 5.26.7

13.3. REFERENCES

13.3 References • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Heraclea". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 308. • “Outpost of Hellenism: The Emergence of Heraclea on the Black Sea”, Stanley Mayer Burstein, University of California Publications: Classical Studies, 14 (Berkeley, 1976).

13.4 External links • Coin minted in Heraclea Pontica 3rd–2nd century BC. • Photius’s Bibliotheca 224, Memnon of Heraclea, History of Heraclea

Chapter 14

Ploutonion For the radioactive chemical element, see Plutonium. A ploutonion (Ancient Greek: Πλουτώνιον, lit. “Place of Pluto”) or plutonium (from the Latin) is a sanctuary specially dedicated to the ancient Greek and Roman god Pluto (better known as Hades ). Only a few such shrines are known from classical sources, usually at locations that produce poisonous emissions and were considered to represent an entrance to the underworld.[1] • At Eleusis, the ploutonion was near the north entrance to the sacred district (temenos). It was built by Peisistratos in the 6th century BC and rebuilt two centuries later, when the Eleusinian mysteries were at the height of their inﬂuence. The cave was the traditional site of the birth of the Divine Child Ploutos.[2] • The Greek geographer Strabo mentioned three sites as having a ploutonion. One was on a hill between Tralleis and Nysa. Its precinct encompassed a sacred grove, a temple of Plouton and Persephone, and an adjoining cave called the Charonion, after the ferryman of the dead. According to Strabo, it “possesses some singular physical properties” and served as a shrine for healing and a dream oracle (incubation).[3] • Pluto’s Gate, the ploutonion at Phrygian Hierapolis (modern Pamukkale in Turkey), was connected to the local cult of Cybele. Inhaling its vapors was said to be lethal to all living things except the Galli, the goddess’s eunuch priests.[4] During the Roman Imperial era, the cult of Apollo subsumed existing religious sites there, including the ploutonion. Archaeological excavations in the 1960s showed that the ploutonion had been located within the sacred precinct of Apollo: “it consisted of a natural opening along a wall of travertine, leading to a grotto in which streams of hot water gushed forth to release a noxious exhalation”. This site was also associated with a dream oracle; the Neoplatonist Damascius dreamed that he was Attis in the company of the Great Mother.[5] • Strabo further records that Lake Avernus in Italy had been taken as a ploutonion because the gases it produced were so noxious that they overwhelmed birds ﬂying overhead. According to earlier sources, he says, this was the oracle of the dead (nekumanteion) sought by Odysseus in Book 11 of the Odyssey; Strabo, however, seems not to have himself regarded Avernus as a ploutonion.[6]

14.1 See also • Avernus • Pluto’s Gate (the ploutonion at Hierapolis)

14.2 References [1] Karl Kerényi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter (Princeton University Press, 1967, translated from the original German of 1960), p. 80 online; Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reconstructing Change: Ideology and the Eleusinian Mysteries,” in Inventing Ancient Culture: Historicism, Periodization and the Ancient World (Routledge, 1997), p. 137; Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 505 online.

14.2. REFERENCES

The Divine Child Ploutos (1st century)

[2] Bernard Dietrich, “The Religious Prehistory of Demeter’s Eleusinian Mysteries,” in La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' Impero Romano (Brill, 1982), p. 454. [3] Strabo 14.1.44; “Summaries of Periodicals,” American Journal of Archaeology 7 (1891), p. 209 online.

CHAPTER 14. PLOUTONION

[4] Ian Rutherford, “Trouble in Snake-Town: Interpreting an Oracle from Hierapolis-Pamukkale,” in Severan Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 449 [5] Frederick E. Brenk, “Jerusalem-Hierapolis. The Revolt under Antiochos IV Epiphanes in the Light of Evidence for Hierapolis of Phrygia, Babylon, and Other Cities,” in Relighting the Souls: Studies in Plutarch, in Greek Literature, Religion, and Philosophy, and in the New Testament Background (Franz Steiner, 1998), pp. 382–384 online, citing Photius, Life of Isidoros 131 on the dream. [6] Strabo C244–6, as cited by Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 190 –191.

Chapter 15

Ploutonion at Hierapolis “Pluto’s Gate” redirects here. For similar shrines to Pluto, see Ploutonion. The Ploutonion at Hierapolis (Ancient Greek: Πλουτωνειον, lit “Place of Pluto"; Latin: Plutonium) or Pluto’s Gate[1] was a ploutonion (a religious site dedicated to the god Pluto) (another name for the god Hades) in the ancient city of Hierapolis near Pamukkale in modern Turkey's Denizli Province. The site was discovered in 1965 by Italian archaeologists, who published reports on their excavations throughout the decade.[2] In 2013, it was further explored by Italian archaeologists led by Francesco D'Andria, a professor of archaeology at the University of Salento.[3]

15.1 History Though the exact age of the site is currently unknown, the nearby city of Hierapolis was founded around the year 190 BC by the King of Pergamum, Eumenes II.[3] The site is built on top of a cave which emits toxic gases, hence its use as a ritual passage to the underworld. Ritual animal sacrifices were common at the site. Animals would be thrown into the cave and pulled back out with ropes that had been tied to them. Archaeologists noted that the fumes emitted from the cavern still maintain their deadly properties as they recorded passing birds, attracted by the warm air, suffocated after breathing the toxic fumes.[3] The Ploutonion was described by several ancient writers including Strabo,[4] Cassius Dio and Damascius . It is a small cave, just large enough for one person to enter through a fenced entrance, beyond which stairs go down, and from which emerges suffocating carbon dioxide gas caused by underground geologic activity. Behind the 3 square metres (32 sq ft) roofed chamber is a deep cleft in the rock, through which fast flowing hot water passes releasing a sharp smelling gas.[3][5] Because people died in the gas, people thought that the gas was sent by Pluto, god of the underworld. During the early years of the town, the castrated priests of Cybele known as the Galli descended into the Ploutonion, crawled over the floor to pockets of oxygen or held their breath. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and so tends to settle in hollows. They then came up to show that they were immune to the gas. People believed a miracle had happened and that therefore the priests were infused with superior powers and had divine protection.[4][6] An enclosed area of 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft) stood in front of the entrance. It was covered by a thick layer of suffocating gas, killing everyone who dared to enter this area. The priests sold birds and other animals to the visitors, so that they could try out how deadly this enclosed area was. Visitors could (for a fee) ask questions of the oracle of Pluto. This provided a considerable source of income for the temple. The entrance to the Ploutonion was closed off during the Christian times.[3] The ancient historian Strabo described the gate as follows:

“Any animal that passes inside meets instant death. I threw in sparrows and they immediately breathed their last and fell”[4] 51

CHAPTER 15. PLOUTONION AT HIERAPOLIS

15.1.1

Destruction

Archaeological evidence suggests that the site was fully functional until the 4th century AD, but remained a place of sporadic visitation by visitors for the next two centuries. The temple was destroyed in the 6th century AD by Christians, while later earthquakes may have further damaged the site.[3]

15.2 References [1] D'Andria, Francesco. "Gate to Hell Found in Turkey". Discovery News 29 March 2013. Accessed 1 June 2013. [2] Piccardi, Luigi (2007). “The AD 60 Denizli Basin earthquake and the apparition of Archangel Michael at Colossae (Aegean Turkey)". In Piccardi, L.; Masse, W. B. Myth and Geology. Special Publication. 273. Geological Society of London. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-86239-216-8. [3] Lorenzi, Rossella (29 March 2013). “Pluto’s Gate Uncovered in Turkey”. Discovery News. Retrieved 2 April 2013. [4] Strabo, Geographica 13.4.14 [5] Bean, G. E. (1976). “Hierapolis (Pamukkale) Turkey”. In Stillwell, Richard; MacDonald, William L.; McAlister, Marian Holland. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [6] Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae 2.95

15.3 Further reading • Ramsay, William M. (2004). The Cities And Bishoprics Of Phyrgia: Being An Essay Of The Local History Of Phrygia From The Earliest Times To The Turkish Conquest. Kessinger Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 9781419172830. • Francesco D´Andria, Cehennem'den Cennet'e Hierapolis (Pamukkale). Ploutonion. Aziz Philippus’un Mezarı ve Kutsal Alanı. Ege Yayınları, Istanbul 2014. ISBN 978-605-4701-45-2

Chapter 16

Elysium This article is about the place in Greek mythology. For the 2013 ﬁlm, see Elysium (ﬁlm). For other uses, see Elysium (disambiguation) and Elysian (disambiguation). Elysium or the Elysian Fields (Ancient Greek: Ἠλύσιον πεδίον, Ēlýsion pedíon) is a conception of the afterlife

Goethe's Ankunft im Elysium by Franz Nadorp

that developed over time and was maintained by some Greek religious and philosophical sects and cults. Initially separate from the realm of Hades, admission was reserved for mortals related to the gods and other heroes. Later, it expanded to include those chosen by the gods, the righteous, and the heroic, where they would remain after death, to live a blessed and happy life, and indulging in whatever employment they had enjoyed in life.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The Elysian Fields were, according to Homer, located on the western edge of the Earth by the stream of Okeanos.[1] In the time of the Greek oral poet Hesiod, Elysium would also be known as the Fortunate Isles or the Isles (or Islands) of the Blessed, located in the western ocean at the end of the earth.[1][7][8] The Isles of the Blessed would be reduced to a single island by the Thebean poet Pindar, describing it as having shady parks, with residents indulging in athletic and musical pastimes.[1][2] The ruler of Elysium varies from author to author: Pindar and Hesiod name Cronus as the ruler,[9] while the poet 53

CHAPTER 16. ELYSIUM

Homer in the Odyssey describes fair-haired Rhadamanthus dwelling there.[6][7][10][11]

16.1 Classical literature In Homer’s Odyssey, Elysium is described as a paradise: to the Elysian plain…where life is easiest for men. No snow is there, nor heavy storm, nor ever rain, but ever does Ocean send up blasts of the shrill-blowing West Wind that they may give cooling to men. — Homer, Odyssey (4.560–565)[11]

According to Eustathius of Thessalonica[12] the word “Elysium” (Ἠλύσιον) derives from ἀλυουσας (ἀλύω, to be deeply stirred from joy)[13] or from ἀλύτως, synonymous of ἀφθάρτως (ἄφθαρτος, incorruptible),[14] referring to souls’ life in this place. Another suggestion is from ελυθ-, ἔρχομαι (to come).[15] The Greek oral poet Hesiod refers to the Isles of the Blessed in his didactic poem Works and Days. In his book Greek Religion, Walter Burkert notes the connection with the motif of far-oﬀ Dilmun: “Thus Achilles is transported to the White Isle, which may refer to Mount Teide on Tenerife, whose volcano is often snowcapped and as the island was sometimes called the white isle by explorers, and becomes the Ruler of the Black Sea, and Diomedes becomes the divine lord of an Adriatic island”.[10] And they live untouched by sorrow in the islands of the blessed along the shore of deep-swirling Ocean, happy heroes for whom the grain-giving earth bears honey-sweet fruit ﬂourishing thrice a year, far from the deathless gods, and Cronos rules over them — Hesiod, Works and Days (170)[9]

Pindar’s Odes describes the reward waiting for those living a righteous life: The good receive a life free from toil, not scraping with the strength of their arms the earth, nor the water of the sea, for the sake of a poor sustenance. But in the presence of the honored gods, those who gladly kept their oaths enjoy a life without tears, while the others undergo a toil that is unbearable to look at. Those who have persevered three times, on either side, to keep their souls free from all wrongdoing, follow Zeus’ road to the end, to the tower of Cronus, where ocean breezes blow around the island of the blessed, and ﬂowers of gold are blazing, some from splendid trees on land, while water nurtures others. With these wreaths and garlands of ﬂowers they entwine their hands according to the righteous counsels of Rhadamanthys, whom the great father, the husband of Rhea whose throne is above all others, keeps close beside him as his partner — Pindar, Odes (2.59–75)[16]

In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas, like Heracles and Odysseus before him, travels to the underworld. Virgil describes those who will travel to Elysium, and those who will travel to Tartarus: Night speeds by, And we, Aeneas, lose it in lamenting. Here comes the place where cleaves our way in twain. Thy road, the right, toward Pluto’s dwelling goes, And leads us to Elysium. But the left Speeds sinful souls to doom, and is their path To Tartarus th' accurst. — Virgil, Aeneid (6.539)[17]

Virgil goes on to describe an encounter in Elysium between Aeneas and his father Anchises. Virgil’s Elysium knows perpetual spring and shady groves, with its own sun and lit by its own stars: solemque suum, sua sidera norunt. In no ﬁx'd place the happy souls reside. In groves we live, and lie on mossy beds, By crystal streams, that murmur thro' the meads: But pass yon easy hill, and thence descend; The path conducts you to your journey’s end.” This said, he led them up the mountain’s brow, And shews them all the shining ﬁelds

16.2. POST-CLASSICAL LITERATURE

below. They wind the hill, and thro' the blissful meadows go. — Virgil, Aeneid (6.641)[18]

In the Greek historian Plutarch's, Life of Sertorius, Elysium is described as: These are two in number, separated by a very narrow strait; they are ten thousand furlongs distant from Africa, and are called the Islands of the Blest. They enjoy moderate rains at long intervals, and winds which for the most part are soft and precipitate dews, so that the islands not only have a rich soil which is excellent for plowing and planting, but also produce a natural fruit that is plentiful and wholesome enough to feed, without toil or trouble, a leisured folk. Moreover, an air that is salubrious, owing to the climate and the moderate changes in the seasons, prevails on the islands. For the north and east winds which blow out from our part of the world plunge into fathomless space, and, owing to the distance, dissipate themselves and lose their power before they reach the islands; while the south and west winds that envelope the islands sometimes bring in their train soft and intermittent showers, but for the most part cool them with moist breezes and gently nourish the soil. Therefore a ﬁrm belief has made its way, even to the Barbarians, that here is the Elysian Field and the abode of the blessed which is not true, of which Homer sang. — Plutarch, Life of Sertorius, VIII, 2[19][20]

Diodorus, in his ﬁrst book, suggested that the Elysian ﬁelds which were much celebrated by Grecian poetry, corresponded to the beautiful plains in the neighborhood of Memphis which contained the tombs of that capital city of Egypt.[21][22] He further intimated that the Greek prophet Orpheus composed his fables about the afterlife when he traveled to Egypt and saw the customs of the Egyptians regarding the rites of the dead.[23]

16.2 Post-classical literature Elysium as a pagan expression for paradise would eventually pass into usage by early Christian writers. In Dante's epic The Divine Comedy, Elysium is mentioned as the abode of the blessed in the lower world; mentioned in connection with the meeting of Aeneas with the shade of Anchises in the Elysian Fields.[24] With such aﬀection did Anchises’ shade reach out, if our greatest muse is owed belief, when in Elysium he knew his son. — Dante, Divina Commedia (Par Canto XV Line 25–27)[25]

In the Renaissance, the heroic population of the Elysian Fields tended to outshine its formerly dreary pagan reputation; the Elysian Fields borrowed some of the bright allure of paradise. In Paris, the Champs-Élysées retain their name of the Elysian Fields, first applied in the late 16th century to a formerly rural outlier beyond the formal parterre gardens behind the royal French palace of the Tuileries. After the Renaissance, an even cheerier Elysium evolved for some poets. Sometimes it is imagined as a place where heroes have continued their interests from their lives. Others suppose it is a location filled with feasting, sport, song; Joy is the “daughter of Elysium” in Friedrich Schiller's ode “To Joy”. The poet Heinrich Heine explicitly parodied Schiller’s sentiment in referring to the Jewish Sabbath food cholent as the “daughter of Elysium” in his poem “Princess Shabbat”.[26] Christian and classical attitudes to the afterlife are put in contrast by Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus in saying, “This word 'damnation' terrifies not me, For I confound hell in elysium. My ghost be with the old philosophers.”[27] When in William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night shipwrecked Viola is told “This is Illyria, lady.”, “And what should I do in Illyria? My brother he is in Elysium.” is her answer: “Elysium” for her and her first Elizabethan hearers simply means Paradise.[28] Similarly, in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute, Elysium is mentioned in Act II during Papageno’s solo while he describes what it would be like if he had his dream girl: “Des Lebens als Weiser mich freun, Und wie im Elysium sein.” (“Enjoy life as a wiseman, And feel like I'm in Elysium.”)

CHAPTER 16. ELYSIUM

In John Ford’s 1633 tragedy 'Tis Pity She’s a Whore, Giovanni, after sealing his requited love for his sister Annabella with twin oaths, states, “And I'de not change it for the best to come: A life of pleasure in Elyzium”.[29] In the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series by Rick Riordan, Elysium is described as the path for some of the protagonists and antagonists of the series. In the novel Mister Roberts (1946) and subsequent movie released in 1955, the crew of a tired transport ship is subjected to the morale sapping and never-ending routine of sailing between the fictitious South Pacific islands of Tedium and Apathy. To break this routine and give the crew a chance at having a liberty, a simple luxury they've not experienced in more than a year, Mister Roberts (the ship’s cargo officer and champion of its enlisted men,) calls in a favor to have the ship sent to the island of Elysium. The mythical island is described in terms a WWII sailor in the South Pacific would liken to the Greek paradise. A peak of drama occurs when the ship, having just arrived at the port of Elysium, its crew already intoxicated by the promise of what awaits them on shore, is denied liberty (a chance to go ashore) by the ship’s tyrannical captain when he finds out what Mister Roberts has done.

16.3 Modern influence The term and concept of Elysium has had influence in modern popular culture; references to Elysium can be found in literature, art, film, and music. Examples include the New Orleans neighborhood of Elysian Fields in Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire as the déclassé purgatory where Blanche Dubois lives with Stanley and Stella Kowalski. New Orleans’ Elysian Fields also provides the second-act setting of Elmer Rice's The Adding Machine and the musical adaptation Adding Machine (musical). In his poem “Middlesex”, John Betjeman describes how a few hedges “Keep alive our lost Elysium – rural Middlesex again”. In his poem An Old Haunt, Hugh McFadden sets an Elysian scene in Dublin's St. Stephen’s Green park “Very slowly solitude slips round me in St. Stephen’s Green. I rest: see pale salmon clouds blossom. I'm back in the fields of Elysium”.[30] In Spring and All, William Carlos Williams describes a dying woman’s “elysian slobber/upon/the folded handkerchief”. In David Gemmell's Parmennion series (Lion of Macedon and Dark Prince) and his Troy trilogy, his characters refer to Elysium as the “Hall of Heroes”. In Siegfried Sassoon's Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man, Sassoon writes “The air was Elysian with early summer”. Its use in this context could be prolepsis, as the British countryside he is describing would become the burial ground of his dead comrades and heroes from World War I. The Avenue des Champs-Élysées, the most prestigious avenue in Paris and one of the most famous streets in the world, is French for “Elysian Fields”. The nearby Élysée Palace houses the President of the French Republic, for which reason “l'Élysée” frequently appears as a metonym for the French presidency. Elysium and Elysian are also used for numerous other names all over the world; examples include Elysian Park, Los Angeles, Elysian Valley, Los Angeles, California, Elysian, Minnesota, and Elysian Fields, Texas. Elysium is referenced in the Schiller poem which inspired Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" (9th symphony, 4th movement). Elysium is also referenced in Mozart’s opera Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute). It is in Act II when Papageno is feeling very melancholy because he does not have a sweetheart or wife and he is drunk singing the song that could be called “Den Mädchen” (The Girls). There are many examples of use of the name “Elysium” in popular culture. For example, Elysium is briefly mentioned in Ridley Scott’s film Gladiator, wherein the general Maximus addresses his troops thus: “If you find yourself alone, fighting in the green fields with the sun on your face, do not be troubled. For you are in Elysium, and you're already dead!" In Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, Hercules’ deceased wife and children live happily in Elysian Fields, unaware they are dead. Hercules encounters them while trying to return Persephone to her angry mother Demeter, after she is kidnapped by Hades, who is in love with her. The name Elysium was used in a Star Trek novel, Before Dishonor, as the name of the fourth moon of Pluto. In Masami Kurumada's mythologically themed Saint Seiya comic books, the Elysium is the setting of the final chapters of the Hades arc. In it, the Saints, the warriors of Athena's army, traverse the Underworld to defeat its ruler, the ruthless Hades and rescue their kidnapped goddess. The Saints discover that the only way to kill Hades is to destroy his true body, which has rested in Elysium since the ages of myth. The Saints then invade Elysium, which Kurumada depicts as described in Greek mythology, and carry on their mission after a difficult battle with the deity. The 2009 film Teenage Dirtbag features the song “Elysian Fields” by Casey Frazier.[31]

16.4. SEE ALSO

16.4 See also • Aaru • Asphodel Meadows • Elysium (Dungeons & Dragons) • Elysium in popular culture • Gimlé • Heaven • The Golden Bough (mythology)

16.5 References [1] Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Volume 1. New York: Harper. pp. 588, 589. [2] Sacks, David (1997). A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World. Oxford University Press US. pp. 8, 9. ISBN 0-19-5112067. [3] Zaidman, Louise Bruit (1992). Religion in the Ancient Greek City. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-521-42357-0. [4] Clare, Israel Smith (1897). Library of Universal History, Volume 2: Ancient Oriental Nations and Greece. New York: R. S. Peale, J. A. Hill. [5] Petrisko, Thomas W. (2000). Inside Heaven and Hell: What History, Theology and the Mystics Tell Us About the Afterlife. McKees Rocks, PA: St. Andrews Productions. pp. 12–14. ISBN 1-891903-23-3. [6] Ogden, Daniel (2007). A Companion to Greek Religion. Singapore: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 92, 93. ISBN 1-4051-20541. [7] Westmoreland, Perry L. (2007). Ancient Greek Beliefs. Lee And Vance Publishing Co. p. 70. ISBN 0-9793248-1-5. [8] Rengel, Marian (2009). Greek and Roman Mythology A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 1-60413-412-7. [9] Evelyn-White, Hugh G. (1914). The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation. London: William Heinemann Ltd. [10] Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. United Kingdom: Blackwell. p. 198. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. [11] Murray, A.T. (1919). Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation. Perseus Digital Library Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [12] Commentarii ad Homerii Odisseam, IV, v. 563. [13] Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by. Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. sub voce. [14] A Greek-English Lexicon ec. s. v. [15] Storia vera. Dialoghi dei morti, Lucian, Oscar Mondadori, Milano, 1991 (2010), p. 79. [16] Svarlien, Diane (1990). Odes. [17] Williams, Theodore C. (1910). Verg. A. 6.539. The Perseus Digital Library. [18] Dryden, John. Verg. A. 6.641. The Perseus Digital Library Project. [19] Perrin, Bernadotte (1919). Plutarch’s Lives. Perseus Digital Library Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2011. [20] Thayer, Bill. “The Life of Sertorius”. The Parallel Lives Plutarch. The Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 19 June 2011.

CHAPTER 16. ELYSIUM

[21] Seymer, John Gunning. (1835) The Romance of Ancient Egypt: Second Series. p 72. [22] Priestley, Joseph. Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit. p. 209 [23] Toland, John. Letters to Serena, History of the Immortality of the Soul. pp. 46–52 [24] Toynbee, Paget (1968). A Dictionary of Proper Names and Notable Matters in the Works of Dante. Oxford University Press. [25] Hollander, Robert. “The Divine Comedy”. Princeton Dante Project. Retrieved 26 June 2011. [26] Friedlander, Joseph. “Princess Sabbath”. The Standard Book of Jewish Verse. Retrieved 3 January 2016. [27] Waterfield, Waterfield John; Waterfield, John (1 December 2016). “The Heart of His Mystery: Shakespeare and the Catholic Faith in England Under Elizabeth and James”. iUniverse – via Google Books. [28] Hylton, Jeremy. “Twelfth Night, Act 1, Scene 2”. The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. MIT. Retrieved 26 June 2011. [29] Ford, John (1915). 'Tis Pity She’s a Whore and The Broken Heart. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co. p. 105. [30] McFadden, Hugh (1984). Cities of Mirrors. Dublin: Beaver Row Press. ISBN 0-946308-08-X. [31] “Casey Frazier - Elysian Fields (Official Video)". YouTube.

16.6 External links • Media related to Elysium at Wikimedia Commons

16.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

Elysian Fields by Carlos Schwabe, 1903

Chapter 17

Erebus For other uses, see Erebus (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Erebus /ˈɛrəbəs/, also Erebos (Greek: Ἔρεβος, “deep darkness, shadow”),[1] was often conceived as a primordial deity, representing the personification of darkness; for instance, Hesiod's Theogony identifies him as one of the first five beings in existence, born of Chaos.[2] Erebus features little in Greek mythological tradition and literature, but is said to have fathered several other deities with Nyx; depending on the source of the mythology, this union includes Aether, Hemera, the Hesperides, Hypnos, the Moirai, Geras, Styx, Charon, and Thanatos. In Greek literature the name Erebus is also used as a region of the Greek underworld where the dead pass immediately after dying, and is sometimes used interchangeably with Tartarus.[3][4][5][6][7] The perceived meaning of Erebus is “darkness"; the first recorded instance of it was “place of darkness between earth and Hades”. The name Ἔρεβος itself originates from PIE *h1 regʷ-es/os- “darkness”[8][9] (cf. Sanskrit rájas, Gothic riqis, Old Norse røkkr).[1] According to the Greek oral poet Hesiod's Theogony, Erebus is the offspring of Chaos, and brother to Nyx: “From Chaos came forth Erebus and black Night (Nyx); but of Night were born Aether and Day (Hemera), whom she conceived and bore from union in love with Erebus.” Hesiod, Theogony (120–125)[10] The Roman writer Hyginus, in his Fabulae, described Erebus as the father of Geras, the god of old age.[11]

17.1 References Notes [1] Ἔρεβος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [2] Hesiod, Theogony 116–124. [3] Elizabeth, Alice (1896). The Sources of Spenser’s Classical Mythology. New York: Silver, Burdett and Company. pp. 52, 55. [4] Morford, Mark P. O. (1999). Classical Mythology: Sixth Edition. New York: Oxford University Press US. pp. 36, 84, 253, 263, 271. ISBN 0-19-514338-8., ISBN 9780195143386 [5] Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper’s Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Volume 1. New York: Harper. p. 620. [6] Rengel, Marian (2009). Greek and Roman Mythology A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 1-60413-412-7., ISBN 9781604134124 [7] Turner, Patricia (2001). Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-19-514504-6., ISBN 9780195145045 [8] Harper, Douglas. “Online Etymology Dictionary: Erebus”. Retrieved 1 July 2011. [9] R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 451.

17.1. REFERENCES

Genealogy of the oﬀspring of Chaos [10] Evelyn-White (1914) [11] Atsma, Aaron. “Hyginus, Fabulae 1–49”. Theoi E-Texts Library. Retrieved 1 July 2011.

Sources • Evelyn-White, Hugh G. (1914). “Theogony”. The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Perseus Digital Library Project. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. • Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). “E'rebos”

CHAPTER 17. EREBUS

17.2 External links • The Theoi Project, “Erebos”

Chapter 18

Asphodel Meadows The Asphodel Meadows is a section of the Ancient Greek underworld where ordinary souls were sent to live after death.

18.1 Origin The Oxford English Dictionary gives Homer as the source for the English poetic tradition of describing the meadows of the afterlife as being covered in Asphodel. In the translation by W. H. D. Rouse, the passage in question (from The Odyssey, Book 11) is rendered, “the ghost of clean-heeled Achilles marched away with long steps over the meadow of Asphodel.” In Book 24 in the same translation, the souls of the dead, “came to the Meadow of Asphodel where abide the souls and phantoms of those whose work is done.”[1] Homer describes the experience of the dead souls and relates the meadow to its surroundings in these books and in Circe’s brief description at the end of Book 10. Asphodel flowers growing in the underworld is an idea that may predate Homer’s writings,[2] reflecting the influence of Minoan[3] and Egyptian cultures whose afterlife was generally bright and fertile. Since the flower (ἀσφόδελος in Greek) was highly regarded throughout the ancient world it appears to have preserved its traditional positive role in the Greek afterlife. However Homer’s meadows are not the place of perfect beauty they would become for postRenaissance romantic English poets. In the Odyssey, the hero Odysseus sails to the very edge of the earth, beyond the place where Dawn rises (Odyssey 12.3), in that foggy place the sun never shines. There he sees a grove of trees, the junction of two rivers and a meadow of Asphodel. This landscape perhaps predates the Odyssey and would have identified to the readers that this is the gateway to the underworld. The description of existence in the meadows is disturbing “The dead approach him in swarms, unable to speak unless animated by the blood of the animals he slays. Without blood they are witless, without activity, without pleasure and without future”.[4] Only the ghost of the semi divine Teiresias is permitted by Persephone to retain the power to think independently, the rest “flit like shadows”. Other references in the Odyssey to the meadows include the passage at 11.573 where the spirit of the hunter Orion herds together the spirits of his prey “through the Asphodel meadow”, and the spirits of the slaughtered suitors arrive, squeaking like bats in a cave, “at the Asphodel meadow” (Odyssey, 24.13).

18.2 Later depictions The Asphodel Meadows is most probably where the souls of people who lived average lives remain, however its relationship to other places in the Greek afterlife remains uncertain. For later Greek poets the very ancient pre-Homeric association of the Asphodel ﬂower with a positive form of afterlife as well as the enlarged role of Elysium as it became the destination of more than just a few lucky heroes, altered the character of the meadows. Greek poets who wrote after Homer’s time describe them as untouched, lovely, soft and holy. Such an evolutionary change is quite common: “Like most cultures throughout human history, both ancient and modern, the Greeks held complex and sometimes contradictory views about the afterlife”.[2] Some depictions describe it as a land of utter neutrality. That is, while the inhabitants were in life neither good nor evil, so they are treated in the afterlife. Other depictions have also stated that all residents drink from the river Lethe before entering the ﬁelds, thus losing their identities. This somewhat negative outlook on the afterlife for those who 63

CHAPTER 18. ASPHODEL MEADOWS

make little impact was perhaps passed down to encourage militarism in Greek cultures as opposed to inaction. In fact, those who did take up arms and became heroes were rewarded with everlasting joy in the fields of Elysium. Edith Hamilton suggests that the Asphodel of these fields are not exactly like the Asphodel of our world but are “presumably strange, pallid, ghostly flowers.”[5] Others suggest that they were actually narcissi.[6]

18.3 See also • Purgatory

18.4 References [1] W.H.D. Rouse, trans. The Odyssey: The Story of Odysseus. New York: The New American Library, 1949. [2] Reece, Steve (2007). “Homer’s Asphodel Meadow”. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 47 (4): 389–400. [3] Dietrich, Bernard (1997). “Death and Afterlife in Minoan Religion”. Kernos. 10: 19–38. Retrieved 2013-04-28. [4] Cole, Susan (2003). Michael B. Cosmopoulos, ed. Greek Mysteries: The Archaeology and Ritual of Ancient Greek Secret Cults. p. 194. ISBN 0415248728. [5] Edith Hamilton. Mythology. New York: Warner Books, 1999. Ch. 1, p. 40. [6] Dweck, A. C. The folklore of Narcissus (PDF). pp. 19–29. In Hanks (2002)

18.5 Bibliography • Hanks, Gordon R (2002). Narcissus and Daﬀodil: The Genus Narcissus. London: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0415273447. Retrieved 2 October 2014. • Anonymous (May–October 1887). “Homer the botanist”. Macmillan’s Magazine. London: Macmillan and Company. 56: 428–436. Retrieved 3 November 2014.

Chapter 19

Fortunate Isles The Fortunate Isles or Isles of the Blessed[1] (Greek: μακάρων νῆσοι, makárôn nêsoi) were semi-legendary islands in the Atlantic Ocean, variously treated as a simple geographical location and as a winterless earthly paradise inhabited by the heroes of Greek mythology. The related idea of Brasil and other islands in Celtic mythology are sometimes conﬂated with the Greek sense of islands in the western Mediterranean: Sicily, the Aeolian Islands, the Aegadian Islands or other smaller islands of Sicily. Later on the islands were said to lie in the Western Ocean near the encircling River Oceanus; Madeira, the Canary Islands, the Azores, Cape Verde, Bermuda, and the Lesser Antilles have sometimes been cited as possible matches.

19.1 Legend According to Greek mythology, the islands were reserved for those who had chosen to be reincarnated thrice, and managed to be judged as especially pure enough to gain entrance to the Elysian Fields all three times.[2] A feature of the fortunate islands is the connection with the god Cronus; the cult of Cronus had spread and connected to Sicily, in particular in the area near Agrigento where it was revered and in some areas associated with the cult of the Phoenician god Baal.

19.2 Accounts Flavius Philostratus' Life of Apollonius of Tyana (v.2) says, “And they also say that the Islands of the Blessed are to be fixed by the limits of Libya where they rise towards the uninhabited promontory.” In this geography Libya was considered to extend westwards through Mauretania “as far as the mouth of the river Salex, some nine hundred stadia, and beyond that point a further distance which no one can compute, because when you have passed this river Libya is a desert which no longer supports a population.” Plutarch, who refers to the “fortunate isles” several times in his writings, locates them firmly in the Atlantic in his vita of Sertorius. Sertorius, when struggling against a chaotic civil war in the closing years of the Roman Republic, had tidings from mariners of certain islands a few days’ sail from Hispania: ...where the air was never extreme, which for rain had a little silver dew, which of itself and without labour, bore all pleasant fruits to their happy dwellers, till it seemed to him that these could be no other than the Fortunate Islands, the Elysian Fields.[3] It was from these men that Sertorius learned facts so beguiling that he made it his life’s ambition to find the islands and retire there. The islands are said to be two in number separated by a very narrow strait and lie 10,000 furlongs ( 2,000 kilometers / 1,250 miles ) from Africa. They are called the Isles of the Blessed. [...] Moreover an air that is salubrious, owing to the climate and the moderate changes in the seasons, prevails on the islands. The North and East winds which blow out from our part of the world plunge into 65

CHAPTER 19. FORTUNATE ISLES fathomless space and, owing to the distance, dissipate themselves and lose their power before they reach the islands, while the South and West winds that envelop the islands sometimes bring in their train soft and intermittent showers, but for the most part cool them with moist breezes and gently nourish the soil. Therefore a ﬁrm belief has made its way, even to the barbarians, that here are the Elysian Fields and the abode of the Blessed of which Homer sang.

Pliny the Elder's Natural History adds to the obligate description—that they “abound in fruit and birds of every kind”—the unexpected detail “These islands, however, are greatly annoyed by the putrefying bodies of monsters, which are constantly thrown up by the sea”. The Isles are mentioned in Book II of True History by the Greek satirist Lucian of Samosata. The author makes fun of the heroes residing there by giving an account of their petty squabbles as presented to the court of the magistrate, Rhadamanthus. He goes on to describe other observations of how the residents occupy their time, using every opportunity to satirise both contemporary life and Greek mythology. Ptolemy used these islands as the reference for the measurement of geographical longitude and they continued to play the role of deﬁning the prime meridian through the Middle Ages.[4] Modern geography names these islands as Macaronesia. Lucio Russo in L'America dimenticata[5] puts forward the bold hypothesis (supported by means of statistical methods) that the Fortunate Isles were actually the Lesser Antilles and that Hipparchus knew their longitude with remarkable precision. For fantasy author J.R.R. Tolkien, those islands and other mythical islands such as Avallon, Atlantis, etc. used to exist as a separate continent in the West, Valinor, but drifted out into space as the Earth became spherical (from ﬂat), in order to prevent mortals from reaching it. They were inhabited by the Valar and several elvish nations.

19.3 See also • Greek mythology in popular culture • Hesperides • Snake Island (Black Sea), “Isle of the Blessed” in Greek legend. • Annwn • Brittia • Elysium • Mag Mell • Tír na nÓg • Avalon, The Isle of the Blessed • Aman, the “blessed realm” of Tolkien's works. • Buyan • Macaronesia • Vinland • Great Ireland • Saint Brendan’s Island

19.4. NOTES

19.4 Notes [1] Variously also rendered as the “Fortunate Islands”, the “Islands of the Blessed”, the “Isles of the Blest”, and the “Islands of the Blest”. [2] Pindar, Olympian Ode 2. 57 ﬀ [3] Plutarch, Life of Sertorius, ch. viii. [4] Wright, John Kirtland (1923). “Notes on the Knowledge of Latitudes and Longitudes in the Middle Ages”. Isis. 5 (1): 75–98. JSTOR 223599. doi:10.1086/358121. [5] Lucio Russo, L'America dimenticata. I rapporti tra le civiltà e un errore di Tolomeo (2013)

Chapter 20

Tartarus This article is about the deity and the place in Greek mythology. For other uses, see Tartarus (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Tartarus (/ˈtɑːrtərəs/; Ancient Greek: Τάρταρος Tartaros)[1] is the deep abyss that is used

Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attic black-ﬁgure amphora, c. 530 BC

20.1. GREEK MYTHOLOGY

as a dungeon of torment and suﬀering for the wicked and as the prison for the Titans. Tartarus is the place where, according to Plato in Gorgias (c. 400 BC), souls were judged after death and where the wicked received divine punishment. Like other primal entities (such as the Earth, Night and Time), Tartarus was also considered to be a primordial force or deity.

20.1 Greek mythology In Greek mythology, Tartarus is both a deity and a place in the underworld. In ancient Orphic sources and in the mystery schools, Tartarus is also the unbounded first-existing entity from which the Light and the cosmos are born. In the Greek poet Hesiod's Theogony, c. 700 BC, Tartarus was the third of the primordial deities, following after Chaos and Gaia (Earth), and preceding Eros,[2] and was the father, by Gaia, of the monster Typhon.[3] According to Hyginus, Tartarus was the offspring of Aether and Gaia.[4] As for the place, Hesiod asserts that a bronze anvil falling from heaven would fall nine days before it reached the earth. The anvil would take nine more days to fall from earth to Tartarus.[5] In the Iliad (c. 700 BC), Zeus asserts that Tartarus is “as far beneath Hades as heaven is above earth.”[6] While according to Greek mythology the realm of Hades is the place of the dead, Tartarus also has a number of inhabitants. When Cronus came to power as the King of the Titans, he imprisoned the one-eyed Cyclopes and the hundred-armed Hecatonchires in Tartarus and set the monster Campe as its guard. Zeus killed Campe and released these imprisoned giants to aid in his conflict with the Titans. The gods of Olympus eventually triumphed. Kronos and many of the other Titans were banished to Tartarus, though Prometheus, Epimetheus, Metis and most of the female Titans were spared (according to Pindar, Kronos somehow later earned Zeus’ forgiveness and was released from Tartarus to become ruler of Elysium). Another Titan, Atlas, was sentenced to hold the sky on his shoulders to prevent it from resuming its primordial embrace with the Earth. Other gods could be sentenced to Tartarus as well. Apollo is a prime example, although Zeus freed him. The Hecatonchires became guards of Tartarus’ prisoners. Later, when Zeus overcame the monster Typhon, he threw him into “wide Tartarus”.[7] Originally, Tartarus was used only to confine dangers to the gods of Olympus. In later mythologies, Tartarus became the place where the punishment fits the crime. For example: • King Sisyphus was sent to Tartarus for killing guests and travelers to his castle in violation to his hospitality, seducing his niece, and reporting one of Zeus’ sexual conquests by telling the river god Asopus of the whereabouts of his daughter Aegina (who had been taken away by Zeus).[8] But regardless of the impropriety of Zeus’ frequent conquests, Sisyphus overstepped his bounds by considering himself a peer of the gods who could rightfully report their indiscretions. When Zeus ordered Thanatos to chain up Sisyphus in Tartarus, Sisyphus tricked Thanatos by asking him how the chains worked and ended up chaining Thanatos; as a result there was no more death. This caused Ares to free Thanatos and turn Sisyphus over to him.[9] Sometime later, Sisyphus had Persephone send him back to the surface to scold his wife for not burying him properly. Sisyphus was forcefully dragged back to Tartarus by Hermes when he refused to go back to the Underworld after that. In Tartarus, Sisyphus was forced to roll a large boulder up a mountainside which when he almost reached the crest, rolled away from Sisyphus and rolled back down repeatedly.[10] This represented the punishment of Sisyphus claiming that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus, causing the god to make the boulder roll away from Sisyphus, binding Sisyphus to an eternity of frustration. • King Tantalus also ended up in Tartarus after he cut up his son Pelops, boiled him, and served him as food when he was invited to dine with the gods. He also stole the ambrosia from the Gods and told his people its secrets.[11] Another story mentioned that he held onto a golden dog forged by Hephaestus and stolen by Tantalus’ friend Pandareus. Tantalus held onto the golden dog for safekeeping and later denied to Pandareus that he had it. Tantalus’ punishment for his actions (now a proverbial term for “temptation without satisfaction”) was to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches. Whenever he reached for the fruit, the branches raised his intended meal from his grasp. Whenever he bent down to get a drink, the water receded before he could get any. Over his head towered a threatening stone like that of Sisyphus.[12] • Ixion was the king of the Lapiths, the most ancient tribe of Thessaly. Ixion grew to hate his father-in-law and ended up pushing him onto a bed of coal and woods committing the first kin-related murder. The princes of other lands ordered that Ixion be denied of any sin-cleansing. Zeus took pity on Ixion and invited him to a meal on Olympus. But when Ixion saw Hera, he fell in love with her and did some under-the-table caressing until Zeus signaled him to stop. After finding a place for Ixion to sleep, Zeus created a cloud-clone of Hera named

CHAPTER 20. TARTARUS Nephele to test him to see how much he loved Hera. Ixion made love to her, which resulted in the birth of Centaurus, who mated with some Magnesian mares on Mount Pelion and thus engendered the race of Centaurs (who are called the Ixionidae from their descent). Zeus drove Ixion from Mount Olympus and then struck him with a thunderbolt. He was punished by being tied to a winged flaming wheel that was always spinning: first in the sky and then in Tartarus. Only when Orpheus came down to the Underworld to rescue Eurydice did it stop spinning because of the music Orpheus was playing. Ixion being strapped to the flaming wheel represented his burning lust. • In some versions, the Danaides murdered their husbands and were punished in Tartarus by being forced to carry water in a jug to fill a bath which would thereby wash off their sins. But the tub was filled with cracks, so the water always leaked out.[13] • The giant Tityos attempted to rape Leto on Hera’s orders, but was slain by Apollo and Artemis. As punishment, Tityos was stretched out in Tartarus and tortured by two vultures who fed on his liver. This punishment is extremely similar to that of the Titan Prometheus. • King Salmoneus was also mentioned to have been imprisoned in Tartarus after passing himself off as Zeus, causing the real Zeus to smite him with a thunderbolt.[14]

According to Plato (c. 427 BC), Rhadamanthus, Aeacus and Minos were the judges of the dead and chose who went to Tartarus. Rhadamanthus judged Asian souls, Aeacus judged European souls and Minos was the deciding vote and judge of the Greek. Plato also proposes the concept that sinners were cast under the ground to be punished in accordance with their sins in the Myth of Er. Cronus, the ruler of the Titans, was thrown down into the pits of Tartarus by his children. There were a number of entrances to Tartarus in Greek mythology. One was in Aornum.[15]

20.2 Roman mythology In Roman mythology, Tartarus is the place where sinners are sent. Virgil describes it in the Aeneid as a gigantic place, surrounded by the ﬂaming river Phlegethon and triple walls to prevent sinners from escaping from it. It is guarded by a hydra with ﬁfty black gaping jaws, which sits at a screeching gate protected by columns of solid adamantine, a substance akin to diamond – so hard that nothing will cut through it. Inside, there is a castle with wide walls, and a tall iron turret. Tisiphone, one of the Erinyes who represents revenge, stands guard sleepless at the top of this turret lashing a whip. There is a pit inside which is said to extend down into the earth twice as far as the distance from the lands of the living to Olympus. At the bottom of this pit lie the Titans, the twin sons of Aloeus, and many other sinners. Still more sinners are contained inside Tartarus, with punishments similar to those of Greek myth.

20.3 Biblical pseudepigrapha See also: Jewish pseudepigrapha and Jewish apocrypha Tartarus occurs in the Septuagint of Job, but otherwise is only known in Hellenistic Jewish literature from the Greek text of 1 Enoch, dated to 400–200 BC. This states that God placed the archangel Uriel “in charge of the world and of Tartarus” (20:2). Tartarus is generally understood to be the place where 200 fallen Watchers (angels) are imprisoned.[16] Tartarus also appears in sections of the Jewish Sibylline Oracles. E.g. Sib. Or. 4:186.

20.4 New Testament See also: Christian views on hell In the New Testament, the noun Tartarus does not occur but tartaroo (ταρταρόω, “throw to Tartarus”), a shortened form of the classical Greek verb kata-tartaroo (“throw down to Tartarus”), does appear in 2 Peter 2:4. Liddell–Scott

20.5. IN POPULAR CULTURE

provides other sources for the shortened form of this verb, including Acusilaus (5th century BC), Joannes Laurentius Lydus (4th century AD) and the Scholiast on Aeschylus' Eumenides, who cites Pindar relating how the earth tried to tartaro “cast down” Apollo after he overcame the Python.[17] In classical texts, the longer form kata-tartaroo is often related to the throwing of the Titans down to Tartarus.[18] The ESV is one of several English versions that gives the Greek reading Tartarus as a footnote: For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell [1] and committed them to chains of gloomy darkness to be kept until the judgment; Footnotes [1] 2:4 Greek Tartarus Adam Clarke reasoned that Peter’s use of language relating to the Titans was an indication that the ancient Greeks had heard of a Biblical punishment of fallen angels.[19] Some Evangelical Christian commentaries distinguish Tartarus as a place for wicked angels and Gehenna as a place for wicked humans on the basis of this verse.[20] Other Evangelical commentaries, in reconciling that some fallen angels are chained in Tartarus, yet some not, attempt to distinguish between one type of fallen angel and another.[21]

20.5 In popular culture Tartarus is featured in Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson and the Olympians and The Heroes of Olympus novel series, where it serves its mythological role as a location in the Underworld. It is further noted as the place where the spirits of defeated monsters travel and undergo regeneration, allowing them to eventually return to Earth. As with the ancient Greeks, Riordan also personifies Tartarus as a sentient being; in this case as the husband of Gaea and father of the Giants. The rivers of the Underworld are revealed to be his circulatory system, and his actual form is the realm from Greek myth. He also displays the ability to “project” a humanoid form of considerable power. During the Mark of Athena, Nico di Angelo gets trapped in Tartarus and nearly goes insane. Percy Jackson and Annabeth Chase end up trapped there at the end of the book and spend the House of Hades wandering Tartarus to find a way out. They succeed with the help of the Titan Iapetus and the Giant Damasen, but both sacrifice themselves to save them from Tartarus himself. Tartarus is one of the major locations in Persona 3 but instead of an underground place, it is a high tower that only emerges in the middle of the night, known as the Dark Hour, where the main characters’ school should be. It is the main location where combats occur, as well as being the place where many main story moments take place. Throughout the game, players climb up the floors and fight Shadows, the main monsters fought in the game. Tartarus is also the location in which many main story segments take place, such as various fights with Strega (major antagonists of the game), and the final boss battle. It is the background for most of the story’s plot. It also makes an appearance in Persona 4 Arena Ultimax as one of the main backgrounds of the game, emerging where the school the Persona 4 cast goes to is supposed to be, in a time similar to the Dark Hour. In Bungie Studios' 2004 video game Halo 2, Tartarus is one of the main antagonists in the latter half of the campaign story. The character (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) is the chieftain of the Brutes, one of the alien species frequently combated in the game. He is easily recognized by his white fur, mohawk, and massive war hammer. His harsh, cruel, oppressive nature lends itself to his mythological underworld namesake. In the game’s campaign, Tartarus shows consistent hostility and derision towards the race of Elites of which the protagonist, the Arbiter is a part. In the game’s third act, he attempts to kill the Arbiter and leads the Brutes in a mutiny to usurp the leadership position of the Elites within the Covenant army. Following this betrayal, the player, fighting as the Arbiter, must track down Tartarus and in the final mission, defeat him to stop the firing of the Halo ring.[22]

20.6 See also • Greek mythology in popular culture • Hades • Erebus • Gehenna

CHAPTER 20. TARTARUS • Tzoah Rotachat • Hell • Sheol • The Golden Bough (mythology) • The tartaruchi of the non-canonical Apocalypse of Paul.

20.7 Notes [1] Of uncertain origin (“Tartarus”. Online Etymological Dictionary). [2] Hesiod, Theogony 116–119. [3] Hesiod, Theogony 820–822. [4] Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. [5] Hesiod, Theogony 720–725. [6] Homer, Iliad 8.17. [7] Hesiod, Theogony 868. [8] Hamilton, Edith. “Brief Myths.” Mythology. [9] “Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Retrieved 2014-02-19. [10] Homer, Odyssey 11.593–600. [11] Pindar, First Olympian Ode. [12] Odyssey xi.582-92; Tantalus’ transgressions are not mentioned; they must already have been well known to Homer’s late8th-century hearers. [13] The Danish government’s third world aid agency’s name was changed from DANAID to DANIDA in the last minute when this unfortunate connotation was discovered. [14] Virgil Aeneid 6.585-594 [15] The Greek Myths (Volume 1) by Robert Graves (1990), page 112: "... He used the passage which opens at Aornum in Thesprotis and, on his arrival, not only charmed the ferryman Charon...” [16] Kelley Coblentz Bautch A Study of the Geography of 1 Enoch 17–19: “no One Has Seen what I Have Seen” p134 [17] A. cast into Tartarus or hell, Acus.8 J., 2 Ep.Pet.2.4, Lyd.Mens.4.158 (Pass.), Sch.T Il.14.296. Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by. Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. [18] Apollodorus of Athens, in Didymus’ Scholia on Homer; Plutarch Concerning rivers [19] Clarke Commentary “The ancient Greeks appear to have received, by tradition, an account of the punishment of the 'fallen angels,' and of bad men after death; and their poets did, in conformity I presume with that account, make Tartarus the place where the giants who rebelled against Jupiter, and the souls of the wicked, were confined. 'Here,' saith Hesiod, Theogon., lin. 720, 1, 'the rebellious Titans were bound in penal chains.'" [20] Paul V. Harrison, Robert E. Picirilli James, 1, 2 Peter, Jude Randall House Commentaries 1992 p267 “We do not need to say, then, that Peter was reflecting or approving the Book of Enoch (20:2) when it names Tartarus as a place for wicked angels in distinction from Gehenna as the place for wicked humans.” [21] Vince Garcia The Resurrection Life Study Bible 2007 p412 “If so, we have a problem: Satan and his angels are not locked up in Tartarus! Satan and his angels were alive and active in the time of Christ, and still are today! Yet Peter specifically (2 Peter 2:4) states that at least one group of angelic beings have literally been cast down to Tartarus and bound in chains until the Last Judgment. So if Satan and his angels are not currently bound in Tartarus—who is? The answer goes back~again~to the angels who interbred with humans. So then— is it impossible that Azazel is somehow another name for Satan? There may be a chance he is, but there is no way of knowing for sure. ...” [22] “Tartarus”. Halo - Official Site. Microsoft. Retrieved 20 July 2016.

20.8. REFERENCES

20.8 References • Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. XI, 576ﬀ. • Virgil, Aeneid, VI, 539–627.

Chapter 21

Aeacus For the butterﬂy, see Troides aeacus. “Eacus” redirects here. For the Iberian deity, see Eacus (god). Aeacus (/ˈiːəkəs/; also spelled Eacus; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a mythological king of the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf.

21.1 Family Aeacus was the son of Zeus and Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus.[1] According to some accounts, Aeacus was a son of Zeus and Europa. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of Achilles and Telemonian Ajax.

21.2 Mythology 21.2.1

Birth and early days

Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina.[2][3][4][5][6] Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth.[2][7][8] Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried oﬀ. Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.[9][10][11] These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves.[12][13] He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it.[2][14] Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to Zeus Panhellenius on Mount Panhellenion,[15] and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.[16]

21.2.2

Later adventures

A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy.[17] When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the 74

21.3. REFERENCES

sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus’s descendants, the Aeacidae. Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliﬀs in order to protect it against pirates.[18] Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid.[19] By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently ﬂed from their native island.

21.2.3

In the Afterlife

After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with the Cretan brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos)[20][21] and, according to Plato, was speciﬁcally concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld.[22][23] In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades.[2][24] Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina,[16][25][26] and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island by celebrating the Aeacea in his honor.[27] In The Frogs (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons. Alexander the Great traced his ancestry (through his mother) to Aeacus.

21.3 References [1] Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), “Aeacus”, in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, pp. 22–23 [2] Bibliotheca iii. 12. § 6 [3] Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 52 [4] Pausanias ii. 29. § 2 [5] comp. Nonn. Dionys. vi. 212 [6] Ovid, Metamorphoses vi. 113, vii. 472, &c. [7] Hesiod, Fragm. 67, ed. Gottling [8] Pausanias, l.c. [9] Ovid, Metamorphoses vii. 520 [10] comp. Hygin. Fab. 52 [11] Strabo, viii. p. 375 [12] Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii. 48, &c. [13] Pausanias, i. 39. § 5 [14] Diodorus Siculus, iv. 60, 61 [15] Pausanias, ii. 30. § 4 [16] Pausanias, ii. 29. § 6 [17] Pindar, Olympian Odes viii. 39, &c. [18] Pausanias, ii. 29. § 5 [19] Ovid, Metamorphoses vii. 506, &c., ix. 435, &c [20] Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. 25

CHAPTER 21. AEACUS

[21] Horace, Carmen ii. 13. 22 [22] Plato, Gorgias p. 523 [23] Isocrates, Evag. 5 [24] Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii. 47, &c. [25] Hesychius s.v. [26] Schol. ad Pind. Nem. xiii. 155 [27] Pindar, Nemean Odes viii. 22

21.4 Sources â&#x20AC;¢ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "article name needed ". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

21.4. SOURCES

Aeacus and Telamon by Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune.

CHAPTER 21. AEACUS

Myrmidons; People from ants for King Aeacus, engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Metamorphoses Book VII, 622-642.

Minos, Aeacus and Rhadamanthys by Ludwig Mack, Bildhauer

Chapter 22

Minos For other uses, see Minos (disambiguation).

Gustave Doré's illustration of King Minos for Dante Alighieri's Inferno.

In Greek mythology Minos (/ˈmaɪnɒs/ or /ˈmaɪnəs/; Greek: Μίνως, Minōs) was the ﬁrst King of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa. Every nine years, he made King Aegeus pick seven young boys and seven young girls to be sent to Daedalus's creation, the labyrinth, to be eaten by the Minotaur. After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in the underworld. The Minoan civilization of Crete has been named after him by the archaeologist Arthur Evans. By his wife, Pasiphaë (or some say Crete), he fathered Ariadne, Androgeus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Glaucus, Catreus, Acacallis and Xenodice. By a nymph, Pareia, he had four sons, Eurymedon, Nephalion, Chryses and Philolaus, who were killed by Heracles in revenge for the murder of the latter’s two companions; and by Dexithea, one of the Telchines, he had a son called Euxanthius.[1] By Androgeneia of Phaestus he had Asterion, who commanded the 79

CHAPTER 22. MINOS

Cretan contingent in the war between Dionysus and the Indians.[2] Also given as his children are Euryale, possibly the mother of Orion with Poseidon,[3] and Pholegander, eponym of the island Pholegandros.[4] Minos, along with his brothers, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, were raised by King Asterion (or Asterius) of Crete. When Asterion died, his throne was claimed by Minos[5] who banished Sarpedon and, according to some sources, Rhadamanthys too.

22.1 Etymology “Minos” is often interpreted as the Cretan word for “king”,[6] or, by a euhemerist interpretation, the name of a particular king that was subsequently used as a title. There is a name in Minoan Linear A mi-nu-te that may be related to Minos. According to La Marle’s reading of Linear A,[7] which have been heavily criticised as arbitrary[8] we should read mwi-nu ro-ja (Minos the king) on a Linear A tablet. The royal title ro-ja is read on several documents, including on stone libation tables from the sanctuaries, where it follows the name of the main god, Asirai (the equivalent of Sanskrit Asura, and of Avestan Ahura). La Marle suggests that the name mwi-nu (Minos) is expected to mean 'ascetic' as Sanskrit muni, and ﬁts this explanation to the legend about Minos sometimes living in caves on Crete.[9] If royal succession in Minoan Crete descended matrilinearly— from the queen to her ﬁrstborn daughter— the queen’s husband would have become the Minos, or war chief. Some scholars see a connection between Minos and the names of other ancient founder-kings, such as Menes of Egypt, Mannus of Germany, and Manu of India,[10][11] and even with Meon of Phrygia and Lydia (after him named Maeonia), Mizraim of Egypt in the Book of Genesis and the Canaanite deity Baal Meon.[12]

22.2 The literary Minos Minos appears in Greek literature as the king of Knossos as early as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.[13] Thucydides tells us Minos was the most ancient man known to build a navy.[14] He reigned over Crete and the islands of the Aegean Sea three generations before the Trojan War. He lived at Knossos for periods of nine years, where he received instruction from Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its naval supremacy.[14][15] On the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant,[16] the heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed to the Minotaur; in revenge for the death of his son Androgeus during a riot (see Theseus).[17]

22.2.1

Later rationalization

To reconcile the contradictory aspects of his character, as well as to explain how Minos governed Crete over a period spanning so many generations, two kings of the name of Minos were assumed by later poets and rationalizing mythologists, such as Diodorus Siculus[18] and Plutarch— “putting aside the mythological element”, as he claims— in his life of Theseus.[19] According to this view, the ﬁrst King Minos was the son of Zeus and Europa and brother of Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon. This was the 'good' king Minos, and he was held in such esteem by the Olympian gods that, after he died, he was made one of the three 'Judges of the Dead',[20] alongside his brother Rhadamanthys and half-brother Aeacus. The wife of this 'Minos I' was said to be Itone (daughter of Lyctius) or Crete (a nymph or daughter of his stepfather Asterion), and he had a single son named Lycastus, his successor as King of Crete. Lycastus had a son named Minos, after his grandfather, born by Lycastus’ wife, Ida, daughter of Corybas. This 'Minos II'— the 'bad' king Minos— is the son of this Lycastus, and was a far more colorful character than his father and grandfather. It would be to this Minos that we owe the myths of Theseus, Pasiphaë, the Minotaur, Daedalus, Glaucus, and Nisus. Unlike Minos I, Minos II fathered numerous children, including Androgeus, Catreus, Deucalion, Ariadne, Phaedra, and Glaucus — all born to him by his wife Pasiphaë. Through Deucalion, he was the grandfather of King Idomeneus, who led the Cretans to the Trojan War.

22.2.2

Possible historical element

Doubtless there is a considerable historical element in the legend, perhaps in the Phoenician origin of Europa; it is possible that not only Athens, but Mycenae itself, were once culturally bound to the kings of Knossos, as Minoan objects appear at Mycenaean sites.

22.3. THE MYTHOLOGICAL MINOS

17th-century engraving of Scylla falling in love with Minos

Minos himself is said to have died at Camicus in Sicily, whither he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Cocalus, king of Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him while he was taking a bath.[21] Subsequently his remains were sent back to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on which was inscribed: “The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus.” The earlier legend knows Minos as a beneﬁcent ruler, legislator, and suppressor of piracy.[22] His constitution was said to have formed the basis of that of Lycurgus for Sparta.[23] In accordance with this, after his death he became judge of the shades in the underworld.[24] In later versions, Aeacus and Rhadamanthus were made judges as well, with Minos leading as the “appeals court” judge.[25]

22.3 The mythological Minos Asterion, king of Crete, adopted the three sons of Zeus and Europa, Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthus. According to the Odyssey he spoke with Zeus every nine years or for nine years. He got his laws straight from Zeus himself. When Minos’ son Androgeos had won the Panathenaic Games the king, Aegeus, sent him to Marathon to fight a bull, resulting in the death of Androgeos. Outraged, Minos went to Athens to avenge his son, and on the way he camped at Megara where Nisos lived. Learning that Nisos’ strength came from his hair, Minos gained the love of Scylla and her aid in cutting off her father’s hair so that he could conquer the city. After his triumph, he punished Scylla for her treachery against her father by tying her to a boat and dragging her until she drowned. On arriving in Attica, he asked Zeus to punish the city, and the god struck it with plague and hunger. An oracle told the Athenians to meet any of Minos’ demands if they wanted to escape the punishment. Minos then asked Athens to send seven boys and seven girls to Crete every nine years to be sacrificed to the Minotaur, the offspring from the zoophilic encounter of

CHAPTER 22. MINOS

Palace of Minos

Minos’ wife Pasiphaë with a certain bull that the king refused to sacriﬁce to Poseidon, which he had placed within a labyrinth he commanded his architect Daedalus to build. The Minotaur was defeated by the hero Theseus with the help of Minos’ daughter Ariadne.

22.3.1

Glaucus

Main article: Glaucus (son of Minos) One day, Glaucus was playing with a ball[26] or mouse[27] and suddenly disappeared. The Curetes told the Cretans “A marvelous creature has been born amongst you: whoever finds the true likeness for this creature will also find the child.” Polyidus of Argos observed the similarity of a newborn calf in Minos’ herd, colored white and red and black, to the ripening of the fruit of the bramble plant, and so Minos sent him to find Glaucus. Searching for the boy, Polyidus saw an owl driving bees away from a wine-cellar in Minos’ palace. Inside the winecellar was a cask of honey, with Glaucus dead inside. Minos demanded Glaucus be brought back to life, though Polyidus objected. Minos shut Polyidus up in the wine-cellar with a sword. When a snake appeared nearby, Polyidus killed it with the sword. Another snake came for the first, and after seeing its mate dead, the second serpent left and brought back an herb which brought the first snake back to life. Following this example, Polyidus used the same herb to resurrect Glaucus. Minos refused to let Polyidus leave Crete until he taught Glaucus the art of divination. Polyidus did so, but then, at the last moment before leaving, he asked Glaucus to spit in his mouth. Glaucus did so, and forgot everything he had been taught.

22.3.2

Poseidon, Daedalus and Pasiphaë

Minos justified his accession as king and prayed to Poseidon for a sign. Poseidon sent a giant white bull out of the sea.[28] Minos was committed to sacrificing the bull to Poseidon,[29] but then decided to substitute a different bull. In rage, Poseidon cursed Pasiphaë, Minos’ wife, with zoophilia. Daedalus built her a wooden cow, which she hid inside.

22.3. THE MYTHOLOGICAL MINOS

The bull mated with the wooden cow and Pasiphaë was impregnated by the bull, giving birth to a horrible monster, again named Asterius,[30] the Minotaur, half man half bull. Daedalus then built a complicated “chamber that with its tangled windings perplexed the outward way”[31] called the Labyrinth, and Minos put the Minotaur in it. To make sure no one would ever know the secret of who the Minotaur was and how to get out of the Labyrinth (Daedalus knew both of these things), Minos imprisoned Daedalus and his son, Icarus, along with the monster. Daedalus and Icarus ﬂew away on wings Daedalus invented, but Icarus’ wings melted because he ﬂew too close to the sun. Icarus fell in the sea and drowned.

22.3.3

Theseus

Amphora showing Theseus slaying the Minotaur, 460 BC. Ref:1837,0609.57 .

Minos’ son Androgeus won every game in a contest hosted by Aegeas of Athens. Alternatively, the other contestants were jealous of Androgeus and killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He oﬀered the Athenians peace if they sent Minos seven young men and seven virgin maidens to feed the Minotaur every year (which corresponded directly to the Minoans’ meticulous records of lunar alignments - a full moon falls on the equinoxes once every eight years). This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos’ lovestruck daughter.

22.3.4

Nisus

Minos was also part of the King Nisus story. Nisus was King of Megara, and he was invincible as long as a lock of crimson hair still existed, hidden in his white hair. Minos attacked Megara but Nisus knew he could not be beaten because he still had his lock of crimson hair.[32] His daughter, Scylla, fell in love with Minos and proved it by cutting the crimson hair oﬀ her father’s head. Nisus died and Megara fell to Crete. Minos spurned Scylla for disobeying her father. She was changed into a shearer bird, relentlessly pursued by her father, who was a falcon.

CHAPTER 22. MINOS

22.3.5

The death of Minos

Minos searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle; he presented a spiral seashell and asked for it to be strung all the way through. When he reached Camicus, Sicily, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, fetched the old man. He tied the string to an ant, which walked through the seashell, stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince him to take a bath ﬁrst; then Cocalus’ daughters and Daedalus, with Minos trapped in the bath, scalded him to death with boiling water. After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades together with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus. Rhadamanthus judged the souls of Asians, Aeacus judged Europeans, and Minos had the deciding vote.[33]

22.4 Minos in art On Cretan coins, Minos is represented as bearded, wearing a diadem, curly-haired, haughty and digniﬁed, like the traditional portraits of his reputed father, Zeus. On painted vases and sarcophagus bas-reliefs he frequently occurs with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus as judges of the underworld and in connection with the Minotaur and Theseus. In Michelangelo's famous fresco, The Last Judgment (located in the Sistine Chapel), Minos appears as judge of the underworld, surrounded by a crowd of devils. With his tail coiled around him and two donkey ears (symbol of stupidity), Minos judges the damned as they are brought down to hell (see Inferno, Second Circle).

22.4.1

In poetry

In the Aeneid of Virgil, Minos was the judge of those who had been given the death penalty on a false charge - Minos sits with a gigantic urn, and decides whether a soul should go to Elysium or Tartarus with the help of a silent jury. Radamanthus, his brother, is a judge at Tartarus who decides upon suitable punishments for sinners there.[35] In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy story Inferno, Minos is depicted as having a snake-like tail. He sits at the entrance to the second circle in the Inferno, which is the beginning of Hell proper. There, he judges the sins of each soul and assigns it to its rightful punishment by indicating the circle to which it must descend. He does this by circling his tail around his own body the appropriate number of times. He can also speak, to clarify the soul’s location within the circle indicated by the wrapping of his tail.[36]

22.4.2

In books

• Minos appeared as an antagonist against Percy Jackson in The Battle of the Labyrinth, the fourth book in the Percy Jackson series by Rick Riordan. Minos appeared to be helping the character Nico di Angelo raise his sister, who died in The Titan’s Curse. It was later revealed that he was working with Luke Castellan to destroy Olympus. He revealed that he only helped Nico to trick him into killing Daedalus so he would come back instead of Bianca. • King Minos and the Minotaur appear in In the Grip of the Minotaur by Farnham Bishop and Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, a novel which was serialized in Adventure magazine in 1916. Set around 1400 B.C., it tells the story of a group of Northmen who visit the ancient Mediterranean on a trading mission and become embroiled in intrigues between the rising power of Troy and the mistress of the Mediterranean, Crete. Brodeur was a professor at Berkeley who translated Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson and was a well-known Beowulf scholar. The novel was printed in book form for the ﬁrst time in 2010 (ISBN 978-1-928619-98-7) by Black Dog Books. • In Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves, the story of Minos and the Minotaur is referenced several times, both accurately and inaccurately, when Zampanó discusses the thematic similarities between it and the house’s labyrinth. • Minos appears as a sympathetic character in Mary Renault’s "The King Must Die". Slowly succumbing to the rages of leprosy, he hides his face by wearing a bull mask. Having no heir but an illegitimate stepson nicknamed “The Minotaur”, he sees in captive Theseus a future king and husband to his daughter, Ariadne.

22.5. GENEALOGY

22.5 Genealogy 22.6 See also • Minos, a dialogue attributed to Plato

22.7 Notes [1] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 3.1.2. [2] Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 13. 220ff. [3] Hyginus, Poetical Astronomy 2. 34 [4] Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Pholegandros [5] Apollodorus, Library 3.1.3. [6] “We call him Minos, but we do not know his name, probably the word is a title, like Pharaoh or Caesar, and covers a multitude of kings” (Will Durant, The Life of Greece [The Story of Civilization Part II), New York: Simon & Schuster), 1939:11). [7] Hubert La Marle, Linéaire A : la première écriture syllabique de Crete, Geuthner, Paris, 4 volumes, 1997–99 (in vol. 3, ch. XIV concerns kings and meetings) [8] Younger, John. Critique of Decipherments by Hubert La Marle and Kjell Aartun. University of Kansas. 15 August 2009; last update: 5 July 2010 (Retrieved 25 August 2011): [La Marle] “assigns phonetic values to Linear signs based on superficial resemblances to signs in other scripts (the choice of scripts being already prejudiced to include only those from the eastern Mediterranean and northeast Africa), as if “C looks like O so it must be O.” [9] La Marle 1997–99. [10] Archivio veneto, Volume 16, 1878, p. 367. [11] Hesperien: zur Lösung des religiös-geschichtlichen Problems der alten Welt, Joseph Wormstall, 1878, p.73. [12] On the origin and ramifications of the English language: Preceded by an inquiry into the primitive seats, early migrations, and final settlements of the principal European nations, Henry Welsford, 1845, pp. 11–12. [13] Homer, Iliad 13.450; Odyssey 11.321. [14] Thucydides, 1.4. [15] Herodotus 3.122 [16] Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth. Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998, p. 346. [17] William Godwin (1876). “Lives of the Necromancers”. p. 40. [18] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 60. 3 [19] Plutarch, Theseus §16 notes the discrepancy: “on the Attic stage Minos is always vilified... and yet Minos is said to have been a king and a lawgiver...” Lemprière A Classical Dictionary, s.v. “Minos” and “Minos II”. [20] Horace, Odes 4.7.21. [21] Diodorus Siculus, 4.79. [22] Thucydides 1.4. [23] Pausanias 3. 2, 4. [24] Odyssey, 11.568. [25] Plato, Gorgias; 524 [26] Hyginus, Fabula 136.

CHAPTER 22. MINOS

[27] Apollodorus, Library 3.3.1. [28] Bibliotheke 3.1.3; compare Diodorus Siculus 4.77.2 and John Tzetzes, Chiliades i.479ﬀ. Lactantius Placidus, commentary on Statius, Thebaid v.431, according to whom the bull was sent, in answer to Minos’s prayer, not by Poseidon but by Jupiter. [29] The act would have “returned” the bull to the god who sent it. [30] Bibliotheke 3.1.4. [31] Apparently a quotation, according to Sir James George Frazer, (Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation, 1921), commenting on Bibliotheke 3.1.4 (. [32] Bibliotheke 3.15.8 [33] Plato, Gorgias 523a and 524b ﬀ (trans. Lamb) [34] Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi (eds.). “Illustrations to Dante’s “Divine Comedy”, object 9 (Butlin 812.9) “Minos"". William Blake Archive. Retrieved September 26, 2013. [35] Aeneid VI, 568–572). [36] Inferno V, 4–24; XXVII, 124–127).

22.8 References • Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. • Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley, Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. • Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. • Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. • Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. • Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). “Minos 1.”, “Minos 2.” • Thucydides, Thucydides translated into English; with introduction, marginal analysis, notes, and indices, Volume 1., Benjamin Jowett. translator. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1881. • Ziolkowski, Theodore, Minos and the Moderns: Cretan Myth in Twentieth-century Literature and Art. (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). Pp. xii, 173 (Classical Presences). • Kelides,Yianni Minos SA: A study of the mind. (Minos SA University: I love Greece Club, 2000 BC). Pp. xii, 173 (Classical Presences).

22.9 External links • Media related to Minos at Wikimedia Commons • The death of Minos in Sicily

22.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

CHAPTER 22. MINOS

Minos depicted by Romantic British artist William Blake as part of his illustrations of Danteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Divine Comedy. The original object for this image is held by the National Gallery of Victoria.[34]

Chapter 23

Rhadamanthus “Rhadamanthys” redirects here. For the antagonist character of Saint Seiya, see Wyvern Rhadamanthys. For other uses, see Rhadamanthus (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Rhadamanthus (/ˌrædəˈmænθəs/) or Rhadamanthys (Ancient Greek: Ῥαδάμανθυς) was a

Minos, Aiakos and Rhadamanthys

wise king of Crete. Later accounts make him out to be one of the judges of the dead.

23.1 Etymology Rhadamanthus’ name might mean 'rod diviner' derived from two Greek words mantis “soothsayer, seer” and rhabdos “rod, wand”. It can also be etymologically related to Greek adámas “invincible, untamed” or Greek damázo “to overpower, to tame, to conquer.” 89

CHAPTER 23. RHADAMANTHUS

23.2 Family Rhadamanthus was the son of Zeus and Europa and brothers to Sarpedon and Minos (also a king and later a judge of the dead).[1] Together with his brothers, Rhadamanthus was raised by Asterion, their stepfather. He had two sons, Gortys (associated with Gortyn, Crete) and Erythrus (founder of Erythrae). Other sources (e.g. Plutarch, Theseus 20) credit Rhadamanthys rather than Dionysus as the husband of Ariadne, and the father of Oenopion, Staphylus and Thoas. In this account, Ariadne was the daughter of Minos, Rhadamanthys’ brother; another Ariadne was the daughter of Minos’ grandson and namesake, who features in the Theseus legend, and was rescued by Dionysus.

23.3 Mythology 23.3.1

Legislation

Although he was frequently considered one of the judges of the dead in the underworld, he was known for few legislative activities. There is a reference to a law of Rhadamanthus ordering the Cretans to swear oaths by animals[2] and to another law of Rhadamanthus saying if a person defends themselves against another who initiated violence then they should suﬀer no penalty.[3]

23.3.2

Exile from Crete

Driven out of Crete by Minos, who was jealous of his popularity, he ﬂed to Boeotia, where he wedded Alcmene, widow of Amphitryon and mother of Heracles. Also, according to some traditions, he was a tutor to Heracles.[4] This is also mentioned by Tzetzes, a medieval historian. In general, the particular sphere of activity of Rhadamanthus tends to be the Aegean islands, apart from Crete itself, where Minos was active. He is also often connected by ancient authors with central Greece.[5]

23.3.3

Afterlife

According to later legends (c. 400 BC), on account of his inﬂexible integrity he was made one of the judges of the dead in the lower world, together with Aeacus and Minos. He was supposed to judge the souls of easterners, Aeacus those of westerners, while Minos had the casting vote (Plato, Gorgias 524A). He is portrayed in Books 4 and 7 of Homer’s Odyssey. Virgil (69–18 BC) makes Rhadamanthus one of the judges and punishers of the unworthy in the Underworld (Tartarus) section of the Aeneid. Homer represents him as dwelling in the Elysian Fields (Odyssey iv. 564), the paradise for the immortal sons of Zeus. Pindar says that he is the right-hand man of Cronus (now ruling Elysium) and was the sole judge of the dead. Lucian depicts Rhadamanthus as presiding over the company of heroes on the Isles of the Blest in True History.

23.4 In popular culture • In John Milton's Areopagitica (1644), Milton criticizes censorship in which a book must undergo “the judgment of Radamanth and his colleagues, ere it can pass the ferry backward into light”. • In the fourth book of John Keats' "Endymion" (1818), the title character swears by, among other things, “old Rhadamanthus’ tongue of doom...”[6] • In Anthony Trollope’s “Castle Richmond” (1859-1860), Chapter 31, the narrator mentions “Rhadamanthus” the “critic” being “impatient” for the narrator to end his discussion of the Irish Famine and its aftermath and continue with the novel’s narrative: “Rhadamanthus is, of all things, impatient of an episode.” • In George Eliot's Mill on the Floss (1860) the derivative adjective Rhadamanthine is used.[7] • In Thomas Hardy's A Pair of Blue Eyes (1873) Elﬁde is described as looking “a very Rhadamanthus” when she makes a smart chess move.(p. 191)

23.5. ARGIVE GENEALOGY

• In James Stephens’s The Demi-Gods (1914), in “The Threepenny Piece”, Rhadamanthus (portrayed as an immense and terrifying judge of the dead), condemns a man to Hell. But the man, once in Hell, accuses Rhadamanthus of having stolen his threepenny coin. This becomes an immense cause célèbre in Hell, forcing Rhadamanthus to reconsider his verdict. • In the E.A. Robinson poem “The Voice of Age” (1916) Rhadamanthus is mentioned in the first line, comparing him to the woman in the poem. • In Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain (1924) Herr Settembrini refers to the Director Behrens of the sanatorium as Rhadamanthus. • In the poem “The Delphic Oracle Upon Plotinus” (1931) by William Butler Yeats, “Bland Rhadamanthus” is depicted as beckoning to Plotinus. • In Till We Have Faces (1956) by CS Lewis, a character is talking to a judge of the dead, “Minos, or Rhadamanthus, or Persephone, or by..."(295). • He is mentioned briefly in Harlan Ellison’s short story “Goodbye to All That,” published in McSweeney’s Mammoth Treasure of Thrilling Tales. (2002) • In John Wright's Golden Age trilogy (2002-2003), the protagonist, Phaeton (see Phaëton), belongs to Rhadamanthus Mansion of the Silver-Gray Manorial Schola. Rhadamanthus is also the name of the resident artificial intelligence, advisor and servant to its house members. • In the Doctor Who novel Fallen Gods (2003) by Jonathan Blum and Kate Orman, Rhadamanthus (spelled Rhadamanthys) plays a central role as the King of Kaménai. • In Dan Simmons' Endymion, the ultimate antagonist, a time-wielding agent sent by the AI TechnoCore, is a woman named Rhadamanth Nemes.

23.5 Argive Genealogy 23.6 References [1] https://archive.org/stream/ageoffableorbeau00bulf#page/330/mode/2up [2] Porphyry, De Abstinentia III.16.6, on which see Jean Bouﬀartigue, Porphyre, De l'abstinence, (Paris) 1979, p. 171 n. 2. [3] Apollodorus Library of Greek Mythology, II.4 [4] John Davidson, Rhadamanthys and the Family of Herakles. L'antiquité classique, 1999, Vol 68, pp. 247-252 [5] John Davidson, Rhadamanthys and the Family of Herakles. L'antiquité classique, 1999, Vol 68, pp. 247-252 [6] http://www.bartleby.com/126/35.html [7] Mill on the Floss; book 1: “Boy and Girl”, 1860, p. 46

23.7 External links • The dictionary definition of Ῥαδάμανθυς at Wiktionary • The dictionary definition of Rhadamanthus at Wiktionary • The dictionary definition of rhadamanthine at Wiktionary

Chapter 24

Cerberus This article is about the mythical dog. For other uses, see Cerberus (disambiguation).

Heracles, wearing his characteristic lion-skin, club in right hand, leash in left, presenting a three-headed Cerberus, snakes coiling from his snouts, necks and front paws, to a frightened Eurystheus hiding in a giant pot. Caeretan hydria (c. 530 BC) from Caere (Louvre E701).[1]

In Greek mythology, Cerberus (/ˈsɜːrbərəs/;[2] Greek: Κέρβερος Kerberos [ˈkerberos]), often called the “hound of Hades", is the monstrous multi-headed dog that guards the gates of the Underworld to prevent the dead from leaving. Cerberus was the oﬀspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, and usually is described as having three heads, a serpent for a tail, and snakes protruding from parts of his body. Cerberus is primarily known for his capture by Heracles, one of Heracles’ twelve labours. 92

24.1. DESCRIPTIONS

24.1 Descriptions Descriptions of Cerberus vary, including the number of his heads. Cerberus was usually three-headed, though not always. Cerberus had a multi-headed heritage. His father was the multi snake-headed Typhon,[3] and Cerberus was the brother of three other multi-headed monsters, the multi-snake-headed Lernaean Hydra; Orthrus, the two-headed dog who guarded the Cattle of Geryon; and the Chimera, who had three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a snake.[4] And, like these close relatives, Cerberus was, with only the rare iconographic exception, multi-headed. In the earliest description of Cerberus, Hesiod's Theogony (c. 8th – 7th century BC), Cerberus has ﬁfty heads, while Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) gave him one hundred heads.[5] However, later writers almost universally give Cerberus three heads.[6] An exception is the Latin poet Horace's Cerberus which has a single dog head, and one hundred snake heads.[7] Perhaps trying to reconcile these competing traditions, Apollodorus's Cerberus has three dog heads and the heads of “all sorts of snakes” along his back, while the Byzantine poet John Tzetzes (who probably based his account on Apollodorus) gives Cerberus ﬁfty heads, three of which were dog heads, the rest being the “heads of other beasts of all sorts”.[8]

Heracles, chain in left hand, his club laid aside, calms a two-headed Cerberus, which has a snake protruding from each of his heads, a mane down his necks and back, and a snake tail. Cerberus is emerging from a portico, which represents the palace of Hades in the underworld. Between them, a tree represents the sacred grove of Hades’ wife Persephone. On the far left, Athena stands, left arm extended. Amphora (c. 525–510 BC) from Vulci (Louvre F204).[9]

In art Cerberus is most commonly depicted with two dog heads (visible), never more than three, but occasionally with only one.[10] On one of the two earliest depictions (c. 590–580 BC), a Corinthian cup from Argos (see below), now lost, Cerberus is shown as a normal single-headed dog.[11] The first appearance of a three-headed Cerberus occurs on a mid sixth century BC Laconian cup (see below).[12] Horace’s many snake-headed Cerberus followed a long tradition of Cerberus being part snake. This is perhaps already implied as early as in Hesiod’s Theogony, where Cerberus’ mother is the half-snake Echidna, and his father the snakeheaded Typhon. In art Cerberus is often shown as being part snake,[13] for example the lost Corinthian cup shows snakes protruding from Cerberus’ body, while the mid sixth-century BC Laconian cup gives Cerberus a snake for a tail. In the literary record, the first certain indication of Cerberus’ serpentine nature comes from the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500–494 BC), who makes Cerberus a large poisonous snake.[14] Plato refers to Cerberus’

CHAPTER 24. CERBERUS

composite nature,[15] and Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails,[16] and presumably in connection to his serpentine nature, associates Cerberus with the creation of the poisonous aconite plant.[17] Virgil has snakes writhe around Cerberus’ neck,[18] Ovid's Cerberus has a venomous mouth,[19] necks “vile with snakes”,[20] and “hair inwoven with the threatening snake”,[21] while Seneca gives Cerberus a mane consisting of snakes, and a single snake tail.[22] Cerberus was given various other traits. According to Euripides, Cerberus not only had three heads but three bodies,[23] and according to Virgil he had multiple backs.[24] Cerberus ate raw flesh (according to Hesiod),[25] had eyes which flashed fire (according to Euphorion), a three-tongued mouth (according to Horace), and acute hearing (according to Seneca).[26]

24.2 The Twelfth Labour of Heracles

Athena, Hermes and Heracles, leading a two-headed Cerberus out of the underworld, as Persephone looks on. Hydria (c. 550–500 BC) attributed to the Leagros Group (Louvre CA 2992).[27]

As early as Homer we learn that Heracles was sent by Eurystheus, the king of Tiryns, to bring back Cerberus from Hades the king of the underworld.[28] According to Apollodorus, this was the twelfth and final labour imposed on Heracles.[29] In a fragment from a lost play Pirithous, (attributed to either Euripides or Critias) Heracles says that, although Eurystheus commanded him to bring back Cerberus, it was not from any desire to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought that the task was impossible.[30] Heracles was aided in his mission by his being an initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Euripides has his initiation being “lucky” for Heracles in capturing Cerberus.[31] And both Diodorus Siculus and Apollodorus say that Heracles was initiated into the Mysteries, in preparation for his descent into the underworld. According to Diodorus, Heracles went to Athens, where Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, was in charge of the initiation rites,[32] while according to Apollodorus, he went to Eumolpus at Eleusis.[33] Heracles also had the help of Hermes, the usual guide of the underworld, as well as Athena. In the Odyssey, Homer has Hermes and Athena as his guides.[34] And Hermes and Athena are often shown with Heracles on vase paintings depicting Cerberus’ capture. By most accounts, Heracles made his descent into the underworld through an entrance at Tainaron, the most famous of the various Greek entrances to the underworld.[35] The place is first mentioned in connection with the Cerberus story in the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500–494 BC), and Euripides, Seneca, and Apolodorus, all have Heracles descend into the underworld there.[36] However Xenophon reports that Heracles was said to have descended at the Acherusian Chersonese near Heraclea Pontica, on the Black

24.2. THE TWELFTH LABOUR OF HERACLES

Sea, a place more usually associated with Heracles’ exit from the underworld (see below).[37] Heraclea, founded c. 560 BC, perhaps took its name from the association of its site with Heracles’ Cerberian exploit.[38]

24.2.1

Theseus and Pirithous

While in the underworld, Heracles met the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, where the two companions were being held prisoner by Hades for attempting to carry oﬀ Hades’ wife Persephone. Along with bringing back Cerberus, Heracles also managed (usually) to rescue Theseus, and in some versions Pirithous as well.[39] According to Apollodorus, Heracles found Theseus and Pirithous near the gates of Hades, bound to the “Chair of Forgetfulness, to which they grew and were held fast by coils of serpents”, and when they saw Heracles, “they stretched out their hands as if they should be raised from the dead by his might”, and Heracles was able to free Theseus, but when he tried to raise up Pirithous, “the earth quaked and he let go.”[40] The earliest evidence for the involvement of Theseus and Pirithous in the Cerberus story, is found on a shield-band relief (c. 560 BC) from Olympia, where Theseus and Pirithous (named) are seated together on a chair, arms held out in supplication, while Heracles approaches, about to draw his sword.[41] The earliest literary mention of the rescue occurs in Euripides, where Heracles saves Theseus (with no mention of Pirithous).[42] In the lost play Pirithous, both heroes are rescued,[43] while in the rationalized account of Philochorus, Heracles was able to rescue Theseus, but not Pirithous.[44] In one place Diodorus says Heracles brought back both Theseus and Pirithous, by the favor of Persephone,[45] while in another he says that Pirithous remained in Hades, or according to “some writers of myth” that neither Theseus, nor Pirithous returned.[46] Both are rescued in Hyginus.[47]

24.2.2

Capture

Athena, Heracles, and a two-headed Cerberus, with mane down his necks and back. Hermes (not shown in the photograph) stands to the left of Athena. An amphora (c. 575–525 BC) from Kameiros, Rhodes (Louvre A481).[48]

There are various versions of how Heracles accomplished Cerberus’ capture.[49] According to Apollodorus, Heracles asked Hades for Cerberus, and Hades told Heracles he would allow him to take Cerberus only if he “mastered him without the use of the weapons which he carried”, and so, using his lion-skin as a shield, Heracles squeezed Cerberus

CHAPTER 24. CERBERUS

around the head until he submitted.[50] In some early sources Cerberus’ capture seems to involve Heracles fighting Hades. Homer has Hades injured by an arrow shot by Heracles,[51] while on the early sixth-century BC lost Corinthian cup, Heracles is shown attacking Hades with a stone.[52] A scholium to the Iliad passage, explains that Hades had commanded that Heracles “master Cerberus without shield or Iron”. Heracles did this, by (as in Apollodorus) using his lion-skin instead of his shield, and making stone points for his arrows, but when Hades still opposed him, Heracles shot Hades in anger.[53] Consistent with the no iron requirement, the iconographic tradition, from c. 560 BC, often shows Heracles using his wooden club against Cerberus.[54] Euripides, has Amphitryon ask Heracles: “Did you conquer him in fight, or receive him from the goddess [i.e. Persephone]? To which, Heracles answers: “In fight”,[55] and the Pirithous fragment says that Heracles “overcame the beast by force”.[56] However, according to Diodorus, Persphone welcomed Heracles “like a brother” and gave Cerberus “in chains” to Heracles.[57] Aristophanes, has Heracles seize Cerberus in a stranglehold and run off,[58] while Seneca has Heracles again use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to subdue Cerberus, after which a quailing Hades and Persephone, allow Heracles to lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away.[59] Cerberus is often shown being chained, and Ovid tells that Heracles dragged the three headed Cerberus with chains of adamant.[60]

24.2.3

Exit from the underworld

Heracles and Cerberus. Oil on canvas, by Peter Paul Rubens 1636, Prado Museum.

There were several locations which were said to be the place where Heracles brought up Cerberus from the underworld.[61] The geographer Strabo (63/64 BC – c. AD 24) reports that “according to the myth writers” Cerberus was brought up at Tainaron,[62] the same place where Euripides has Heracles enter the underworld. Seneca has Heracles enter

24.3. PRINCIPAL SOURCES

and exit at Tainaron.[63] Apollodorus, although he has Heracles enter at Tainaron, has him exit at Troezen.[64] The geographer Pausanias tells us that there was a temple at Troezen with “altars to the gods said to rule under the earth”, where it was said that, in addition to Cerberus being “dragged” up by Heracles, Semele was supposed to have been brought up out of the underworld by Dionysus.[65] Another tradition had Cerberus brought up at Heraclea Pontica (the same place which Xenophon had earlier associated with Heracles’ descent) and the cause of the poisonous plant aconite which grew there in abundance.[66] Herodorus of Heraclea and Euphorion said that when Heracles brought Cerberus up from the underworld at Heraclea, Cerberus “vomited bile” from which the aconite plant grew up.[67] Ovid, also makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous aconite, saying that on the “shores of Scythia”, upon leaving the underworld, as Cerberus was being dragged by Heracles from a cave, dazzled by the unaccustomed daylight, Cerberus spewed out a “poison-foam”, which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous.[68] Seneca’s Cerberus too, like Ovid’s, reacts violently to his ﬁrst sight of daylight. Enraged, the previously submissive Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles and Theseus must together drag Cerberus into the light.[69] Pausanias reports that according to local legend Cerberus was brought up through a chasm in the earth dedicated to Clymenus (Hades) next to the sanctuary of Chthonia at Hermione, and in Euripides’ Heracles, thought Euripides does not say that Cerberus was brought out there, he has Cerberus kept for a while in the “grove of Chthonia" at Hermione.[70] Pausanias also mentions that at Mount Laphystion in Boeotia, that there was a statue of Heracles Charops (“with bright eyes”), where the Boeotians said Heracles brought up Cerberus.[71] Other locations which perhaps were also associated with Cerberus being brought out of the underworld include, Hierapolis, Thesprotia, and Emeia near Mycenae.[72]

24.2.4

Presented to Eurystheus, returned to Hades

In some accounts, after bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, Heracles paraded the captured Cerberus through Greece.[73] Euphorion has Heracles lead Cerberus through Midea in Argolis, as women and children watch in fear,[74] and Diodorus Siculus says of Cerberus, that Heracles “carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men.”[75] Seneca has Juno complain of Heracles “highhandedly parading the black hound through Argive cities”[76] and Heracles greeted by laurel-wreathed crowds, “singing” his praises.[77] Then, according to Apollodorus, Heracles showed Cerberus to Eurystheus, as commanded, after which he returned Cerberus to the underworld.[78] However, according to Hesychius of Alexandria, Cerberus escaped, presumably returning to the underworld on his own.[79]

24.3 Principal sources The earliest mentions of Cerberus (c. 8th – 7th century BC) occur in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and Hesiod's Theogony.[80] Homer does not name or describe Cerberus, but simply refers to Heracles being sent by Eurystheus to fetch the “hound of Hades”, with Hermes and Athena as his guides,[81] and that Heracles shot Hades with an arrow.[82] According to Hesiod, Cerberus was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, was fifty-headed, ate raw flesh, and was the “brazen-voiced hound of Hades”,[83] who fawns on those that enter the house of Hades, but eats those who try to leave.[84] Stesichorus (c. 630 – 555 BC) apparently wrote a poem called Cerberus, of which virtually nothing remains.[85] However the early sixth century BC lost Corinthian cup from Argos, which showed a single head, and snakes growing out from many places on his body,[86] was possibly influenced by Stesichorus’ poem.[87] The mid-sixth-century BC cup from Laconia gives Cerberus three heads and a snake tail, which eventually becomes the standard representation.[88] Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) apparently gave Cerberus one hundred heads.[89] Bacchylides (5th century BC) also mentions Heracles bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, with no further details.[90] Sophocles (c. 495 – c. 405 BC), in his Women of Trachis, makes Cerberus three-headed,[91] and in his Oedipus at Colonus, the Chorus asks that Oedipus be allowed to pass the gates of the underworld undisturbed by Cerberus, called here the “untamable Watcher of Hades”.[92] Euripides (c. 480 – 406 BC) describes Cerberus as three-headed,[93] and three-bodied,[94] says that Heracles entered the underworld at Tainaron,[95] has Heracles say that Cerberus was not given to him by Persephone, but rather he fought and conquered Cerberus, “for I had been lucky enough to witness the rites of the initiated”, an apparent reference to his initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries,[96] and says that the capture of Cerberus was the last of Heracles’ labors.[97] The lost play Pirthous (attributed to either Euripides or his late contemporary Critias) has Heracles say that he came to the underworld at the command of Eurystheus, who had ordered him to bring back

CHAPTER 24. CERBERUS

Cerberus, with the gluttons in the Third Circle of Hell. William Blake.

Cerberus alive, not because he wanted to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought Heracles would not be able to accomplish the task, and that Heracles “overcame the beast” and “received favour from the gods”.[98] Plato (c. 425 – 348 BC) refers to Cerberus’ composite nature, citing Cerberus, along with Scylla and the Chimera, as an example from “ancient fables” of a creature composed of many animal forms “grown together in one”.[99] Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails, and eyes that flashed, like sparks from a blacksmith’s forge, or the volcaninc Mount Etna.[100] From Euphorion, also comes the first mention of a story which told that at Heraclea Pontica, where Cerberus was brought out of the underworld, by Heracles, Cerberus “vomited bile” from which the poisonous aconite plant grew up.[101] According to Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), the capture of Cerberus was the eleventh of Heracles’ labors, the twelfth and last being stealing the Apples of the Hesperides.[102] Diodorus says that Heracles thought it best to first go to Athens to take part in the Eleusinian Mysteries, "Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, being at that time in charge of the initiatory rites”, after which, he entered into the underworld “welcomed like a brother by Persephone", and “receiving the dog Cerberus in chains he carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men.” In Virgil's Aeneid (1st century BC), Aeneas and the Sibyl encounter Cerberus in a cave, where he “lay at vast length”, filling the cave “from end to end”, blocking the entrance to the underworld. Cerberus is described as “triple-throated”, with “three fierce mouths”, multiple “large backs”, and serpents writhing around his neck. The Sybyl throws Cerberus a loaf laced with honey and herbs to induce sleep, enabling Aeneas to enter the underworld, and so apparently for Virgil—contradicting Hesiod—Cerberus guarded the underworld against entrance.[103] Later Virgil describes Cerberus, in his bloody cave, crouching over half-gnawed bones.[104] In his Georgics, Virgil refers to Cerberus, his “triple jaws agape” being tamed by Orpheus’ playing his lyre.[105] Horace (65 – 8 BC) also refers to Cerberus yielding to Orphesus’ lyre, here Cerberus has a single dog head, which “like a Fury’s is fortified by a hundred snakes”, with a “triple-tongued mouth” oozing “fetid breath and gore”.[106] Ovid (43 BC – AD 17/18) has Cerberus’ mouth produce venom,[107] and like Euphorion, makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous plant aconite.[108] According to Ovid, Heracles dragged Cerberus from the underworld, emerging from a cave “where 'tis fabled, the plant grew / on soil infected by Cerberian teeth”, and dazzled by the daylight, Cerberus spewed out a “poison-foam”, which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous. Seneca, in his tragedy Hercules Furens gives a detailed description of Cerberus and his capture.[109] Seneca’s Cerberus

24.4. ICONOGRAPHY

Cerberus and Heracles. Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Italy, Florence, 1555–1630). The Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

has three heads, a mane of snakes, and a snake tail, with his three heads being covered in gore, and licked by the many snakes which surround them, and with hearing so acute that he can hear “even ghosts”.[110] Seneca has Heracles use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to beat Cerberus into submission, after which Hades and Persephone, quailing on their thrones, let Heracles lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away. But upon leaving the underworld, at his first sight of daylight, a frightened Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles, with the help of Theseus (who had been held captive by Hades, but released, at Heracles’ request) drag Cerberus into the light.[111] Seneca, like Diodorus, has Heracles parade the captured Cerberus through Greece.[112] Apollodorus’ Cerberus has three dog-heads, a serpent for a tail, and the heads of many snakes on his back.[113] According to Apollodorus, Heracles’ twelfth and final labor was to bring back Cerberus from Hades. Heracles first went to Eumolpus to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. Upon his entering the underworld, all the dead flee Heracles except for Meleager and the Gorgon Medusa. Heracles drew his sword against Medusa, but Hermes told Heracles that the dead are mere “empty phantoms”. Heracles asked Hades (here called Pluto) for Cerberus, and Hades said that Heracles could take Cerberus provided he was able to subdue him without using weapons. Heracles found Cerberus at the gates of Acheron, and with his arms around Cerberus, though being bitten by Cerberus’ serpent tail, Heracles squeezed until Cerberus submitted. Heracles carried Cerberus away, showed him to Eurystheus, then returned Cerberus to the underworld. In an apparently unique version of the story, related by the sixth-century AD Pseudo-Nonnus, Heracles descended into Hades to abduct Persephone, and killed Cerberus on his way back up.[114]

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Cerberus and Heracles. Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Italy, Florence, 1555–1630). The Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

One of the two earliest depictions of the capture of Cerberus (composed of the last five figures on the right) shows, from right to left: Cerberus, with a single dog head and snakes rising from his body, fleeing right, Hermes, with his characteristic hat (petasos) and caduceus, Heracles, with quiver on his back, stone in left hand, and bow in right, a goddess, standing in front of Hades’ throne, facing Heracles, and Hades, with scepter, fleeing left. Drawing of a lost Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos.

24.4. ICONOGRAPHY

101

24.4 Iconography The capture of Cerberus was a popular theme in ancient Greek and Roman art.[115] The earliest depictions date from the beginning of the sixth century BC. One of the two earliest depictions, a Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos (now lost),[116] shows a naked Heracles, with quiver on his back and bow in his right hand, striding left, accompanied by Hermes. Heracles threatens Hades with a stone, who flees left, while a goddess, perhaps Persephone or possibly Athena, standing in front of Hades’ throne, prevents the attack. Cerberus, with a single canine head, and snakes rising from his head and body, flees right. On the far right a column indicates the entrance to Hades’ palace. Many of the elements of this scene: Hermes, Athena, Hades, Persephone, and a column or portico, are common occurrences in later works. The other earliest depiction, a relief pithos fragment from Crete (c. 590–570 BC) is thought to show a single lion-headed Cerberus, with a snake (open-mouthed) over his back, being led to the right.[117] A mid sixth century BC Laconian cup, by the Hunt Painter, adds several new features to the scene which also become common in later works: three heads, a snake tail, Cerberus’ chain and Heracles’ club. Here Cerberus has three canine heads, is covered by a shaggy coat of snakes, and has a tail which ends in a snake head. He is being held on a chain leash by Heracles who holds his club raised over head.[118] In Greek art, the vast majority of depictions of Heracles and Cerberus occur on Attic vases.[119] Although the lost Corinthian cup shows Cerberus with a single dog head, and the relief pithos fragment (c. 590–570 BC) apparently shows a single lion-headed Cerberus, in Attic vase painting, Cerberus usually has two dog heads.[120] In other art, as in the Laconian cup, Cerberus is usually three-headed.[121] Occasionally, in Roman art, Cerberus is shown with a large central lion head, and two smaller dog heads on either side.[122] As in the Corinthian and Laconian cups (and possibly the relief pithos fragment), Cerberus is often depicted as part snake.[124] In Attic vase painting, Cerberus is usually shown with a snake for a tail, or tail which ends in the head of a snake.[125] Snakes are also often shown rising from various parts of his body, including snout, head, neck, back, ankles, and paws. Two Attic amphoras from Vulci, one (c. 530–515 BC), by the Bucci Painter (Munich 1493),[126] the other (c. 525– 510 BC), by the Andokides painter (Louvre F204),[127] in addition to the usual two heads and snake tail, show Cerberus with a mane down his necks and back, another typical Cerberian feature of Attic vase painting.[128] Andokides’ amphora also has a small snake curling up from each of Cerberus’ two heads. Besides this lion-like mane, and the occasional lion-head, mentioned above, Cerberus was sometimes shown with other leonine features. A pitcher (c. 530–500) shows Cerberus with mane and claws,[129] while a first century BC sardonyx cameo, shows Cerberus with leonine body and paws.[130] In addition, a limestone relief fragment from Taranto (c. 320–300 BC) shows Cerberus with three lion-like heads.[131] During the second quarter of the 5th century BC, the capture of Cerberus disappears from Attic vase painting.[132] And after the early third century BC, the subject become rare everywhere, until the Roman period. In Roman art, the capture of Cerberus is usually shown together with other labors. Heracles and Cerberus are usually alone, with Heracles leading Cerberus.[133]

24.5 Etymology The etymology of Cerberus’ name is uncertain. Ogden[135] refers to attempts to establish an Indo-European etymology as “not yet successful”. It has been claimed to be related to the Sanskrit word सर्वरा sarvarā, used as an epithet of one of the dogs of Yama, from a Proto-Indo-European word *k̑érberos, meaning “spotted”.[136] Lincoln (1991),[137] among others, critiques this etymology. Lincoln notes a similarity between Cerberus and the Norse mythological dog Garmr, relating both names to a Proto-Indo-European root *ger- “to growl” (perhaps with the suffixes -*m/*b and -*r). However, as Ogden observes, this analysis actually requires Kerberos and Garmr to be derived from two different Indo-European roots (*ker- and *gher- respectively), and so does not actually establish a relationship between the two names. Though probably not Greek, Greek etymologies for Cerberus have been offered. An etymology given by Servius (the late fourth century commentator on Virgil)—but rejected by Ogden—derives Cerberus from the Greek word creoboros meaning “flesh-devouring”.[138] Another suggested etymology derives Cerberus from “Ker berethrou”, meaning “evil of the pit”.[139]

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Heracles, with club in his right hand raised over head, and leash in left hand, drives ahead of him, a two-headed Cerberus, with mane down his necks and back, and a snake tail. A neck-amphora (c. 530â&#x20AC;&#x201C;515) from Vulci (Munich 1493).[123]

24.6 Cerberus rationalized At least as early as the 6th century BC, some ancient writers have attempted to explain away various fantastical features of Greek mythology,[140] included in these are various rationalized accounts of the Cerberus story.[141] The earliest

24.7. CERBERUS ALLEGORIZED

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such account (late 6th century BC) is that of Hecataeus of Miletus.[142] In his account Cerberus was not a dog at all, but rather simply a large poisonous snake, which lived on Tainaron. The serpent was called the “hound of Hades” only because anyone bitten by it died immediately, and it was this snake that Heracles brought to Eurystheus. The geographer Pausanias (who preserves for us Hecataeus’ version of the story) points out that, since Homer does not describe Cerberus, Hecataeus’ account does not necessarily conflict with Homer, since Homer’s “Hound of Hades” may not in fact refer to an actual dog.[143] Other rationalized accounts make Cerberus out to be a normal dog. According to Palaephatus (4th century BC)[144] Cerberus was one of the two dogs who guarded the cattle of Geryon, the other being Orthrus. Geryon lived in a city named Tricranium (in Greek Tricarenia, “Three-Heads”),[145] from which name both Cerberus and Geryon came to be called “three-headed”. Heracles killed Orthus, and drove away Geryon’s cattle, with Cerberus following along behind. Molossus, a Mycenaen, offered to buy Cerberus from Eurystheus (presumably having received the dog, along with the cattle, from Heracles). But when Eurystheus refused, Molossus stole the dog and penned him up in a cave in Tainaron. Eurystheus commanded Heracles to find Cerberus and bring him back. After searching the entire Peloponnesus, Heracles found where it was said Cerberus was being held, went down into the cave, and brought up Cerberus, after which it was said: “Heracles descended through the cave into Hades and brought up Cerberus.” In the rationalized account of Philochorus, in which Heracles rescues Theseus, Perithous is eaten by Cerberus.[146] In this version of the story, Aidoneus (i.e., “Hades”) is the mortal king of the Molossians, with a wife named Persephone, a daughter named Kore (another name for the goddess Persephone) and a large mortal dog named Cerberus, with whom all suiters of his daughter were required to fight. After having stolen Helen, to be Theseus’ wife, Theseus and Perithous, attempt to abduct Kore, for Perithous, but Aidoneus catches the two heroes, imprisons Theseus, and feeds Perithous to Cerberus. Later, while a guest of Aidoneus, Heracles asks Aidoneus to release Theseus, as a favor, which Aidoneus grants. A 2nd century AD Greek known as Heraclitus the paradoxographer (not to be confused with the 5th century BC Greek philosopher Heraclitus) – claimed that Cerberus had two pups that were never away from their father, which made Cerberus appear to be three-headed.[147]

24.7 Cerberus allegorized Servius, a medieval commentator on Virgil's Aeneid, derived Cerberus’ name from the Greek word creoboros meaning “flesh-devouring” (see above), and held that Cerberus symbolized the corpse-consuming earth, with Heracles’ triumph over Cerberus representing his victory over earthly desires.[148] Later the mythographer Fulgentius, allegorizes Cerberus’ three heads as representing the three origins of human strife: “nature, cause, and accident”, and (drawing on the same flesh-devouring etymology as Servius) as symbolizing “the three ages—infancy, youth, old age, at which death enters the world.”[149] The later Vatican Mythographers repeat and expand upon the traditions of Servius and Fulgentius. All three Vatican Mythographers repeat Servius’ derivation of Cerberus’ name from creoboros.[150] The Second Vatican Mythographer repeats (nearly word for word) what Fulgentius had to say about Cerberus,[151] while the Third Vatican Mythographer, in another very similar passage to Fugentius’, says (more specifically than Fugentius), that for “the philosophers” Cerberus represented hatred, his three heads symbolizing the three kinds of human hatred: natural, causal, and casual (i.e. accidental).[152] The Second and Third Vatican Mythographers, note that the three brothers Zeus, Poseidon and Hades each have tripartite insignia, associating Hades’ three headed Cerberus, with Zeus' three-forked thunderbolt, and Poseidon's three-pronged trident, while the Third Vatican Mythographer adds that “some philosophers think of Cerberus as the tripartite earth: Asia, Africa, and Europe. This earth, swallowing up bodies, sends souls to Tartarus.”[153] Virgil described Cerberus as “ravenous” (fame rabida),[154] and a rapacious Cerberus became proverbial. Thus Cerberus came to symbolize avarice,[155] and so, for example, in Dante's Inferno, Cerberus is placed in the Third Circle of Hell, guarding over the gluttons, where he “rends the spirits, flays and quarters them,”[156] and Dante (perhaps echoing Servius’ association of Cerbeus with earth) has his guide Virgil take up handfuls of earth and throw them into Cerberus’ “rapacious gullets.”[157]

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24.8 Constellation In the constellation Cerberus introduced by Johannes Hevelius in 1687, Cerberus is drawn as a three-headed snake, held in Hercules’ hand (previously these stars had been depicted as a branch of the tree on which grew the Apples of the Hesperides).[158]

24.9 See also • Dormarch – part of the Cwn Annwn • Orthrus

24.10 Notes [1] LIMC Herakles 2616 (Smallwood, pp. 92, 98); Ogden 2013b, p. 63; Ogden 2013a, p. 105; Gantz, p. 22; Perseus Louvre E 701 (Vase). [2] “Cerberus”. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 16 July 2009. [3] Hesiod, Theogony 300–314, Acusilaus, fragment 6 (Freeman, p. 15), Hyginus, Fabulae Preface, 151, and Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica (or Fall of Troy) 6.260–268 (pp. 272–275) all have Cerberus as the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, while Bacchylides, Ode 5.56–62, Sophocles, Women of Trachis 1097–1099, Callimachus, fragment 515 Pfeiffer (Trypanis, pp. 258–259), and Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.500–501, 7.406–409 all have Cerberus as the offspring of Echidna without naming a father. [4] Hesiod, Theogony 309–324 (although it is not certain whom Hesiod meant as the mother of the Chimera: Echidna, the Hydra, or Ceto); Apollodorus, 2.5.10, 2.3.1; Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. [5] Gantz p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 105, with n. 182; Hesiod, Theogony 311–312; Pindar, fragment F249a/b SM, from a lost Pindar poem on Heracles in the underworld, according to a scholia on the Iliad. [6] Ogden 2013a, pp. 105–106, with n. 183; Sophocles, Women of Trachis 22–25 (“three-bodied”), 1097–1099; Euripides, Heracles 610–611, 1276–1278; Virgil, Aeneid 6.417–421 (“triple-throated”, “three fierce mouths”), Georgics 4.483 (“triple jaws”); Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.449–451 (“three-visaged mouths”, “triple-barking”), 9.185 (“triple form”), 10.21–22 (“three necks”), 10.65–66 (“triple necks”), Heroides 9.93–94 (pp. 114–115) (“three-fold”); Seneca, Agamemnon 859–862 (pp. 198–199) (“triple chains”), Hercules Furens 60–62 (pp. 52–53) (“triple necks”), 782–784 (pp. 110–111); Statius, Silvae 2.1.183–184 (I pp. 90–91) (“triple jaws”), 3.3.27 (I pp. 168–169) (“threefold”), Thebaid, 2.31 (I pp. 396–397), (“threefold”), 2.53 (I pp. 398–399) (“tri-formed”); Propertius, Elegies 3.5.44 (pp. 234–237) (“three throats”), 3.18.23 (pp. 284–285) (“three heads”) Apollodorus, 2.5.12 (“three heads of dogs”). [7] West, David, p. 108; Ogden 2013a, p. 107; Horace, Odes 3.11.17–20 (West,David, pp. 101–103) (“a hundred snakes … triple-tongued”), Odes 2.13.33–36 (“hundred-headed”), Odes 2.19.29–32 (“triple tongue”). [8] Apollodorus, 2.5.12; Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.389–392 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48); Frazer’s note 1 to Apollodorus, 2.5.12. [9] LIMC Herakles 2554 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 98); Schefold 1992, pp. 130–131, fig. 152; Beazley Archive 200011; Perseus Louvre F 204 (Vase). [10] Smallwood, p. 87; Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106. According to Gantz, “Presumably the frequent variant of two heads arose from logistical problems in draftmanship,” and Ogden wonders if “such images salute or establish a tradition of a two-headed Cerberus, or are we to imagine a third head concealed behind the two that can be seen?" For one-headed Cerberus, see LIMC Herakles 2553, 2570, 2576, 2591, 2621. [11] LIMC Herakles 2553 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 97–98); Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 184. A relief pithos fragment (c. 590–570 BC) LIMC Herakles 2621 (Smallwood, p. 92), seems to show a single lion-headed Cerberus, with snake (open-mouthed) over his back. [12] LIMC Herakles 2605 (Smallwood, p. 91); Schefold 1992, p. 129; Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 185. [13] Ogden 2013b, p. 63. [14] Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2001, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27); Ogden 2013a, p. 107.

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[15] Plato Republic 588c. [16] Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70); Ogden 2013a, p. 107. [17] Euphorion, fragment 41a Lightfoot, (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275 = Herodorus fragment 31 Fowler). [18] Virgil, Aeneid 6.419, [19] Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.500–501. [20] Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.22–24 [21] Ovid, Heroides 9.93–94 (pp. 114–115). [22] Seneca, Hercules Furens 785–812 (pp. 112–113). See also Lucan, Pharsalia 6.664–665, which has Cerberus’ heads “bristling” with snakes; and Apollodorus, 2.5.12 whose Cerberus is snake-tailed and has “on his back the heads of all sorts of snakes”. [23] Euripides Heracles 22–25. [24] Virgil, Aeneid 6.422. [25] Hesiod, Theogony 311. [26] Seneca, Hercules Furens 788–791 (pp. 112–113). [27] LIMC Herakles 2599ad; Beazley Archive 302005. Reproduced from Baumeister’s Denkmäler des klassichen Alterthums, volume I., figure 730 (text on p. 663). [28] Homer, Iliad 8.367–368; compare with Odyssey 11.620–626. Heracles is also given the task by Eurystheus in Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2001, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27), Euripides, Heracles 1276–1278, Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 lines 10–14 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70; Collard and Cropp, pp. 646–647); Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70); Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1; Hyginus, Fabulae 32. [29] Apollodorus, 2.5.12. So also in Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot 13 (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70), and Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.388–410 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48). Euripides, Heracles 22–25, calls this labor the last. However according to Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.2 this labor was the eleventh and next to last, the twelfth being stealig the Apples of the Hesperides. [30] Pirthous TrGF 43 F1 lines 10–14 (Ogden 2013b, p. 70; Collard and Cropp, pp. 646–647); Ogden 2013a, p. 113. [31] Euripides Heracles 612–613; Papadopoulou, p. 163. [32] Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1–2. [33] Apollodorus, 2.5.12; so also, Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.394 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48). Apollodorus adds that, since it was unlawful for foreigners to be initiated, Heracles was adopted by Pylius, and that before Heracles could be initiated, he first had to be “cleansed of the slaughter of the centaurs"; see also Frazer’s note 2 to Apollodorus, 2.5.12. [34] Homer, Odyssey 11.620–626; compare with Pausanias, 8.18.3. Apollodorus, 2.5.1 also has Hermes aiding Heracles in the underworld. [35] Ogden 2013a, p. 110; Fowler 2013, p. 305 with n. 159. An entrance at Tainaron is mentioned as early as Pindar, Pythian 4.44. [36] Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2001, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27); Euripides, Heracles 22–25; Seneca, Hercules Furens 662–696 (pp. 102–105); Apollodorus, 2.5.1, so also, Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.395 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48). [37] Xenophon of Athens, Anabasis 6.2.2. [38] Ogden 2013a, p. 108. [39] Gantz, pp. 291–295. [40] Apollodorus, 2.5.12, E.1.24; compare with Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.396–410, 4.31.911–916 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56, 153; English translation: Berkowitz, pp. 48, 138). [41] LIMC Herakles 3519; Gantz, p. 292; Schelfold 1966, pp. 68–69 fig. 24.

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[42] Euripides Heracles 1169–1170., :1221–1222; Gantz, p. 293. [43] Gantz, P. 293; Collard and Cropp, p. 637; Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 Hypothesis (Collard and Cropp, pp. 640–641). [44] Philochorus, FGrH 328 F18a, b, c; Harding, pp. 67–70; Ogden 2013b, p. 73; Ogden 2013a, p. 109 (Philochorus F18a = Plutarch, Theseus 35.1, compare with 31.1–4). [45] Diodorus Siculus, 4.26.1. [46] Diodorus Siculus, 4.63.4; Gantz, pp. 294–295. [47] Hyginus, Fabulae 79. [48] Beazley Archive 10772. [49] Ogden 2013a, pp. 110–112. [50] Apollodorus, 2.5.1; compare with Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.400–401 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48) which says that Heracles mastered Cerberus “Covered only by his lion skin and breast piece / Apart from the rest of his weapons, just as Pluton [i.e. Hades] said”. [51] Homer, Iliad 5.395–397; Ogden 2013a, pp. 110–111. Panyassis F26 West (West, M. L., (pp. 212–213) has “Elean Hades” being shot by Heracles. Compare with Seneca, Hercules Furens 48–51 (pp. 52–53), where Heracles brings back “spoils of triumph over that conquered king … subdued Dis”. [52] Smallwood, pp. 96–97; Ogden 2013a, p. 111. [53] Schol. Homer Iliad 5.395–397 (Ogden 2013b, p. 66); Ogden 2013a, p. 112. [54] Ogden 2013a, p. 111. [55] Euripides Heracles 610–613; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70. This question is echoed in Seneca, Hercules Furens 760–761 (pp. 110–111), where Amphitryon asks “Is it spoil [Heracles] brings, or a willing gift from his uncle. [56] Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 Hypothesis (Collard and Cropp, pp. 640–641). [57] Diodorus Siculus, 4.26.1. [58] Aristophanes, Frogs 465–469; Ogden 2013b, pp. 65–66. [59] Seneca, Hercules Furens 797–812 (pp. 112–113). [60] Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.409–413. [61] Ogden 2013a, pp. 107–108, 112–113. [62] Strabo, 8.5.1. [63] Seneca, Hercules Furens 663 (pp. 102–105) (entrance), 813 (pp. 112–113) (exit). Seneca’s account may reﬂect a much older tradition rationalized by Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2001, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27), see Ogden 2013a, p. 112. [64] Apollodorus, 2.5.12. Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.404 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48) also has Cerberus brought up at Troezen. [65] Pausanias, 2.31.2. [66] Ogden 2013a, pp. 107–108, 112; Ogden 2013b, pp. 68–69; Fowler 2013, pp. 305 ﬀ.; Herodorus fragment 31 Fowler (= Euphorion fragment 41a Lightfoot); Euphorion, fragment 41 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275); Diodorus Siculus, 14.31.3; Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.406–419; Pomponius Mela, 1.92; Pliny, Natural History 27.4; Schol. Nicander alexipharmaca 13b; Dionysius Periegetes, 788–792; Eustathius, Commentary on Dionysius Periegetes 788–792; First Vatican Mythographer, 1.57 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 73–74; Pepin, p. 36). For aconite in the vicinity of Heraclea, see also Theophrastus, Historia Plantarum 9.16.4 pp. 298–299; Strabo, 12.3.7; Pliny, Natural History 6.4; Arrian, FGrH 156 F76a apud Eustathius of Thessalonica, Commentary on Dionysius Periegetes 788–792. [67] Schol. Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 2.353 (Ogden 2013b, p. 68); compare with Euphorion, fragment 41a Lightfoot, (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275 = Herodorus fragment 31 Fowler). [68] Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.413–419, which has Ceberus brought up from the underworld through a cave on “the shores of Scythia, where, 'tis fabled, the [aconite] plant grew on soil infected by Cerberian teeth.”

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[69] Seneca, Hercules Furens 797–821 (pp. 112–115); see also Agamemnon, 859–862 (pp. 198–199), which has Cerberus “fearing the colour of the unknown light.” [70] Pausanias, 2.35.10; Euripides, Heracles 615 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70). [71] Pausanias, 9.34.5. [72] Ogden 2013a, pp. 112–113. [73] Ogden 2013a, p. 113; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–71. [74] Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot 14–15 (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70). [75] Diodorus Siculus, 4.26.1. [76] Seneca, Hercules Furens 46–62 (pp. 52–53). [77] Seneca, Hercules Furens 827–829 (pp. 114–115). [78] Apollodorus, 2.5.12. [79] Hesychius of Alexandria s.v. eleutheron hydor (Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–71); Ogden 2013a, p. 114. [80] For a discussion of sources see Ogden 2013a, pp. 104–114; Ogden 2013b, pp. 63–74; Gantz, pp. 22–23. [81] Homer, Iliad 8.367–368, Odyssey 11.620–626. [82] Homer, Iliad 5.395–397. [83] Hesiod, Theogony 300–312. [84] Hesiod, Theogony 767–774; Ogden 2013b, pp. 65. [85] Bowra, p. 94; Ogden 2013a, p. 105 n. 182. [86] Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 184; LIMC Herakles 2553. [87] Bowra, p. 120. [88] Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 185; LIMC Herakles 2605; Schefold 1992, p. 129; Pipili, ﬁg. 8. [89] Pindar fragment F249a/b SM, from a lost Pindar poem on Heracles in the underworld, according to a scholia on the Iliad, Gantz p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 105, with n. 182. [90] Bacchylides, Ode 5.56–62. [91] Sophocles, Women of Trachis 1097–1099. [92] Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1568–1578; Markantonatos, pp. 129–130. [93] Euripides Heracles 1276–1278. [94] Euripides Heracles 22–25. [95] Euripides Heracles 22–25. [96] Euripides Heracles 612–613; Papadopoulou, p. 163; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70. [97] Euripides Heracles 22–25. [98] Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 Hypothesis (Collard and Cropp, pp. 640–641). For the question of authorship see Gantz, p. 293; Collard and Cropp, pp. 629–635, p. 636. [99] Plato Republic 588c. [100] Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70); Ogden 2013a, p. 107. [101] Schol. Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 2.353 (Ogden 2013b, p. 68); compare with Euphorion, fragment 41a Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275). [102] Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1, 26.1–2; Ogden 2013b, p. 66.

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[103] Virgil, Aeneid 6.417–425; Ogden 2013b, p. 71; Ogden 2013a, p, 109; Ogden 2013b, p. 69. Compare with Apuleius, Metamorphoses 6.19 (pp. 284–285), where following Virgil, exiting (as well as entering) the underworld is accomplished by giving Cerberus a mead-soaked barley cake. [104] Virgil, Aeneid 8.296–297. [105] Virgil, Georgics 4.483. [106] Horace, Odes 3.11.13–20; West, David, pp. 101–103; Ogden 2013a, p. 108. Compare with Odes 2.13.33–36 (“hundredheaded”, referring perhaps to the one hundred snakes), Odes 2.19.29–32 (“triple tongue”). [107] Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.500–501. [108] Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.406 ff.; Ogden 2013a, p. 108. [109] Seneca, Hercules Furens 782–821 (pp. 110–115); Ogden 2013b, pp. 66–68. [110] Seneca, Hercules Furens 782–791 (pp. 110–113). [111] Seneca, Hercules Furens 797–821 (pp. 112–115); see also Agamemnon, 859–862 (pp. 198–199), which has Cerberus “fearing the colour of the unknown light.” [112] Seneca, Hercules Furens 46–62 (pp. 52–53). [113] Apollodorus, 2.5.12; Ogden 2013b, pp. 64–65. [114] Pseudo-Nonnus, 4.51 (Nimmo Smith, p. 37); Ogden 2013a, p. 114. [115] Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Herakles 1697–1761 (Boardman, pp. 5–16), 2553–2675 (Smallwood, pp. 85–100); Schefold 1992, pp. 129–132. [116] LIMC Herakles 2553 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 97–98); Schefold 1966, p. 68 fig. 23; Schefold 1992, p. 129; Ogden 2013a, pp. 106, 111; Gantz, p. 22. [117] LIMC Herakles 2621 (Smallwood, pp. 92, 97); Ogden 2013a, p. 108. Cerberus is perhaps being led by Heracles, but only the left arm is preserved. According to Smallwood, the identification as Heracles and Cerberus is “suggested by Dunbabin, taken as certain by Schäfer” (p. 92), and “too little of the fragment is preserved for a secure identification”. [118] LIMC Herakles 2605 (Smallwood, p. 91); Schefold 1992, pp. 129–130; Pipili, p. 5, fig. 8; Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, 111 with n. 185, p. 111 with n. 230. [119] Schefold 1992, p. 98. [120] Schefold 1992, p. 129; Smallwood, p. 87. Exceptions include: LIMC Heracles 2570, 2576 (one head). [121] Smallwood, pp. 87, 93. Exceptions include: LIMC Herakles 2553, 2591, 2621 (one head), 2579 (two heads). [122] LIMC Herakles 2640, 2642, 2656, 2666, Smallwood, p. 93. [123] LIMC Herakles 2604 (Smallwood, p. 91); Beazley Archive 301639. [124] Smallwood, p. 87; Ogden 2013b p. 63. Examples include: LIMC Herakles 2553–4, 2560, 2571, 2579, 2581, 2586, 2588, 2595, 2600, 2603–6, 2610–11, 2616, 2621, 2628). [125] Smallwood, p. 87. [126] LIMC Herakles 2604 (Smallwood, p. 91); Beazley Archive 301639. [127] LIMC Herakles 2554 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 98); Schefold 1992, pp. 130–131, fig. 152; Beazley Archive 200011; Perseus Louvre F 204 (Vase). [128] Smallwood, pp. 8, 91. [129] LIMC Herakles 2610 (Smallwood, p. 91); Buitron, Worcester MA 1935.59; Beazley Archive 351415. [130] LIMC Herakles 2628 (Smallwood, p. 93). [131] LIMC Herakles 2618 (Smallwood, p. 92). [132] Smallwood, p. 98. [133] Smallwood, p. 99.

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[134] LIMC Kerberos 66; Woodford, p. 29. [135] Ogden 2013a, p. 105. [136] Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006). “Chapter 25.10: Death and the Otherworld”. Oxford Introduction to Proto-IndoEuropean and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, GBR: Oxford University Press. p. 439. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8. OCLC 139999117. [137] Lincoln, pp. 96–97. [138] Servius on Virgil, Aeneid 6.395; Ogden 2013a, p. 190; compare with Fulgentius, Mythologies 1.6 (Whitbread, pp. 51– 52); First Vatican Mythographer, 1.57 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 73–74; Pepin, p. 36); Second Vatican Mythographer, 13 (Pepin, 106), 173 (Pepin, p. 171); Third Vatican Mythographer, 13.4 (Pepin, p. 324). According to Ogden, 2013b, p. 74, "creoboros is a genuine Greek word and does indeed mean 'ﬂesh-devouring', but it has no part to play in the genuine etymology of Cerberus’s name, which remains obscure”. [139] Room, p. 88. [140] Stern, p. 7; Ogden 2013a, p. 183. [141] Ogden 2013a, pp. 184–185. [142] Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2001, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27); Hawes, p. 8; Hopman, p. 182; Ogden 2013a, p. 107; Ogden 2013b, pp. 72–73. [143] Pausanias, 3.25.6. [144] Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 39 (Stern, pp. 71–72). [145] Ogden 2013a, p. 187. [146] Philochorus, FGrH 328 F18a (= Plutarch, Theseus 35.1), F18b, F18c; Harding, pp. 68–70; Ogden 2013b, p. 73; Ogden 2013a, p. 109; Gantz, p. 295; Collard and Cropp, p. 637. Compare with Plutarch, Theseus 31.1–4; Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.388–411 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48), 4.31.911–916 (Kiessling, p. 153; Berkowitz, p. 138). [147] Ogden 2013b, p. 73. [148] Servius on Virgil, Aeneid 6.395; Ogden 2013a, p. 190. For others who followed Servius in interpreting Cerberus as symbolizing the corruption of ﬂesh, in both the literal and moral senses, see Brumble, pp. 68–69. [149] Fulgentius, Mythologies 1.6 (Whitbread, pp. 51–52); Ogden 2013a, p. 190. [150] First Vatican Mythographer, 1.57 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 73–74; Pepin, p. 36); Second Vatican Mythographer, 173 (Pepin, p. 171); Third Vatican Mythographer, 13.4 (Pepin, p. 324). [151] Second Vatican Mythographer, 13 (Pepin, p. 106). [152] Third Vatican Mythographer 6.22 (Pepin, p. 171). [153] Second Vatican Mythographer, 13 (Pepin, p. 106); Third Vatican Mythographer 6.22 (Pepin, p. 171). For others who associated Cerberus’ three heads with the three continents see Brumble, p. 69. [154] Virgil, Aeneid 6.421. [155] Wilson-Okamura, p. 169; Brumble, p. 69. [156] Dante, Inferno 6.13–18 [157] Dante, Inferno 6.25–27; Lansing, p. 154. [158] “Ian Ridpath’s 'Star Tales’". Ianridpath.com. Retrieved 7 July 2012.

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24.11 References • Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Apuleius, Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass), Volume I: Books 1–6. Edited and translated by J. Arthur Hanson. Loeb Classical Library No. 44. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Aristophanes, Frogs, Matthew Dillon, Ed., Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, 1995. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Bacchylides, Odes, translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1991. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Bloomﬁeld, Maurice, Cerberus, the Dog of Hades: The History of an Idea, Open Court publishing Company, 1905. Online version at Google Books • Bowra, C. M., Greek Lyric Poetry: From Alcman to Simonides, Clarendon Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19814329-1. • Diodorus Siculus, Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. • Euripides. Fragments: Oedipus-Chrysippus. Other Fragments. Edited and translated by Christopher Collard, Martin Cropp. Loeb Classical Library No. 506. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. • Euripides, Heracles, translated by E. P. Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. Volume 1. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Fowler, R. L. (2001), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-814740-4.* Freeman, Kathleen, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Harvard University Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0-674-03501-0. • Fowler, R. L. (2013), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-814741-1. • Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). • Harding, Phillip, The Story of Athens: The Fragments of the Local Chronicles of Attika, Routledge, 2007. ISBN 978-1-134-30447-9. • Hawes, Greta, Rationalizing Myth in Antiquity, OUP Oxford, 2014. ISBN 9780191653407. • Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. EvelynWhite, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Hopman, Marianne Govers, Scylla: Myth, Metaphor, Paradox, Cambridge University Press, 2013. ISBN 9781-139-85185-5. • Horace, The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace. John Conington. trans. London. George Bell and Sons. 1882. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.

24.11. REFERENCES

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• Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. • Lansing, Richard (editor), The Dante Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2010. ISBN 9781136849725. • Lightfoot, J. L. Hellenistic Collection: Philitas. Alexander of Aetolia. Hermesianax. Euphorion. Parthenius. Edited and translated by J. L. Lightfoot. Loeb Classical Library No. 508. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-674-99636-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Lincoln, Bruce (1991). Death, War, and Sacriﬁce: Studies in Ideology and Practice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48199-9. • Lucan, Pharsalia, Sir Edward Ridley. London. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Markantonatos, Andreas, Tragic Narrative: A Narratological Study of Sophocles’ Oedipus at Colonus, Walter de Gruyter, 2002. ISBN 978-3-11-089588-9. • Nimmo Smith, Jennifer, A Christian’s Guide to Greek Culture: The Pseudo-nonnus Commentaries on Sermons 4, 5, 39 and 43. Liverpool University Press, 2001. ISBN 9780853239178. • Ogden, Daniel (2013a), Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5. • Ogden, Daniel (2013b), Dragons, Serpents, and Slayers in the Classical and early Christian Worlds: A sourcebook, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-992509-4. • Ovid. Heroides. Amores. Translated by Grant Showerman. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library 41. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-674-99045-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Papadopoulou, Thalia, Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy, Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1139-44667-9. • Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Pepin, Ronald E., The Vatican Mythographers, Fordham University Press, 2008. ISBN 9780823228928 • Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Pipili, Maria, Laconian Iconography of the Sixth Century B.C., Oxford University, 1987. • Plato, Republic Books 6–10, Translated by Paul Shorey, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library • Plutarch. Lives, Volume I: Theseus and Romulus. Lycurgus and Numa. Solon and Publicola. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Loeb Classical Library No. 46. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1914. ISBN 978-0-674-99052-4. Theseus at the Perseus Digital Library. • Propertius Elegies Edited and translated by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library 18. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Quintus Smyrnaeus, Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy, Translator: A.S. Way; Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1913. Internet Archive • Room, Adrian, Who’s Who in Classical Mythology, Gramercy Books, 2003. ISBN 0-517-22256-6. • Schefold, Karl (1966), Myth and Legend in Early Greek Art, London, Thames and Hudson. • Schefold, Karl (1992) Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art, assisted by Luca Giuliani, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-521-32718-3.

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• Seneca, Tragedies, Volume I: Hercules. Trojan Women. Phoenician Women. Medea. Phaedra. Edited and translated by John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library No. 62. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-674-99602-1. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Seneca, Tragedies, Volume II: Oedipus. Agamemnon. Thyestes. Hercules on Oeta. Octavia. Edited and translated by John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library No. 78. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-674-99610-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Smallwood, Valerie, “M. Herakles and Kerberos (Labour XI)" in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) V.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1990. ISBN 3-7608-8751-1. pp. 85–100. • Sophocles, Women of Trachis, Translated by Robert Torrance. Houghton Mifflin. 1966. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume I, Silvae, Thebaid, Books I–IV, Loeb Classical Library No. 206, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm’s Sons, 1928. ISBN 978-0-674-99226-9. Internet Archive • Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume II, Thebaid, Books V–XII, Achilleid, Loeb Classical Library No. 207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm’s Sons, 1928. ISBN 978-0-674-99228-3. Internet Archive • Stern, Jacob, Palaephatus Πεπὶ Ὰπίστων, On Unbelievable Tales, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1996. ISBN 9780865163201. • Trypanis, C. A., Gelzer, Thomas; Whitman, Cedric, CALLIMACHUS, MUSAEUS, Aetia, Iambi, Hecale and Other Fragments. Hero and Leander, Harvard University Press, 1975. ISBN 978-0-674-99463-8. • Tzetzes, Chiliades, editor Gottlieb Kiessling, F.C.G. Vogel, 1826. (English translation, Books II–IV, by Gary Berkowitz. Internet Archive). • Virgil, Aeneid, Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library • Virgil, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics Of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library • West, David, Horace, Odes 3, Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-872165-9. • West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC. Edited and translated by Martin L. West. Loeb Classical Library No. 497. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003. Online version at Harvard University Press. • Whitbread, Leslie George, Fulgentius the Mythographer. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971. • Woodford, Susan, Spier, Jeffrey, “Kerberos”, in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) VI.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1992. ISBN 3-7608-8751-1. pp. 24–32. • Xenophon, Anabasis in Xenophon in Seven Volumes, 3. Carleton L. Brownson. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; William Heinemann, Ltd., London. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.

24.12 External links This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cerberus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • Theoi Project: Kerberos • Media related to Cerberus at Wikimedia Commons

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Virgil feeding Cerberus earth, in the Third Circle of Hell. Illustration from Dante’s Inferno by Gustave Doré.

24.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

Cerberus constellation

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Chapter 25

Charon (mythology) This article is about the ancient Greek god. For other uses, see Charon.

A 19th-century interpretation of Charon’s crossing by Alexander Litovchenko

In Greek mythology, Charon or Kharon (/ˈkɛərɒn/ or /ˈkɛərən/; Greek Χάρων) is the ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the rivers Styx and Acheron that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. A coin to pay Charon for passage, usually an obolus or danake, was sometimes placed in or on the mouth of a dead person.[1] Some authors say that those who could not pay the fee, or those whose bodies were left unburied, had to wander the shores for one hundred years. In the catabasis mytheme, heroes – such as Aeneas, Dionysus, Heracles, Hermes, Odysseus, Orpheus, Pirithous, Psyche, Theseus and Sisyphus – journey to the underworld and return, still alive, conveyed by the boat of Charon. 116

25.1. GENEALOGY

117

25.1 Genealogy • Charon is the son of Nyx and Erebus. • Nyx and Erebus were brother and sister. • He was also the brother of Thanatos and Hypnos.

25.2 Etymology of name The name Charon is most often explained as a proper noun from χάρων (charon), a poetic form of χαρωπός (charopós), “of keen gaze”, referring either to ﬁerce, ﬂashing, or feverish eyes, or to eyes of a bluish-gray color. The word may be a euphemism for death.[2] Flashing eyes may indicate the anger or irascibility of Charon as he is often characterized in literature, but the etymology is not certain. The ancient historian Diodorus Siculus thought that the ferryman and his name had been imported from Egypt.[3]

25.3 Appearance and demeanor Charon is depicted frequently in the art of ancient Greece. Attic funerary vases of the 5th and 4th centuries BC are often decorated with scenes of the dead boarding Charon’s boat. On the earlier such vases, he looks like a rough, unkempt Athenian seaman dressed in reddish-brown, holding his ferryman’s pole in his right hand and using his left hand to receive the deceased. Hermes sometimes stands by in his role as psychopomp. On later vases, Charon is given a more “kindly and refined” demeanor.[4] In the 1st century BC, the Roman poet Virgil describes Charon, manning his rust-colored skiff, in the course of Aeneas's descent to the underworld (Aeneid, Book 6), after the Cumaean Sibyl has directed the hero to the golden bough that will allow him to return to the world of the living: There Chairon stands, who rules the dreary coast – A sordid god: down from his hairy chin A length of beard descends, uncombed, unclean; His eyes, like hollow furnaces on fire; A girdle, foul with grease, binds his obscene attire.[5] Other Latin authors also describe Charon, among them Seneca in his tragedy Hercules Furens, where Charon is described in verses 762–777 as an old man clad in foul garb, with haggard cheeks and an unkempt beard, a fierce ferryman who guides his craft with a long pole. When the boatman tells Hercules to halt, the Greek hero uses his strength to gain passage, overpowering Charon with the boatman’s own pole.[6] In the second century, Lucian employed Charon as a figure in his Dialogues of the Dead, most notably in Parts 4 and 10 (“Hermes and Charon” and “Charon and Hermes”).[7] In the 14th century, Dante Alighieri described Charon in his Divine Comedy, drawing from Virgil’s depiction in Aeneid 6. Charon is the first named mythological character Dante meets in the underworld, in Canto III of the Inferno. Dante depicts him as having eyes of fire. Elsewhere, Charon appears as a mean-spirited and gaunt old man or as a winged demon wielding a double hammer, although Michelangelo’s interpretation, influenced by Dante’s depiction in the Inferno, shows him with an oar over his shoulder, ready to beat those who delay (“batte col remo qualunque s’adagia”, Inferno 3, verse 111).[8] In modern times, he is commonly depicted as a living skeleton in a cowl, much like the Grim Reaper. The French artist, Gustave Dore, depicted Charon in two of his illustrations for Dante’s Divine Comedy. The Flemish painter, Joachim Patinir, depicted Charon in his Crossing the River Styx. And the Spanish painter, Jose Benlliure y Gil, portrayed Charon in his La Barca de Caronte.

25.4 Underworld geography Most accounts, including Pausanias (10.28) and later Dante's Inferno (3.78), associate Charon with the swamps of the river Acheron. Ancient Greek literary sources – such as Pindar, Aeschylus, Euripides, Plato, and Callimachus –

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also place Charon on the Acheron. Roman poets, including Propertius, Ovid, and Statius, name the river as the Styx, perhaps following the geography of Virgil’s underworld in the Aeneid, where Charon is associated with both rivers.[9]

25.5 In astronomy Charon, the largest moon of the dwarf planet Pluto, is named after him.[10]

25.6 “Haros” and modern usage “Haros” is the modern Greek equivalent of Charon, and usage includes the curse “you will be eaten (i.e., taken) by Haros”, or “I was in the teeth of Haros” (i.e., “I was near death/very sick/badly injured”). During the Korean War, the Greek Expeditionary Force defended an outpost called Outpost Harry.[11] The Greek soldiers referred to it as “Outpost Haros”.[12]

25.7 See also • Charon’s obol - a coin placed in the mouth of the dead • Charun - an Etruscan counterpart to Charon • Isle of the Dead - a painting • Manannán mac Lir - Ferryman from Irish mythology • Manunggul Jar - Early depiction similar ﬁgure on burial jar from Tabon Caves on Palawan • Phlegyas - another god often associated with ferrying the dead • Psychopomp - the general word for a guide of the dead • Urshanabi - Ferryman from Mesopotamian mythology

25.8 References [1] Not on the eyes; all literary sources specify the mouth. Callimachus, Hecale fragment 278 in R. Pfeiﬀer’s text Callimachus (Oxford UP, 1949), vol.2, p. 262; now ordered as fragment 99 by A.S.D. Hollis, in his edition, Callimachus: Hecale (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990), pp. 284f., from the Suidas, English translation online, specifying the mouth, also Etymologicum Graecum (“Danakes”). See also Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, entry on “Charon” online for placement in the mouth, though archaeology disproves Smith’s statement that every corpse was given a coin; see article on Charon’s obol. [2] Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entries on χαροπός and χάρων, pp. 1980–1981; Brill’s New Pauly (Leiden and Boston 2003), vol. 3, entry on “Charon,” pp. 202–203. [3] Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reading” Greek Death (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 359 online and p. 390 online. [4] Grinsell, L. V. (1957). “The Ferryman and His Fee: A Study in Ethnology, Archaeology, and Tradition”. Folklore. 68 (1): 257–269 [p. 261]. JSTOR 1258157. doi:10.1080/0015587x.1957.9717576. [5] Virgil, Aeneid 6.298–301, as translated by John Dryden (English lines 413–417.) [6] See Ronnie H. Terpening, Charon and the Crossing: Ancient, Medieval, and Renaissance Transformations of a Myth (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1985 and London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1985), pp. 97–98. [7] For an analysis of these dialogues, ss Terpening, pp. 107–116.) [8] For an analysis of Dante’s depiction of Charon and other appearances in literature from antiquity through the 17th century in Italy, see Terpening, Charon and the Crossing.

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[9] See Kharon at theoi.com for collected source passages with work and line annotations, as well as images from vase paintings. [10] Dennis, Overbye (2013-07-02). “Two of Pluto’s Moons Get Names From Greek Mythology’s Underworld”. The New. The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2015. [11] War History Compilation Committee (1977), The History of the United Nations Forces in the Korean War, 6, Seoul: Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense, OCLC 769331231 [12] “The soldiers of the Greek Expeditionary Forces called it Outpost “Haros” the Greek name for Death. It was classic wartime humor, a dark pun borne of a hopeless mission”. outpostharry.org.

• Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). “Charon”

25.9 External links Media related to Charon (mythology) at Wikimedia Commons • The Theoi Project, “KHARON” • Images of Charon in the Warburg Institute Iconographic Database

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25.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

In the Divine Comedy, Charon forces reluctant sinners onto his boat by beating them with his oar. (Gustave DorĂŠ, 1857).

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Chapter 26

Charon’s obol

Charon and Psyche (1883), a pre-Raphaelite interpretation of the myth by John Roddam Spencer Stanhope

Charon’s obol is an allusive term for the coin placed in or on the mouth[1] of a dead person before burial. Greek and Latin literary sources specify the coin as an obol, and explain it as a payment or bribe for Charon, the ferryman who conveyed souls across the river that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. Archaeological examples of these coins, of various denominations in practice, have been called “the most famous grave goods from antiquity.”[2] The custom is primarily associated with the ancient Greeks and Romans, though it is also found in the ancient Near East. In Western Europe, a similar usage of coins in burials occurs in regions inhabited by Celts of the GalloRoman, Hispano-Roman and Romano-British cultures, and among the Germanic peoples of late antiquity and the early Christian era, with sporadic examples into the early 20th century. Although archaeology shows that the myth reﬂects an actual custom, the placement of coins with the dead was neither pervasive nor conﬁned to a single coin in the deceased’s mouth.[3] In many burials, inscribed metal-leaf tablets or Exonumia take the place of the coin, or gold-foil crosses during the early Christian period. The presence of coins or a coin-hoard in Germanic ship-burials suggests an analogous concept.[4] 122

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123

The phrase “Charon’s obol” as used by archaeologists sometimes can be understood as referring to a particular religious rite, but often serves as a kind of shorthand for coinage as grave goods presumed to further the deceased’s passage into the afterlife.[5] In Latin, Charon’s obol sometimes is called a viaticum, or “sustenance for the journey"; the placement of the coin on the mouth has been explained also as a seal to protect the deceased’s soul or to prevent it from returning.

26.1 Terminology Charon’s Obols

Charon’s Obol. 5th-1st century BC. All of these pseudo-coins have no sign of attachment, are too thin for normal use, and are often found in burial sites.

Medusa coin from the Black Sea region, of a type sometimes used as Charon’s obol, with anchor and crustacean on reverse[6] The coin for Charon is conventionally referred to in Greek literature as an obolos (Greek ὀβολός), one of the basic denominations of ancient Greek coinage, worth one-sixth of a drachma.[7] Among the Greeks, coins in actual burials are sometimes also a danakē (δανάκη) or other relatively small-denomination gold, silver, bronze or copper coin in local use. In Roman literary sources the coin is usually bronze or copper.[8] From the 6th to the 4th centuries BC in the Black Sea region, low-value coins depicting arrowheads or dolphins were in use mainly for the purpose of “local exchange and to serve as ‘Charon’s obol.‘"[9] The payment is sometimes specified with a term for “boat fare” (in Greek naulon, ναῦλον, Latin naulum); “fee for ferrying” (porthmeion, πορθμήϊον or πορθμεῖον); or “waterway toll” (Latin portorium). The word naulon (ναῦλον) is defined by the Christian-era lexicographer Hesychius of Alexandria as the coin put into the mouth of the dead; one of the meanings of danakē (δανάκη) is given as “the obol for the dead”. The Suda defines danakē as a coin traditionally buried with the dead for paying the ferryman to cross the river Acheron,[10] and explicates the definition of porthmēïon (πορθμήϊον) as a ferryman’s fee with a quotation from the poet Callimachus, who notes the custom of carrying the porthmēïon in the “parched mouths of the dead.”[11]

26.1.1

Charon’s obol as viaticum

In Latin, Charon’s obol is sometimes called a viaticum,[12] which in everyday usage means “provision for a journey” (from via, “way, road, journey”), encompassing food, money and other supplies. The same word can refer to the living allowance granted to those stripped of their property and condemned to exile,[13] and by metaphorical extension to preparing for death at the end of life’s journey.[14] Cicero, in his philosophical dialogue On Old Age (44 BC), has the interlocutor Cato the Elder combine two metaphors — nearing the end of a journey, and ripening fruit — in speaking of the approach to death: Drawing on this metaphorical sense of “provision for the journey into death,” ecclesiastical Latin borrowed the term viaticum for the form of Eucharist that is placed in the mouth of a person who is dying as provision for the soul’s passage to eternal life.[17] The earliest literary evidence of this Christian usage for viaticum appears in Paulinus’s account of the death of Saint Ambrose in 397 AD.[18] The 7th-century Synodus Hibernensis oﬀers an etymological explanation: “This word ‘viaticum’ is the name of communion, that is to say, ‘the guardianship of the way,’ for it guards the soul until it shall stand before the judgment-seat of Christ.”[19] Thomas Aquinas explained the term as “a preﬁguration of the fruit of God, which will be in the Promised Land. And because of this it is called the viaticum,

124

Roman skull with an obol (an Antoninus Pius dupondius) in the mouth.

CHAPTER 26. CHARONâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S OBOL

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since it provides us with the way of getting there"; the idea of Christians as “travelers in search of salvation" ﬁnds early expression in the Confessions of St. Augustine.[20] An equivalent word in Greek is ephodion (ἐφόδιον); like viaticum, the word is used in antiquity to mean “provision for a journey” (literally, “something for the road,” from the preﬁx ἐπ-, “on” + ὁδός, “road, way”)[21] and later in Greek patristic literature for the Eucharist administered on the point of death.[22]

26.2 In literature

Charon receiving a child (drawing based on a scene from a lekythos)[23]

Greek and Roman literary sources from the 5th century BC through the 2nd century AD are consistent in attributing four characteristics to Charon’s obol: • it is a single, low-denomination coin; • it is placed in the mouth; • the placement occurs at the time of death; • it represents a boat fare.[24] Greek epigrams that were literary versions of epitaphs refer to “the obol that pays the passage of the departed,”[25] with some epigrams referring to the belief by mocking or debunking it. The satirist Lucian has Charon himself, in a dialogue of the same name, declare that he collects “an obol from everyone who makes the downward journey.”[26] In an elegy of consolation spoken in the person of the dead woman, the Augustan poet Propertius expresses the ﬁnality of death by her payment of the bronze coin to the infernal toll collector (portitor).[27] Several other authors mention

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the fee. Often, an author uses the low value of the coin to emphasize that death makes no distinction between rich and poor; all must pay the same because all must die, and a rich person can take no greater amount into death:[28] The incongruity of paying what is, in eﬀect, admission to Hell encouraged a comic or satiric treatment, and Charon as a ferryman who must be persuaded, threatened, or bribed to do his job appears to be a literary construct that is not reﬂected in early classical art. Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood has shown that in 5th-century BC depictions of Charon, as on the funerary vases called lekythoi, he is a non-threatening, even reassuring presence who guides women, adolescents, and children to the afterlife.[30] Humor, as in Aristophanes's comic catabasis The Frogs, “makes the journey to Hades less frightening by articulating it explicitly and trivializing it.” Aristophanes makes jokes about the fee, and a character complains that Theseus must have introduced it, characterizing the Athenian hero in his role of city organizer as a bureaucrat.[31] Lucian satirizes the obol in his essay “On Funerals": In another satirical work of Lucian, the “Dialogs of the dead”, a character called Menippus has just died and Charon is asking for an obol in order to convey him across the river to the underworld, Menippus refuses to pay the obol, and consequently to enter the world of the dead claiming that: Literally, “You can't get [any obols] from one who doesn't have any.”[33]

26.3 Archaeological evidence The use of coins as grave goods shows a variety of practice that casts doubt on the accuracy of the term “Charon’s obol” as an interpretational category. The phrase continues to be used, however, to suggest the ritual or religious signiﬁcance of coinage in a funerary context. Coins are found in Greek burials by the 5th century BC, as soon as Greece was monetized, and appear throughout the Roman Empire into the 5th century AD, with examples conforming to the Charon’s obol type as far west as the Iberian Peninsula, north into Britain, and east to the Vistula river in Poland.[34] The jawbones of skulls found in certain burials in Roman Britain are stained greenish from contact with a copper coin; Roman coins are found later in Anglo-Saxon graves, but often pierced for wearing as a necklace or amulet.[35] Among the ancient Greeks, only about 5 to 10 percent of known burials contain any coins at all; in some Roman cremation cemeteries, however, as many as half the graves yield coins. Many if not most of these occurrences conform to the myth of Charon’s obol in neither the number of coins nor their positioning. Variety of placement and number, including but not limited to a single coin in the mouth, is characteristic of all periods and places.[36]

26.3.1

Hellenized world

Some of the oldest coins from Mediterranean tombs have been found on Cyprus. In 2001 Destrooper-Georgiades, a specialist in Achaemenid numismatics, said that investigations of 33 tombs had yielded 77 coins. Although denomination varies, as does the number in any given burial, small coins predominate. Coins started to be placed in tombs almost as soon as they came into circulation on the island in the 6th century, and some predate both the first issue of the obol and any literary reference to Charon’s fee.[37] Although only a small percentage of Greek burials contain coins, among these there are widespread examples of a single coin positioned in the mouth of a skull or with cremation remains. In cremation urns, the coin sometimes adheres to the jawbone of the skull.[38] At Olynthus, 136 coins (mostly bronze, but some silver), were found with burials; in 1932, archaeologists reported that 20 graves had each contained four bronze coins, which they believed were intended for placement in the mouth.[39] A few tombs at Olynthus have contained two coins, but more often a single bronze coin was positioned in the mouth or within the head of the skeleton. In Hellenistic-era tombs at one cemetery in Athens, coins, usually bronze, were found most often in the dead person’s mouth, though sometimes in the hand, loose in the grave, or in a vessel.[40] At Chania, an originally Minoan settlement on Crete, a tomb dating from the second half of the 3rd century BC held a rich variety of grave goods, including fine gold jewelry, a gold tray with the image of a bird, a clay vessel, a bronze mirror, a bronze strigil, and a bronze “Charon coin” depicting Zeus.[41] In excavations of 91 tombs at a cemetery in Amphipolis during the mid- to late 1990s, a majority of the dead were found to have a coin in the mouth. The burials dated from the 4th to the late 2nd century BC.[42] A notable use of a danake occurred in the burial of a woman in 4th-century BC Thessaly, a likely initiate into the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries. Her religious paraphernalia included gold tablets inscribed with instructions for the afterlife and a terracotta figure of a Bacchic worshipper. Upon her lips was placed a gold danake stamped with the

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Gorgon’s head.[43] Coins begin to appear with greater frequency in graves during the 3rd century BC, along with gold wreaths and plain unguentaria (small bottles for oil) in place of the earlier lekythoi. Black-ﬁgure lekythoi had often depicted Dionysiac scenes; the later white-ground vessels often show Charon, usually with his pole,[44] but rarely (or dubiously) accepting the coin.[45] The Black Sea region has also produced examples of Charon’s obol. At Apollonia Pontica, the custom had been practiced from the mid-4th century BC; in one cemetery, for instance, 17 percent of graves contained small bronze local coins in the mouth or hand of the deceased.[46] During 1998 excavations of Pichvnari, on the coast of presentday Georgia, a single coin was found in seven burials, and a pair of coins in two. The coins, silver triobols of the local Colchian currency, were located near the mouth, with the exception of one that was near the hand. It is unclear whether the dead were Colchians or Greeks. The investigating archaeologists did not regard the practice as typical of the region, but speculate that the local geography lent itself to adapting the Greek myth, as bodies of the dead in actuality had to be ferried across a river from the town to the cemetery.[47]

26.3.2

Near East

Charon’s obol is usually regarded as Hellenic, and a single coin in burials is often taken as a mark of Hellenization,[48] but the practice may be independent of Greek inﬂuence in some regions. The placing of a coin in the mouth of the deceased is found also during Parthian and Sasanian times in what is now Iran. Curiously, the coin was not the danake of Persian origin, as it was sometimes among the Greeks, but usually a Greek drachma.[49] In the Yazdi region, objects consecrated in graves may include a coin or piece of silver; the custom is thought to be perhaps as old as the Seleucid era and may be a form of Charon’s obol.[50] Discoveries of a single coin near the skull in tombs of the Levant suggest a similar practice among Phoenicians in the Persian period.[51] Jewish ossuaries sometimes contain a single coin; for example, in an ossuary bearing the inscriptional name “Miriam, daughter of Simeon,” a coin minted during the reign of Herod Agrippa I, dated 42/43 AD, was found in the skull’s mouth.[52] Although the placement of a coin within the skull is uncommon in Jewish antiquity and was potentially an act of idolatry, rabbinic literature preserves an allusion to Charon in a lament for the dead “tumbling aboard the ferry and having to borrow his fare.” Boats are sometimes depicted on ossuaries or the walls of Jewish crypts, and one of the coins found within a skull may have been chosen because it depicted a ship.[53]

26.3.3

Western Europe

Cemeteries in the Western Roman Empire vary widely: in a 1st-century BC community in Cisalpine Gaul, coins were included in more than 40 percent of graves, but none was placed in the mouth of the deceased; the figure is only 10 percent for cremations at Empúries in Spain and York in Britain. On the Iberian Peninsula, evidence interpreted as Charon’s obol has been found at Tarragona.[54] In Belgic Gaul, varying deposits of coins are found with the dead for the 1st through 3rd centuries, but are most frequent in the late 4th and early 5th centuries. Thirty Gallo-Roman burials near the Pont de Pasly, Soissons, each contained a coin for Charon.[55] Germanic burials show a preference for gold coins, but even within a single cemetery and a narrow time period, their disposition varies.[56] In one Merovingian cemetery of Frénouville, Normandy, which was in use for four centuries after Christ, coins are found in a minority of the graves. At one time, the cemetery was regarded as exhibiting two distinct phases: an earlier Gallo-Roman period when the dead were buried with vessels, notably of glass, and Charon’s obol; and later, when they were given funerary dress and goods according to Frankish custom. This neat division, however, has been shown to be misleading. In the 3rd- to 4th-century area of the cemetery, coins were placed near the skulls or hands, sometimes protected by a pouch or vessel, or were found in the grave-fill as if tossed in. Bronze coins usually numbered one or two per grave, as would be expected from the custom of Charon’s obol, but one burial contained 23 bronze coins, and another held a gold solidus and a semissis. The latter examples indicate that coins might have represented relative social status. In the newer part of the cemetery, which remained in use through the 6th century, the deposition patterns for coinage were similar, but the coins themselves were not contemporaneous with the burials, and some were pierced for wearing. The use of older coins may reflect a shortage of new currency, or may indicate that the old coins held a traditional symbolic meaning apart from their denominational value. “The varied placement of coins of different values … demonstrates at least partial if not complete loss of understanding of the original religious function of Charon’s obol,” remarks Bonnie Effros, a specialist in Merovingian burial customs. “These factors make it difficult to determine the rite’s significance.”[57] Although the rite of Charon’s obol was practiced no more uniformly in Northern Europe than in Greece, there are examples of individual burials or small groups conforming to the pattern. At Broadstairs in Kent, a young man had

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been buried with a Merovingian gold tremissis (ca. 575) in his mouth.[58] A gold-plated coin was found in the mouth of a young man buried on the Isle of Wight in the mid-6th century; his other grave goods included vessels, a drinking horn, a knife, and gaming-counters[59] of ivory with one cobalt-blue glass piece.[60] Scandinavian and Germanic gold bracteates found in burials of the 5th and 6th centuries, particularly those in Britain, have also been interpreted in light of Charon’s obol. These gold disks, similar to coins though generally singlesided, were influenced by late Roman imperial coins and medallions but feature iconography from Norse myth and runic inscriptions. The stamping process created an extended rim that forms a frame with a loop for threading; the bracteates often appear in burials as a woman’s necklace. A function comparable to that of Charon’s obol is suggested by examples such as a man’s burial at Monkton in Kent and a group of several male graves on Gotland, Sweden, for which the bracteate was deposited in a pouch beside the body. In the Gotland burials, the bracteates lack rim and loop, and show no traces of wear, suggesting that they had not been intended for everyday use.[61] According to one interpretation, the purse-hoard in the Sutton Hoo ship burial (Suffolk, East Anglia), which contained a variety of Merovingian gold coins, unites the traditional Germanic voyage to the afterlife with “an unusually splendid form of Charon’s obol.” The burial yielded 37 gold tremisses dating from the late 6th and early 7th century, three unstruck coin blanks, and two small gold ingots. It has been conjectured that the coins were to pay the oarsmen who would row the ship into the next world, while the ingots were meant for the steersmen.[62] Although Charon is usually a lone figure in depictions from both antiquity and the modern era, there is some slight evidence that his ship might be furnished with oarsmen. A fragment of 6th century BC pottery has been interpreted as Charon sitting in the stern as steersman of a boat fitted with ten pairs of oars and rowed by eidola (εἴδωλα), shades of the dead. A reference in Lucian seems also to imply that the shades might row the boat.[63] In Scandinavia, scattered examples of Charon’s obol have been documented from the Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period; in the Viking age eastern Sweden produces the best evidence, Denmark rarely, and Norway and Finland inconclusively. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Charon’s obol appears in graves in Sweden, Scania, and Norway. Swedish folklore documents the custom from the 18th into the 20th century.[64]

26.3.4

Among Christians

The custom of Charon’s obol not only continued into the Christian era,[65] but was adopted by Christians, as a single coin was sometimes placed in the mouth for Christian burials.[66] At Arcy-Sainte-Restitue in Picardy, a Merovingian grave yielded a coin of Constantine I, the ﬁrst Christian emperor, used as Charon’s obol.[67] In Britain, the practice was just as frequent, if not more so, among Christians and persisted even to the end of the 19th century.[68] A folklorist writing in 1914 was able to document a witness in Britain who had seen a penny placed in the mouth of an old man as he lay in his coﬃn.[69] In 1878, Pope Pius IX was entombed with a coin.[70] The practice was widely documented around the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in Greece, where the coin was sometimes accompanied by a key.[71]

26.3.5

'Ghost' coins and crosses

See also: Exonumia So-called “ghost coins” also appear with the dead. These are impressions of an actual coin or numismatic icon struck into a small piece of gold foil.[72] In a 5th- or 4th-century BC grave at Syracuse, Sicily, a small rectangular gold leaf stamped with a dual-faced ﬁgure, possibly Demeter/Kore, was found in the skeleton’s mouth. In a marble cremation box from the mid-2nd century BC, the “Charon’s piece” took the form of a bit of gold foil stamped with an owl; in addition to the charred bone fragments, the box also contained gold leaves from a wreath of the type sometimes associated with the mystery religions.[73] Within an Athenian family burial plot of the 2nd century BC, a thin gold disk similarly stamped with the owl of Athens had been placed in the mouth of each male.[74] These examples of the “Charon’s piece” resemble in material and size the tiny inscribed tablet or funerary amulet called a lamella (Latin for a metal-foil sheet) or a Totenpass, a “passport for the dead” with instructions on navigating the afterlife, conventionally regarded as a form of Orphic or Dionysiac devotional.[75] Several of these prayer sheets have been found in positions that indicate placement in or on the deceased’s mouth. A functional equivalence with the Charon’s piece is further suggested by the evidence of ﬂattened coins used as mouth coverings (epistomia) from graves in Crete.[76] A gold phylactery with a damaged inscription invoking the syncretic god Sarapis was found within the skull in a burial from the late 1st century AD in southern Rome. The gold tablet may have served both as a protective amulet during the deceased’s lifetime and then, with its insertion into the mouth, possibly on the model of Charon’s obol, as a Totenpass.[77] In a late Roman-era burial in Douris, near Baalbek, Lebanon, the forehead, nose, and mouth of the deceased — a

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woman, in so far as skeletal remains can indicate — were covered with sheets of gold-leaf. She wore a wreath made from gold oak leaves, and her clothing had been sewn with gold-leaf ovals decorated with female faces. Several glass vessels were arranged at her feet, and her discoverers interpreted the bronze coin close to her head as an example of Charon’s obol.[78] Textual evidence also exists for covering portions of the deceased’s body with gold foil. One of the accusations of heresy against the Phrygian Christian movement known as the Montanists was that they sealed the mouths of their dead with plates of gold like initiates into the mysteries;[79] factual or not, the charge indicates an anxiety that Christian practice be distinguished from that of other religions, and again suggests that Charon’s obol and the “Orphic” gold tablets could fulfill a similar purpose.[80] The early Christian poet Prudentius seems[81] to be referring either to these inscribed gold-leaf tablets or to the larger gold-foil coverings in one of his condemnations of the mystery religions. Prudentius says that auri lammina (“sheets of gold”) were placed on the bodies of initiates as part of funeral rites.[82] This practice may or may not be distinct from the funerary use of gold leaf inscribed with figures and placed on the eyes, mouths, and chests of warriors in Macedonian burials during the late Archaic period (580–460 BC); in September 2008, archaeologists working near Pella in northern Greece publicized the discovery of twenty warrior graves in which the deceased wore bronze helmets and were supplied with iron swords and knives along with these gold-leaf coverings.[83] Goldblattkreuze In Gaul and in Alemannic territory, Christian graves of the Merovingian period reveal an analogous Christianized practice in the form of gold or gold-alloy leaf shaped like a cross,[84] imprinted with designs, and deposited possibly as votives or amulets for the deceased. These paper-thin, fragile gold crosses are sometimes referred to by scholars with the German term Goldblattkreuze. They appear to have been sown onto the deceased’s garment just before burial, not worn during life,[85] and in this practice are comparable to the pierced Roman coins found in Anglo-Saxon graves that were attached to clothing instead of or in addition to being threaded onto a necklace.[86] The crosses are characteristic of Lombardic Italy[87] (Cisalpine Gaul of the Roman imperial era), where they were fastened to veils and placed over the deceased’s mouth in a continuation of Byzantine practice. Throughout the Lombardic realm and north into Germanic territory, the crosses gradually replaced bracteates during the 7th century.[88] The transition is signalled by Scandinavian bracteates found in Kent that are stamped with cross motifs resembling the Lombardic crosses.[89] Two plain gold-foil crosses of Latin form, found in the burial of a 7th-century East Saxon king, are the first known examples from England, announced in 2004.[90] The king’s other grave goods included glass vessels made in England and two different Merovingian gold coins, each of which had a cross on the reverse.[91] Coins of the period were adapted with Christian iconography in part to facilitate their use as an alternative to amulets of traditional religions.[92] Scandinavian gullgubber Scandinavia also produced small and fragile gold-foil pieces, called gullgubber, that were worked in repoussé with human figures. These begin to appear in the late Iron Age and continue into the Viking Age. In form they resemble the gold-foil pieces such as those found at Douris, but the gullgubber were not fashioned with a fastening element and are not associated with burials. They occur in the archaeological record sometimes singly, but most often in large numbers. Some scholars have speculated that they are a form of “temple money” or votive offering,[93] but Sharon Ratke has suggested that they might represent good wishes for travelers, perhaps as a metaphor for the dead on their journey to the otherworld,[94] especially those depicting "wraiths.”[95]

26.4 Religious significance Ships often appear in Greek and Roman funerary art representing a voyage to the Isles of the Blessed, and a 2ndcentury sarcophagus found in Velletri, near Rome, included Charon’s boat among its subject matter.[96] In modern-era Greek folkloric survivals of Charon (as Charos the death demon), sea voyage and river crossing are conflated, and in one later tale, the soul is held hostage by pirates, perhaps representing the oarsmen, who require a ransom for release.[97] The mytheme of the passage to the afterlife as a voyage or crossing is not unique to Greco-Roman belief nor to Indo-European culture as a whole, as it occurs also in ancient Egyptian religion[98] and other belief systems that are culturally unrelated.[99] The boatman of the dead himself appears in diverse cultures with no special relation to Greece or to each other.[100] A Sumerian model for Charon has been proposed,[101] and the figure has possible

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antecedents among the Egyptians; scholars are divided as to whether these inﬂuenced the tradition of Charon, but the 1st-century BC historian Diodorus Siculus thought so and mentions the fee.[102] It might go without saying that only when coinage comes into common use is the idea of payment introduced,[103] but coins were placed in graves before the appearance of the Charon myth in literature.[104] Because of the diversity of religious beliefs in the Greco-Roman world, and because the mystery religions that were most concerned with the afterlife and soteriology placed a high value on secrecy and arcane knowledge, no single theology[105] has been reconstructed that would account for Charon’s obol. Franz Cumont regarded the numerous examples found in Roman tombs as “evidence of no more than a traditional rite which men performed without attaching a deﬁnite meaning to it.”[106] The use of a coin for the rite seems to depend not just on the myth of Charon, but also on other religious and mythic traditions associating wealth and the underworld.[107]

26.4.1

Death and wealth

In cultures that practiced the rite of Charon’s obol, the infernal ferryman who requires payment is one of a number of underworld deities associated with wealth. For the Greeks, Pluto (Ploutōn, Πλούτων), the ruler of the dead and the consort of Persephone, became conflated with Plutus (Ploutos, Πλοῦτος), wealth personified; Plato points out the meaningful ambiguity of this etymological play in his dialogue Cratylus.[108] Hermes is a god of boundaries, travel, and liminality, and thus conveys souls across the border that separates the living from the dead, acting as a psychopomp, but he was also a god of exchange, commerce, and profit.[101] The name of his Roman counterpart Mercury was thought in antiquity to share its derivation with the Latin word merces, “goods, merchandise.”[109] The numerous chthonic deities among the Romans were also frequently associated with wealth. In his treatise On the Nature of the Gods, Cicero identifies the Roman god Dis Pater with the Greek Pluton,[110] explaining that riches are hidden in and arise from the earth.[111] Dis Pater is sometimes regarded as a chthonic Saturn, ruler of the Golden Age, whose consort Ops was a goddess of abundance.[112] The obscure goddess Angerona, whose iconography depicted silence and secrecy,[113] and whose festival followed that of Ops, seems to have regulated communications between the realm of the living and the underworld;[114] she may have been a guardian of both arcane knowledge and stored, secret wealth.[115] When a Roman died, the treasury at the Temple of Venus in the sacred grove of the funeral goddess Libitina collected a coin as a “death tax”.[116] The Republican poet Ennius locates the “treasuries of Death” across the Acheron.[117] Romans threw an annual offering of coins into the Lacus Curtius, a pit or chasm in the middle of the Roman Forum[118] that was regarded as a mundus or “port of communication” with the underworld.[119] Chthonic wealth is sometimes attributed to the Celtic horned god of the Cernunnos type,[120] one of the deities proposed as the divine progenitor of the Gauls that Julius Caesar identified with Dis Pater.[121] On a relief from the Gallic civitas of the Remi,[122] the god holds in his lap a sack or purse, the contents of which — identified by scholars variably as coins or food (grain, small fruits, or nuts)[123] — may be intentionally ambiguous in expressing desired abundance. The antler-horned god appears on coins from Gaul and Britain, in explicit association with wealth.[124] In his best-known representation, on the problematic Gundestrup Cauldron, he is surrounded by animals with mythicoreligious significance; taken in the context of an accompanying scene of initiation, the horned god can be interpreted as presiding over the process of metempsychosis, the cycle of death and rebirth,[125] regarded by ancient literary sources as one of the most important tenets of Celtic religion[126] and characteristic also of Pythagoreanism and the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries.[127] From its 7th-century BC beginnings in western Anatolia, ancient coinage was viewed not as distinctly secular, but as a form of communal trust bound up in the ties expressed by religion. The earliest known coin-hoard from antiquity was found buried in a pot within the foundations of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, dating to the mid-6th century BC. The iconography of gods and various divine beings appeared regularly on coins issued by Greek cities and later by Rome.[128] The effect of monetization on religious practice is indicated by notations in Greek calendars of sacrifices pertaining to fees for priests and prices for offerings and victims. One fragmentary text seems to refer to a single obol to be paid by each initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries to the priestess of Demeter, the symbolic value of which is perhaps to be interpreted in light of Charon’s obol as the initiate’s gaining access to knowledge required for successful passage to the afterlife.[129] Erwin Rohde argued, on the basis of later folk customs, that the obol was originally a payment to the dead person himself, as a way of compensating him for the loss of property that passed to the living, or as a token substitute for the more ancient practice of consigning his property to the grave with him. In Rohde’s view, the obol was later attached to the myth of the ferryman as an ex post facto explanation.[130]

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131

In the view of Richard Seaford, the introduction of coinage to Greece and the theorizing about value it provoked was concomitant with and even contributed to the creation of Greek metaphysics.[131] Plato criticizes common currency as “polluting”, but also says that the guardians of his ideal republic should have divine gold and silver money from the gods always present in their souls.[132] This Platonic “money in the soul” holds the promise of “divinity, homogeneity, unchanging permanence, self-suﬃciency, invisibility.”[133]

26.4.2

The coin as food or seal

Attempts to explain the symbolism of the rite also must negotiate the illogical placement of the coin in the mouth. The Latin term viaticum makes sense of Charon’s obol as “sustenance for the journey,” and it has been suggested that coins replaced offerings of food for the dead in Roman tradition.[134] This dichotomy of food for the living and gold for the dead is a theme in the myth of King Midas, versions of which draw on elements of the Dionysian mysteries. The Phrygian king’s famous “golden touch” was a divine gift from Dionysus, but its acceptance separated him from the human world of nourishment and reproduction: both his food and his daughter were transformed by contact with him into immutable, unreciprocal gold. In some versions of the myth, Midas’s hard-won insight into the meaning of life and the limitations of earthly wealth is accompanied by conversion to the cult of Dionysus. Having learned his lessons as an initiate into the mysteries, and after ritual immersion in the river Pactolus, Midas forsakes the “bogus eternity” of gold for spiritual rebirth.[135] John Cuthbert Lawson, an early 20th-century folklorist whose approach was influenced by the Cambridge Ritualists, argued that both the food metaphor and the coin as payment for the ferryman were later rationalizations of the original ritual. Although single coins from inhumations appear most often inside or in the vicinity of the skull, they are also found in the hand or a pouch, a more logical place to carry a payment.[136] Lawson viewed the coin as originally a seal, used as potsherds sometimes were on the lips of the dead to block the return of the soul, believed to pass from the body with the last breath. One of the first steps in preparing a corpse was to seal the lips, sometimes with linen or gold bands, to prevent the soul’s return.[137] The stopping of the mouth by Charon’s obol has been used to illuminate burial practices intended, for instance, to prevent vampires or other revenants from returning.[138] The placement of the coin on the mouth can be compared to practices pertaining to the disposition of the dead in the Near East. An Egyptian custom is indicated by a burial at Abydos, dating from the 22nd Dynasty (945–720 BC) or later, for which the deceased woman’s mouth was covered with a faience uadjet, or protective eye amulet.[139] Oval mouth coverings, perforated for fastening, are found in burials throughout the Near East from the 1st century BC through the 1st century AD, providing evidence of an analogous practice for sealing the mouths of the dead in regions not under Roman Imperial control. Bahraini excavations at the necropolis of Al-Hajjar produced examples of these coverings in gold leaf, one of which retained labial imprints.[140] A coin may make a superior seal because of its iconography; in the Thessalian burial of an initiate described above, for instance, the coin on the lips depicted the apotropaic device of the Gorgon’s head. The seal may also serve to regulate the speech of the dead, which was sometimes sought through rituals for its prophetic powers, but also highly regulated as dangerous; mystery religions that offered arcane knowledge of the afterlife prescribed ritual silence.[141] A golden key (chrusea klês) was laid on the tongue of initiates[142] as a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret.[143] “Charon’s obol” is often found in burials with objects or inscriptions indicative of mystery cult, and the coin figures in a Latin prose narrative that alludes to initiation ritual, the “Cupid and Psyche” story from the Metamorphoses of Apuleius.

26.4.3

The catabasis of Psyche

For a synopsis of Apuleius’s narrative, see Cupid and Psyche. In the 2nd-century “Cupid and Psyche” narrative by Apuleius, Psyche, whose name is a Greek word for “soul,” is sent on an underworld quest to retrieve the box containing Proserpina’s secret beauty, in order to restore the love of Cupid. The tale lends itself to multiple interpretational approaches, and it has frequently been analyzed as an allegory of Platonism as well as of religious initiation, iterating on a smaller scale the plot of the Metamorphoses as a whole, which concerns the protagonist Lucius’s journey towards salvation through the cult of Isis.[144] Ritual elements were associated with the story even before Apuleius’s version, as indicated in visual representations; for instance, a 1st-century BC sardonyx cameo depicting the wedding of Cupid and Psyche shows an attendant elevating a liknon (basket) used in Dionysiac initiation.[145] C. Moreschini saw the Metamorphoses as moving away from the Platonism of Apuleius’s earlier Apology toward a vision of mystic salvation.[146]

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Before embarking on her descent, Psyche receives instructions for navigating the underworld: The two coins serve the plot by providing Psyche with fare for the return; allegorically, this return trip suggests the soul’s rebirth, perhaps a Platonic reincarnation or the divine form implied by the so-called Orphic gold tablets. The myth of Charon has rarely been interpreted in light of mystery religions, despite the association in Apuleius and archaeological evidence of burials that incorporate both Charon’s obol and cultic paraphernalia. And yet “the image of the ferry,” Helen King notes, “hints that death is not ﬁnal, but can be reversed, because the ferryman could carry his passengers either way.”[151] A funeral rite is itself a kind of initiation, or the transition of the soul into another stage of “life.”[152]

26.4.4

Coins on the eyes?

Contrary to popular aetiology there is little evidence to connect the myth of Charon to the custom of placing a pair of coins on the eyes of the deceased, though the larger gold-foil coverings discussed above might include pieces shaped for the eyes.[153] Pairs of coins are sometimes found in burials, including cremation urns; among the collections of the British Museum is an urn from Athens, ca. 300 BC, that contained cremated remains, two obols, and a terracotta figure of a mourning siren.[154] Ancient Greek and Latin literary sources, however, mention a pair of coins only when a return trip is anticipated, as in the case of Psyche’s catabasis, and never in regard to sealing the eyes. Only rarely does the placement of a pair of coins suggest they might have covered the eyes. In Judea, a pair of silver denarii were found in the eye sockets of a skull; the burial dated to the 2nd century A.D. occurs within a Jewish community, but the religious affiliation of the deceased is unclear. Jewish ritual in antiquity did not require that the eye be sealed by an object, and it is debatable whether the custom of placing coins on the eyes of the dead was practiced among Jews prior to the modern era.[155] During the 1980s, the issue became embroiled with the controversies regarding the Shroud of Turin when it was argued that the eye area revealed the outlines of coins; since the placement of coins on the eyes for burial is not securely attested in antiquity, apart from the one example from Judea cited above, this interpretation of evidence obtained through digital image processing cannot be claimed as firm support for the shroud’s authenticity.[156]

26.4.5

Coins at the feet

Coins are found also at the deceased’s feet,[157] although the purpose of this positioning is uncertain. John Chrysostom mentions and disparages the use of coins depicting Alexander the Great as amulets attached by the living to the head or feet, and oﬀers the Christian cross as a more powerful alternative for both salvation and healing:

26.5 Christian transformation With instructions that recall those received by Psyche for her heroic descent, or the inscribed Totenpass for initiates, the Christian protagonist of a 14th-century French pilgrimage narrative is advised: Anglo-Saxon and early–medieval Irish missionaries took the idea of a viaticum literally, carrying the Eucharistic bread and oil with them everywhere.[160] The need for a viaticum figures in a myth-tinged account of the death of King William II of England, told by the Anglo-Norman chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar: dying from a battle wound and delirious, the desperate king kept calling out for the corpus domini (Lord’s body) until a huntsman[161] acted as priest and gave him flowering herbs as his viaticum.[162] In the dominant tradition of William’s death, he is killed while hunting on the second day of red stag season, which began August 1, the date of both Lughnasadh and the Feast of St. Peter’s Chains.[163] The hunt is also associated with the administering of a herbal viaticum in the medieval chansons de geste, in which traditional heroic culture and Christian values interpenetrate. The chansons offer multiple examples of grass or foliage substituted as a viaticum when a warrior or knight meets his violent end outside the Christian community. Sarah Kay views this substitute rite as communion with the Girardian “primitive sacred,” speculating that “pagan” beliefs lurk beneath a Christian veneer.[164] In the Raoul de Cambrai, the dying Bernier receives three blades of grass in place of the corpus Domini.[165] Two other chansons place this desire for communion within the mytheme of the sacrificial boar hunt.[166] In Daurel et Beton, Bove is murdered next to the boar he just killed; he asks his own killer to grant him communion “with a leaf,”[167] and when he is denied, he then asks that his enemy eat his heart instead. This

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request is granted; the killer partakes of the victim’s body as an alternative sacrament. In Garin le Loheren, Begon is similarly assassinated next to the corpse of a boar, and takes communion with three blades of grass.[168] Kay’s conjecture that a pre-Christian tradition accounts for the use of leaves as the viaticum is supported by evidence from Hellenistic magico-religious practice, the continuance of which is documented in Gaul and among Germanic peoples.[169] Spells from the Greek Magical Papyri often require the insertion of a leaf — an actual leaf, a papyrus scrap, the representation of a leaf in metal foil, or an inscribed rectangular lamella (as described above) — into the mouth of a corpse or skull, as a means of conveying messages to and from the realms of the living and the dead. In one spell attributed to Pitys the Thessalian, the practitioner is instructed to inscribe a flax leaf with magic words and to insert it into the mouth of a dead person.[170] The insertion of herbs into the mouth of the dead, with a promise of resurrection, occurs also in the Irish tale “The Kern in the Narrow Stripes,” the earliest written version of which dates to the 1800s but is thought to preserve an oral tradition of early Irish myth.[171] The kern of the title is an otherworldly trickster figure who performs a series of miracles; after inducing twenty armed men to kill each other, he produces herbs from his bag and instructs his host’s gatekeeper to place them within the jaws of each dead man to bring him back to life. At the end of the tale, the mysterious visitor is revealed as Manannán mac Lir, the Irish god known in other stories for his herd of pigs that offer eternal feasting from their self-renewing flesh.[172]

26.5.1

Sacrament and superstition

Scholars have frequently[173] suggested that the use of a viaticum in the Christian rite for the dying reflected preexisting religious practice, with Charon’s obol replaced by a more acceptably Christian sacrament. In one miraculous story, recounted by Pope Innocent III in a letter dated 1213, the coins in a moneybox were said literally to have been transformed into communion wafers.[174] Because of the viaticum’s presumed pre-Christian origin, an anti-Catholic historian of religion at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries propagandized the practice, stating that “it was from the heathens [that] the papists borrowed it.”[175] Contemporary scholars are more likely to explain the borrowing in light of the deep-seated conservatism of burial practices or as a form of religious syncretism motivated by a psychological need for continuity.[176] Among Christians, the practice of burying a corpse with a coin in its mouth was never widespread enough to warrant condemnation from the Church, but the substitute rite came under official scrutiny;[177] the viaticum should not be, but often was, placed in the mouth after death, apparently out of a superstitious desire for its magical protection.[178] By the time Augustine wrote his Confessions, “African bishops had forbidden the celebration of the eucharist in the presence of the corpse. This was necessary to stop the occasional practice of placing the eucharistic bread in the mouth of the dead, a viaticum which replaced the coin needed to pay Charon’s fare.”[179] Pope Gregory I, in his biography of Benedict of Nursia, tells the story of a monk whose body was twice ejected from his tomb; Benedict advised the family to restore the dead man to his resting place with the viaticum placed on his chest. The placement suggests a functional equivalence with the Goldblattkreuze and the Orphic gold tablets; its purpose — to assure the deceased’s successful passage to the afterlife — is analogous to that of Charon’s obol and the Totenpässe of mystery initiates, and in this case it acts also as a seal to block the dead from returning to the world of the living.[180] Ideally, the journey into death would begin immediately after taking the sacrament.[181] Eusebius offers an example of an elderly Christian who managed to hold off death until his grandson placed a portion of the Eucharist in his mouth.[182] In a general audience October 24, 2007, Pope Benedict XVI quoted Paulinus's account of the death of St. Ambrose, who received and swallowed the corpus Domini and immediately “gave up his spirit, taking the good Viaticum with him. His soul, thus refreshed by the virtue of that food, now enjoys the company of Angels.”[183] A perhaps apocryphal story from a Cistercian chronicle circa 1200 indicates that the viaticum was regarded as an apotropaic seal against demons (ad avertendos daemonas[184] ), who nevertheless induced a woman to attempt to snatch the Host (viaticum) from the mouth of Pope Urban III's corpse.[185] Like Charon’s obol, the viaticum can serve as both sustenance for the journey[186] and seal.[136] In the 19th century, the German scholar Georg Heinrici proposed that Greek and Roman practices pertaining to the care of the dead, specifically including Charon’s obol, shed light on vicarious baptism, or baptism for the dead, to which St. Paul refers in a letter to the Corinthians.[187] A century after Heinrici, James Downey examined the funerary practices of Christian Corinthians in historical context and argued that they intended vicarious baptism to protect the deceased’s soul against interference on the journey to the afterlife.[188] Both vicarious baptism and the placement of a viaticum in the mouth of a person already dead reflect Christian responses to, rather than outright rejection of, ancient religious traditions pertaining to the cult of the dead.[189]

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26.6 Art of the modern era Although Charon has been a popular subject of art,[191] particularly in the 19th century, the act of payment is less often depicted. An exception is the Charon and Psyche of John Roddam Spencer Stanhope, exhibited ca. 1883. The story of Cupid and Psyche found several expressions among the Pre-Raphaelite artists and their literary peers,[192] and Stanhope, while mourning the death of his only child, produced a number of works dealing with the afterlife. His Psyche paintings were most likely based on the narrative poem of William Morris that was a retelling of the version by Apuleius.[193] In Stanhope’s vision, the ferryman is a calm and patriarchal figure more in keeping with the Charon of the archaic Greek lekythoi than the fearsome antagonist often found in Christian-era art and literature.[194] The contemporary artist Bradley Platz extends the theme of Charon’s obol as a viatical food in his oil-on-canvas work Charon and the Shades (2007).[195] In this depiction, Charon is a hooded, faceless figure of Death; the transported soul regurgitates a stream of gold coins while the penniless struggle and beg on the shores. The painting was created for a show in which artists were to bring together a mythological figure and a pop-culture icon, chosen randomly. The “soul” in Platz’s reinterpretation is the "celebutante" Nicole Richie “as a general symbol for the modern celebrity and wealth,” notes the artist: “She is represented dry and emaciated, having little physical beauty left but a wealth of gold” which she purges from her mouth.[196]

26.7 Modern poetry Poets of the modern era have continued to make use of Charon’s obol as a living allusion. In “Don Juan aux enfers” (“Don Juan in Hell”), the French Symboliste poet Charles Baudelaire marks the eponymous hero’s entry to the underworld with his payment of the obol to Charon.[197] Irish Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney makes a less direct allusion with a simile — “words imposing on my tongue like obols” — in the “Fosterage” section of his long poem Singing School:[198]

26.8 References [1] Neither ancient literary sources nor archaeological ﬁnds indicate that the ritual of Charon’s obol explains the modern-era custom of placing a pair of coins on the eyes of the deceased, nor is the single coin said to have been placed under the tongue. See "Coins on the eyes?" below. [2] Ian Morris, Death-ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 106 online. [3] Gregory Grabka, “Christian Viaticum: A Study of Its Cultural Background,” Traditio 9 (1953), 1–43, especially p. 8; Susan T. Stevens, “Charon’s Obol and Other Coins in Ancient Funerary Practice,” Phoenix 45 (1991) 215–229. [4] Discussed under "Archaeological evidence". [5] Morris, Death-ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, p. 106, noting in his skeptical discussion of “Who Pays the Ferryman?" that “coins may have paid the ferryman, but that is not all that they did.” See also Keld Grinder-Hansen, “Charon’s Fee in Ancient Greece?" Acta Hyperborea 3 (1991), p. 215, who goes so far as to assert that “there is very little evidence in favour of a connection between the Charon myth and the death-coin practice”, but the point is primarily that the term “Charon’s obol” belongs to the discourse of myth and literature rather than the discipline of archaeology. [6] Drachm, mid- to late-4th century BC, from Classical Numismatics Group. [7] Depending on whether a copper or silver standard was used; see Verne B. Schuman, “The Seven-Obol Drachma of Roman Egypt,” Classical Philology 47 (1952) 214–218; Michael Vickers, “Golden Greece: Relative Values, Minae, and Temple Inventories,” American Journal of Archaeology 94 (1990), p. 613, notes 4 and 6, pointing out at the time of writing that with gold at $368.75 per ounce, an obol would be worth 59 cents (U.S. currency). [8] For instance, Propertius 4.11.7–8; Juvenal 3.267; Apuleius, Metamorphoses 6.18; Ernest Babelon, Traité des monnaies grecques et romaines, vol. 1 (Paris: Leroux, 1901), p. 430. [9] Sitta von Reden, “Money, Law and Exchange: Coinage in the Greek Polis,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 117 (1997), p. 159. [10] Entry on Δανάκη, Suidae Lexicon, edited by A. Adler (Leipzig 1931) II 5f., as cited by Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” p. 8.

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[11] Hesychius, entry on Ναῦλον, Lexicon, edited by M. Schmidt (Jena 1858–68), III 142: τὸ εἰς τὸ στόμα τῶν νεκρῶν ἐμβαλλόμεν νομισμάτιον; entry on Δανάκη, Lexicon, I 549 (Schmidt): ἐλέγετο δὲ καὶ ὁ τοῖς νεκροῖς διδόμενος ὀβολός; Callimachus, Hecale, fragment 278 in the edition of Rudolf Pfeiﬀer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), vol. 1, p. 262 (= Schneider frg. 110), with an extensive note (in Latin) on the fare and the supposed exemption for residents of Hermione; Suidae Lexicon, entry on Πορθμήϊον, edited by A. Adler (Leipzig 1935) IV 176, all cited by Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” pp. 8–9. [12] Plautus, Poenulus 71 (late 3rd–early 2nd century BC), where a rich man lacks the viaticum for the journey because of the stinginess of his heir; Apuleius, Metamorphoses 6.18 (2nd century A.D.), discussed below. [13] As in Seneca, Ad Helviam matrem de consolatione 12.4; see Mary V. Braginton, “Exile under the Roman Emperors,” Classical Journal 39 (1944), pp. 397–398. [14] Entry on viaticum, Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1982, 1985 printing), p. 2054; Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1879, 1987 printing), p. 1984. [15] Marcus Tullius Cicero, De senectute 18.66: Avaritia vero senilis quid sibi velit, non intellego; potest enim quicquam esse absurdius quam, quo viae minus restet, eo plus viatici quaerere? Compare the metaphor of death as a journey also in Varro, De re rustica 1.1.1: “My 80th birthday warns me to pack my bags before I set forth from this life.” [16] Cicero, De senectute 19.71: et quasi poma ex arboribus, cruda si sunt, vix evelluntur, si matura et cocta, decidunt, sic vitam adulescentibus vis aufert, senibus maturitas; quae quidem mihi tam iucunda est, ut, quo propius ad mortem accedam, quasi terram videre videar aliquandoque in portum ex longa navigatione esse venturus. [17] Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” p. 27; Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” pp. 220–221. [18] Paulinus of Nola, Vita Sancti Ambrosii 47.3, Patrologia Latina 14:43 (Domini corpus, quo accepto, ubi glutivit, emisit spiritum, bonum viaticum secum ferens). The Eucharist for the dying was prescribed by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, but without using the term viaticum. Discussion in Frederick S. Paxton, Christianizing Death: The Creation of a Ritual Process in Early Medieval Europe (Cornell University Press 1990), p. 33. Paxton, along with other scholars he cites, holds that administering the Eucharist to the dying was already established practice in the 4th century; Éric Rebillard has argued that instances in the 3rd-4th centuries were exceptions, and that not until the 6th century was the viaticum administered on a regular basis (In hora mortis: Evolution de la pastorale chrétienne de la mort aux IV et V siècles dan l’Occident latin, École Française de Rome 1994). See also Paxton’s review of this work, American Historical Review 101 (1996) 1528. Those who view the practice as earlier think it was used as a Christian alternative to Charon’s obol; for those who hold that it is later, the viaticum is seen as widely administered only after it was no longer regarded as merely a disguised pre-Christian tradition. Further discussion under Christian transformation below. [19] Synodus Hibernensis (preserved in the 8th-century Collectio canonum Hibernensis), book 2, chapter 16 (p. 20 in the edition of Wasserschleben), cited in Smith, A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, p. 2014. [20] Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, part 3, question 73, article V, discussed in Benjamin Brand, "Viator ducens ad celestia: Eucharistic Piety, Papal Politics, and an Early Fifteenth-Century Motet”, Journal of Musicology 20 (2003), pp. 261–262, especially note 24; see also Claude Carozzi, “Les vivants et les morts de Saint Augustin à Julien de Tolède,” in Le voyage de l’âme dans l’Au-Delà d’après la littérature latine (Ve–XIIIe siècle), Collection de l’École Française de Rome 189 (Palais Farnèse, 1994), pp. 13–34 on Augustine. [21] Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entry on ἐφοδεία, pp. 745– 746. [22] Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” p. 27. [23] Original lekythos described by Arthur Fairbanks, Athenian Lekythoi with Outline Drawing in Matt Color on a White Ground (Macmillan, 1914), p. 85 online. [24] Susan T. Stevens, “Charon’s Obol”, p. 216. [25] Anthologia Palatina 7.67.1–6; see also 7.68, 11.168, 11.209. [26] Lucian, Charon 11. [27] Propertius, Book 4, elegy 11, lines 7–8. For underworld imagery in this poem, see Leo C. Curran, “Propertius 4.11: Greek Heroines and Death,” Classical Philology 63 (1968) 134–139. [28] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” pp. 216–223, for discussion and further examples. [29] Anthologia Palatina 7.67.1–6.

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[30] Because neither adult males (who were expected to be prepared to face immiment death in the course of military service) nor elderly women are represented, Charon’s gentler demeanor may be intended to ease the transition for those who faced an uexpected or untimely death. Full discussion in Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reading” Greek Death: To the End of the Classical Period (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 316 ﬀ., limited preview here. [31] Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reading” Greek Death, p. 316. [32] Lucian, On Funerals 10 (the dialogue also known as Of Mourning), in Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 218. [33] Lucian, Dialogs of the dead, 22.1 [34] W. Beare, "Tacitus on the Germans,” Greece & Rome 11 (1964), p. 74. [35] L.V. Grinsell, “The Ferryman and His Fee: A Study in Ethnology, Archaeology, and Tradition,” Folklore 68 (1957), pp. 264–268; J.M.C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World (JHU Press, 1996), p. 49; on the ambiguity of later evidence, Barbara J. Little, Text-aided Archaeology (CFC Press, 1991), p. 139; pierced Anglo-Saxon coins and their possible amuletic or magical function in burials, T.S.N. Moorhead, “Roman Bronze Coinage in Sub-Roman and Early Anglo-Saxon England,” in Coinage and History in the North Sea World, c. AD 500–1250: Essays in Honor of Marion Archibald (Brill, 2006), pp. 99–109. [36] Susan T. Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 225. [37] A. Destrooper-Georgiades, Témoignages des monnaies dans les cultes funéraires à Chypre à l’époque achéménide (Pl. I) (Paris: Gabalda, 2001), with English summary at CNRS’s Cat.inist catalogue. [38] For description of an example from Athens, see H.B. Walters, Catalogue of the Terracottas in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities (British Museum, 1903), p. 186. [39] David M. Robinson, “The Residential Districts and the Cemeteries at Olynthos,” American Journal of Archaeology 36 (1932), p. 125. [40] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” pp. 224–225; Morris, Death-Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, p. 106. [41] David Blackman, “Archaeology in Greece 1999–2000,” Archaeological Reports 46 (1999–2000), p. 149. [42] David Blackman, “Archaeology in Greece 1996–97,” Archaeological Reports 43 (1996–1997), pp. 80–81. [43] K. Tasntsanoglou and George M. Parássoglou, “Two Gold Lamellae from Thessaly,” Hellenica 38 (1987) 3–16. [44] The Reed Painter produced an example. [45] L.V. Grinsell, “The Ferryman and His Fee,” Folklore 68 (1957), p. 261; Keld Grinder-Hansen, “Charon’s Fee in Ancient Greece?" Acta Hyperborea 3 (1991), p. 210; Karen Stears, “Losing the Picture: Change and Continuity in Athenian Grave Monuments in the Fourth and Third Centuries B.C.,” in Word and Image in Ancient Greece, edited by N.K. Rutter and Brian A. Sparkes (Edinburgh University Press, 2000), p. 222. Examples of lekythoi depicting Charon described by Arthur Fairbanks, Athenian Lekythoi with Outline Drawing in Matt Color on a White Ground (New York: Macmillan, 1914), pp. 13–18, 29, 39, 86–88, 136–138, examples with coin described pp. 173–174 and 235. Example with coin also noted by Edward T. Cook, A Popular Handbook to the Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum (London 1903), pp. 370– 371. White-ground lekythos depicting Charon’s ferry and Hermes guiding a soul, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, image and discussion online and archived. Vase paintings from The Theoi Project: Charon by the Reed Painter; Charon by the Tymbos Painter; Charon and Hermes by the Sabouroﬀ Painter; Charon and Hermes Psychopomp. [46] K. Panayotova, "Apollonia Pontica: Recent Discoveries in the Necropolis,” in The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area (Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998), p. 103; for coins from the region, see Classical Numismatic Group, “The Gorgon Coinage of Apollonia Pontika.” [47] M. Vickers and A. Kakhidze, “The British-Georgian Excavation at Pichvnari 1998: The ‘Greek’ and ’Colchian’ Cemeteries,” Anatolian Studies 51 (2001), p. 66. [48] See Tamila Mgaloblishvili, Ancient Christianity in the Caucasus (Routledge, 1998), pp. 35–36. [49] A.D.H. Bivar, "Achaemenid Coins, Weights and Measures,” in The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge University Press, 1985), vol. 2, pp. 622–623, with citations on the archaeological evidence in note 5. [50] Encyclopaedia Iranica, “Death among Zoroastrians”, citing Mary Boyce and Frantz Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian and Roman Rule (Brill, 1991), pp. 66 and 191, and Mary Boyce, A Persian Stronghold of Zoroastrianism (Clarendon Press, 1977), p. 155.

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[51] Samuel R. Wolff, “Mortuary Practices in the Persian Period of the Levant,” Near Eastern Archaeology 65 (2002) p. 136, citing E. Lipiński, “Phoenician Cult Expressions in the Persian Period,” in Symbiosis, Symbolism and the Power of the Past: Canaan, Ancient Israel and Their Neighbors from the Late Bronze Age through Roman Palestinae (Eisenbrauns, 2003) 297–208. The tombs documented are located at Kamid el-Loz, Atlit, and Makmish (Tel Michal) in modern-day Israel. [52] Craig A. Evans, “Excavating Caiaphas, Pilate, and Simon of Cyrene: Assessing the Literary and Archaeological Evidence” in Jesus and Archaeology (Eerdmans Publishing, 2006), p. 329 online, especially note 13; Seth Schwartz, Imperialism and Jewish Society 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. (Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 156 online, especially note 97 and its interpretational caveat. [53] Craig A. Evans, Jesus and the Ossuaries (Baylor University Press, 2003), pp. 106–107. The allusion to Charon is cited as b. Mo'ed Qatan 28b. [54] Stephen McKenna, “Paganism and Pagan Survivals in Spain During the Fourth Century,” The Library of Iberian Resources Online, additional references note 39. [55] Blaise Pichon, L'Aisne (Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2002), p. 451. [56] Statistics collected from multiple sources by Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” pp. 223–226; statistics offered also by Keld GrinderHansen, “Charon’s Fee in Ancient Greece?,” Acta Hyperborea 3 (1991), pp. 210–213; see also G. Halsall, “The Origins of the Reihengräberzivilisation: Forty Years On,” in Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity? (Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 199ff. [57] Bonnie Effros, “Grave Goods and the Ritual Expression of Identity,” in From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms, edited by Thomas F. X. Noble (Routledge, 2006), pp. 204–205, citing Bailey K. Young, “Paganisme, christianisation et rites funéraires mérovingiens,” Archéologie médiévale 7 (1977) 46–49, limited preview online. [58] Märit Gaimster, “Scandinavian Gold Bracteates in Britain: Money and Media in the Dark Ages,” Medieval Archaeology 36 (1992), p. 7 [59] For a board game such as the Roman ludus latrunculorum, Irish fidchell, or Germanic tafl games. [60] David A. Hinton, Gold and Gilt, Pots and Pins: Possessions and People in Medieval Britain (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 32–33. [61] Märit Gaimster, “Scandinavian Gold Bracteates in Britain,” Medieval Archaeology 36 (1992), pdf here; see also Morten Axboe and Anne Kromann, "DN ODINN P F AUC? Germanic ‘Imperial Portraits’ on Scandinavian gold bracteates,” Acta Hyperborea 4 (1992). [62] Gareth Williams, “The Circulation and Function of Coinage in Conversion-Period England,” in Coinage and History in the North Sea World, c. AD 500–1250 (Brill, 2006), pp. 147–179, especially p. 178, citing Philip Grierson, “The Purpose of the Sutton Hoo Coins,” Antiquity 44 (1970) 14–18; Philip Grierson and Mark Blackburn, Medieval European Coinage: The Early Middle Ages (5th–10th Centuries) (Cambridge University Press, 2007), vol. 1, pp. 124–125, noting that “not all scholars accept this view"; British Museum, “Gold coins and ingots from the ship-burial at Sutton Hoo,” image of coin hoard here; further discussion by Alan M. Stahl, “The Nature of the Sutton Hoo Coin Parcel,” in Voyage to the Other World: The Legacy of Sutton Hoo (University of Minnesota Press, 1992), p. 9ff. [63] Lucian, “Dialogues of the Dead” 22; A.L.M. Cary, “The Appearance of Charon in the Frogs,” Classical Review 51 (1937) 52–53, citing the description of Furtwängler, Archiv für Religionswissenschaft 1905, p. 191. [64] Signe Horn Fuglesang, “Viking and Medieval Amulets in Scandinavia,” Fornvännen 84 (1989), p. 22, with citations, full text here. [65] Marcus Louis Rautman, Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006), p. 11. [66] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 226; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist: A Process of Mutual Interaction (Leiden 1995), p. 103, with documentation in note 8; Ramsay MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries (Yale University Press, 1997), sources given p. 218, note 20; in Christian graves of 4th-century Gaul, Bonnie Effros, Creating Community with Food and Drink in Merovingian Gaul (Macmillan, 2002), p. 82; on the difficulty of distinguishing Christian from traditional burials in 4th-century Gaul, Mark J. Johnson, “Pagan-Christian Burial Practices of the Fourth Century: Shared Tombs?" Journal of Early Christian Studies 5 (1997) 37–59. [67] Blaise Pichon, L’Aisne (Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2002), p. 95. [68] L. V. Grinsell, “The Ferryman and His Fee” in Folklore 68 (1957), pp. 265 and 268. [69] Ronald Burn, “Folklore from Newmarket, Cambridgeshire” in Folklore 25 (1914), p. 365.

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[70] Thomas Pekáry, "Mors perpetua est. Zum Jenseitsglauben in Rom” in Laverna 5 (1994), p. 96, cited by Ramsay MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries (Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 218 (note 20) and 268. The way in which coinage was included in the burial is unclear in MacMullen’s reference. [71] Grabka, “Christian Viaticum”, p. 13, with extensive references; Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (D. Stott, 1892), 2nd edition, p. 126. [72] L.V. Grinsell, “The Ferryman and His Fee,” Folklore 68 (1957), p. 263. [73] Cedric G. Boulter, “Graves in Lenormant Street, Athens,” Hesperia 32 (1963), pp. 115 and 126, with other examples cited. On gold wreaths as characteristic of burial among those practicing the traditional religions, Minucius Felix, Octavius 28.3–4, cited by Mark J. Johnson, “Pagan-Christian Burial Practices of the Fourth Century: Shared Tombs?" Journal of Early Christian Studies 5 (1997), p. 45. [74] T.J. Dunbabin, “Archaeology in Greece, 1939–45,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 64 (1944), p. 80. [75] Roy Kotansky, “Incantations and Prayers for Salvation on Inscribed Greek Amulets,” in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, edited by Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk Obbink (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 116. The Getty Museum owns an outstanding example of a 4th-century BC Orphic prayer sheet from Thessaly, a gold-leaf rectangle measuring about 1 by 1½ inches (2.54 by 3.81 cm), that may be viewed online. [76] Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, Ritual Texts for the Afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets (Routledge, 2007) p. 26 online p. 28 online, and pp. 32, 44, 46, 162, 214. [77] D.R. Jordan, “The Inscribed Gold Tablet from the Vigna Codini,” American Journal of Archaeology 89 (1985) 162–167, especially note 32; additional description by Campbell Bonner, “An Obscure Inscription on a Gold Tablet,” Hesperia 13 (1944) 30–35. [78] Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Lebanon, Baalbek-Douris. [79] J.-B. Chabot, Chronique de Michel le Syrien, Patriarque jacobite d’Antioche (1166–99), vol. 4 (Paris 1910), cited and discussed by Susanna Elm, "‘Pierced by Bronze Needles’: Anti-Montanist Charges of Ritual Stigmatization in Their FourthCentury Context,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 4 (1996), p. 424. [80] This point was argued by Maria Guarducci, in Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia 15 (1939) 87ff, as referenced by Marcus N. Tod, “The Progress of Greek Epigraphy, 1941–1945,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 65 (1945), p. 89. [81] The text is problematic and suffers from some corruption; Maurice P. Cunningham, “Aurelii Prudentii Clementis Carmina”, Corpus Christianorum 126 (Turnholt, 1966), p. 367. [82] Prudentius, Peristephanon 10.1071–90; discussion in Susanna Elm, “Pierced by Bronze Needles,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 4 (1996), p. 423. [83] Reported by Reuters with photo, “Greece unearths treasures at Alexander's birthplace,” and by the Associated Press, “Greek archaeologists unearth jewelry in cemetery,” both retrieved via Yahoo! News on October 5, 2008. AP report via National Geographic archived here with photo; additional photos with Ryan Kiesel’s article, “Greek dig unearths secrets of Alexander the Great’s golden era,” Mail Online September 11, 2008, archived here. [84] The British Museum has an example. [85] Bonnie Effros, Caring for Body and Soul: Burial and the Afterlife in the Merovingian World (Penn State Press, 2002), pp. 48 and 158, with additional references in note 78. [86] T.S.N. Moorhead, “Roman Bronze Coinage in Sub-Roman and Early Anglo-Saxon England,” in Coinage and History in the North Sea World, c. AD 500–1250 (Brill, 2006), pp. 100–101. [87] See “Belluno grave group,” British Museum, for a Lombardic example, also archived. [88] Herbert Schutz, Tools, Weapons, and Ornaments: Germanic Material Culture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400–750 (Brill, 2001), p. 98 online, with photographic examples figure 54 online. [89] Märit Gaimster, “Scandinavian Gold Bracteates in Britain,” Medieval Archaeology 36 (1992), pp. 20–21. [90] Museum of London, “Treasure of a Saxon King of Essex: A Recent Discovery at Southend-on-Sea,” with image of gold crosses here. [91] Museum of London, “Treasure of a Saxon King of Essex,” English glass vessels here and Merovingian gold coins here.

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[92] Gareth Williams, “The Circulation and Function of Coinage in Conversion-Period England, c. AD 580–675,” in Coinage and History in the North Sea World, c. AD 500–1250 (Brill, 2006), pp. 166–167; fuller discussion of the Christian practice by Mary Margaret Fulghum, “Coins Used as Amulets in Late Antiquity,” in Between Magic and Religion: Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Mediterranean Religion and Society (Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), pp. 139–148 online. [93] Signe Horn Fuglesang, “Viking and Medieval Amulets in Scandinavia,” Fornvännen 84 (1989), pp. 18–19, figures with examples pp. 20–22. [94] Sharon Ratke, Guldgubbe — Einblicke in die Völkerwanderungszeit (Dissertation, University of Bonn, 2009), English summary p. 229, and abstract. [95] Sharon Radke and Rudolf Simek, “Gullgubber: Relics of Pre-Christian Law Rituals?,” in Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives: Origins, Changes, and Interactions (Nordic Academic Press, 2006), pp, 262–263 (see also “Interpretations” online. [96] Marion Lawrence, “Ships, Monsters and Jonah,” American Journal of Archaeology 66 (1962), p. 291, note 9. [97] John Cuthbert Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion: A Study in Survivals (Cambridge University Press, 1910), p. 108. [98] See, for instance, article on the Egyptian god Aken. [99] Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” pp. 2–3. Influence can be hard to establish or disprove; Raymond A. Dart, “Death Ships in South West Africa and South-East Asia,” South African Archaeological Bulletin 17 (1962) 231–234, thought it possible that African carved “ships of the dead” were influenced by Egyptian beliefs or even the concept of Charon’s ferry. To illustrate the difficulty of establishing influence, the discovery of an 8th-century BC stele in present-day Turkey, announced in November 2008, is regarded as indicating the “dynamics of cultural contact and exchange in the borderlands of antiquity where Indo-European and Semitic people interacted in the Iron Age”, as reported by John Noble Wilford, “Found: An Ancient Monument to the Soul,” New York Times (November 18, 2008), online. [100] Bruce Lincoln, “The Ferryman of the Dead,” Journal of Indo-European Studies 8 (1980) p. 41; Lincoln’s purpose at the time was to establish the centum-satem bifurcation of the Proto-Indo-European ferryman mytheme, and he does not discuss payment of a fee. For a very concise summary on the Indo-European afterlife, see Benjamin W. Fortson IV, “The Afterlife,” in Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 25. [101] Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reading” Greek Death, p. 313. [102] Diodorus Siculus, 1.92.2 and 1.96.8; so too Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” pp. 2–3; skepticism from Bruce Lincoln, “The Ferryman of the Dead,” Journal of Indo-European Studies 8 (1980), p. 41. [103] L.V. Grinsell, “The Ferryman and His Fee,” Folklore 68 (1957), pp. 258–261. [104] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 227. [105] See Friedrich Solmsen, “Greek Ideas of the Hereafter in Virgil’s Roman Epic,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 112 (1968) 8–14, especially pp. 9–11 on cautions regarding the “Orphic” label; more extended discussion by Radcliffe G. Edmonds III, Myths of the Underworld Journey: Plato, Aristophanes, and the ‘Orphic’ Gold Tablets (Cambridge University Press, 2004), limited preview here. [106] Franz Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism: Lectures Delivered at Yale University as the Silliman lectures (Yale University Press, 1922), p. 84. [107] Keld Grinder-Hansen, “Charon’s Fee in Ancient Greece?" Acta Hyperborea 3 (1991), p. 215. [108] Plato, Cratylus 403a. The interpretation is expressed by Socrates as one of the interlocutors. The Cratylus deals extensively with etymology. [109] In antiquity, the most common etymology was a mercibus, from merces (“merchandise”); see Michael Paschalis, Virgil’s Aeneid (Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 58 online. In De civitate Dei, St. Augustine proposes an etymology from medius currens, “running in the middle,” explaining that “language 'runs’ like a sort of mediator between men'"; cited by Antoine Faivre, The Eternal Hermes (Red Wheel/Weiser, 1995), p. 82 online. [110] Diti patri … qui dives ut apud Graecos Πλούτων (“Father Dis who, being rich, is Pluto among the Greeks”), De natura deorum 2.66. [111] E.J. Kenney, text, translation and commentary, Cupid and Psyche (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 214. [112] H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion, vol. 2 (Brill, 1993), p. 175 et passim.

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[113] Susan Savage, “Remotum a Notitia Vulgari,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 76 (1945) p. 164, note 38. [114] H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion, vol. 2 (Brill, 1993), p. 168, with reference to Hendrik Wagenvoort, “Diva Angerona,” Mnemosyne 9 (1941) 215–217 and (1980) 21–24, reprinted in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980) online. [115] Eva Fiesel, “Etruscan ancar,” Language (1935) 122–128, argued for an Etruscan etymology for the goddess’s name from ancar, “wealth,” but this is a minority view. [116] Dionysius Halicarnassus 4.15.5; Plutarch, Roman Questions 23; Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 409; Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1998, 2001), p. 166. [117] Ennius, Acherontem nunc obibo, ubi mortis thesauri obiacent (“I will cross the Acheron, where the treasuries of death lie hidden”), from the lost tragedy Iphigenia; the line is spoken by the protagonist as she faces the prospect of becoming a human sacrifice. The phrase “treasures of Death” is original to the Latin poet’s elaboration of his Greek model; see Eduard Fraenkel, Plautine Elements in Plautus, translated by Tomas Drevikovsky and Frances Muecke (Oxford University Press, 2007; originally published in German 1922), p. 121 online. [118] See entry on “Lacus Curtius” from Platner and Ashby, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Bill Thayer’s edition with photos at LacusCurtius. [119] Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, A Commentary on Livy Books 1–5 (Oxford 1965), pp. 75–76. Like a mundus, a tomb was also regarded as an opening between the realms death and life: Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 228; Daniel Ogden, Greek and Roman Necromancy (Princeton University Press, 2001) passim. [120] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 228. [121] “The Gauls assert that they are all progeny of Father Dis and they say this is handed down by the druids" (Galli se omnes ab Dite patre prognatos praedicant idque ab druidibus proditum dicunt, Bellum Gallicum 6.18.1). The 19th-century Celticist John Rhys was an early proponent of Cernunnos in this role — his view is summarized in Harold Peake, “Horned Deities,” Man 22 (1922), pp. 28–29 — but other candidates are Sucellus, the god depicted with a mallet or olla, and Teutates; see Phyllis Fray Bober, “Cernunnos: Origin and Transformation of a Celtic Divinity,” American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951) 13–51. [122] Émile Espérandieu, Recueil général des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Gaule romaine (Paris 1910), no. 3653. [123] Miranda J. Green, “God in Man’s Image: Thoughts on the Genesis and Affiliations of Some Romano-British Cult-Imagery,” Britannia 29 (1998), p. 27; Phyllis Fray Bober, “Cernunnos: Origin and Transformation of a Celtic Divinity,” American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951) 13–51; Harold Peake, “Horned Deities,” Man 22 (1922), p. 28. [124] Miranda J. Green, “God in Man’s Image,” Britannia 29 (1998), p. 23, with reference to G.C. Boon, “A Coin with the Head of the Cernunnos,” Seaby Coin and Medal Bulletin 769 (1982) 276–282. Since religious iconography is common on coins, this is perhaps not strong evidence for Cernunnos as a god of wealth. [125] John T. Koch, Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2005), p. 856 online; also F. Kaul, “Gundestrup,” in Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde (de Gruyter, 1999), vol. 13, p. 201 online. [126] Julius Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 4.13–14; Pomponius Mela, Chorographia 3.2.18; Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras 30; Valerius Maximus, 2.6.10–11; Lucan, Bellum Civile 1.453ff and 448ff. and scholiast; Diodorus Siculus 5.28; Strabo 4.4.4. [127] For initiation and the Gundestrup Cauldron, see Kim R. McCone, "Werewolves, Cyclopes, Díberga, and Fíanna: Juvenile Delinquency in Early Ireland,” Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 12 (1986) 1–22. [128] Jonathan Williams, “Religion and Roman Coins,” in A Companion to Roman Religion, edited by Jörg Rüpke (Blackwell Publishing, 2007), p. 143. [129] John K. Davies, “Temples, Credit, and the Circulation of Money,” in Money and Its Uses in the Ancient Greek World (Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 120 online. See also Michael Vickers, “Golden Greece: Relative Values, Minae, and Temple Inventories,” American Journal of Archaeology 94 (1990) 613–625. [130] Erwin Rohde, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks (Routledge 1925; republished 2000), pp. 245–246 online. [131] Richard Seaford, “Reading Money: Leslie Kurke on the Politics of Meaning in Ancient Greece,” Arion 9 (2002) 145– 165, introducing ideas developed in Money and the Early Greek Mind: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 2004).

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[132] Plato, Republic 417a and 416e. [133] Richard Seaford, “Reading Money,” Arion 9 (2002), p. 163. [134] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 220. [135] Richard Seaford, Money and the Early Greek Mind: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 143, 150, 259, 284, 306–308, limited preview online. [136] John Cuthbert Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp. 108– 114. [137] Stevens, “Charon’s Obol,” p. 221. [138] For discussion, see the article on Vampires, particularly "Creating vampires" and "Protection.” [139] Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt (Cincinnati Art Museum, 1996), p. 74 online. [140] Pierre Lombard, “Jewellery and Goldware,” in Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain 2500 BC-300 AD: An Exhibition at the Brunei Gallery, Thornhaugh Street, London WC1, 12 July-15 September 2000 (I.B. Tauris, 2000), p. 180. These are viewable online. [141] Discussed at length by John Cuthbert Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1910), pp. 108–114. Rituals for communicating with the dead or by means of the dead discussed passim by Daniel Ogden, Greek and Roman Necromancy (Princeton University Press, 2001). See also Keld Grinder-Hansen, “Charon’s Fee in Ancient Greece?" Acta Hyperborea 3 (1991), p. 215. Eric A. Ivison presented the paper “Charon’s Obol or Apotropaic Talisman? Coins in medieval Byzantine Graves” at a round table on ritual and ceremony during the International Byzantine Congress, held August 2001 in Paris. For silence in religious ceremonies of antiquity, particularly the mysteries, see N.J. Richardson, The Homeric Hymn to Demeter (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), on 2.478–9 as cited by E.J. Kenney, text, translation and commentary, Cupid and Psyche (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 214, referring to Apuleius, Metamorphoses 6.18, below. [142] Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1051 (“Rites they to none betray, /Ere on his lips is laid / Secrecy’s golden key / By their own acolytes, / Priestly Eumolpidae,” in the 1912 translation of F. Storr), as cited by Jane Ellen Harrison, introduction to Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, a translation of Pausanias by Margaret de G. Verrall (London, 1890), pp. liv–lv. [143] Robert Turcan, Les religions de l'Asie dans la vallée du Rhône (Brill, 1972), p. 26. [144] Sophia Papaioannou, “Charite’s Rape, Psyche on the Rock and the Parallel Function of Marriage in Apuleius’ Metamorphoses,” Mnemosyne 51 (1998), pp. 302–303, citing G.B. Conte, History of Latin Literature (Chapel Hill 1994); R. Merkelbach, Roman und Mysterium in der Antike (Munich and Berlin 1962); and P.G. Walsh, The Roman Novel: The Satyricon of Petronius and the Metamorphoses of Apuleius (Cambridge 1970); see also R. Thibau, “Les Métamorphoses d’Apulée et la théorie platonicienne de l’Erôs,” Studia Philosophica Gandensia 3 (1965) 89–144. [145] Eva Keuls, “Mystery Elements in Menander’s Dyscolus,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 100 (1969), pp. 214–215, further citations in notes 26 and 27. The cameo is in the collections of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, information online. [146] C. Moreschini, “La demonologia medioplatonica et le Metamorfosi di Apuleio,” Maia 17 (1965) 30–46, cited by Carl Schlam, “Platonica in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 (1970), pp. 477–478, note 2. [147] Cakes were often offerings to the gods, particularly in Eleusinian religion; cakes of barley meal moistened with honey, called prokonia (προκώνια), were offered to Demeter and Kore at the time of first harvest. See Allaire Brumfield, “Cakes in the liknon: Votives from the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth,” Hesperia 66 (1997) 147–172. [148] “Stitched” = sutilis, used also by Vergil to describe Charon’s boat; Lionel Casson, “Sewn Boats (Virgil, Aen. vi.413–14),” Classical Review 13 (1963) 257–259. Disagreeing with those who say the boat was either woven of plant material or sewn from hides (see article on the historical kayak), Casson compares boats made of sewn planks as documented in antiquity from Mediterranean Africa and elsewhere. [149] On greed among the dead, see also Vergil, Georgics 2.492, “the loud roar of greedy Acheron"; also Statius, Thebaid 4.474, “realms of insatiable Death.” [150] Apuleius, Metamorphoses 6.18, Latin text at the Latin Library. [151] Helen King, review of Charon and the Crossing: Ancient, Medieval and Renaissance Transformations of a Myth by Ronnie H. Terpening (Associated University Presses, 1985), in Classical Review 36 (1986) 355–356.

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[152] James M. Redfield, The Locrian Maidens: Love and Death in Greek Italy (Princeton University Press, 2003), p. 375 online. [153] An example was found in the Macedonian warrior burials reported in 2008, and may be viewed online. [154] British Museum, “Terracotta funerary urn.” [155] Review of textual and archaeological evidence by Rachel Hachlili and Ann Killebrew, “Was the Coin-on-Eye Custom a Jewish Burial Practice in the Second Temple Period?" Biblical Archaeologist 46 (1983) 147–153; also Rachel Hachlili, Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period (Brill, 2005), pp. 437–443, especially p. 440. Regarding the coins found by Hachlili, this emphatic denial: “Nothing suggests that the coins as found by her were originally put upon the eyelids of the corpse, nor does such a custom exist at the time at all,” in a letter to the editor by L.Y. Rahmani, chief curator of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums, Biblical Archaeologist 43 (1980), p. 197, and “Roman Coins and the Shroud,” Biblical Archaeologist 45 (1982) 6–7. [156] William Meacham, “On the Archaeological Evidence for a Coin-on-Eye Jewish Burial Custom in the First Century A.D.,” Biblical Archaeologist 49 (1986) 56–59, citing evidence from the Shroud of Turin and offering a detailed critique of the methodology and interpretations presented by Hachlili and Killibrew; rejoinder by Hachlili and Killebrew, “The Coinin-Skull Affair,” pp. 59–60, dismissing the question of the shroud and stressing Meacham’s “misunderstanding of the archaeological data"; additional argument by L.Y. Rahmani, "‘Whose Likeness and Inscription Is This?’ (Mark 12:16),” pp. 60–61. See Shroud of Turin#Image analysis. [157] Rachel Hachlili and Ann Killebrew, “Was the Coin-on-Eye Custom a Jewish Burial Practice in the Second Temple Period?" Biblical Archaeologist 46 (1983), p. 151. [158] John Chrysostom, Instructions to Catechumens, Second Instruction 171, Christian Classics Ethereal Library edition online; discussed by Mary Margaret Fulghum, “Coins Used as Amulets in Late Antiquity,” in Between Magic and Religion (Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), p. 144. [159] Guillaume de Deguileville, Le Pelerinage de la vie humaine, translated by Eugene Clasby (New York 1992), p. 45, in Benjamin Brand, "Viator ducens ad celestia: Eucharistic Piety, Papal Politics, and an Early Fifteenth-Century Motet,” Journal of Musicology 20 (2003), p. 263. [160] G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist: A Process of Mutual Interaction (Leiden 1995), pp. 94–95. [161] The hunter as a figure of myth (such as Orion and Actaeon) and of folklore and fairy tale (as in "The Water of Life,” "Donkey Cabbages,” and "Snow White") has a vast literature; see also the Wild Hunt, especially Leader of the Wild Hunt. [162] David Crouch, “The Troubled Deathbeds of Henry I’s Servants: Death, Confession, and Secular Conduct in the Twelfth Century,” Albion 34 (2002), p. 28, citing L'Estoire des Engleis, ed. A. Bell (Anglo-Norman Text Society 1960), book 2, lines 6329–40. [163] Frank Barlow, William Rufus (Yale University Press, 2nd ed. 2000), p. 420 online. On the season, see The Master of Game by Edward, Second Duke of York: The Oldest English Book on Hunting, ed. W.A. and F. Baillie-Grohman, with a foreword by Theodore Roosevelt (New York: 1909), p. 215 online. [164] Sarah Kay, “The Life of the Dead Body: Death and the Sacred in the chansons de geste,” Yale French Studies 86 (1994), p. 98. René Girard himself has stated that his work shows “that Judaism and Christianity exist in a continuity with archaic religions” (interview with Grant Kaplan, First Things: The Journal of Religion, Culture, and Public Life, November 6, 2008, online and archived). [165] Trois fuelles d’erbe … /… por corpus domini: Raoul de Cambrai, lines 8257-8258, edited and translated by Sarah Kay (Oxford University Press 1992), pp. 490–491. [166] The religious significance of the boar in the traditional religions of Europe is evidenced by frequent boar imagery in the Celtic art of Iron-Age Europe, for which see John T. Koch, Celtic Culture: An Historical Encyclopedia, vol. 1 (ABC-Clio, 2006), pp. 218–219, and in Greco-Roman myths of boar hunting, particularly the death of Adonis. See also articles on the Calydonian Boar and the Erymanthian Boar. [167] Daurel et Beton, edited by Arthur S. Kimmel, Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures 108 (University of North Carolina Press, 1971), line 428, as cited by Sarah Kay, “The Life of the Dead Body,” Yale French Studies 86 (1994), p. 98. [168] Garin le Loheren, edited by Josephine Elvira Vallerie (Michigan, 1947), line 10313ff., especially line 10621, as cited by Sarah Kay, “The Life of the Dead Body,” Yale French Studies 86 (1994), pp. 98–99. [169] For example, J.H.G. Grattan and Charles Singer, Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine. Illustrated Specially from the SemiPagan Text Lacnunga (Oxford University Press, 1952); Felix Grendon, Anglo-Saxon Charms (Folcroft Library, 1974), passim (Grendon is most interested, however, in the interpenetration of Christian elements and traditional magic); Anne van Arsdall, Medieval Herbal Remedies: The Old English Herbarium and Anglo-Saxon Medicine (Routledge, 2002), p.

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52ff., with cautions about disentangling various strands of the magical tradition; Karen Louise Jolly, “Locating the Charms: Medicine, Liturgy, and Folklore,” in Popular Religion in Late Saxon England (University of North Caroline Press, 1996), p. 96ff. [170] Greek Magical Papyri IV.2140–44; Daniel Ogden, Greek and Roman Necromancy (Princeton University Press 2001), pp. 211–215. [171] J.A. MacCullough, The Mythology of All Races: Celtic and Slavic (Boston 1918), vol. 3, p. 60 online, says the story demonstrates “how the memory of the Tuatha Dé Danann and their powers survived into later centuries.” [172] For translations, see Standish H. O'Grady, Silva gadelica (I–XXXI) (London 1892), pp. 311–324 full text online, or the less archaizing Lady Gregory, Part I Book IV: Manannan at Play, from Gods and Fighting Men (1904), Sacred Texts edition online. [173] Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” pp. 1–43; A. Rush, Death and Burial in Christian Antiquity (Washington, D.C. 1941), pp. 93–94; Frederick S. Paxton, Christianizing Death (Cornell University Press 1990), pp. 32–33; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), passim, but especially pp. 103 and 122–124; Paul Binski, Medieval Death: Ritual and Representation (Cornell University Press 1996), p. 32; J. Patout Burns, “Death and Burial in Christian Africa: The Literary Evidence,” paper delivered to the North American Patristics Society, May 1997; et al. [174] Gavin I. Langmuir, “The Tortures of the Body of Christ,” in Christendom and Its Discontents (Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 298. Content advisory: the story has an anti-Semitic theme, as the moneybox belonged to a Jew who was persuaded consequently to convert. [175] William Hurd, A New Universal History of the Religious Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs of the Whole World … together with the History of the Reformed Churches (Blackburn 1799), p. 552. [176] For example, Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” pp. 25ff.; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), pp. 103 and 122–124; Tamila Mgaloblishvili, Ancient Christianity in the Caucasus (Routledge, 1998), p. 35. [177] The Diocesan Synod of Auxerre (561–605), for instance, banned the burying of the eucharistic wafer with the dead; see Bonnie Effros, Caring for Body and Soul (Penn State Press, 2002), p. 45. [178] Grabka, “Christian Viaticum,” pp. 25-38, and on administering the rite to those already dead pp. 38–42; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), pp. 103, 122–124; Edward T. Cook, A Popular Handbook to the Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum (London 1903), pp. 370–371. [179] J. Patout Burns, “Death and Burial in Christian Africa,” paper delivered to the North American Patristics Society, May 1997. [180] Bonnie Effros, Caring for Body and Soul (Penn State Press, 2002), p. 45; Effros uses the functional term “viaticum”, but the Latin has dominicum corpus (p. 45, note 12). See also Ernest Babelon, entry on “Danaké,” Traité des monnaies grecques et romaines, vol. 1 (Paris: Leroux, 1901), pp. 514–518. [181] D. Sicard, “Christian Death,” in The Sacraments, edited by Robert Cabié, Aime G. Martimort, et al., translated by Matthew O’Connell (Liturgical Press, 1988), p. 227; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), p. 117. [182] Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 6.44; Richard E. DeMaris, “Corinthian Religion and Baptism for the Dead (1 Corinthians 15:29): Insights from Archaeology and Anthropology,” Journal of Biblical Literature 114 (1995), p. 672. [183] “Saint Ambrose of Milan,” general audience, St. Peter’s Square, October 24, 2007. [184] Theodore Balsamon, Patrologia Graeca 137, 794; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), p. 124. [185] Radulfus Niger, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores rerum Germanicarum 27, 336: Quo mortuo, sedit ad exequias eius mulier iussu demonum, ut dictum est, prestolans eripere viaticum corporis Domini de ore eius; G.J.C. Snoek, Medieval Piety from Relics to the Eucharist (Leiden 1995), p. 124, and p. 374 for more apotropaic devices against Satan. See also Bonnie Effros, Caring for Body and Soul (Penn State Press, 2002), p. 198: “The receipt of the viaticum by the dying was believed to counter the influence of the devil as the soul passed into eternity.” [186] So too the metaphor of the soul’s food in the account of Ambrose’s death, as emphasized by Pope Benedict, and St. Thomas Aquinas’s reference to the “fruit of God.” [187] 1 Corinthians 15:29. [188] C.F.G. Heinrici, Das erste Sendschreiben des Apostel Paulus an die Korinthier (Berlin 1880), pp. 42–43; James Downey, “1 Cor 15:29 and the Theology of Baptism,” Euntes Docete 38 (1985), pp. 23–25 and 34–35; cited by Richard E. DeMaris, “Corinthian Religion and Baptism for the Dead,” Journal of Biblical Literature 114 (1995), p. 676.

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[189] Richard E. DeMaris, “Corinthian Religion and Baptism for the Dead,” Journal of Biblical Literature 114 (1995) 661–682; Mark J. Johnson, “Pagan-Christian Burial Practices of the Fourth Century,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 5 (1997), p. 43. Scholars do not maintain that Christians “borrowed” the rite of communion for the dying from earlier religious practice; the point is more specifically that the communion wafer itself might be used (or misused) in a manner influenced by Charon’s obol and the lamellae. [190] Charon and Psyche is privately owned; published images show two different orientations, with Charon either on the left with his left hand extended, as he is commonly depicted on the lekythoi, or on the right. [191] Examples. [192] See Modern poetry following. [193] Nic Peeters and Judy Oberhausen, “L’Arte della memoria: John Roddam Spencer Stanhope and the Tomb of His Daughter Mary,” from Marble Silence, Words on Stone: Florence’s English Cemetery, The City and the Book III International Conference 3–5 June 2004, online; Simon Poë, “Mythology and Symbolism in Two Works of Roddam Spencer Stanhope’s Maturity,” Journal of Pre-Raphaelite Studies 12 (2003) 35–61. [194] Stanhope’s father, also named John, was an explorer and antiquarian, and it is possible that the artist had firsthand knowledge of the archaic Charon from the artifacts his father brought home; see Charles Waldstein, “Discoveries at Plataia in 1890, I. General Report on the Excavations,” American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts 6 (1890), p. 445. [195] Viewable online. [196] The Modern Myths exhibition was on view at MJ Higgins gallery in Los Angeles (opening April 7, 2007) and at the Gray Area Gallery in San Francisco (opening May 4, 2007). Artist’s statement online, also archived. [197] Quand Don Juan descendit vers l'onde souterraine / Et lorsqu'il eut donné son obole à Charon … (“Don Juan aux enfers,” lines 1–2). Dual language edition of the poem in French and English online. [198] Published in North (Oxford University Press, 1976). Text of Singing School online. [199] Jonathan Allison, " 'Friendship’s Garland' and the manuscripts of Seamus Heaney’s 'Fosterage',” Yearbook of English Studies 2005 online.

26.9 Further reading • Grabka, Gregory (1953). “Christian Viaticum: A Study of Its Cultural Background”. Traditio. 9 (1): 1–43. JSTOR 27830271. • Morris, Ian (1992). Death-ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37465-0. • Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane (1996). “Reading” Greek Death: To the End of the Classical Period. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815069-5. • Stevens, Susan T. (1991). “Charon’s Obol and Other Coins in Ancient Funerary Practice”. Phoenix. 45 (3): 215–229. doi:10.2307/1088792.

26.9. FURTHER READING

The satirist Lucian of Samosata

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On this white-ground lekythos (ca. 450 BC), Hermes prepares a woman for her journey to the afterlife

26.9. FURTHER READING

Ancient Jewish ossuaries sometimes contain a single coin

147

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Germanic bracteate from the island of Funen, Denmark, with a runic inscription referring to the god Odin

26.9. FURTHER READING

149

Ornamental lid of the purse-hoard from the Sutton Hoo ship burial, containing coins perhaps intended to pay the oarsmen to the otherworld

150

Coin (450s BC) stamped with the owl of Athens

CHAPTER 26. CHARONâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S OBOL

26.9. FURTHER READING

151

Gold-leaf oval stamped with female head, from a Roman-era burial in Douris, Lebanon (Deutsches ArchĂ¤ologisches Institut)

A tremissis of Julius Nepos with cross on reverse (5th century)

152

Gullgubber, gold-foil images from Scandinavia (6th–7th century)

CHAPTER 26. CHARON’S OBOL

26.9. FURTHER READING

Dionysus and Ploutos (“Wealth”) with the horn of abundance, 4th century BC

153

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The horned god Cernunnos holding his sack of abundance (food, or coins?), ďŹ&#x201A;anked by Apollo and Mercury, with a bull and stag below; the creature in the pediment above is a rat.

26.9. FURTHER READING

Earthenware uadjet

155

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Psyche Opening the Golden Box (1903) by the pre-Raphaelite artist John William Waterhouse

26.9. FURTHER READING

Fourth-century pendant with the image of Alexander the Great (Walters Art Museum)

157

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The questing or hunting knight risked dying without a viaticum (engraving by Dürer, Knight, Death and the Devil)

26.9. FURTHER READING

159

Contrary to Church doctrine, the communion wafer was sometimes placed in the mouth of those already dead as a viaticum for the journey

160

Charon and Psyche (detail) by John Roddam Spencer Stanhope.[190]

CHAPTER 26. CHARONâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S OBOL

Chapter 27

Psychopomp This article is about the psychopomp in religion, mythology and psychology. For the song, see Psychopomp (song). “Psychopomps” redirects here. For the Danish band, see Psychopomps (band). Psychopomps (from the Greek word ψυχοπομπός, psuchopompos, literally meaning the “guide of souls”)[1] are creatures, spirits, angels, or deities in many religions whose responsibility is to escort newly deceased souls from Earth to the afterlife. Their role is not to judge the deceased, but simply to provide safe passage. Appearing frequently on funerary art, psychopomps have been depicted at diﬀerent times and in diﬀerent cultures as anthropomorphic entities, horses, deer, dogs, whip-poor-wills, ravens, crows, owls, sparrows and cuckoos. When seen as birds, they are often seen in huge masses, waiting outside the home of the dying.

27.1 Overview Classical examples of a psychopomp are the ancient Egyptian god Anubis, the Greek ferryman Charon[1] and deities Hermes and Hecate, the Roman god Mercury, and the Etruscan deity Vanth. The form of Shiva as Tarakeshwara in Hinduism performs a similar role, although leading the soul to moksha rather than an afterlife. In many beliefs, a spirit being taken to the underworld is violently ripped from its body.[2] In the Persian tradition, Daena, the Zoroastrian Self-guide, appears as a beautiful young maiden to those who deserve to cross the Chinvat Bridge or a hideous old hag to those who don’t.[3] In Judaism and Islam, Azrael plays the role of the angel of death who carries the soul up to the heavens.[4] In Jungian psychology, the psychopomp is a mediator between the unconscious and conscious realms. It is symbolically personified in dreams as a wise man or woman, or sometimes as a helpful animal. In many cultures, the shaman also fulfills the role of the psychopomp. This may include not only accompanying the soul of the dead, but also to help at birth, to introduce the newborn child’s soul to the world.[5](p36) This also accounts for the contemporary title of “midwife to the dying”, or “End of Life Doula”, which is another form of psychopomp work. In Filipino culture, dead relations function as psychopomps. When the dying call out to specific dead persons (e.g. parents, partners), the spirits of the latter are supposedly visible to the former. The spirits, who traditionally wait at the foot of the deathbed, fetch (Tagalog: sundô) the soul soon after death and escort it into the afterlife. The most common contemporary example of a psychopomp appearing in popular culture is the Grim Reaper, which dates from 15th-century England and has been adopted into many other cultures around the world over the years; for instance, the shinigami in Japanese culture today.[lower-alpha 1]

27.2 Notes [1] Exempliﬁed by the popular manga and TV drama series Death Note

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27.3 References [1] "ψυχοπομπός - Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott A Greek-English Lexicon”. Perseus.tufts.edu. [2] “The Mercury-Woden Complex: - A Proposal”, p. 27 [3] Zoroastrianism After Life. Zoroastrian Funeral. Accessed: March 2017. [4] “Death, Angel Of - JewishEncyclopedia.com”. jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2017-02-02. [5] Hoppál, Mihály: Sámánok Eurázsiában. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2005. ISBN 963-05-8295-3. (The title means “Shamans in Eurasia"; the book is written in Hungarian, but it is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish.) Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian).

27.4 Further reading • Geoﬀrey Dennis, “Abraham”, “Elijah”, “Lailah”, “Sandalphon”, Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, Llewellyn, 2007. • Eliade, Mircea, “Shamanism”, 1964, Chapters 6 and 7, “Magical Cures: the Shaman as Psychopomp”.

27.4. FURTHER READING

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Chapter 28

Hermes For other uses, see Hermes (disambiguation). Hermes (/ˈhɜːrmiːz/; Greek: Ἑρμῆς) is an Olympian god in Greek religion and mythology, the son of Zeus and the Pleiad Maia, and the second youngest of the Olympian gods (Dionysus being the youngest). Hermes is considered a god of transitions and boundaries. He is described as quick and cunning, moving freely between the worlds of the mortal and divine. He is also portrayed as an emissary and messenger of the gods;[1] an intercessor between mortals and the divine, and conductor of souls into the afterlife. He has been viewed as the protector and patron of herdsmen, thieves,[2] oratory and wit, literature and poetry, athletics and sports, invention and trade,[3] roads, boundaries and travelers.[4] In some myths, he is a trickster and outwits other gods for his own satisfaction or for the sake of humankind. His attributes and symbols include the herma, the rooster, the tortoise, satchel or pouch, winged sandals, and winged cap. His main symbol is the Greek kerykeion or Latin caduceus, which appears in a form of two snakes wrapped around a winged staﬀ with carvings of the other gods.[5] In the Roman adaptation of the Greek pantheon (see interpretatio romana), Hermes is identiﬁed with the Roman god Mercury,[6] who, though inherited from the Etruscans, developed many similar characteristics such as being the patron of commerce.

28.1 Etymology and origins The earliest form of the name Hermes is the Mycenaean Greek *hermāhās,[7] written e-ma-a2 (e-ma-ha) in the Linear B syllabic script.[8] Most scholars derive “Hermes” from Greek ἕρμα herma,[9] “prop,[10] heap of stones, boundary marker”, from which the word hermai (“boundary markers dedicated to Hermes as a god of travelers”) also derives.[11] The etymology of ἕρμα itself is unknown, but it is probably not an Proto-Indo-European word.[7] However, the stone etymology is also linked to Indo-European *ser- (“to bind, put together”). Scholarly speculation that “Hermes” derives from a more primitive form meaning “one cairn" is disputed.[12] In Greek, a lucky find is a hermaion. According to one theory that has received considerable scholarly acceptance, Hermes himself originated as a form of the god Pan, who has been identified as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European pastoral god *Péh2 usōn,[13][14] in his aspect as the god of boundary markers. Later, the epithet supplanted the original name itself and Hermes took over the roles as god of messengers, travelers, and boundaries, which had originally belonged to Pan, while Pan himself continued to be venerated by his original name in his more rustic aspect as the god of the wild in the relatively isolated mountainous region of Arcadia. In later myths, after the cult of Pan was reintroduced to Attica, Pan was said to be Hermes’s son.[14][15] Other origins have also been proposed. R. S. P. Beekes rejects the connection with herma and suggests a Pre-Greek origin.[7] Other scholars have suggested that Hermes may be a cognate of the Vedic Sarama.[16][17] 164

28.2. MYTHOLOGY

165

28.2 Mythology 28.2.1

Early Greek sources

Hermes with his mother Maia. Detail of the side B of an Attic red-ﬁgure belly-amphora, c. 500 BC.

Homer and Hesiod Homer and Hesiod portrayed Hermes as the author of skilled or deceptive acts and also as a benefactor of mortals. In the Iliad, he is called “the bringer of good luck”, “guide and guardian”, and “excellent in all the tricks”. He was a divine ally of the Greeks against the Trojans. However, he did protect Priam when he went to the Greek camp to retrieve the body of his son Hector and accompanied them back to Troy.[18] He also rescued Ares from a brazen vessel where he had been imprisoned by Otus and Ephialtes. In the Odyssey, Hermes helps his great-grand son, the protagonist Odysseus, by informing him about the fate of his companions, who were turned into animals by the power of Circe. Hermes instructed Odysseus to protect himself by chewing a magic herb; he also told Calypso of Zeus’ order to free Odysseus from her island to allow him to continue his journey back home. When Odysseus killed the suitors of his wife, Hermes led their souls to Hades.[19] In The Works and Days, when Zeus ordered Hephaestus to create Pandora to disgrace humanity by punishing Prometheus’s act of giving ﬁre to man, every god gave her a gift, and Hermes’ gifts were lies, seductive words, and a dubious character. Hermes was then instructed to take her as wife to Epimetheus.[20]

Athenian tragic playwrights Aeschylus wrote in The Eumenides that Hermes helped Orestes kill Clytemnestra under a false identity and other stratagems,[2] and also said that he was the god of searches, and those who seek things lost or stolen.[21] In Philoctetes, Sophocles invokes Hermes when Odysseus needs to convince Philoctetes to join the Trojan War on the side of the Greeks, and in Euripides' Rhesus Hermes helps Dolon spy on the Greek navy.[2]

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Kriophoros Hermes (which takes the lamb), late-Roman copy of Greek original from the 5th century BC. Barracco Museum, Rome

Aesop Aesop featured him in several of his fables, as ruler of the gate of prophetic dreams, as the god of athletes, of edible roots, and of hospitality. He also said that Hermes had assigned each person his share of intelligence.[22] The hymn to Hermes The Hymn to Hermes[23] invokes him as the one “of many shifts (polytropos), blandly cunning, a robber, a cattle driver, a bringer of dreams, a watcher by night, a thief at the gates, one who was soon to show forth wonderful deeds among the deathless gods.”[24] Hermes, as an inventor of ﬁre,[25] is a parallel of the Titan Prometheus. In addition to the lyre, Hermes was believed to have invented many types of racing and the sports of wrestling and boxing, and therefore was a patron of athletes.[26] Translations In 1820 Shelley translated this hymn.[27]

28.3. EPITHETS OF HERMES

167

H. G. Evelyn-White’s translation, published 1914, is used on the Perseus Project.[28]

28.2.2

Hellenistic Greek sources

Several writers of the Hellenistic period expanded the list of Hermes’s achievements. Callimachus said that Hermes disguised himself as a cyclops to scare the Oceanides and was disobedient to his mother.[29] One of the Orphic Hymns Khthonios is dedicated to Hermes, indicating that he was also a god of the underworld. Aeschylus had called him by this epithet several times.[30] Another is the Orphic Hymn to Hermes, where his association with the athletic games held in tone is mystic.[31] Phlegon of Tralles said he was invoked to ward off ghosts,[32] and Pseudo-Apollodorus reported several events involving Hermes. He participated in the Gigantomachy in defense of Olympus; was given the task of bringing baby Dionysus to be cared for by Ino and Athamas and later by nymphs of Asia, followed Hera, Athena and Aphrodite in a beauty contest; favored the young Hercules by giving him a sword when he finished his education and lent his sandals to Perseus.[33] The Thracian princes identified him with their god Zalmoxis, considering his ancestor.[34] Anyte of Tegea of the 3rd century BC,[35] in translation by Richard Aldington, wrote:[36] I Hermes stand here at the crossroads by the wind beaten orchard, near the hoary grey coast; and I keep a resting place for weary men. And the cool stainless spring gushes out. called Hermes of the Ways after the patronage of travelers.[37]

28.3 Epithets of Hermes 28.3.1

Atlantiades

Hermes was also called Atlantiades (Greek: Ατλαντιάδης), because his mother, Maia was the daughter of Atlas.[38][39]

28.3.2

Kriophoros

Main article: Kriophoros In ancient Greek cult, kriophoros (Greek: κριοφόρος) or criophorus, the “ram-bearer,” is a ﬁgure that commemorates the solemn sacriﬁce of a ram. It becomes an epithet of Hermes: Hermes Kriophoros.

28.3.3

Argeiphontes

Hermes’s epithet Ἀργειφόντης Argeiphontes (Latin: Argicida), meaning “Argus-slayer”,[40][41] recalls his slaying of the hundred-eyed giant Argus Panoptes, who was watching over the heifer-nymph Io in the sanctuary of Queen Hera herself in Argos. Hermes placed a charm on Argus’s eyes with the caduceus to cause the giant to sleep, after this he slew the giant.[9] Argus’ eyes were then put into the tail of the peacock, a symbol of the goddess Hera.

28.3.4

Messenger and guide

The chief oﬃce of the God was as messenger.[42] • Hermes (Diactoros, Angelos)[43] the messenger,[44] is in fact only seen in this role, for Zeus, from within the pages of the Odyssey (Brown 1990).[2] Oh mighty messenger of the gods of the upper and lower worlds ... (Aeschylus).[45]

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Sarpedon’s body carried by Hypnos and Thanatos (Sleep and Death), while Hermes watches. Side A of the so-called “Euphronios krater”, Attic red-ﬁgured calyx-krater signed by Euxitheos (potter) and Euphronios (painter), c. 515 BC.

explicitly, at least in sources of classical writings, of Euripides Electra and Iphigenia in Aulis[46] and in Epictetus Discourses.[47] The messenger divine and herald of the Gods, he wears the gifts from his father, the Petasus and Talaria.[48] and also • Hodios, patron of travelers and wayfarers.[40] • Oneiropompus, conductor of dreams.[40] • Poimandres, shepherd of men.[49] • Psychopompos, conveyor or conductor of souls[44][50] and psychogogue, conductor or leader of souls in (or through) the underworld.[51]

28.3.5

Trade

• Agoraeus, of the agora;[52] belonging to the market (Aristophanes)[53] • Empolaios, “engaged in traﬃc and commerce”[54] Hermes is sometimes depicted in art works holding a purse.[55]

28.3.6

Dolios

• Dolios, “tricky”.[56] No cult to Hermes Dolios existed in Attica, of this Athens being the capital, and so this form of Hermes seems to have existed in speech only.[57][58]

28.4. WORSHIP AND CULT

169

The god is ambiguous.[59] According to prominent folklorist Yeleazar Meletinsky, Hermes is a deiﬁed trickster[60] and master of thieves (“a plunderer, a cattle-raider, a night-watching” in Homers' Hymns)[61] and deception (Euripides)[62] and (possibly evil) tricks and trickeries,[54][63][64][65] crafty (from lit. god of craft),[66] the cheat,[67] the god of stealth.[68] friendliest to man and cunning,[69] (see also, to act secretively as kleptein, in reference EL Wheeler), of treachery,[70] the schemer.[71] Hermes Dolios, was worshipped at Pellene[72][73] and invoked through Odysseus.[74] (As the ways of gain are not always the ways of honesty and straightforwardness, Hermes obtains a bad character and an in-moral (amoral [ed.]) cult as Dolios)[75] Hermes is amoral[76] like a baby.[77] Although Zeus sent Hermes as a teacher to humanity to teach them knowledge of and value of justice and to improve inter-personal relationships ("bonding between mortals").[78] Considered to have a mastery of rhetorical persuasion and special pleading, the god typically has nocturnal modus operandi.[79] Hermes knows the boundaries and crosses the borders of them to confuse their deﬁnition.[80]

28.3.7

Thief

In the Lang translation of Homer’s Hymn to Hermes, the god after being born is described as a robber, a captain of raiders, and a thief of the gates.[81] According to the late Jungian psychotherapist López-Pedraza, everything Hermes thieves, he later sacriﬁces to the gods.[82] Patron of thieves Autolycus received his skills as the greatest of thieves due to sacriﬁcing to Hermes as his patron.[83]

28.3.8

Additional

Other epithets included: • chthonius – at the festival Athenia Chytri sacrifices are made to this visage of the god only.[84][85] • cyllenius, born on Mount Kyllini • epimelios, guardian of flocks[40] • koinos[86] • kriophoros, “ram-bearer”[87] • ploutodotes, giver of wealth (as inventor of fire)[88] • proopylaios, “before the gate”, “guardian of the gate”,[89] Pylaios, “doorkeeper”[90] • strophaios, “standing at the door post”[54][91] • Stropheus, “the socket in which the pivot of the door moves” (Kerényi in Edwardson) or “door-hinge”. Protector of the door (that is the boundary), to the temple[52][92][93][94][95] • patron of gymnasia[96]

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28.4 Worship and cult Prior to being known as Hermes, Frothingham thought the god to have existed as a snake-god.[97] Angelo (1997) thinks Hermes to be based on the Thoth archetype.[98] The absorbing (“combining”) of the attributes of Hermes to Thoth developed after the time of Homer amongst Greek and Roman; Herodotus was the first to identify the Greek god with the Egyptian (Hermopolis), Plutarch and Diodorus also, although Plato thought the gods to be dis-similar (Friedlander 1992).[99][100] A cult was established in Greece in remote regions, likely making him a god of nature, farmers, and shepherds. It is also possible that since the beginning he has been a deity with shamanic attributes linked to divination, reconciliation, magic, sacrifices, and initiation and contact with other planes of existence, a role of mediator between the worlds of the visible and invisible.[101] During the 3rd century BC, a communication between Petosiris (a priest) to King Nechopso, probably written in Alexandria c. 150 BC, states Hermes is the teacher of all secret wisdoms available to knowing by the experience of religious ecstasy.[49][102] Due to his constant mobility, he was considered the god of commerce and social intercourse, the wealth brought in business, especially sudden or unexpected enrichment, travel, roads and crossroads, borders and boundary conditions or transient, the changes from the threshold, agreements and contracts, friendship, hospitality, sexual intercourse, games, data, the draw, good luck, the sacrifices and the sacrificial animals, flocks and shepherds and the fertility of land and cattle. In addition to serving as messenger to Zeus, Hermes carried the souls of the dead to Hades, and directed the dreams sent by Zeus to mortals.[103][104][105]

28.4.1

Temples

One of the oldest places of worship for Hermes was Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, where the myth says that he was born. Tradition says that his first temple was built by Lycaon. From there the cult would have been taken to Athens, and then radiated to the whole of Greece, according to Smith, and his temples and statues became extremely numerous.[103] Lucian of Samosata said he saw the temples of Hermes everywhere.[106] In many places, temples were consecrated in conjunction with Aphrodite, as in Attica, Arcadia, Crete, Samos and in Magna Graecia. Several ex-votos found in his temples revealed his role as initiator of young adulthood, among them soldiers and hunters, since war and certain forms of hunting were seen as ceremonial initiatory ordeals. This function of Hermes explains why some images in temples and other vessels show him as a teenager. As a patron of the gym and fighting, Hermes had statues in gyms and he was also worshiped in the sanctuary of the Twelve Gods in Olympia where Greeks celebrated the Olympic Games. His statue was held there on an altar dedicated to him and Apollo together.[107] A temple within the Aventine was consecrated in 495 BC.[108][109] Symbols of Hermes were the palm tree, turtle, rooster, goat, the number four, several kinds of fish and incense. Sacrifices involved honey, cakes, pigs, goats, and lambs. In the sanctuary of Hermes Promakhos in Tanagra is a strawberry tree under which it was believed he had created,[110] and in the hills Phene ran three sources that were sacred to him, because he believed that they had been bathed at birth.

28.4.2

Festival

Hermes’s feast was the special Hermaea which was celebrated with sacriﬁces to the god and with athletics and gymnastics, possibly having been established in the 6th century BC, but no documentation on the festival before the 4th century BC survives. However, Plato said that Socrates attended a Hermaea. Of all the festivals involving Greek games, these were the most like initiations because participation in them was restricted to young boys and excluded adults.[111]

28.5 Hermai/Herms Main article: Herma In Ancient Greece, Hermes was a phallic god of boundaries. His name, in the form herma, was applied to a wayside marker pile of stones; each traveler added a stone to the pile. In the 6th century BC, Hipparchos, the son of Pisistratus, replaced the cairns that marked the midway point between each village deme at the central agora of Athens with a

28.6. HERMES’S POSSIBLE OFFSPRING

171

square or rectangular pillar of stone or bronze topped by a bust of Hermes with a beard. An erect phallus rose from the base. In the more primitive Mount Kyllini or Cyllenian herms, the standing stone or wooden pillar was simply a carved phallus. In Athens, herms were placed outside houses for good luck. “That a monument of this kind could be transformed into an Olympian god is astounding,” Walter Burkert remarked.[113] In 415 BC, when the Athenian ﬂeet was about to set sail for Syracuse during the Peloponnesian War, all of the Athenian hermai were vandalized one night. The Athenians at the time believed it was the work of saboteurs, either from Syracuse or from the anti-war faction within Athens itself. Socrates' pupil Alcibiades was suspected of involvement, and Socrates indirectly paid for the impiety with his life.[114]

28.6 Hermes’s possible oﬀspring 28.6.1

Pan

The satyr-like Greek god of nature, shepherds and ﬂocks, Pan, could possibly be the son of Hermes through the nymph Dryope.[115] In the Homeric Hymn to Pan, Pan’s mother ﬂed in fright from her newborn son’s goat-like appearance.[116]

28.6.2

Priapus

Depending on the sources consulted, the god Priapus could be understood as a son of Hermes.[117]

28.6.3

Autolycus

Autolycus, the Prince of Thieves, was a son of Hermes and Chione (mortal) and grandfather of Odysseus.[118]

28.7 Extended list of Hermes’s lovers and children 1. Acacallis (a) Cydon 2. Aglaurus (a) Eumolpus 3. Amphion[119] 4. Alcidameia of Corinth (a) Bounos 5. Antianeira / Laothoe (a) Echion, Argonaut (b) Erytus, Argonaut 6. Apemosyne 7. Aphrodite (a) Hermaphroditus (b) Tyche (possibly) 8. Astabe, daughter of Peneus (a) Astacus 9. Carmentis

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10. Chione / Stilbe / Telauge[120] (a) Autolycus 11. Chryses, priest of Apollo 12. Chthonophyle (a) Polybus of Sicyon 13. Crocus 14. Daeira the Oceanid (a) Eleusis 15. Dryope, Arcadian nymph (a) Pan (possibly) 16. Erytheia (daughter of Geryon) (a) Norax[121] 17. Eupolemeia (daughter of Myrmidon) (a) Aethalides 18. Hecate (a) three unnamed daughters[122] 19. Herse (a) Cephalus (b) Ceryx (possibly) 20. Hiereia (a) Gigas[123] 21. Iphthime (daughter of Dorus) (a) Lycus (b) Pherespondus (c) Pronomus 22. Libye (daughter of Palamedes) (a) Libys[124] 23. Ocyrhoe (a) Caicus 24. Odrysus[125] 25. Orsinoe, nymph[126] (a) Pan (possibly) 26. Palaestra, daughter of Choricus 27. Pandrosus (a) Ceryx (possibly)

28.9. ART AND ICONOGRAPHY 28. Peitho 29. Penelope (a) Nomios (b) Pan (possibly) 30. Persephone (unsuccessfully wooed her) 31. Perseus[127] 32. Phylodameia (a) Pharis 33. Polydeuces[128] 34. Polymele (daughter of Phylas) (a) Eudorus 35. Rhene, nymph (a) Saon of Samothrace[129] 36. Sicilian nymph (a) Daphnis 37. Sose, nymph (a) Agreus 38. Tanagra, daughter of Asopus 39. Theobula / Clytie / Clymene / Cleobule / Myrto / Phaethusa the Danaid (a) Myrtilus 40. Therses[130] 41. Thronia (a) Arabus 42. Urania, Muse (a) Linus (possibly) 43. Unknown mothers (a) Abderus (b) Angelia (c) Dolops (d) Palaestra

173

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28.8 Genealogy 28.9 Art and iconography Main page: Category:Hermes types The image of Hermes evolved and varied according to Greek art and culture. During Archaic Greece he was usually depicted as a mature man, bearded, dressed as a traveler, herald, or pastor. During Classical and Hellenistic Greece he is usually depicted young and nude, with athleticism, as befits the god of speech and of the gymnastics, or a robe, a formula is set predominantly through the centuries. When represented as Logios (Greek: Λόγιος, speaker), his attitude is consistent with the attribute. Phidias left a statue of a famous Hermes Logios and Praxiteles another, also well known, showing him with the baby Dionysus in his arms. At all times, however, through the Hellenistic periods, Roman, and throughout Western history into the present day, several of his characteristic objects are present as identification, but not always all together.[103][137] Among these objects is a wide-brimmed hat, the petasos, widely used by rural people of antiquity to protect themselves from the sun, and that in later times was adorned with a pair of small wings; sometimes the hat is not present, and may have been replaced with wings rising from the hair. Another object is the Porta: a stick, called a rhabdomyolysis (stick) or skeptron (scepter), which is referred to as a magic wand. Some early sources say that this was the bat he received from Apollo, but others question the merits of this claim. It seems that there may have been two canes, one of a shepherd’s staff, as stated in the Homeric Hymn, and the other a magic wand, according to some authors. His bat also came to be called kerykeion, the caduceus, in later times. Early depictions of the staff show it as a baton stick topped by a golden way that resembled the number eight, though sometimes with its top truncated and open. Later the staff had two intertwined snakes and sometimes it was crowned with a pair of wings and a ball, but the old form remained in use even when Hermes was associated with Mercury by the Romans.[103][138] Hyginus explained the presence of snakes, saying that Hermes was traveling in Arcadia when he saw two snakes intertwined in battle. He put the caduceus between them and parted, and so said his staff would bring peace.[139] The caduceus, historically, there appeared with Hermes, and is documented among the Babylonians from about 3500 BC. The two snakes coiled around a stick was a symbol of the god Ningishzida, which served as a mediator between humans and the mother goddess Ishtar or the supreme Ningirsu. In Greece itself the other gods have been depicted holding a caduceus, but it was mainly associated with Hermes. It was said to have the power to make people fall asleep or wake up, and also made peace between litigants, and is a visible sign of his authority, being used as a sceptre.[103] He was represented in doorways, possibly as an amulet of good fortune, or as a symbol of purification. The caduceus is not to be confused with the Rod of Asclepius, the patron of medicine and son of Apollo, which bears only one snake. The rod of Asclepius was adopted by most Western doctors as a badge of their profession, but in several medical organizations of the United States, the caduceus took its place since the 18th century, although this use is declining. After the Renaissance the caduceus also appeared in the heraldic crests of several, and currently is a symbol of commerce.[103] His sandals, called pédila by the Greeks and talaria by the Romans, were made of palm and myrtle branches but were described as beautiful, golden and immortal, made a sublime art, able to take the roads with the speed of wind. Originally, they had no wings, but late in the artistic representations, they are depicted. In certain images, the wings spring directly from the ankles. Hermes has also been depicted with a purse or a bag in his hands, wearing a robe or cloak, which had the power to confer invisibility. His weapon was a sword of gold, which killed Argos; lent to Perseus to kill Medusa.[103]

28.10 In other religions 28.10.1

Christianity

According to Acts 14, when Paul the Apostle visited the city of Lystra, the people there mistook him for Hermes and his companion Barnabas for Zeus.[140]

28.11. MODERN INTERPRETATION

175

28.11 Modern interpretation 28.11.1

Psychology

For Carl Jung Hermes’s role as messenger between realms and as guide to the underworld,[141] made him the god of the unconscious,[142] the mediator between the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind, and the guide for inner journeys.[143][144] Jung considered the gods Thoth and Hermes to be counterparts.[145] In Jungian psychology especially,[146] Hermes is seen as relevant to study of the phenomenon of synchronicity[147] (together with Pan and Dionysus):[148][149] Hermes is ... the archetypal core of Jung’s psyche, theories ... — DL Merritt[142]

He is identiﬁed by some with the archetype of healer,[82] as the ancient Greeks ascribed healing magic to him.[144] In the context of abnormal psychology Samuels (1986) states that Jung considers Hermes the archetype for narcissistic disorder; however, he lends the disorder a “positive” (beneﬁcious) aspect, and represents both the good and bad of narcissism.[150] For López-Pedraza, Hermes is the protector of psychotherapy.[151] For McNeely, Hermes is a god of the healing arts.[152] According to Christopher Booker, all the roles Hermes held in ancient Greek thought all considered reveals Hermes to be a guide or observer of transition.[153] For Jung, Hermes’s role as trickster made him a guide through the psychotherapeutic process.[144]

28.11.2 Hermes series essays French philosopher Michel Serres wrote a set of essays called the Hermes series.[154]

28.12 Hermes in popular culture See Greek mythology in popular culture: Hermes

28.13 See also • Hermes Trismegistus

28.14 Notes [1] Iris having a similar role as divine messenger. [2] Norman Oliver Brown (1990). Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth. Steiner Books. pp. 3–10. ISBN 978-0-94026226-3. [3] Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, 1985, section III.2.8. [4] M. G. Lay; James E. Vance, Jr. Ways of the World: A History of the World’s Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them (p. 52). Rutgers University Press, 1992, ISBN 0813526914. [5] The Latin word cādūceus is an adaptation of the Greek κηρύκειον kērukeion, meaning “herald’s wand (or staff)", deriving from κῆρυξ kērux, meaning “messenger, herald, envoy”. Liddell and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon; Stuart L. Tyson, “The Caduceus”, The Scientific Monthly, 34.6 (1932:492–98), p. 493. [6] Bullfinch’s Mythology (1978), Crown Publishers, p. 926.

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[7] Beekes, R.S.P. (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. With the assistance of Lucien van Beek. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 461–2. ISBN 9789004174184. [8] Joann Gulizio, Hermes and e-m-a2 (PDF), University of Texas, archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013, retrieved 26 November 2011 [9] Greek History and the Gods. Grand Valley State University (Michigan). [10] ἕρμα. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [11] ἑρμαί in Liddell and Scott. [12] Davies, Anna Morpurgo & Duhoux, Yves. Linear B: a 1984 survey. Peeters Publishers, 1985, p. 136. [13] H. Collitz, “Wodan, Hermes und Pushan,” Festskrift tillägnad Hugo Pipping pȧ hans sextioȧrsdag den 5 November 1924 1924, pp 574–587. [14] Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D.Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 411 and 434. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2. [15] West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth (PDF). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 281–283. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Retrieved 23 April 2017. [16] Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, ed. Félix Guirand & Robert Graves, Hamlyn, 1968, p. 123. [17] Debroy, Bibek (2008). Sarama and her Children: The Dog in the Indian Myth. Penguin Books India. p. 77. ISBN 0143064703. [18] Homer. The Iliad. The Project Gutenberg Etext. Trans. Samuel Butler. [19] Homer. The Odyssey. Plain Label Books, 1990. Trans. Samuel Butler. pp. 40, 81–82, 192–195. [20] Hesiod. Works And Days. ll. 60–68. Trans. Hugh G. Evelyn-White, 1914. [21] Aeschylus, Suppliant Women 919. Quoted in God of Searchers. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [22] Aesop. Fables 474, 479, 520, 522, 563, 564. Quoted in God of Dreams of Omen; God of Contests, Athletics, Gymnasiums, The Games, Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [23] “The conventional attribution of the Hymns to Homer, in spite of linguistic objections, and of many allusions to things unknown or unfamiliar in the Epics, is merely the result of the tendency to set down “masterless” compositions to a well-known name...": Andrew Lang, THE HOMERIC HYMNS A NEW PROSE TRANSLATION AND ESSAYS, LITERARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL. Transcribed from the 1899 George Allen edition. Project Gutenberg. [24] Hymn to Hermes 13. The word polutropos (“of many shifts, turning many ways, of many devices, ingenious, or much wandering”) is also used to describe Odysseus in the first line of the Odyssey. [25] In the Homeric hymn, “after he had fed the loud-bellowing cattle... he gathered much wood and sought the craft of fire. He also invented written music and many other things. He took a splendid laurel branch, gripped it in his palm, and twirled it in pomegranate wood” (lines 105, 108–10) [26] “First Inventors... Mercurius [Hermes] first taught wrestling to mortals.” – Hyginus, Fabulae 277. [27] N Richardson, The Homeric Hymns (edited by J Cashford), Penguin UK, 2003, ISBN 0140437827. [28] Perseus Project. The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [29] Callimachus. Iambi, Frag. 12. Quoted in “God of Memory and Learning”. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [30] Orphic Hymn 57 to Chthonian Hermes Aeschylus. Libation Bearers. Cited in Guide of the Dead. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [31] Orphic Hymn 28 to Hermes. Quoted in God of Contests, Athletics, Gymnasiums, The Games. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [32] Phlegon of Tralles. Book of Marvels, 2.1. Quoted in Guide of the Dead. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [33] Pseudo-Apollodorus. The Library. Quoted in Hermes Myths 2, Hermes Myths 3, Hermes Favour. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology.

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177

[34] Herodotus. Histories, 5.7. Quoted in “Identified with Foreign Gods”. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [35] SG Yao, Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics, Language, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0312295197. [36] S Benstock, Women of the Left Bank: Paris, 1900-1940, University of Texas Press, 2010, p. 323. [37] H Kenner, The Pound Era, Random House, 2011, ISBN 1446467740 and E Gregory, H. D. and Hellenism: Classic Lines, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 253, ISBN 0521430259. [38] Ovid, Metamorphoses [39] Mike Dixon-Kennedy (1998). Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman Mythology. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-57607-094-9. [40] The Facts on File: Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend. [41] Homeric Hymn 29 to Hestia. [42] W. Blackwood Ltd. (Edinburgh). Blackwood’s Edinburgh magazine, Volume 22; Volume 28. Leonard Scott & Co. 1849. [43] R Davis-Floyd, P Sven Arvidson, Intuition: The Inside Story : Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415915945. [44] New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology (New (fifth impression) ed.). Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. 1972 [1968]. p. 123. ISBN 0-600-02351-6. [45] Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin. Études mithriaques: actes du 2e Congrès International, Téhéran, du 1er au 8 september 1975. BRILL, 1978. [46] Perseus – Tufts University. [47] Perseus – Tufts University. [48] Rochester Institute of Technology. “Greek Gods”. Rochester Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. [49] M-L von Franz. Projection and Re-Collection in Jungian Psychology: Reflections of the Soul. Open Court Publishing, 1985. ISBN 0875484174. [50] JF Krell, “Mythical patterns in the art of Gustave Moreau: The primacy of Dionysus”. [51] The Chambers Dictionary Allied Publishers, 1998. [52] Mabel Lang (1988). Graffiti in the Athenian Agora (PDF). Excavations of the Athenian Agora (rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. p. 7. ISBN 0-87661-633-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2004. Retrieved 14 April 2007. [53] V Ehrenberg, The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Attic Comedy, Taylor & Francis, 1943. [54] Aristophanes [55] S. Hornblower; A. Spawforth. The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization (p. 370). Oxford Reference, Oxford University Press, 2014, ISBN 0198706774. [56] P Young-Eisendrath, The Cambridge Companion to Jung, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0521685001. [57] I Polinskaya, citing Robert Parker (2003): I Polinskaya, A Local History of Greek Polytheism: Gods, People and the Land of Aigina, 800-400 BCE (p. 103), BRILL, 2013, ISBN 9004262083. [58] An universal history, from the earliest accounts to the present time - Volume 5 (p. 34), 1779. [59] L Kahn-Lyotard, Greek and Egyptian Mythologies (edited by Y Bonnefoy), University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0226064549. [60] Meletinsky, Introduzione (1993), p. 131. [61] N. O. Brown, Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth [62] NW Slater, Spectator Politics: Metatheatre and Performance in Aristophanes, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, ISBN 0812236521. [63] "[T]he thief praying...": W Kingdon Clifford, L Stephen, F Pollock

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[64] William Stearns Davis - A Victor of Salamis: A Tale of the Days of Xerxes, Leonidas, and Themistocles, Wildside Press LLC, 2007, ISBN 1434483347. [65] A Brown, A New Companion to Greek Tragedy, Taylor & Francis, 1983, ISBN 0389203963. [66] F Santi Russell, Information Gathering in Classical Greece, University of Michigan Press, 1999. [67] JJ Ignaz von Döllinger, The Gentile and the Jew in the courts of the Temple of Christ: an introduction to the history of Christianity, Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1862. [68] EL Wheeler, Stratagem and the Vocabulary of Military Trickery, BRILL, 1988, ISBN 9004088318. [69] R Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens, Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 0199216118. [70] Athenaeus, The learned banqueters, Harvard University Press, 2008. [71] I Ember, Music in painting: music as symbol in Renaissance and baroque painting , Corvina, 1984. [72] Pausanias, 7.27.1 [73] Plutarch (trans. William Reginald Halliday), The Greek questions of Plutarch. [74] S Montiglio, Silence in the Land of Logos, Princeton University Press, 2010, ISBN 0691146586. [75] J Pòrtulas, C Miralles, Archilochus and the Iambic Poetry (page 24). [76] JH Riker, Human Excellence and an Ecological Conception of the Psyche, SUNY Press, 1991, ISBN 0791405192. [77] . [78] Ben-Ami Scharfstein, Amoral Politics: The Persistent Truth of Machiavellism (p. 102), SUNY Press, 1995, ISBN 0791422798. [79] “Three Homeric Hymns”. [80] L Hyde, Trickster Makes this World: Mischief, Myth and Art, Canongate Books, 2008. [81] Andrew Lang, THE HOMERIC HYMNS A NEW PROSE TRANSLATION AND ESSAYS, LITERARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL. Transcribed from the 1899 George Allen edition. [82] R López-Pedraza, Hermes and His Children, Daimon, 2003, p. 25, ISBN 3856306307. [83] The Homeric Hymns (pp. 76–77), edited by AN Athanassakis, JHU Press, 2004, ISBN 0801879833. [84] Aristophanes, The Frogs of Aristophanes, with Notes and Critical and Explanatory, Adapted to the Use of Schools and Universities, by T. Mitchell, John Murray, 1839. [85] GS Shrimpton, Theopompus The Historian, McGill-Queens, 1991. [86] RA Bauslaugh, The Concept of Neutrality in Classical Greece, University of California Press, 1991, ISBN 0520066871. [87] MA De La Torre, A Hernández, The Quest for the Historical Satan, Fortress Press, 2011, ISBN 0800663241. [88] Fiske 1865. [89] CO Edwardson (2011), Women and Philanthropy, tricksters and soul: re-storying otherness into crossroads of change, Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2010, p. 60. [90] The Jungian Society for Scholarly Studies: Ithaca August 2009, Conference Paper, page 12 . [91] The Jungian Society for Scholarly Studies: Ithaca August 2009, p. 12. [92] Luke Roman; Monica Roman (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. pp. 232ff. ISBN 978-1-4381-2639-5. [93] Sourced originally in R Davis-Floyd, P Sven Arvidson (1997). [94] R Pettazzoni, The All-Knowing God Taylor & Francis, 1956, ISBN 0405105592. [95] CS Wright, J Bolton Holloway, RJ Schoeck - Tales within tales: Apuleius through time, AMS Press, 2000, p. 23. [96] J Fiske, Myths and Myth-makers: Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by Comparative Mythology, Houghton, Mifflin, 1865.

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179

[97] A. L. Frothingham, “Babylonian Origin of Hermes the Snake-God, and of the Caduceus I”. [98] P Clarkson, Counselling Psychology: Integrating Theory, Research, and Supervised Practice, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0415145236. [99] WJ Friedlander, The Golden Wand of Medicine: A History of the Caduceus Symbol in Medicine, ABC-CLIO, 1992, ISBN 0313280231. [100] J Derrida, Dissemination, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, ISBN 0826476961. [101] Danubian Historical Studies, 2, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988, p. 32. [102] Jacobi, M. (1907). Catholic Encyclopedia: “Astrology”, New York: Robert Appleton Company. [103] Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1867. pp. 411–413. [104] Neville, Bernie. Taking Care of Business in the Age of Hermes. Trinity University, 2003. pp. 2–5. [105] Padel, Ruth. In and Out of the Mind: Greek Images of the Tragic Self. Princeton University Press, 1994. pp. 6–9. [106] Lucian of Samosata. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008. Volume 1, p. 107. [107] Johnston, Sarah Iles. Initiation in Myth, Initiation in Practice. IN Dodd, David Brooks & Faraone, Christopher A. Initiation in ancient Greek rituals and narratives: new critical perspectives. Routledge, 2003. pp. 162, 169. [108] FG Moore, The Roman’s World, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1936, ISBN 0819601551. [109] “Aventine” in V Neskow, The Little Black Book of Rome: The Timeless Guide to the Eternal City, Peter Pauper Press, Inc., 2012, ISBN 144130665X. [110] Austin, M. The Hellenistic world from Alexander to the Roman conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation. Cambridge University Press, 2006. p. 137. [111] Scanlon, Thomas Francis. Eros and Greek athletics. Oxford University Press, 2002. pp. 92–93. [112] “Circular Pyxis”. The Walters Art Museum. [113] Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) [114] Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 6.27. [115] Hyginus, Fabula 160, makes Hermes the father of Pan. [116] “Hymn 19 to Pan, To Pan”. www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 January 2016. [117] Karl Kerényi, Gods of the Greeks, 1951, p. 175, citing G. Kaibel, Epigrammata graeca ex lapidibus collecta, 817, where the other god’s name, both father and son of Hermes, is obscured; according to other sources, Priapus was a son of Dionysus and Aphrodite. [118] Bibliotheca 1.9.16. [119] As presumed by Philostratus the Elder in his Imagines, 1.10. [120] Eustathius on Homer, 804. [121] Pausanias, 10.17.5. [122] Tzetzes on Lycophron, 680. [123] This Gigas was the father of Ischenus, who was said to have been sacriﬁced during an outbreak of famine in Olympia; Tzetzes on Lycophron 42. [124] Hyginus, Fabulae, 160. [125] Clement of Rome, Homilia, 5.16. [126] Scholia on Euripides, Rhesus, 36. [127] Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2.12. [128] Ptolemy Hephaestion, 6 in Photius, 190.

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[129] Saon could also have been the son of Zeus and a local nymph; both versions in Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.48.2. [130] Clement of Rome, Homilia, 5.16; otherwise unknown. [131] According to Hesiod's Theogony 507–509, Atlas’ mother was the Oceanid Clymene, later accounts have the Oceanid Asia as his mother, see Apollodorus, 1.2.3. [132] According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74. [133] According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74. [134] According to Hesiod's Theogony 886–890, of Zeus’ children by his seven wives, Athena was the ﬁrst to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena “from his head”, see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84. [135] According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus’ severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100. [136] According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100. [137] Müller, Karl Otfried. Ancient art and its remains: or, A manual of the archæology of art. B. Quaritch, 1852. pp. 483–488. [138] Hermes the Thief. [139] Hyginus. Astronomica, 2.7. Cited in “God of Heralds and Bringer of Peace”. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. [140] “Acts 14:11-13”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 27 January 2016. [141] A Stevens, On Jung, Taylor & Francis, 1990. [142] Merritt, Dennis L. (1996–1997). “Jung and the Greening of Psychology and Education”. Oregon Friends of C.G. Jung Newsletter. 6 (1): 9, 12, 13. (Online.) [143] JC Miller, The Transcendent Function: Jung’s Model of Psychological Growth Through Dialogue With the Unconscious, SUNY Press, 2004, ISBN 0791459772. [144] DA McNeely, Mercury Rising: Women, Evil, and the Trickster Gods, Fisher King Press, 2011, p. 86, ISBN 1926715543. [145] H Yoshida, Joyce and Jung: The “Four Stages of Eroticism” In a Portrait of the Artist As a Young Man, Peter Lang, 2006, ISBN 0820469130. [146] CG Jung, R Main, Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal, Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0415155096. [147] HJ Hannan, Initiation Through Trauma: A Comparative Study of the Descents of Inanna and Persephone: Dreaming Persephone Forward, ProQuest, 2005, ISBN 0549474803. [148] R Main, Revelations of Chance: Synhronicity as Spiritual Experience, SUNY Press, 2007, ISBN 0791470237. [149] Gisela Labouvie-Viefn, Psyche and Eros: Mind and Gender in the Life Course Psyche and Eros: Mind and Gender in the Life Course, Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521468248. [150] A Samuels (1986). Jung and the Post-Jungians. Taylor & Francis, 1986. ISBN 0710208642. [151] López-Pedraza 2003, p. 19. [152] Allan Beveridge, Portrait of the Psychiatrist as a Young Man: The Early Writing and Work of R.D. Laing, 1927-1960 (p. 88), International Perspectives in Philosophy and Psychiatry, OUP, ISBN 0199583579. [153] Christopher Booker, The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, ISBN 0826452094. [154] LD Kritzman, The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought (p. 658), edited by LD Kritzman, BJ Reilly, Columbia University Press, 2007, ISBN 0231107900.

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28.15 References • Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). • Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.

28.16 External links • Media related to Hermes at Wikimedia Commons • Theoi Project, Hermes stories from original sources & images from classical art • Cult of Hermes • The Myths of Hermes • Ventris and Chadwick: Gods found in Mycenaean Greece: a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek second edition (Cambridge 1973)

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So-called “Logios Hermes” (Hermes Orator). Marble, Roman copy from the late 1st century BC - early 2nd century AD after a

28.16. EXTERNAL LINKS

183

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This circular Pyxis or box depicts two scenes. The one shown presents Hermes awarding the golden apple of the Hesperides to Aphrodite, who Paris has selected as the most beautiful of the goddesses.[112] The Walters Art Museum.

28.16. EXTERNAL LINKS

Archaic bearded Hermes from a herm, early 5th century BC.

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Hermes Fastening his Sandal, early Imperial Roman marble copy of a Lysippan bronze (Louvre Museum)

28.16. EXTERNAL LINKS

Hermes as a Postman on the Old-Mail-Oï¬&#x192;ce-Building in Flensburg

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Thanatos This article is about the Greek personification of death. For other uses, see Thanatos (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Thanatos (/ˈθænətɒs/;[1] Greek: Θάνατος, pronounced in Ancient Greek: [tʰánatos] "Death",[2] from θνῄσκω thnēskō “to die, be dying”[3][4] ) was the personification of death. He was a minor figure in Greek mythology, often referred to but rarely appearing in person. His name is transliterated in Latin as Thanatus, but his equivalent in Roman mythology is Mors or Letum. Mors is sometimes erroneously identified with Orcus, whose Greek equivalent was Horkos, God of the Oath.

29.1 In myth and poetry The Greek poet Hesiod established in his Theogony that Thánatos is a son of Nyx (Night) and Erebos (Darkness) and twin of Hypnos (Sleep).[5] Homer also confirmed Hypnos and Thanatos as twin brothers in his epic poem, the Iliad, where they were charged by Zeus via Apollo with the swift delivery of the slain hero Sarpedon to his homeland of Lycia. “Then (Apollon) gave him [Sarpedon] into the charge of swift messengers to carry him, of Hypnos and Thanatos, who are twin brothers, and these two presently laid him down within the rich countryside of broad Lycia.” [6] Counted among Thanatos’ siblings were other negative personifications such as Geras (Old Age), Oizys (Suffering), Moros (Doom), Apate (Deception), Momus (Blame), Eris (Strife), Nemesis (Retribution) and even the Acherousian/Stygian boatman Charon. Thanatos was loosely associated with the three Moirai (for Hesiod, also daughters of Night), particularly Atropos, who was a goddess of death in her own right. He is also occasionally specified as being exclusive to peaceful death, while the bloodthirsty Keres embodied violent death. His duties as a Guide of the Dead were sometimes superseded by Hermes Psychopompos. Conversely, Thanatos may have originated as a mere aspect of Hermes before later becoming distinct from him. The god’s character is established by Hesiod in the following passage of the Theogony: And there the children of dark Night have their dwellings, Sleep and Death, awful gods. The glowing Sun never looks upon them with his beams, neither as he goes up into heaven, nor as he comes down from heaven. And the former of them roams peacefully over the earth and the sea’s broad back and is kindly to men; but the other has a heart of iron, and his spirit within him is pitiless as bronze: whomsoever of men he has once seized he holds fast: and he is hateful even to the deathless gods.[7] Thanatos was thus regarded as merciless and indiscriminate, hated by - and hateful towards — mortals and gods alike. But in myths which feature him, Thanatos could occasionally be outwitted, a feat that the sly King Sisyphus of Korinth twice accomplished. When it came time for Sisyphus to die, Zeus ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus up in Tartarus. Sisyphus cheated death by tricking Thanatos into his own shackles, thereby prohibiting the demise of any mortal while Thanatos was so enchained. 188

29.2. IN ART

189

Hypnos (left) and Thanatos (right) carrying dead Sarpedon, while Hermes watches. Inscriptions in ancient Greek read HVPNOSHERMES-θΑΝΑΤΟS (here written vice versa). Attic red-ﬁgured calyx-krater, 515 BC.

Eventually Ares, the bloodthirsty god of war, grew frustrated with the battles he incited since neither side suffered any casualties. He released Thanatos and handed his captor over to the god. Sisyphus would evade Death a second time by convincing Persephone to allow him to return to his wife stating that she never gave him a proper funeral. This time, Sisyphus was forcefully dragged back to the Underworld by Hermes when Sisyphus refused to accept his death. Sisyphus was sentenced to an eternity of frustration in Tartarus where he rolled a boulder up a hill and it would roll back down when he got close to the top. A fragment of Alcaeus, a Greek lyric poet of the 6th century BC, refers to this episode: “King Sisyphos, son of Aiolos, wisest of men, supposed that he was master of Thanatos; but despite his cunning he crossed eddying Akheron twice at fate’s command.” [8] Sisyphus, son of Aiolos was a more than mortal figure: for mortals Thanatos usually presents an inexorable fate, but he was only once successfully overpowered, by the mythical hero Heracles. Thanatos was consigned to take the soul of Alkestis, who had offered her life in exchange for the continued life of her husband, King Admetos of Pherai. Heracles was an honored guest in the House of Admetos at the time, and he offered to repay the king’s hospitality by contending with Death itself for Alkestis’ life. When Thanatos ascended from Hades to claim Alkestis, Heracles sprung upon the god and overpowered him, winning the right to have Alkestis revived. Thanatos fled, cheated of his quarry.[9] Euripides, in Alcestis: “Thanatos: Much talk. Talking will win you nothing. All the same, the woman goes with me to Hades’ house. I go to take her now, and dedicate her with my sword, for all whose hair is cut in consecration by this blade’s edge are devoted to the gods below.” [10]

29.2 In art An Orphic Hymn invoked Thanatos:

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CHAPTER 29. THANATOS “To Thanatos, Fumigation from Manna. Hear me, O Death, whose empire unconﬁn'd extends to mortal tribes of ev'ry kind. On thee, the portion of our time depends, whose absence lengthens life, whose presence ends. Thy sleep perpetual bursts the vivid folds by which the soul, attracting body holds : common to all, of ev'ry sex and age, for nought escapes thy all-destructive rage. Not youth itself thy clemency can gain, vigorous and strong, by thee untimely slain. In thee the end of nature’s works is known, in thee all judgment is absolved alone. No suppliant arts thy dreadful rage control, no vows revoke the purpose of thy soul. O blessed power, regard my ardent prayer, and human life to age abundant spare.[11]

In later eras, as the transition from life to death in Elysium became a more attractive option, Thanatos came to be seen as a beautiful Ephebe. He became associated more with a gentle passing than a woeful demise. Many Roman sarcophagi depict him as a winged boy, very much akin to Cupid: “Eros with crossed legs and torch reversed became the commonest of all symbols for Death”, observes Arthur Bernard Cook.[12] Thanatos has also been portrayed as a slumbering infant in the arms of his mother Nyx, or as a youth carrying a butterﬂy (the ancient Greek word "ψυχή" can mean soul or butterﬂy, or life, amongst other things) or a wreath of poppies (poppies were associated with Hypnos and Thanatos because of their hypnogogic traits and the eventual death engendered by overexposure to them). He is often shown carrying an inverted torch (holding it upside down in his hands), representing a life extinguished. He is usually described as winged and with a sword sheathed at his belt. In Euripides' Alcestis (438 BCE), he is depicted dressed in black and carrying a sword. Thanatos was rarely portrayed in art without his twin brother Hypnos.

29.3 In psychology and medicine According to Sigmund Freud, humans have a life instinct—which he named "Eros"—and a death drive, which is commonly called (though not by Freud himself) “Thanatos”. This postulated death drive allegedly compels humans to engage in risky and self-destructive acts that could lead to their own death. Behaviors such as thrill seeking and aggression are viewed as actions which stem from this Thanatos instinct. However, some scientists argue that there is little evidence that most people have a specific drive toward selfdestruction. According to them, the behaviors Freud studied can be explained by simpler, known processes, such as salience biases (e.g., a person abuses drugs because the promise of immediate pleasure is more compelling than the intellectual knowledge of harm sometime in the future) and risk calculations (e.g., a person drives recklessly or plays dangerous sports because the increases in status and reproductive success outweigh the risk of injury or death). Thanatophobia is the fear of things associated with or reminiscent of death and mortality, such as corpses or graveyards. It is related to necrophobia, although the latter term typically refers to a specific fear of dead bodies rather than a fear of death in general. Thanatology is the academic and scientific study of death among human beings. It investigates the circumstances surrounding a person’s death, the grief experienced by the deceased’s loved ones, and larger social attitudes towards death such as ritual and memorialization. It is primarily an interdisciplinary study, frequently undertaken by professionals in nursing, psychology, sociology, psychiatry, social work and veterinary science. It also describes bodily changes that accompany death and the after-death period. Thanatophoric dysplasia, so named because of its lethality at birth, is the most common lethal congenital skeletal dysplasia with an estimated prevalence of one in 6,400 to one in 16,700 births. Its name Thanatophoros, means “death-bearing” in Greek.

29.4. SEE ALSO

191

Euthanasia, “good death” in Greek, is the act or practice of ending the life of an individual who would otherwise experience severe, incurable suﬀering or disability. It typically involves lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment. Doctor Jack Kevorkian named his euthanasia device the Thanatron.[13]

29.4 See also • Thanatosensitivity

29.5 References [1] “Thanatos, n.”. OED Online. Oxford University Press. September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2014. [2] θάνατος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [3] θνῄσκω in Liddell and Scott. [4] R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 533. [5] Hesiod, Theogony 758 ff, trans. Evelyn-White, Greek epic 8th or 7th century BC [6] Homer, Iliad 16. 681 ff, trans. Lattimore, Greek epic 8th century BC [7] Hesiod, Theogony 758 ff, trans. Evelyn-White, Greek epic 8th or 7th century BC [8] Alcaeus, Fragment 38a, trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I, . [9] “Heracles”. www.timelessmyths.com. Retrieved 2015-12-11. [10] Euripides, Alcestis 19 ff, trans. Vellacott, Greek tragedy c. 5th century BC [11] Orphic Hymn 86 trans. Thomas Taylor, trans. The Hymns of Orpheus, 1792. [12] Cook, Zeus: A study in ancient religion, 1940:1045., citing Adolf Furtwängler, in Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der grieschischen und römischen Mythologie. [13] PBS.org

29.6 External links • Thanatos at Theoi.com • Thanatos at the Greek Mythology link • Mythography : The Greek God Thanatos in Myth and Art • Stewart, Michael. “Thanatos” Greek Mythology: From the Iliad to the Fall of the Last Tyrant • Thanatos on Internet Movie Database

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29.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

Winged Eros Thanatos, with reversed torch and crossed legs (3rd century BC, Stoa of Attalus, Athens)

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Depiction of Thanatos by Mexican artist Mauricio GarcĂa Vega

Hypnos and Thanatos: Sleep and His Half-Brother Death, by John William Waterhouse, 1874.

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Chapter 30

Hades This article is about the Greek god. For the location, see Greek underworld and Hades in Christianity. For other uses, see Hades (disambiguation). Hades (/ˈheɪdiːz/; Ancient Greek: ᾍδης or Άͅδης, Háidēs) was the ancient Greek chthonic god of the underworld, which eventually took his name.[1] In Greek mythology, Hades was regarded as the oldest son of Cronus and Rhea, although the last son regurgitated by his father.[2] He and his brothers Zeus and Poseidon defeated their father’s generation of gods, the Titans, and claimed rulership over the cosmos. Hades received the underworld, Zeus the sky, and Poseidon the sea, with the solid earth— long the province of Gaia—available to all three concurrently. Hades was often portrayed with his three-headed guard dog Cerberus. The Etruscan god Aita and Roman gods Dis Pater and Orcus were eventually taken as equivalent to the Greek Hades and merged as Pluto, a Latinization of his euphemistic Greek name Plouton.[3]

30.1 Name The origin of Hades’ name is uncertain, but has generally been seen as meaning “The Unseen One” since antiquity. An extensive section of Plato's dialogue Cratylus is devoted to the etymology of the god’s name, in which Socrates is arguing for a folk etymology not from “unseen” but from “his knowledge (eidenai) of all noble things”. Modern linguists have proposed the Proto-Greek form *Awides (“unseen”).[4] The earliest attested form is Aḯdēs (Ἀΐδης), which lacks the proposed digamma. West argues instead for an original meaning of “the one who presides over meeting up” from the universality of death.[5] In Homeric and Ionic Greek, he was known as Áïdēs.[6] Other poetic variations of the name include Aïdōneús (Ἀϊδωνεύς) and the inﬂected forms Áïdos (Ἄϊδος, gen.), Áïdi (Ἄϊδι, dat.), and Áïda (Ἄϊδα, acc.), whose reconstructed nominative case *Áïs (*Ἄϊς) is, however, not attested.[7] The name as it came to be known in classical times was Háidēs (Ἅιδης). Later the iota became silent, then a subscript marking (Άͅδης), and ﬁnally omitted entirely (Άδης).[8] Perhaps from fear of pronouncing his name, around the 5th century BC, the Greeks started referring to Hades as Pluto (Πλούτων, Ploútōn), with a root meaning “wealthy”, considering that from the abode below (i.e., the soil) come riches (e.g., fertile crops, metals and so on).[9] Plouton became the Roman god who both rules the underworld and distributed riches from below. This deity was a mixture of the Greek god Hades and the Eleusinian icon Ploutos, and from this he also received a priestess, which was not previously practiced in Greece.[10] More elaborate names of the same genre were Ploutodótēs (Πλουτοδότης) or Ploutodotḗr (Πλουτοδοτήρ) meaning “giver of wealth”.[11] Epithets of Hades include Agesander (Ἀγήσανδρος) and Agesilaos (Ἀγεσίλαος),[12] both from ágō (ἄγω, “lead”, “carry” or “fetch”) and anḗr (ἀνήρ, “man”) or laos (λαός, “men” or “people”), describing Hades as the god who carries away all.[13][14][15][16] Nicander uses the form Hegesilaus (Ἡγεσίλαος).[17] He was also referred to as Zeus Katachthonios (Ζευς καταχθονιος),[18] meaning “the Zeus of the Underworld”, by those avoiding his actual name, as he had complete control over the Underworld.[19] 195

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Amphora Hades Louvre G209 n2 © Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons

30.2 Greek god of the underworld In Greek mythology, Hades the god of the underworld, was a son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. He had three sisters, Demeter, Hestia, and Hera, as well as two brothers, Zeus, the youngest of the three, and Poseidon. Upon reaching adulthood, Zeus managed to force his father to disgorge his siblings. After their release, the six younger gods, along with allies they managed to gather, challenged the elder gods for power in the Titanomachy, a divine war. The war lasted for ten years and ended with the victory of the younger gods. Following their victory, according to a single famous passage in the Iliad (xv.187–93), Hades and his two brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots[20] for realms to rule. Zeus received the sky, Poseidon received the seas, and Hades received the underworld,[21] the unseen realm to which the souls of the dead go upon leaving the world as well as any and all things beneath the earth. Some myths suggest that Hades was dissatisfied with his turnout, but had no choice and moved to his new realm.[22] Hades obtained his wife and queen, Persephone, through abduction at the behest of Zeus. This myth is the most important one Hades takes part in;[23] it also connected the Eleusinian Mysteries with the Olympian pantheon, particularly as represented in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, which is the oldest story of the abduction, most likely dating back to the beginning of the 6th Century BC.[10] Helios told the grieving Demeter that Hades was not unworthy as a consort for Persephone: Aidoneus, the Ruler of Many, is no unfitting husband among the deathless gods for your child, being your own brother and born of the same stock: also, for honor, he has that third share which he received when division was made at the first, and is appointed lord of those among whom he dwells. — Homeric Hymn to Demeter[24]

Despite modern connotations of death as evil, Hades was actually more altruistically inclined in mythology. Hades was often portrayed as passive rather than evil; his role was often maintaining relative balance. That said, he was also depicted as cold and stern, and he held all of his subjects equally accountable to his laws.[25] Any other individual aspects of his personality are not given, as Greeks refrained from giving him much thought to avoid attracting his

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Hades, Hierapolis

attention.[19] Hades ruled the dead, assisted by others over whom he had complete authority. The House of Hades was described as full of â&#x20AC;&#x153;guests,â&#x20AC;? though he rarely left the Underworld.[26] He cared little about what happened in the Upperworld, as his primary attention was ensuring none of his subjects ever left. He strictly forbade his subjects to leave his domain and would become quite enraged when anyone tried to leave, or if someone tried to steal the souls from his realm. His wrath was equally terrible for anyone who tried to cheat death or

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Pinax with Persephone and Hades Enthroned, 500-450 BC, Greek, Locri Epizephirii, Mannella district, Sanctuary of Persephone, terracotta - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08242

otherwise crossed him, as Sisyphus and Pirithous found out to their sorrow. While usually indiﬀerent to his subjects, Hades was very focused on the punishment of these two people; particularly Pirithous, as he entered the underworld in an attempt to steal Persephone for himself, and consequently was forced onto the “Chair of Forgetfulness”.[19] Another myth is about the Roman god Asclepius who was originally a demigod, fathered by Apollo and birthed by Coronis, a Thessalian princess. During his lifetime, he became a famous and talented physician, who eventually was able to bring the dead back to life. Feeling cheated, Plouton persuaded Zeus to kill him with a thunderbolt. After his

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death, he was brought to Olympus where he became a god.[27] Hades was only depicted outside of the Underworld once in myth, and even that is believed to have been an instance where he had just left the gates of the Underworld, which was when Heracles shot him with an arrow as Hades was attempting to defend the city of Plyus.[3] After he was shot, however, he traveled to Olympus to heal. Besides Heracles, the only other living people who ventured to the Underworld were all heroes: Odysseus, Aeneas (accompanied by the Sibyl), Orpheus, who Hades showed uncharacteristic mercy towards at Persephone’s persuasion, who was moved by Orpheus’ music,[28] Theseus with Pirithous, and, in a late romance, Psyche. None of them were pleased with what they witnessed in the realm of the dead. In particular, the Greek war hero Achilles, whom Odysseus conjured with a blood libation, said: O shining Odysseus, never try to console me for dying. I would rather follow the plow as thrall to another man, one with no land allotted to him and not much to live on, than be a king over all the perished dead. — Achilles’ soul to Odysseus. Homer, Odyssey 11.488-491 (Lattimore translation)

30.2.1

Cult

Hades, as the god of the dead, was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reluctant to swear oaths in his name, and averted their faces when sacrificing to him. Since to many, simply to say the word “Hades” was frightening, euphemisms were pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the “underworld” ruled by Hades), he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as Πλούτων (Plouton, related to the word for “wealth”), Latinized as Pluto. Sophocles explained referring to Hades as “the rich one” with these words: “the gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears.” In addition, he was called Clymenus (“notorious”), Polydegmon (“who receives many”), and perhaps Eubuleus (“good counsel” or “well-intentioned”),[29] all of them euphemisms for a name that was unsafe to pronounce, which evolved into epithets. He spent most of the time in his dark realm. Formidable in battle, he proved his ferocity in the famous Titanomachy, the battle of the Olympians versus the Titans, which established the rule of Zeus. Feared and loathed, Hades embodied the inexorable finality of death: “Why do we loathe Hades more than any god, if not because he is so adamantine and unyielding?" The rhetorical question is Agamemnon's.[30] He was not, however, an evil god, for although he was stern, cruel, and unpitying, he was still just. Hades ruled the Underworld and was therefore most often associated with death and feared by men, but he was not Death itself — the actual embodiment of Death was Thanatos. When the Greeks propitiated Hades, they banged their hands on the ground to be sure he would hear them.[31] Black animals, such as sheep, were sacrificed to him, and the very vehemence of the rejection of human sacrifice expressed in myth suggests an unspoken memory of some distant past. The blood from all chthonic sacrifices including those to propitiate Hades dripped into a pit or cleft in the ground. The person who offered the sacrifice had to avert his face.[32] One ancient source says that he possessed the Cap of invisibility. His chariot, drawn by four black horses, made for a fearsome and impressive sight. His other ordinary attributes were the narcissus and cypress plants, the Key of Hades and Cerberus, the three-headed dog.[33] The philosopher Heraclitus, unifying opposites, declared that Hades and Dionysus, the very essence of indestructible life (zoë), are the same god.[34] Among other evidence Kerényi notes that the grieving goddess Demeter refused to drink wine, which is the gift of Dionysus, after Persephone’s abduction, because of this association, and suggests that Hades may in fact have been a “cover name” for the underworld Dionysus.[35] He suggests that this dual identity may have been familiar to those who came into contact with the Mysteries.[36] One of the epithets of Dionysus was “Chthonios”, meaning “the subterranean”.[37]

30.2.2

Artistic representations

Hades was depicted so infrequently in artwork, as well as mythology, because the Greeks were so afraid of him.[19] His artistic representations, which are generally found in Archaic pottery, are not even concretely thought of as the deity; however at this point in time it is heavily believed that the ﬁgures illustrated are indeed Hades.[10] He was later presented in the classical arts in the depictions of the Rape of Persephone.[38] Within these illustrations, Hades

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was often young, yet he was also shown as varying ages in other works.[10] Due to this lack of depictions, there weren't very strict guidelines when representing the deity.[10] On pottery, he has a dark beard and is presented as a stately ﬁgure on an “ebony throne.”[22] His attributes in art include a scepter, cornucopia, rooster.[39] and a key, which both represented his control over the underworld and acted as a reminder that the gates of the Underworld were always locked so that souls could not leave.[40] Even if the doors were open, Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the Underworld, ensured that while all souls were allowed to enter into The Underworld freely, none could ever escape.[41] The dog is often portrayed next to the god as a means of easy identiﬁcation, since no other deity relates to it so directly. Sometimes, artists painted Hades as looking away from the other gods, as he was disliked by them as well as humans.[10] As Plouton, he was regarded in a more positive light. He holds a cornucopia, representing the gifts he bestows upon people as well as fertility, which he becomes connected to.[10]

30.2.3

Persephone

The consort of Hades was Persephone, represented by the Greeks as the beautiful daughter of Demeter.[42] Persephone did not submit to Hades willingly, but was abducted by him while picking ﬂowers in the ﬁelds of Nysa. In protest of his act, Demeter cast a curse on the land and there was a great famine; though, one by one, the gods came to request she lift it, lest mankind perish, she asserted that the earth would remain barren until she saw her daughter again. Finally, Zeus intervened; via Hermes, he requested that Hades return Persephone. Hades complied, But he on his part secretly gave her sweet pomegranate seed to eat, taking care for himself that she might not remain continually with grave, dark-robed Demeter. — Homeric Hymn to Demeter[43]

Demeter questioned Persephone on her return to light and air: ...but if you have tasted food, you must go back again beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a third part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you shall be with me and the other deathless gods. — Homeric Hymn to Demeter[44]

This bound her to Hades and the Underworld, much to the dismay of Demeter. It is not clear whether Persephone was accomplice to the ploy. Zeus proposed a compromise, to which all parties agreed: of the year, Persephone would spend one third with her husband.[45] It is during this time that winter casts on the earth “an aspect of sadness and mourning.”[46]

30.2.4

Theseus and Pirithous

Theseus and Pirithous pledged to kidnap and marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus chose Helen and together they kidnapped her and decided to hold onto her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone. They left Helen with Theseus’ mother, Aethra, and traveled to the Underworld. Hades knew of their plan to capture his wife, so he pretended to oﬀer them hospitality and set a feast; as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Theseus was eventually rescued by Heracles but Pirithous remained trapped as punishment for daring to seek the wife of a god for his own.

30.2.5

Heracles

Main article: Cerberus Heracles' ﬁnal labour was to capture Cerberus. First, Heracles went to Eleusis to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. He did this to absolve himself of guilt for killing the centaurs and to learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive. He found the entrance to the underworld at Taenarum. Athena and Hermes helped him through and back from Hades. Heracles asked Hades for permission to take Cerberus. Hades agreed as long as Heracles didn't harm Cerberus. When Heracles dragged the dog out of Hades, he passed through the cavern Acherusia.

30.3. REALM OF HADES

30.2.6

201

Minthe

The nymph Minthe, associated with the river Cocytus, loved by Hades, was turned into the mint plant, by a jealous Persephone.[47]

30.3 Realm of Hades Main articles: Greek underworld and Hades in Christianity In older Greek myths, the realm of Hades is the misty and gloomy[48] abode of the dead (also called Erebus,[48] where all mortals go. Very few mortals could leave Hades once they entered. The exceptions, Heracles and Theseus, are heroic. Even Odysseus in his Nekyia (Odyssey, xi) calls up the spirits of the departed, rather than descend to them. Later Greek philosophy introduced the idea that all mortals are judged after death and are either rewarded or cursed. There were several sections of the realm of Hades, including Elysium, the Asphodel Meadows, and Tartarus. Greek mythographers were not perfectly consistent about the geography of the afterlife. A contrasting myth of the afterlife concerns the Garden of the Hesperides, often identified with the Isles of the Blessed, where the blessed heroes may dwell. In Roman mythology, the entrance to the Underworld located at Avernus, a crater near Cumae, was the route Aeneas used to descend to the realm of the dead.[49] By synecdoche, “Avernus” could be substituted for the underworld as a whole. The di inferi were a collective of underworld divinities. For Hellenes, the deceased entered the underworld by crossing the Styx, ferried across by Charon kair'-on), who charged an obolus, a small coin for passage placed in the mouth of the deceased by pious relatives. Paupers and the friendless gathered for a hundred years on the near shore according to Book VI of Vergil’s Aeneid. Greeks offered propitiatory libations to prevent the deceased from returning to the upper world to “haunt” those who had not given them a proper burial. The far side of the river was guarded by Cerberus, the three-headed dog defeated by Heracles (Roman Hercules). Passing beyond Cerberus, the shades of the departed entered the land of the dead to be judged. The five rivers of the realm of Hades, and their symbolic meanings, are Acheron (the river of sorrow, or woe), Cocytus (lamentation), Phlegethon (fire), Lethe (oblivion), and Styx (hate), the river upon which even the gods swore and in which Achilles was dipped to render him invincible. The Styx forms the boundary between the upper and lower worlds. See also Eridanos. The first region of Hades comprises the Fields of Asphodel, described in Odyssey xi, where the shades of heroes wander despondently among lesser spirits, who twitter around them like bats. Only libations of blood offered to them in the world of the living can reawaken in them for a time the sensations of humanity. Beyond lay Erebus, which could be taken for a euphonym of Hades, whose own name was dread. There were two pools, that of Lethe, where the common souls flocked to erase all memory, and the pool of Mnemosyne (“memory”), where the initiates of the Mysteries drank instead. In the forecourt of the palace of Hades and Persephone sit the three judges of the Underworld: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus. There at the trivium sacred to Hecate, where three roads meet, souls are judged, returned to the Fields of Asphodel if they are neither virtuous nor evil, sent by the road to Tartarus if they are impious or evil, or sent to Elysium (Islands of the Blessed) with the “blameless” heroes. In the Sibylline oracles, a curious hodgepodge of Greco-Roman and Judaeo-Christian elements, Hades again appears as the abode of the dead, and by way of folk etymology, it even derives Hades from the name Adam (the first man), saying it is because he was the first to enter there.[50] Owing to its appearance in the New Testament of the Bible, Hades also has a distinct meaning in Christianity.

30.4 Genealogy 30.5 Popular culture Main article: Hades in popular culture

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30.6 See also • Ereshkigal • Ghosts in Mesopotamian religions • Judgement Day • Osiris • Irkalla • Saveasi'uleo • The Golden Bough (mythology) • Yama (East Asia)

30.7 Notes [1] Cartwright, Mark, “Hades”, Ancient History Encyclopedia, retrieved 29 June 2015. [2] Reckoning by this reverse order is preferred by Poseidon in his speech at Homer, Iliad 15.187. [3] Tripp, p. 256. [4] According to Dixon-Kennedy, p. 143 (following Kerényi 1951, p. 230) says "...his name means 'the unseen', a direct contrast to his brother Zeus, who was originally seen to represent the brightness of day”. Ivanov, p. 284, citing Beekes 1998, pp. 17–19, notes that derivation of Hades from a proposed *som wid- is semantically untenable; see also Beekes 2009, p. 34. [5] West, p. 394. [6] Bailly, s.v. Ἅιδης. [7] Bailly, s.v. *Ἄϊς. [8] See Ancient Greek phonology and modern Greek. [9] Bailly, s.v. Πλούτων. [10] “Gale Virtual Reference”. Retrieved 2015-11-18. [11] Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, 806, note. Translated by Smyth, Herbert Weir (1922) in Loeb Classical Library, Volume 145. [12] Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). “Agesander (1)". In Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 68. [13] Liddell, Henry; Robert Scott (1996). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. s.v. ISBN 0-19864226-1. [14] Callimachus, Hymn. in Pallad. 130, with Friedrich Spanheim's note [15] Hesychius of Alexandria s.v. [16] Aeschyl. ap. Athen. iii. p. 99 [17] Nicander, ap. Athen. xv. p. 684 [18] “Google Translate”. translate.google.com. Retrieved 2015-12-09. [19] Tripp, p. 257. [20] Walter Burkert, in The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Inﬂuence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, 1992, (pp 90ﬀ) compares this single reference with the Mesopotamian Atra-Hasis: “the basic structure of both texts is astonishingly similar.” The drawing of lots is not the usual account; Hesiod (Theogony, 883) declares that Zeus overthrew his father and was acclaimed king by the other gods. “There is hardly another passage in Homer which comes so close to being a translation of an Akkadian epic,” Burkert concludes (p. 91).

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203

[21] Poseidon speaks: “For when we threw the lots I received the grey sea as my abode, Hades drew the murky darkness, Zeus, however, drew the wide sky of brightness and clouds; the earth is common to all, and spacious Olympus.” Iliad 15.187 [22] “Hades the Greek God of the Underworld, Hades the unseen”. www.greekmyths-greekmythology.com. Retrieved 201511-18. [23] Grant and Hazel, p. 236. [24] Homeric Hymn to Demeter 84–86 [25] Grant and Hazel, p. 235. [26] Gayley, p. 47. [27] Gayley, p. 104. [28] Gayley, pp. 165–166. [29] The name Eubouleos is more often seen as an epithet for Dionysus or Zeus. [30] Iliad, ix [31] “Hades never knows what is happening in the world above, or in Olympus, except for fragmentary information which comes to him when mortals strike their hands upon the earth and invoke him with oaths and curses” (Robert Graves, The Greek Myths 1960: §31.e). [32] Kerényi 1951, p. 231. [33] See, Sally (2014). The Greek Myths. S&T. p. 21. Retrieved 18 January 2017. [34] Heraclitus, encountering the festival of the Phallophoria, in which phalli were paraded about, remarked in a surviving fragment: “If they did not order the procession in honor of the god and address the phallus song to him, this would be the most shameless behavior. But Hades is the same as Dionysos, for whom they rave and act like bacchantes", Kerényi 1976, pp. 239–240. [35] Kerényi 1967, p. 40. [36] Kerényi 1976, p. 240. [37] Kerényi 1976, pp. 83, 199. [38] The Rape of Persephone Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Naples, Italy [39] Hansen and Hansen, p. 183. [40] Tripp, p. 257; Grant and Hazel, p. 235 [41] Tripp, p. 258. [42] Guirand, p. 190. [43] Homeric Hymn to Demeter 371–374 [44] Homeric Hymn to Demeter 398–400 [45] Guirand, p. 175. [46] Guirand, p. 176. [47] Strabo, 8.3.14; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.728–730. [48] Homeric Hymn to Demeter [49] Aeneid, book 6. [50] Sibylline Oracles I, 101–3 [51] This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted. [52] According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74. [53] According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.

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[54] According to Hesiod, Theogony 886–890, of Zeus’ children by his seven wives, Athena was the ﬁrst to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena “from his head”, see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84. [55] According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus’ severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100. [56] According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.

30.8 References • Bailly, Anatole, Dictionnaire Grec - Grançais, 26th ed. (1963). (French). Internet Archive (1935 edition). • Beekes, Robert S. P. (1998), “Hades and Elysion” in Mír Curad: Studies in Honor of Calvert Watkins (ed. J. Jasanoﬀ et al.), 17-28. Innsbruck (IBS 92). • Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Leiden: E.J. Brill. • Dixon-Kennedy, Mike, Encyclopedia Of Greco-Roman Mythology, ABC-CLIO (December 1, 1998). ISBN 978-1576070949. Internet Archive • Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). • Gayley, Charles Mills, The Classic Myths in English Literature and in Art, Based Originally on Bulﬁnch’s “Age of fable” (1855), Ginn and Company, 1911. Internet Archive. • Guirand, Felix, Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, Batchworth Press Limited, 1959. • Grant, Michael; Hazel, John (2002). Who’s Who in Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0415260418. • Hansen, William, William F. Hansen, Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans, Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 9780195300352. • Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homer, The Odyssey of Homer, translated by Lattimore, Richard, Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006. ISBN 978-0061244186. • Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Homeric Hymn to Demeter (2), in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Ivanov, Vyacheslav V., “Old Novgorodian Nevide, Russian nevidal’ : Greek ἀίδηλος" In UCLA Indo European Studies Volume 1 edited by Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Brent Vine, July 1999. pp. 283–293. • Kerényi, Carl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. • Kerényi, Carl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01915-0. • Kerényi, Carl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-09863-8.

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• Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Strabo, Geography, translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924). LacusCurtis, Books 6–14, at the Perseus Digital Library • Tripp, Edward, Crowell’s Handbook of Classical Mythology, Ty Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). ISBN 069022608X. • West, M. L., European Poetry and Myth, OUP Oxford, 2007. ISBN 9780199280759.

30.9 External links Maps of the Underworld (Greek mythology) • Color map • Ancient map The God Hades • Discourse to the Greeks Concerning Hades by Flavius Josephus • Theoi Project, Hades references in classical literature and ancient art • Greek Mythology Link, Hades

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Getty Villa - Collection (5305218066) by Dave & Margie Hill, originally found on Flickr

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30.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Persephone and Hades: tondo of an Attic red-ﬁgured kylix, ca. 440–430 BC

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Oil painting of Hades abducting Persephone. 18th Century. Oil on wood with gilt background. Property of Missing Link Antiques.

Hades abducting Persephone, fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina, Macedonia, Greece, c. 340 BC

30.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Aeneasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journey to Hades through the entrance at Cumae mapped by Andrea de Jorio, 1825

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Pluto (mythology) For the dwarf planet, see Pluto. For other uses, see Pluto (disambiguation). Pluto (Greek: Πλούτων, Ploutōn) was the ruler of the underworld in classical mythology. The earlier name for the god was Hades, which became more common as the name of the underworld itself. In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Pluto represents a more positive concept of the god who presides over the afterlife. Ploutōn was frequently conflated with Ploutos (Πλοῦτος, Plutus), a god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because as a chthonic god Pluto ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest.[1] The name Ploutōn came into widespread usage with the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which Pluto was venerated as a stern ruler but the loving husband of Persephone. The couple received souls in the afterlife, and are invoked together in religious inscriptions. Hades, by contrast, had few temples and religious practices associated with him, and he is portrayed as the dark and violent abductor of Persephone. Pluto and Hades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share two dominant myths. In Greek cosmogony, the god received the rule of the underworld in a three-way division of sovereignty over the world, with his brother Zeus ruling the Sky and his other brother Poseidon sovereign over the Sea. His central narrative is the abduction of Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm.[2] Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears in Greek literature of the Classical period, in the works of the Athenian playwrights and of the philosopher Plato, who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as the possessor of a quest-object, and especially in the descent of Orpheus or other heroes to the underworld.[3] Plūtō ([ˈpluːtoː]; genitive Plūtōnis) is the Latinized form of the Greek Plouton. Pluto’s Roman equivalent is Dis Pater, whose name is most often taken to mean “Rich Father” and is perhaps a direct translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure Roman Orcus, like Hades the name of both a god of the underworld and the underworld as a place. The borrowed Greek name Pluto is sometimes used for the ruler of the dead in Latin literature, leading some mythology handbooks to assert misleadingly that Pluto was the Roman counterpart of Hades.[4] Pluto (Pluton in French and German, Plutone in Italian) becomes the most common name for the classical ruler of the underworld in subsequent Western literature and other art forms.

31.1 Hesiod The name Plouton does not appear in Greek literature of the Archaic period.[5] In Hesiod's Theogony, the six children of Cronus and Rhea are Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. The male children divide the world into three realms. Hades takes Persephone by force from her mother Demeter, with the consent of Zeus. Ploutos, “Wealth,” appears in the Theogony as the child of Demeter and Iasion: “fine Plutus, who goes upon the whole earth and the broad back of the sea, and whoever meets him and comes into his hands, that man he makes rich, and he bestows much wealth upon him.” The union of Demeter and Iasion, described also in the Odyssey,[6] took place in a fallow field that had been ploughed three times, in what seems to be a reference to a ritual copulation or sympathetic magic to ensure the earth’s fertility.[7] “The resemblance of the name Ploutos to Plouton ...,” it has been noted, “cannot be accidental. Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone’s husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility.”[8] Demeter’s son Plutus merges in the narrative tradition with her son-in-law Pluto, redefining the implacable chariot212

31.1. HESIOD

213

Pluto veliﬁcans, with a Cupid attending his abduction of Proserpina in a four-horse chariot (Roman cinerary altar, Antonine Era, 2nd century)

driver Hades whose horses trample the ﬂowering earth.[9] That the underworld god was associated early on with success in agricultural activity is already evident in Hesiod’s Works and Days, line 465-469: “Pray to Zeus of the Earth and to pure Demeter to make Demeter’s holy grain sound and heavy, when ﬁrst you begin ploughing, when you hold in your hand the end of the plough-tail and bring down your stick on the backs of the oxen as they draw on the pole-bar by the yoke-straps.”[10]

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A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC

31.2 Plouton and Ploutos Plouton was one of several euphemistic names for Hades, described in the Iliad as the god most hateful to mortals.[11] Plato says that people prefer the name Plouton, “giver of wealth,” because the name of Hades is fear-provoking.[12] The name was understood as referring to “the boundless riches of the earth, both the crops on its surface—he was originally a god of the land—and the mines hidden within it.”[13] What is sometimes taken as “confusion” of the two gods Plouton and Ploutos (“Wealth”) held or acquired a theological significance in antiquity. As a lord of abundance or riches, Pluto expresses the aspect of the underworld god that was positive, symbolized in art by the “horn of plenty” (cornucopia),[14] by means of which Plouton is distinguished from the gloomier Hades.[15] The Roman poet Ennius (ca. 239–169 BC), the leading figure in the Hellenization of Latin literature, considered Pluto a Greek god to be explained in terms of the Roman equivalents Dis Pater and Orcus.[16] It is unclear whether Pluto had a literary presence in Rome before Ennius. Some scholars think that rituals and beliefs pertaining to Pluto entered Roman culture with the establishment of the Saecular Games in 249 BC, and that Dis pater was only a translation of Plouton.[17] In the mid-1st century BC, Cicero identifies Pluto with Dis, explaining that “The earth in all its power and plenty is sacred to Father Dis, a name which is the same as Dives, 'The Wealthy One,' as is the Greek Plouton. This is because everything is born of the earth and returns to it again.”[18] During the Roman Imperial era, the Greek geographer Strabo (1st century AD) makes a distinction between Pluto and Hades. In writing of the mineral wealth of ancient Iberia (Roman Spain), he says that among the Turdetani, it is “Pluto, and not Hades, who inhabits the region down below.”[19] In the discourse On Mourning by the Greek author Lucian (2nd century AD), Pluto’s “wealth” is the dead he rules over in the abyss (chasma); the name Hades is reserved for the underworld itself.[20]

31.2.1

Other identiﬁcations

In Greek religious practice, Pluto is sometimes seen as the “chthonic Zeus” (Zeus Chthonios[21] or Zeus Catachthonios[22] ), or at least as having functions or signiﬁcance equivalent to those of Zeus but pertaining to the earth or underworld.[23] In ancient Roman and Hellenistic religion, Pluto was identiﬁed with a number of other deities, in-

31.3. MYTHOLOGY

215

Ploutos with the horn of abundance, in the company of Dionysos (4th century BC)

cluding Summanus, the Roman god of nocturnal thunder;[24] Februus, the Roman god from whose puriﬁcation rites the month of February takes its name;[25] the syncretic god Serapis, regarded as Pluto’s Egyptian equivalent;[26] and the Semitic god Muth (Μούθ). Muth was described by Philo of Byblos as the equivalent of both Thanatos (Death personiﬁed) and Pluto.[27] The ancient Greeks did not regard Pluto as “death” per se.[28]

31.3 Mythology See also: Abduction of Persephone The best-known myth involving Pluto or Hades is the abduction of Persephone, also known as Kore (“the Maiden”). The earliest literary versions of the myth are a brief mention in Hesiod’s Theogony and the extended narrative of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter; in both these works, the ruler of the underworld is named as Hades (“the Hidden One”). Hades is an unsympathetic figure, and Persephone’s unwillingness is emphasized.[29] Increased usage of the name Plouton in religious inscriptions and literary texts reflects the influence of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which treated Pluto and Persephone as a divine couple who received initiates in the afterlife; as such, Pluto was disassociated from the “violent abductor” of Kore.[30] Two early works that give the abductor god’s name as Pluto are the Greek mythography traditionally known as the Library of “Apollodorus” (1st century BC)[31] and the Latin Fables of Hyginus (ca. 64 BC–AD 17).[32] The most influential version of the abduction myth is that of Ovid (d. 17 or 18 AD), who tells the story in both the Metamorphoses (Book 5) and the Fasti (Book 4).[33] Another major retelling, also in Latin, is the long unfinished poem De raptu Proserpinae (“On the Abduction of Proserpina”) by Claudian (d. 404 AD). Ovid uses the name Dis,

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Pluton (1884–86) by Henri Chapu, part of a pair with a standing Persephone gathering ﬂowers

not Pluto in these two passages,[34] and Claudian uses Pluto only once; translators and editors, however, sometimes supply the more familiar “Pluto” when other epithets appear in the source text.[35] The abduction myth was a popular subject for Greek and Roman art, and recurs throughout Western art and literature, where the name “Pluto” becomes common (see Pluto in Western art and literature below). Narrative details from Ovid and Claudian inﬂuence these later versions in which the abductor is named as Pluto, especially the role of Venus and Cupid in manipulating Pluto with love and desire.[36] Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and certainly by the time of Natale Conti's inﬂuential Mythologiae (1567), the traditions pertaining to the various rulers of the classical underworld coalesced into a single mythology that made few if any distinctions among Hades, Pluto, Dis, and Orcus.

31.3.1

Oﬀspring

Unlike his freely procreating brothers Zeus and Poseidon, Pluto is monogamous, and is rarely said to have children.[37] In Orphic texts,[38] the chthonic nymph Melinoe is the daughter of Persephone by Zeus disguised as Pluto,[39] and

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217

the Eumenides (“The Kindly Ones”) are the offspring of Persephone and Zeus Chthonios, often identified as Pluto.[40] The Augustan poet Vergil says that Pluto is the father of Allecto the Fury, whom he hates.[41] The lack of a clear distinction between Pluto and “chthonic Zeus” confuses the question of whether in some traditions, now obscure, Persephone bore children to her husband. In the late 4th century AD, Claudian’s epic on the abduction motivates Pluto with a desire for children. The poem is unfinished, however, and anything Claudian may have known of these traditions is lost.[42] Justin Martyr (2nd century AD) alludes to children of Pluto, but neither names nor enumerates them.[43] Hesychius (5th century AD) mentions a “son of Pluto.”[44] In his 14th-century mythography, Boccaccio records a tradition in which Pluto was the father of the divine personification Veneratio (“Reverence”), noting that she had no mother because Proserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) was sterile.[45] In The Faerie Queene (1590s), Edmund Spenser invents a daughter for Pluto whom he calls Lucifera.[46] The character’s name was taken from the 16th-century mythography of Natale Conti, who used it as the Latin translation of Greek phosphor, “light-bearer,” a regular epithet of Hecate.[47] Spenser incorporated aspects of the mysteries into The Faerie Queene.[48]

31.3.2

Pluto and Orpheus

Orpheus before Pluto and Proserpina (1605), by Jan Brueghel the Elder

Orpheus was regarded as a founder and prophet of the mysteries called "Orphic,” "Dionysiac,” or "Bacchic.” Mythologized for his ability to entrance even animals and trees with his music, he was also credited in antiquity with the authorship of the lyrics that have survived as the Orphic Hymns, among them a hymn to Pluto. Orpheus’s voice and lyre-playing represented a medium of revelation or higher knowledge for the mystery cults.[49] In his central myth, Orpheus visits the underworld in the hope of retrieving his bride, Eurydice, relying on the power of his music to charm the king and queen of Hades. Greek narratives of Orpheus’s descent and performance typically name the ruler of the underworld as Plouton, as for instance in the Bibliotheca.[50] The myth demonstrates the importance of Pluto “the Rich” as the possessor of a quest-object. Orpheus performing before Pluto and Persephone was a common subject of ancient and later Western literature and art, and one of the most signiﬁcant mythological themes of the classical tradition.[51]

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The demonstration of Orpheus’s power depends on the normal obduracy of Pluto; the Augustan poet Horace describes him as incapable of tears.[52] Claudian, however, portrays the steely god as succumbing to Orpheus’s song so that “with iron cloak he wipes his tears” (ferrugineo lacrimas deterget amictu), an image renewed by Milton in Il Penseroso (106–107): “Such notes ... / Drew iron tears down Pluto’s cheek.”[53] The Greek writer Lucian (ca. 125–after 180 AD) suggests that Pluto’s love for his wife gave the ruler of the underworld a special sympathy or insight into lovers parted by death.[54] In one of Lucian’s Dialogues of the Dead, Pluto questions Protesilaus, the ﬁrst Greek hero killed in the Trojan War, who wishes to return to the world of the living. “You are then in love with life?" Pluto asks. “Such lovers we have here in plenty; but they love an object, which none of them can obtain.” Protesilaus explains, like an Orpheus in reverse, that he has left behind a young bride whose memory even the Lethe's waters of forgetting have not erased from him. Pluto assures him that death will reunite them someday, but Protesilaus argues that Pluto himself should understand love and its impatience, and reminds the king of his grant to Orpheus and to Alcestis, who took her husband’s place in death and then was permitted at the insistence of Heracles to return to him. When Persephone intercedes for the dead warrior, Pluto grants the request at once, though allowing only one day for the reunion.[55]

31.4 Mysteries and cult

Hydria (ca. 340 BC) depicting ﬁgures from the Eleusinian Mysteries

As Pluto gained importance as an embodiment of agricultural wealth within the Eleusinian Mysteries, from the 5th century BC onward the name Hades was increasingly reserved for the underworld as a place.[56] Neither Hades nor Pluto was one of the traditional Twelve Olympians, and Hades seems to have received limited cult,[57] perhaps only at Elis, where the temple was opened once a year.[58] During the time of Plato, the Athenians periodically honored the

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god called Plouton with the “strewing of a couch” (tên klinên strôsai).[59] At Eleusis, Plouton had his own priestess.[60] Pluto was worshipped with Persephone as a divine couple at Knidos, Ephesos, Mytilene, and Sparta as well as at Eleusis, where they were known simply as God (Theos) and Goddess (Thea).[61] In the ritual texts of the mystery religions preserved by the so-called Orphic or Bacchic gold tablets, from the late 5th century BC onward[62] the name Hades appears more frequently than Plouton, but in reference to the underground place:[63] Plouton is the ruler who presides over it in a harmonious partnership[64] with Persephone.[65] By the end of the 4th century BC, the name Plouton appears in Greek metrical inscriptions.[66] Two fragmentary tablets greet Pluto and Persephone jointly,[67] and the divine couple appear as welcoming figures in a metrical epitaph: I know that even below the earth, if there is indeed a reward for the worthy ones, the first and foremost honors, nurse,[68] shall be yours, next to Persephone and Pluto.[69] Hesychius identifies Pluto with Eubouleus,[70] but other ancient sources distinguish between these two underworld deities. In the Mysteries Eubouleus plays the role of a torchbearer, possibly a guide for the initiate’s return.[71] In the view of Lewis Richard Farnell, Eubouleus was originally a title referring to the “good counsel” the ruler of the underworld was able to give and which was sought at Pluto’s dream oracles; by the 2nd century BC, however, he had acquired a separate identity.[72]

31.4.1

Orphic Hymn to Pluto

The Orphic Hymn to Pluto addresses the god as “strong-spirited” and the “All-Receiver” who commands death and is the master of mortals. His titles are given as Zeus Chthonios and Euboulos (“Good Counsel”).[73] In the hymn’s topography, Pluto’s dwelling is in Tartarus, simultaneously a “meadow” and “thick-shaded and dark,” where the Acheron encircles “the roots of the earth.” Hades is again the name of the place, here described as “windless,” and its gates, through which Pluto carried “pure Demeter’s daughter” as his bride, are located in an Attic cave within the district of Eleusis. The route from Persephone’s meadow to Hades crosses the sea. The hymn concludes: You alone were born to judge deeds obscure and conspicuous. Holiest and illustrious ruler of all, frenzied god, You delight in the worshiper’s respect and reverence. Come with favor and joy to the initiates. I summon you.[74] The hymn is one of several examples of Greco-Roman prayer that express a desire for the presence of a deity, and has been compared to a similar epiclesis in the Acts of Thomas.[75]

31.4.2

Magic invocations

The names of both Hades and Pluto appear also in the Greek Magical Papyri and curse tablets, with Hades typically referring to the underworld as a place, and Pluto regularly invoked as the partner of Persephone.[76] Five Latin curse tablets from Rome, dating to the mid-1st century BC, promise Persephone and Pluto an offering of "dates, figs, and a black pig" if the curse is fulfilled by the desired deadline. The pig was a characteristic animal sacrifice to chthonic deities, whose victims were almost always black or dark in color.[77] A set of curse tablets written in Doric Greek and found in a tomb addresses a Pasianax, “Lord to All,”[78] sometimes taken as a title of Pluto,[79] but more recently thought to be a magical name for the corpse.[80] Pasianax is found elsewhere as an epithet of Zeus, or in the tablets may invoke a daimon like Abrasax.[81]

31.4.3

Sanctuaries of Pluto

Main article: Ploutonion A sanctuary dedicated to Pluto was called a ploutonion (Latin plutonium). The complex at Eleusis for the mysteries had a ploutonion regarded as the birthplace of the divine child Ploutos, in another instance of conﬂation or close association of the two gods.[82] Greek inscriptions record an altar of Pluto, which was to be “plastered”, that is, resurfaced for a new round of sacriﬁces at Eleusis.[83] One of the known ploutonia was in the sacred grove between

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Tralleis and Nysa, where a temple of Pluto and Persephone was located. Visitors sought healing and dream oracles.[84] The ploutonion at Hierapolis, Phrygia, was connected to the rites of Cybele, but during the Roman Imperial era was subsumed by the cult of Apollo, as conﬁrmed by archaeological investigations during the 1960s. It too was a dream oracle.[85] The sites often seem to have been chosen because the presence of naturally occurring mephitic vapors was thought to indicate an opening to the underworld.[86] In Italy, Avernus was considered an entrance to the underworld that produced toxic vapors, but Strabo seems not to think that it was a ploutonion.[87]

31.5 Iconography and attributes

Plouton with cornucopia (Attic red-ﬁgure amphora, ca. 470 BC)

31.5.1

In Eleusinian scenes

Kevin Clinton attempted to distinguish the iconography of Hades, Plouton, Ploutos, and the Eleusinian Theos in 5thcentury vase painting that depicts scenes from or relating to the mysteries. In Clinton’s schema, Plouton is a mature

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man, sometimes even white-haired; Hades is also usually bearded and mature, but his darkness is emphasized in literary descriptions, represented in art by dark hair. Plouton’s most common attribute is a sceptre, but he also often holds a full or overﬂowing cornucopia; Hades sometimes holds a horn, but it is depicted with no contents and should be understood as a drinking horn. Unlike Plouton, Hades never holds agrarian attributes such as stalks of grain. His chest is usually bare or only partly covered, whereas Plouton is fully robed (exceptions, however, are admitted by the author). Plouton stands, often in the company of both Demeter and Kore, or sometimes one of the goddesses, but Hades almost always sits or reclines, usually with Persephone facing him.[88] “Confusion and disagreement” about the interpretation of these images remain.[89]

31.5.2

The keys of Pluto

Attributes of Pluto mentioned in the Orphic Hymn to Pluto are his scepter, keys, throne, and horses. In the hymn, the keys are connected to his capacity for giving wealth to humanity, speciﬁcally the agricultural wealth of “the year’s fruits.” Pausanias explains the signiﬁcance of Pluto’s key in describing a wondrously carved cedar chest at the Temple of Hera in Elis. Numerous deities are depicted, with one panel grouping Dionysus, Persephone, the nymphs and Pluto. Pluto holds a key because “they say that what is called Hades has been locked up by Pluto, and that nobody will return back again therefrom.”[90] Natale Conti cites Pausanias in noting that keys are an attribute of Pluto as the scepter is of Jove (Greek Zeus) and the trident of Neptune (Poseidon).[91] A golden key (chrusea klês) was laid on the tongue of initiates by priests at Eleusis[92] and was a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret.[93] A key is among the attributes of other infernal deities such as Hecate, Anubis, and Persephone, and those who act as guardians or timekeepers, such as Janus and Aion.[94] Aeacus (Aiakos), one of the three mortal kings who became judges in the afterlife, is also a kleidouchos (κλειδοῦχος), “holder of the keys,” and a priestly doorkeeper in the court of Pluto and Persephone.[95]

31.5.3

Vegetation and color

According to the Stoic philosopher Cornutus (1st century AD), Pluto wore a wreath of phasganion, more often called xiphion,[96] traditionally identified as a type of gladiolus.[97] Dioscorides recorded medical uses for the plant. For extracting stings and thorns, xiphion was mixed with wine and frankincense to make a cataplasm. The plant was also used as an aphrodisiac[98] and contraceptive.[99] It grew in humid places. In an obscure passage, Cornutus seems to connect Pluto’s wearing of phasganion to an etymology for Avernus, which he derives from the word for “air,” perhaps through some association with the color glaukos, “bluish grey,” “greenish” or “sea-colored,” which might describe the plant’s leaves. Because the color could describe the sky, Cornutus regularly gives it divine connotations.[100] Pluto’s twin sister was named Glauca. Ambiguity of color is characteristic of Pluto. Although both he and his realm are regularly described as dark, black, or gloomy, the god himself is sometimes seen as pale or having a pallor. Martianus Capella (5th century) describes him as both “growing pale in shadow, a fugitive from light” and actively “shedding darkness in the gloom of Tartarean night,” crowned with a wreath made of ebony as suitable for the kingdom he governs.[101] The horses of Pluto are usually black, but Ovid describes them as “sky-colored” (caeruleus, from caelum, “sky”), which might be blue, greenish-blue, or dark blue.[102] The Renaissance mythographer Natale Conti says wreaths of narcissus, maidenhair fern (adianthus), and cypress were given to Pluto.[103] In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Gaia (Earth) produced the narcissus at Zeus’s request as a snare for Persephone; when she grasps it, a chasm opens up and the “Host to Many” (Hades) seizes her.[104] Narcissus wreaths were used in early times to crown Demeter and Persephone, as well as the Furies (Eumenides).[105] The flower was associated with narcotic drugginess (narkê, “torpor”),[106] erotic fascination,[107] and imminent death;[108] to dream of crowning oneself with narcissus was a bad sign.[109] In the myth of Narcissus, the flower is created when a beautiful, self-absorbed youth rejects sexuality and is condemned to perpetual self-love along the Styx.[110] Conti’s inclusion of adianthus (Adiantum in modern nomenclature) is less straightforward. The name, meaning “unmoistened” (Greek adianton), was taken in antiquity to refer to the fern’s ability to repel water. The plant, which grew in wet places, was also called capillus veneris, “hair of Venus,” divinely dry when she emerged from the sea.[111] Historian of medicine John M. Riddle has suggested that the adianthus was one of the ferns Dioscorides called asplenon and prescribed as a contraceptive (atokios).[112] The associations of Proserpine (Persephone) and the maidenhair are alluded to by Samuel Beckett in a 1946 poem, in which the self is a Platonic cave with capillaires, in French both “maidenhair fern” and "blood vessels".[113]

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An ageing specimen of Mediterranean cypress

The cypress (Greek cyparissus, Latin cupressus) has traditional associations with mourning.[114] In ancient Attica, households in mourning were garlanded with cypress,[115] and it was used to fumigate the air during cremations.[116] In the myth of Cyparissus, a youth was transformed into a cypress, consumed by grief over the accidental death of a pet stag.[117] A “white cypress” is part of the topography of the underworld that recurs in the Orphic gold tablets as a kind of beacon near the entrance, perhaps to be compared with the Tree of Life in various world mythologies. The description of the cypress as “white” (Greek leukē), since the botanical tree is dark, is symbolic, evoking the white garments worn by initiates or the clothing of a corpse, or the pallor of the dead. In Orphic funeral rites, it was

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forbidden to make coﬃns of cypress.[118] The tradition of the mystery religions favors Pluto as a loving and faithful partner to Persephone, in contrast to the violence of Hades in early myths, but one ancient myth that preserves a lover for him parallels the abduction and also has a vegetative aspect.[119] A Roman source says that Pluto fell in love with Leuca (Greek Leukē, “White”), the most beautiful of the nymphs, and abducted her to live with him in his realm. After the long span of her life came to its end, he memorialized their love by creating a white tree in the Elysian Fields. The tree was the white poplar (Greek leukē), the leaves of which are white on one side and dark on the other, representing the duality of upper and underworld.[120] A wreath of white poplar leaves was fashioned by Heracles to mark his ascent from the underworld, an aition for why it was worn by initiates[121] and by champion athletes participating in funeral games.[122] Like other plants associated with Pluto, white poplar was regarded as a contraceptive in antiquity.[123] The relation of this tree to the white cypress of the mysteries is debated.[124]

31.5.4

The helmet of invisibility

The Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus uses the name Plouton instead of Hades in relating the tripartite division of sovereignty, the abduction of Persephone, and the visit of Orpheus to the underworld. This version of the theogony for the most part follows Hesiod (see above), but adds that the three brothers were each given a gift by the Cyclopes to use in their battle against the Titans: Zeus thunder and lightning; Poseidon a trident; and Pluto a helmet (kyneê).[125] The helmet Pluto receives is presumably the magical Cap of Invisibility (aidos kyneê), but the Bibliotheca is the only ancient source that explicitly says it belonged to Pluto.[126] The verbal play of aidos, “invisible,” and Hades is thought to account for this attribution of the helmet to the ruler of the underworld, since no ancient narratives record his use or possession of it. Later authors such as Rabelais (16th century) do attribute the helmet to Pluto.[127] Erasmus calls it the “helmet of Orcus”[128] and gives it as a ﬁgure of speech referring to those who conceal their true nature by a cunning device. Francis Bacon notes the proverbial usage: “the helmet of Pluto, which maketh the politic man go invisible, is secrecy in the counsel, and celerity in the execution.”[129]

31.5.5

Bident

No ancient image of the ruler of the underworld can be said with certainty to show him with a bident,[130] though the ornamented tip of his scepter may have been misunderstood at times as a bident.[131] In the Roman world, the bident (from bi-, “two” + dent-, “teeth”) was an agricultural implement. It may also represent one of the three types of lightning wielded by Jupiter, the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and the Etruscan Tinia. The later notion that the ruler of the underworld wielded a trident or bident can perhaps be traced to a line in Seneca's Hercules Furens (“Hercules Enraged”), in which Father Dis, the Roman counterpart of Pluto, uses a three-pronged spear to drive off Hercules as he attempts to invade the underworld. Seneca calls Dis the “Infernal Jove”[132] or the “dire Jove”[133] (the Jove who gives dire or ill omens, dirae), just as in the Greek tradition, Plouton is sometimes identified as a “chthonic Zeus.” That the trident and bident might be somewhat interchangeable is suggested by a Byzantine scholiast, who mentions Poseidon being armed with a bident.[134] In the Middle Ages, classical underworld figures began to be depicted with a pitchfork.[135] Early Christian writers had identified the classical underworld with Hell, and its denizens as demons or devils.[136] In the Renaissance, the bident became a conventional attribute of Pluto. In an influential ceiling mural depicting the wedding of Cupid and Psyche, painted by Raphael's workshop for the Villa Farnesina in 1517, Pluto is shown holding the bident, with Cerberus at his side, while Neptune holds the trident.[137] Perhaps influenced by this work, Agostino Carracci originally depicted Pluto with a bident in a preparatory drawing for his painting Pluto (1592), in which the god ended up holding his characteristic key.[138] In Caravaggio's Giove, Nettuno e Plutone (ca. 1597), a ceiling mural based on alchemical allegory, it is Neptune who holds the bident.[139]

31.6 In Greek literature and philosophy The name Plouton is ﬁrst used in Greek literature by Athenian playwrights.[58] In Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs (Batrachoi, 405 BC), in which “the Eleusinian colouring is in fact so pervasive,”[140] the ruler of the underworld is one of the characters, under the name of Plouton. The play depicts a mock descent to the underworld by the god Dionysus to bring back one of the dead tragic playwrights in the hope of restoring Athenian theater to its former glory. Pluto is a silent presence onstage for about 600 lines presiding over a contest among the tragedians, then announces that

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Pluto (1588–89) with bident, chiaroscuro woodcut from a series on gods and goddesses by Hendrik Goltzius

the winner has the privilege of returning to the upper world.[141] The play also draws on beliefs and imagery from Orphic and Dionysiac cult, and rituals pertaining to Ploutos (Plutus, “Wealth”).[142] In a fragment from another play by Aristophanes, a character “is comically singing of the excellent aspects of being dead,” asking in reference to the tripartition of sovereignty over the world, “And where do you think Pluto gets his name (i.e. “Rich”), / if not because he took the best portion? /... / How much better are things below than what Zeus possesses!"[143] To Plato, the god of the underworld was “an agent in th[e] beneﬁcent cycle of death and rebirth” meriting worship

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225

Persephone and Pluto[144] or Hades[145] on a pinax from Locri

under the name of Plouton, a giver of spiritual wealth.[146] In the dialogue Cratylus, Plato has Socrates explain the etymology of Plouton, saying that Pluto gives wealth (ploutos), and his name means “giver of wealth, which comes out of the earth beneath.” Because the name Hades is taken to mean “the invisible,” people fear what they cannot see; although they are in error about the nature of this deity’s power, Socrates says, “the oﬃce and name of the God really correspond": He is the perfect and accomplished Sophist, and the great benefactor of the inhabitants of the other world; and even to us who are upon earth he sends from below exceeding blessings. For he has much more than he wants down there; wherefore he is called Pluto (or the rich). Note also, that he will have nothing to do with men while they are in the body, but only when the soul is liberated from the desires and evils of the body. Now there is a great deal of philosophy and reﬂection in that; for in their liberated state he

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CHAPTER 31. PLUTO (MYTHOLOGY) can bind them with the desire of virtue, but while they are ﬂustered and maddened by the body, not even father Cronos himself would suﬃce to keep them with him in his own far-famed chains.[147]

Since “the union of body and soul is not better than the loosing,”[148] death is not an evil. Walter Burkert thus sees Pluto as a “god of dissolution.”[149] Among the titles of Pluto was Isodaitēs, “divider into equal portions,” a title that connects him to the fate goddesses the Moirai.[150] Isodaitēs was also a cult title for Dionysus and Helios.[151] In ordering his ideal city, Plato proposed a calendar in which Pluto was honored as a benefactor in the twelfth month, implicitly ranking him as one of the twelve principal deities.[152] In the Attic calendar, the twelfth month, more or less equivalent to June, was Skirophorion; the name may be connected to the rape of Persephone.[153]

31.7 Theogonies and cosmology 31.7.1

Euhemerism and Latinization

In the theogony of Euhemerus (4th century BC), the gods were treated as mortal rulers whose deeds were immortalized by tradition. Ennius translated Euhemerus into Latin about a hundred years later, and a passage from his version was in turn preserved by the early Christian writer Lactantius.[154] Here the union of Saturn (the Roman equivalent of Cronus) and Ops, an Italic goddess of abundance, produces Jupiter (Greek Zeus), Juno (Hera), Neptune, Pluto, and Glauca:

Pluto (1592) by Agostino Carracci, probably inﬂuenced by the description in Vincenzo Cartari's mythography,[155] with the god holding his scepter and key, Cerberus at his side

Then Saturn took Ops to wife. Titan, the elder brother, demanded the kingship for himself. Vesta their mother, with their sisters Ceres [Demeter] and Ops, persuaded Saturn not to give way to his brother

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in the matter. Titan was less good-looking than Saturn; for that reason, and also because he could see his mother and sisters working to have it so, he conceded the kingship to Saturn, and came to terms with him: if Saturn had a male child born to him, it would not be reared. This was done to secure reversion of the kingship to Titan’s children. They then killed the first son that was born to Saturn. Next came twin children, Jupiter and Juno. Juno was given to Saturn to see while Jupiter was secretly removed and given to Vesta to be brought up without Saturn’s knowledge. In the same way without Saturn knowing, Ops bore Neptune and hid him away. In her third labor Ops bore another set of twins, Pluto and Glauce. (Pluto in Latin is Diespiter;[156] some call him Orcus.) Saturn was shown his daughter Glauce but his son Pluto was hidden and removed. Glauce then died young. That is the pedigree, as written, of Jupiter and his brothers; that is how it has been passed down to us in holy scripture. In this theogony, which Ennius introduced into Latin literature, Saturn, “Titan,”[157] Vesta, Ceres, and Ops are siblings; Glauca is the twin of Pluto and dies mysteriously young. There are several mythological figures named Glauca; the sister of Pluto may be the Glauca who in Cicero’s account of the three aspects of Diana conceived the third with the equally mysterious Upis.[158] This is the genealogy for Pluto that Boccaccio used in his Genealogia Deorum Gentilium and in his lectures explicating the Divine Comedy of Dante.[159] In Book 3 of the Sibylline Oracles, dating mostly to the 2nd century AD, Rhea gives birth to Pluto as she passes by Dodona, “where the watery paths of the River Europus flowed, and the water ran into the sea, merged with the Peneius. This is also called the Stygian river.”[160]

31.7.2

Orphic and philosophical systems

The Orphic theogonies are notoriously varied,[161] and Orphic cosmology influenced the varying Gnostic theogonies of late antiquity.[162] Clementine literature (4th century AD) preserves a theogony with explicit Orphic influence that also draws on Hesiod, yielding a distinctive role for Pluto. When the primordial elements came together by orderly cyclonic force, they produced a generative sphere, the “egg” from which the primeval Orphic entity Phanes is born and the world is formed. The release of Phanes and his ascent to the heavenly top of the world-egg causes the matter left in the sphere to settle in relation to weight, creating the tripartite world of the traditional theogonies:[163] Its lower part, the heaviest element, sinks downwards, and is called Pluto because of its gravity, weight, and great quantity (plêthos) of matter. After the separation of this heavy element in the middle part of the egg the waters flow together, which they call Poseidon. The purest and noblest element, the fire, is called Zeus, because its nature is glowing (ζέουσα, zeousa). It flies right up into the air, and draws up the spirit, now called Metis, that was left in the underlying moisture. And when this spirit has reached the summit of the ether, it is devoured by Zeus, who in his turn begets the intelligence (σύνεσις, sunesis), also called Pallas. And by this artistic intelligence the etherial artificer creates the whole world. This world is surrounded by the air, which extends from Zeus, the very hot ether, to the earth; this air is called Hera.[164] This cosmogony interprets Hesiod allegorically, and so the heaviest element is identified not as the Earth, but as the netherworld of Pluto.[165] (In modern geochemistry, plutonium is the heaviest primordial element.) Supposed etymologies are used to make sense of the relation of physical process to divine name; Plouton is here connected to plêthos (abundance).[166] In the Stoic system, Pluto represented the lower region of the air, where according to Seneca (1st century AD) the soul underwent a kind of purgatory before ascending to the ether.[167] Seneca’s contemporary Cornutus made use of the traditional etymology of Pluto’s name for Stoic theology. The Stoics believed that the form of a word contained the original truth of its meaning, which over time could become corrupted or obscured.[168] Plouton derived from ploutein, “to be wealthy,” Cornutus said, because “all things are corruptible and therefore are 'ultimately consigned to him as his property.'"[169] Within the Pythagorean and Neoplatonic traditions, Pluto was allegorized as the region where souls are purified, located between the moon (as represented by Persephone) and the sun.[170] Neoplatonists sometimes interpreted the Eleusinian Mysteries as a fabula of celestial phenomena: Authors tell the fable that Ceres was Proserpina’s mother, and that Proserpina while playing one day was raped by Pluto. Her mother searched for her with lighted torches; and it was decreed by Jupiter that the mother should have her daughter for fifteen days in the month, but Pluto for the rest, the other fifteen. This is nothing but that the name Ceres is used to mean the earth, called Ceres on analogy with crees ('you

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CHAPTER 31. PLUTO (MYTHOLOGY) may create'), for all things are created from her. By Proserpina is meant the moon, and her name is on analogy with prope serpens ('creeping near'), for she is moved nearer to the earth than the other planets. She is called earth’s daughter, because her substance has more of earth in it than of the other elements. By Pluto is meant the shadow that sometimes obstructs the moon.[171]

Plouton Helios A dedicatory inscription from Smyrna describes a 1st–2nd century sanctuary to “God Himself” as the most exalted of a group of six deities, including clothed statues of Plouton Helios and Koure Selene, “Pluto the Sun” and “Kore the Moon.”[172] The status of Pluto and Kore as a divine couple is marked by what the text describes as a “linen embroidered bridal curtain.”[173] The two are placed as bride and groom within an enclosed temple, separately from the other deities cultivated at the sanctuary. Plouton Helios is mentioned in other literary sources in connection with Koure Selene and Helios Apollon; the sun on its nighttime course was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the underworld on its return to the east. Apuleius describes a rite in which the sun appears at midnight to the initiate at the gates of Proserpina; it has been suggested that this midnight sun could be Plouton Helios.[174] The Smyrna inscription also records the presence of Helios Apollon at the sanctuary. As two forms of Helios, Apollo and Pluto pose a dichotomy:

It has been argued that the sanctuary was in the keeping of a Pythagorean sodality or “brotherhood”. The relation of Orphic beliefs to the mystic strand of Pythagoreanism, or of these to Platonism and Neoplatonism, is complex and much debated.[176] Plutonius In the Hellenistic era, the title or epithet Plutonius is sometimes affixed to the names of other deities. In the Hermetic Corpus,[177] Jupiter Plutonius “rules over earth and sea, and it is he who nourishes mortal things that have soul and bear fruit.”[178] In Ptolemaic Alexandria, at the site of a dream oracle, Serapis was identified with Aion Plutonius.[179] Gilles Quispel conjectured that this figure results from the integration of the Orphic Phanes into Mithraic religion at Alexandria, and that he “assures the eternity of the city,” where the birth of Aion was celebrated at the sanctuary of Kore on January 6.[180] In Latin, Plutonius can be an adjective that simply means “of or pertaining to Pluto.”[181] Neoplatonic demiurge The Neoplatonist Proclus (5th century AD) considered Pluto the third demiurge, a sublunar demiurge who was also identified variously with Poseidon or Hephaestus. This idea is present in Renaissance Neoplatonism, as for instance in the cosmology of Marsilio Ficino (1433–99),[182] who translated Orphic texts into Latin for his own use.[183] Ficino saw the sublunar demiurge as “a daemonic 'many-headed' sophist, a magus, an enchanter, a fashioner of images and reflections, a shape-changer of himself and of others, a poet in a way of being and of not-being, a royal Pluto.” This demiurgic figure identified with Pluto is also "'a purifier of souls’ who presides over the magic of love and generation and who uses a fantastic counter-art to mock, but also ... to supplement, the divine icastic or truly imitative art of the sublime translunar Demiurge.”[184]

31.8 In Western art and literature 31.8.1

Christianization

Christian writers of late antiquity sought to discredit the competing gods of Roman and Hellenistic religions, often adopting the euhemerizing approach in regarding them not as divinities, but as people gloriﬁed through stories and cultic practices and thus not true deities worthy of worship. The infernal gods, however, retained their potency, becoming identiﬁed with the Devil and treated as demonic forces by Christian apologists.[185]

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229

One source of Christian revulsion toward the chthonic gods was the arena. Attendants in divine costume, among them a “Pluto” who escorted corpses out, were part of the ceremonies of the gladiatorial games.[186] Tertullian calls the mallet-wielding figure usually identified as the Etruscan Charun the “brother of Jove,”[187] that is, Hades/Pluto/Dis, an indication that the distinctions among these denizens of the underworld were becoming blurred in a Christian context.[188] Prudentius, in his poetic polemic against the religious traditionalist Symmachus, describes the arena as a place where savage vows were fulfilled on an altar to Pluto (solvit ad aram / Plutonis fera vota), where fallen gladiators were human sacrifices to Dis and Charon received their souls as his payment, to the delight of the underworld Jove (Iovis infernalis).[189]

31.8.2

Medieval mythography

Medieval mythographies, written in Latin, continue the conflation of Greek and Roman deities begun by the ancient Roman themselves. Perhaps because the name Pluto was used in both traditions, it appears widely in these Latin sources for the classical ruler of the underworld, who is also seen as the double, ally, or adjunct to the figure in Christian mythology known variously as the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer. The classical underworld deities became casually interchangeable with Satan as an embodiment of Hell.[190] For instance, in the 9th century, Abbo Cernuus, the only witness whose account of the Siege of Paris survives, called the invading Vikings the “spawn of Pluto.”[191] In the Little Book on Images of the Gods, Pluto is described as an intimidating personage sitting on a throne of sulphur, holding the scepter of his realm in his right hand, and with his left strangling a soul. Under his feet three-headed Cerberus held a position, and beside him he had three Harpies. From his golden throne of sulphur flowed four rivers, which were called, as is known, Lethe, Cocytus, Phlegethon and Acheron, tributaries of the Stygian swamp.[192] This work derives from that of the Third Vatican Mythographer, possibly one Albricus or Alberic, who presents often extensive allegories and devotes his longest chapter, including an excursus on the nature of the soul, to Pluto.[193]

31.8.3

Medieval and Renaissance literature

In Dante's Divine Comedy (written 1308–1321), Pluto presides over the fourth circle of Hell, to which the greedy are condemned.[194] The Italian form of the name is Pluto, taken by some commentators[195] to refer specifically to Plutus as the god of wealth who would preside over the torment of those who hoarded or squandered it in life.[196] Dante’s Pluto is greeted as “the great enemy”[197] and utters the famously impenetrable line Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe. Much of this Canto is devoted to the power of Fortuna to give and take away. Entrance into the fourth circle has marked a downward turn in the poet’s journey, and the next landmark after he and his guide cross from the circle is the Stygian swamp, through which they pass on their way to the city of Dis (Italian Dite). Dante’s clear distinction between Pluto and Dis suggests that he had Plutus in mind in naming the former. The city of Dis is the “citadel of Lower Hell” where the walls are garrisoned by fallen angels and Furies.[198] Pluto is treated likewise as a purely Satanic figure by the 16th-century Italian poet Tasso throughout his epic Jerusalem Delivered,[199] in which “great Dis, great Pluto” is invoked in the company of “all ye devils that lie in deepest hell.”[200] Influenced by Ovid and Claudian, Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400)[201] developed the myth of Pluto and Proserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) in English literature. Like earlier medieval writers, Chaucer identifies Pluto’s realm with Hell as a place of condemnation and torment,[202] and describes it as “derk and lowe” (“dark and low”).[203] But Pluto’s major appearance in the works of Chaucer comes as a character in "The Merchant’s Tale,” where Pluto is identified as the “Kyng of Fayerye” (Fairy King).[204] As in the anonymous romance Sir Orfeo (ca. 1300), Pluto and Proserpina rule over a fantastical world that melds classical myth and fairyland.[205] Chaucer has the couple engage in a comic battle of the sexes that undermines the Christian imagery in the tale, which is Chaucer’s most sexually explicit.[206] The Scottish poet William Dunbar ca. 1503 also described Pluto as a folkloric supernatural being, “the elrich incubus / in cloke of grene” (“the eldritch incubus in cloak of green”), who appears among the courtiers of Cupid.[207] The name Pluto for the classical ruler of the underworld was further established in English literature by Arthur Golding, whose translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses (1565) was of great influence on William Shakespeare,[208] Christopher Marlowe,[209] and Edmund Spenser.[210][211] Golding translates Ovid’s Dis as Pluto,[212] a practice that prevails among English translators, despite John Milton's use of the Latin Dis in Paradise Lost.[213] The Christian perception of the classical underworld as Hell influenced Golding’s translation practices; for instance, Ovid’s tenebrosa

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sede tyrannus / exierat (“the tyrant [Dis] had gone out of his shadowy realm”) becomes “the prince of ﬁends forsook his darksome hole”.[214] Pluto’s court as a literary setting could bring together a motley assortment of characters. In Huon de Méry's 13thcentury poem “The Tournament of the Antichrist", Pluto rules over a congregation of “classical gods and demigods, biblical devils, and evil Christians.”[215] In the 15th-century dream allegory The Assembly of Gods, the deities and personiﬁcations are “apparelled as medieval nobility”[216] basking in the “magnyfycence” of their “lord Pluto,” who is clad in a “smoky net” and reeking of sulphur.[217] Throughout the Renaissance, images and ideas from classical antiquity entered popular culture through the new medium of print and through pageants and other public performances at festivals. The Fête-Dieu at Aix-en-Provence in 1462 featured characters costumed as a number of classical deities, including Pluto,[218] and Pluto was the subject of one of seven pageants presented as part of the 1521 Midsummer Eve festival in London.[219] During the 15th century, no mythological theme was brought to the stage more often than Orpheus’s descent, with the court of Pluto inspiring fantastical stagecraft.[220] Leonardo da Vinci designed a set with a rotating mountain that opened up to reveal Pluto emerging from the underworld; the drawing survives and was the basis for a modern recreation.[221]

31.8.4

Opera and ballet

The tragic descent of the hero-musician Orpheus to the underworld to retrieve his bride, and his performance at the court of Pluto and Proserpina, offered compelling material for librettists and composers of opera (see List of Orphean operas) and ballet. Pluto also appears in works based on other classical myths of the underworld. As a singing role, Pluto is almost always written for a bass voice, with the low vocal range representing the depths and weight of the underworld, as in Monteverdi and Rinuccini's L'Orfeo (1607) and Il ballo delle ingrate (1608). In their ballo, a form of ballet with vocal numbers, Cupid invokes Pluto from the underworld to lay claim to “ungrateful” women who were immune to love. Pluto’s part is considered particularly virtuosic,[222] and a reviewer at the première described the character, who appeared as if from a blazing Inferno, as “formidable and awesome in sight, with garments as given him by poets, but burdened with gold and jewels.”[223] The role of Pluto is written for a bass in Peri's Euridice (1600);[224] Caccini's Euridice (1602); Rossi's Orfeo (1647); Cesti's Il pomo d'oro (1668);[225] Sartoris's Orfeo (1672); Lully's Alceste, a tragédie en musique (1674);[226] Charpentier's chamber opera La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (1686);[227] Telemann's Orpheus (1726); and Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie (1733).[228] Pluto was a baritone in Lully’s Proserpine (1680), which includes a duo dramatizing the conflict between the royal underworld couple that is notable for its early use of musical characterization.[229] Perhaps the most famous of the Orpheus operas is Offenbach's satiric Orpheus in the Underworld (1858),[230] in which a tenor sings the role of Pluton, disguised in the giddily convoluted plotting as Aristée (Aristaeus), a farmer. Scenes set in Pluto’s realm were orchestrated with instrumentation that became conventionally “hellish”, established in Monteverdi’s L'Orfeo as two cornets, three trombones, a bassoon, and a régale.[231] Pluto has also been featured as a role in ballet. In Lully’s “Ballet of Seven Planets’" interlude from Cavalli's opera Ercole amante ("Hercules in Love”), Louis XIV himself danced as Pluto and other characters; it was a spectacular flop.[232] Pluto appeared in Noverre's lost La descente d'Orphée aux Enfers (1760s). Gaétan Vestris danced the role of the god in Florian Deller's Orefeo ed Euridice (1763).[233] The Persephone choreographed by Robert Joffrey (1952) was based on André Gide's line “king of winters, the infernal Pluto.”[234]

31.8.5

Fine art

The abduction of Proserpina by Pluto was the scene from the myth most often depicted by artists, who usually follow Ovid’s version. The influential emblem book Iconologia of Cesare Ripa (1593, second edition 1603) presents the allegorical figure of Rape with a shield on which the abduction is painted.[235] Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg, the first teacher of Rembrandt, echoed Ovid in showing Pluto as the target of Cupid's arrow while Venus watches her plan carried out (location of painting unknown). The treatment of the scene by Rubens is similar. Rembrandt incorporates Claudian’s more passionate characterizations.[236] The performance of Orpheus in the court of Pluto and Proserpina was also a popular subject. Major artists who produced works depicting Pluto include: • Dürer, Abduction of Proserpine on a Unicorn (1516), etching (pictured under Medieval and Renaissance literature above). Dürer’s first English biographer called this work “a wild, weird conception” that “produces a

31.9. SCIENTIFIC TERMS

231

most uncomfortable, shuddering impression on the beholder.”[237] The source or significance of the unicorn as the form of transport is unclear; Dürer’s preparatory drawing showed a conventional horse. Pluto seems to be presented in a manner that recalls the leader of the Wild Hunt.[238] • Caravaggio, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto (Italian Giove, Nettuno e Plutone, ca. 1597), a ceiling mural (pictured under Theogonies and cosmology above) intended for viewing from below, hence the unusual perspective. Caravaggio created the work for a room adjacent to the alchemical distillery of Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte, his most important patron. The three gods hover around a translucent globe that represents the world: Jupiter with his eagle, Neptune holding a bident, and Pluto accompanied by a bluish-gray horse and a Cerberus who resembles a three-headed border collie more than a hellhound. In addition to personifying the classical elements air, water, and earth, the three figures represent “an allegory of the applied science of alchemy”.[139] • Jan Brueghel the Elder, Orpheus before Pluto and Proserpina (1604), painting.[239] • Bernini, Pluto and Proserpina (1621–22), also known as The Rape of Proserpina, sculpture with a Cerberus looking in three different directions.[240] • Rembrandt, Abduction of Proserpina (ca. 1631), painting influenced by Rubens (via the engraving of his student Pieter Soutman).[241] Rembrandt’s leonine Pluto draws on Claudian’s description of the god as like a ravening lion.[242]

31.8.6

Modern literature

After the Renaissance, literary interest in the abduction myth waned until the revival of classical myth among the Romantics. The work of mythographers such as J.G. Frazer and Jane Ellen Harrison helped inspire the recasting of myths in modern terms by Victorian and Modernist writers. In Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891), Thomas Hardy portrays Alec d'Urberville as “a grotesque parody of Pluto/Dis” exemplifying the late-Victorian culture of male domination, in which women were consigned to “an endless breaking ... on the wheel of biological reproduction.”[243] A similar ﬁgure is found in The Lost Girl (1920) by D.H. Lawrence, where the character Ciccio[244] acts as Pluto to Alvina’s Persephone, “the deathly-lost bride ... paradoxically obliterated and vitalised at the same time by contact with Pluto/Dis” in “a prelude to the grand design of rebirth.” The darkness of Pluto is both a source of regeneration, and of “merciless annihilation.”[245] Lawrence takes up the theme elsewhere in his work; in The First Lady Chatterley (1926, an early version of Lady Chatterley’s Lover), Connie Chatterley sees herself as a Persephone and declares “she'd rather be married to Pluto than Plato,” casting her earthy gamekeeper lover as the former and her philosophy-spouting husband as the latter.[246] Percy Jackson series In Rick Riordan's young adult fantasy series The Heroes of Olympus, the character Hazel Levesque is the daughter of Pluto, god of riches. She is one of seven characters with a parent from classical mythology. In The Son of Neptune, the second volume in the series, Riordan describes Pluto as “cool. ... He just got bad luck when the gods were dividing up the world ... . Jupiter got the sky, Neptune got the sea, and Pluto got the shaft.” In Riordan’s explanation, Hades “was more of a death god,” but acquired his identity as a god of wealth among the Romans, along with a new name.[247]

31.9 Scientiﬁc terms Scientiﬁc terms derived from the name of Pluto include: • Pluto, the name of the dwarf planet, with related terms plutoid and plutino • plutonium, the heaviest primordial element • pluton, a term of petrology • plutonism, a geologic theory

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31.10 Notes [1] William Hansen, Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 182. [2] Hansen, Classical Mythology,, p. 180. [3] Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 180–181. [4] Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182, makes the distinction. [5] Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States (Clarendon Press, 1907), vol. 3, p. 281. [6] Odyssey 5.125–128: And so it was when Demeter of the lovely hair, yielding / to her desire, lay down with Iasion and loved him / in a thrice-turned field (translation of Richmond Lattimore). [7] Hesiod, Theogony 969–74; Apostolos N. Athanassakis, Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days, Shield (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983, 2004), p. 56. [8] Athanassakis, Hesiod, p. 56. [9] Emily Vermeule, Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry (University of California Press, 1979), pp. 37, 219; Hendrik Wagenvoort, “The Origin of the Ludi Saeculares,” in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), p. 198. [10] Hesiod. “Works and Days”. Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 19 February 2015. [11] Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 162 and 182, citing Homer, Iliad 9.158–159. Euphemism is a characteristic way of speaking of divine figures associated with the dead and the underworld; Joseph William Hewitt, “The Propitiation of Zeus,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 19 (1908), p. 66, considers euphemism a form of propitiation. [12] Plato, Cratylus 403a; Glenn R. Morrow, Plato’s Cretan City: A Historical Interpretation of the Laws (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 452–453. [13] Fernando Navarro Antolin, Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6, Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), pp. 145–146. [14] Charlotte R. Long, The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Brill, 1987), p. 179; Phyllis Fray Bober, “Cernunnos: Origin and Transformation of a Celtic Divinity,” American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951), p. 28, examples in Greek and Roman art in note 98; Hewitt, “The Propitiation of Zeus,” p. 65. [15] Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 101–102; Morrow, Plato’s Cretan City, pp. 452–453; John J. Hermann, Jr., “Demeter-Isis or the Egyptian Demeter? A Graeco-Roman Sculpture from an Egyptian Workshop in Boston” in Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 114 (1999), p. 88. [16] Pluto Latine est Dis pater, alii Orcum vocant (“In Latin, Pluto is Dis Pater; others call him Orcus”): Ennius, Euhemerus frg. 7 in the edition of Vahlen = Var. 78 = E.H. Warmington, Remains of Old Latin (Heinemann, 1940), vol. 1, p. 421. The Augustan poet Horace retains the Greek accusative form of the noun (Plutona instead of Latin Plutonem) at Carmen 2.14.7, as noted by John Conington, P. Vergili Maronis Opera (London, 1883), vol. 3, p. 36. [17] H.D. Jocelyn, The Tragedies of Ennius (Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 331, with reference to Kurt Latte, Römische Religionsgeschichte (C.H. Beck, 1967, 1992), p. 246ff. [18] Cicero, De natura deorum 2.66, translation of John MacDonald Ross (Penguin Books, 1972): Terrena autem vis omnis atque natura Diti patri dedicata est, qui dives, ut apud Graecos Πλούτων quia et recidunt omnia in terras et oriuntur e terris. [19] Strabo 3.2.9, citing Poseidonius as his source, who in turn cites Demetrius of Phalerum on the silver mines of Attica, where “the people dig as strenuously as if they expected to bring up Pluto himself” (Loeb Classical Library translation, in the LacusCurtius edition). The 16th-century mythographer Natale Conti describes Pluto’s imperium as "the Spains and all the places bordering the setting sun” (Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, p. 173; cf. Strabo 3.12). [20] Lucian, On Mourning (see Greek text); Peter Bolt, Jesus’ Defeat of Death: Persuading Mark’s Early Readers (Cambridge University Press, 2003) discusses this passage (pp. 126–127) and Greco-Roman concepts of the underworld as a context for Christian eschatology passim. [21] Noel Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities: The Sacred Laws of Selinus and Cyrene (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 102, citing passages from the Orphic Hymns, throughout which Plouton is the ruler of the underworld, and Hades is the name of the place itself.

31.10. NOTES

233

[22] Hewitt, “The Propitiation of Zeus,” p. 74, asserts that “Zeus Catachthonius seems certainly to be Pluto.” Other deities to whom the title Katachthonios was affixed include Demeter, Persephone, and the Furies; Eugene Lane, “The Epithets of Men,” Corpus monumentorum religionis dei Menis: Interpretation and Testimonia (Brill, 1976), vol. 3, p. 77, citing the entry on Katachthonioi in Roscher, Lexikon II, i, col. 998ff. [23] Zeus Chthonius and Pluto are seen as having “the same significance” in the Orphic Hymns and in the Dionysiaca of Nonnus (6.156ff.), by Hewitt, “The Propitiation of Zeus,” p. 74, note 7. Overlapping functions are also suggested when Hesiod advises farmers to pray to “Zeus Chthonius and to holy Demeter that they may cause the holy corn of Demeter to teem in full perfection.” This form of Zeus receives the black victims typically offered to underworld deities. [24] Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis 2.161. [25] Martianus Capella, De nuptiis 2.149; Isidore of Seville, Etymologies 5.33.4; Servius, note to Vergil's Georgics 1.43 (Vergil refrains from naming the god); John Lydus, De mensibus 4.25. [26] Plutarch, De Iside 27 (361e): “In fact, men assert that Pluto is none other than Serapis and that Persephone is Isis, even as Archemachus of Euboea has said, and also Heracleides Ponticus who holds the oracle in Canopus to be an oracle of Pluto” (Loeb Classical Library translation of 1936, LacusCurtius edition). Also spelled Sarapis. See Jaime Alvar, Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation, and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras, translated by Richard Gordon (Brill, 2008), pp. 53 online and 58; Hermann, “Demeter-Isis or the Egyptian Demeter?", p. 84. [27] Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica 1.10.34, attributing this view to the semi-legendary Phoenician author Sanchuniathon via Philo of Byblos. In addition to asserting that Muth was equivalent to both Thanatos (Death personified) and Pluto, Philo said he was the son of Cronus and Rhea. See entry on “Mot,” Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, edited by Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter Willem van der Horst (William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999, 2nd ed.), p. 598, and Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, edited by Sarah Iles Johnston (Harvard University Press, 2004), p. 479. Philo’s cosmogony as summarized by Eusebius bears some similarities to that of Hesiod and the Orphics; see Sanchuniathon’s history of the gods and “Theogonies and cosmology” below. Philo said that these were reinterpretations of “Phoenician” beliefs by the Greeks. [28] Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182. [29] Diane Rayor, The Homeric Hymns (University of California Press, 2004), pp. 107–109. [30] Christos Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow: Fourth-century Attic Funerary Epigrams (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008), pp. 101– 102. [31] Sources used to prepare this article uniformly refer to the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus as the Library of Apollodorus. Recent scholarship prefers to view the authorship of this work as anonymous; see Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus). [32] Hyginus, Fabulae 146. The late-antique mythographer Fulgentius also names the ruler of the underworld as Pluto, a practice continued by medieval mythographers. [33] Andrew D. Radford, The Lost Girls: Demeter-Persephone and the Literary Imagination, 1850–1930 (Editions Rodopi, 2007), p. 24. For an extensive comparison of Ovid’s two treatments of the myth, with reference to versions such as the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, see Stephen Hinds, The Metamorphosis of Persephone: Ovid and the Self-Conscious Muse (Cambridge University Press, 1987), limited preview online. [34] In Book 6 of the Aeneid (the catabasis of Aeneas), Vergil also names the ruler of the underworld more often as Dis than Pluto. [35] See also, for instance, J.J.L. Smolenaars, Statius. Thebaid VII: A Commentary (Brill, 1994), passim, or John G. Fitch, Seneca’s 'Hercules Furens’ (Cornell University Press, 1987), passim, where the ruler of the underworld is referred to as “Pluto” in the English commentary, but as “Dis” or with other epithets in the Latin text. [36] Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 22 et passim. [37] Natale Conti observes (Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, p. 174) that before the abduction, Pluto was the only childless bachelor among the gods (solus omnium deorum coelibem et filiis carentem vitam traduceret). The nymph Minthē was the concubine (pallakis, Strabo 8.3.14) of the ruler of the underworld under the name of Hades, but no ancient source records Pluto in this role; Conti, however, describes Minthē (Menthe) as the pellex of Pluto. [38] Orphic fragments 197 and 360 (edition of Kern) and Orphic Hymn 70, as cited by Helene P. Foley, Hymn to Demeter (Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 110, note 97. [39] Orphic Hymn 71.

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[40] Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities, p. 102. Robertson holds that in the Orphic tradition, the Eumenides are distinguished from the Furies (Greek Erinyes). Vergil conflates the Eumenides and the Furies, and elsewhere says that Night (Nox) is their mother. Proclus, in his commentary on the Cratylus of Plato, provides passages from the Orphic Rhapsodies that give two different genealogies of the Eumenides, one making them the offspring of Persephone and Pluto (or Hades) and the other reporting a prophecy that they were to be born to Persephone and Apollo (Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation, p. 101). [41] Vergil, Aeneid 7.327: odit et ipse pater Pluton ... monstrum. [42] Foley, Hymn to Demeter, p. 110. [43] Justin Martyr, Apology 2.5; see discussion of the context by David Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (University of California Press, 1992), pp. 193–194. [44] Hesychius, lexicon entry on Ἰσοδαίτης (Isodaitês), 778 in the 1867 edition of Schmidt. [45] David Scott Wilson-Okamura, Virgil in the Renaissance (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 169, citing Boccaccio, Genealogia deorum gentilium 8.6; see also the Italian translation of 1644, p. 130. Boccaccio cites Servius as his source, adding that Theodontius names the daughter of Pluto as Reverentia and says she was married to Honos (“Honor”). Makaria, “Blessedness,” was a daughter of Hades, according to the Suda. [46] “Of griesly Pluto she the daughter was": Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene, I.iv.11.1, as noted by G.W. Kitchin, Book I of The Faery Queene (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, 9th ed.), p. 180. In the 15th-century allegory The Assembly of Gods (lines 601–602), the figure of Vice personified is the bastard son of Pluto. [47] A.C. Hamilton, The Spenser Encyclopedia (University of Toronto Press, 1990, 1997), p. 351, noting that Hecate is called a “phosphor”, bringer of light, by Euripides, Helen 569. The title Phosphoros is a common one for Hecate; Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece (University of California Press, 1999), p. 206. [48] Douglas Brooks-Davies, entry on “Mysteries” in The Spenser Encyclopedia, pp. 486–487. [49] Claude Calame, “The Authority of Orpheus, Poet and Bard: Between Tradition and Written Practice,” in Allusion, Authority, and Truth: Critical Perspectives on Greek Poetic and Rhetorical Praxis (De Gruyter, 2010), p. 16. [50] As accurately reflected by the translation of Michael Simpson, Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus (University of Massachusetts Press, 1976), pp. 13–15. Apollodorus consistently names the ruler of the underworld Plouton throughout, including the myths of his birth, tripartite division of sovereignty over the world, and the abduction. [51] Geoffrey Miles, Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology (Routledge, 1999), p. 54ff. [52] Horace, Carmen 2.14.6–7, inlacrimabilem Plutona (Greek accusative instead of Latin Plutonem). [53] A.S.P. Woodhouse et al., A Variorum Commentary on the Poems of John Milton (Columbia University Press, 1972), p. 327. [54] In the dialogue Amatorius (Ἐρωτικός) 20, Plutarch says that the only god Hades listens to is Eros; the 17th-century classicist Daniel Clasen, translating the Moralia into Latin, gives the god’s name as Pluto, and in his mythographical work Theologia gentilis 2.4.6 includes this quality in his chapter on Pluto; see Thesaurus graecarum antiquitatum (Leiden, 1699), vol. 7, 104. [55] Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead 23 (English translation from the 1820 edition of William Tooke; Jan Kott, The Eating of the Gods (Northwestern University Press, 1987), pp. 95–97. Lucian’s dialogue has sometimes been referenced as a model for the premature loss of love between an active man carried suddenly into death and his young wife; see for instance Alfred Woltmann, Holbein and His Times (London, 1872), p. 280, and A.P. Russell, In a Club Corner: The Monologue of a Man Who Might Have Been Sociable (Houghton, Mifflin, 1890), pp. 78–79. The dialogue has also been seen as a burlesque of domesticity; Betrand A. Goldgar, Henry Fielding: Miscellanies (Wesleyan University Press, 1993), vol. 2, p. xxxviii. [56] Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, p. 102. The shift may have begun as early as the 6th century. The earliest evidence of the assimilation of Hades and Ploutos/Plouton is a phiale by the Douris painter, dating to ca. 490 BC, according to Jan N. Bremmer, “W. Brede Kristensen and the Religions of Greece and Rome,” in Man, Meaning, and Mystery: Hundred Years of History of Religions in Norway. The Heritage of W. Brede Kristensen (Brill, 2000), pp. 125–126. A point of varying emphasis is whether the idea of Plouton as a god of wealth was a later development, or an inherent part of his nature, owing to the underground storage of grain in the pithoi that were also used for burial. For a summary of these issues, see Cora Angier Sowa, Traditional Themes and the Homeric Hymns (Bolchazy-Carducci, 1984, 2005), p. 356, note 105. [57] Morrow, Plato’s Cretan City, p. 452; Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 154. [58] Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, p. 281.

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[59] Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 179. See lectisternium for the “strewing of couches” in ancient Rome. Two inscriptions from Attica record the names of individuals who participated in the ritual at different times: IG II2 1933 and 1934, as cited by Robert Develin, Athenian Officials, 684–321 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2003), p. 417. [60] Nicholas F. Jones, The Associations of Classical Athens: The Response to Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 125, citing IG II2 1363, dating ca. 330–270; Karl Kerényi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter (Princeton University Press, 1967), pp. 110–111. [61] Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 101–102. [62] Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, Ritual Texts and the Afterlife (Routledge, 2007), first page (not numbered). [63] The recurring phrase “house of Hades” (῾Αΐδαο δόμος) can be read ambiguously as either the divine being or the place, or both. In the numbering of Graf and Johnston, Ritual Texts and the Afterlife, “house of Hades” appears in Tablet 1, line 2 (Hipponion, Calabria, Magna Graecia, ca. 400 BC), which refers again to Hades as a place (“what you are seeking in the darkness of murky Hades”, line 9), with the king of the underworld (ὑποχθονίοι βασιλεϊ, hypochthonioi basilei) alluded to in line 13; Tablet 2, line 1 (Petelia, present-day Strongoli, Magna Graecia, 4th century BC); and Tablet 25 (Pharsalos, Thessaly, 350–300 BC). Hades is also discernible on the “carelessly inscribed” Tablet 38 from a Hellenistic-era grave in Hagios Athanasios, near Thessalonike. [64] Kevin Clinton, Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries (Stockholm, 1992), p. 111, observing that this presentation in art contrasts with the earliest literary sources. [65] Giovanni Casadio and Patricia A. Johnston, “Introduction”, Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia (University of Texas Press, 2009), p. 21. [66] Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, p. 101. [67] Tablets 15 (Eleuthera 6, 2nd/1st century BC) and 17 (Rethymnon 1, from the early Roman Empire, 25–40 AD), from Crete, in the numbering of Graf and Johnston. [68] Sometimes read as “father,” as in the translation given by Alberto Bernabé and Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets (Brill, 2008), p. 84. [69] Παρὰ Φερσεφόνει Πλούτωνί τε: Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 100–101. Tsagalis discusses this inscription in light of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter and the Thesmophoria. [70] The entry in Hesychius reads: Εὐβουλεύς (sch. Nic. Al. 14) · ὁ Πλούτων. παρὰ δὲ τοῖς πολλοῖς ὁ Ζεὺς ἐν Κυρήνη (Eubouleus: ho Ploutôn. para de toîs polloîs ho Zeus en Kyrene), 643 (Schmidt). [71] Kevin Clinton, “The Mysteries of Demeter and Kore,” in A Companion to Greek Religion (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 347–353. [72] Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, vol. 3, p. 145. [73] Euboulos may be a cult title here and not the name of the god Eubuleus; elsewhere it is an epithet of the sea god Nereus, perfect in his knowledge of truth and justice, and in his own Orphic hymn the guardian of the “roots” of the sea. See Pindar, Pythian Ode 3.93; Hesiod, Theogony 233–236; Orphic Hymn 23; Athanassakis, Hesiod, p. 52; Pierre Bonnechere, “Trophonius of Lebadea: Mystery Aspects of an Oracular Cult in Boeotia,” in Greek Mysteries: The Archaeology and Ritual of Ancient Greek Secret Cults (Routledge, 2003, 2005), p. 188. [74] The translations of the Orphic Hymn to Pluto are from Apostolos N. Athanassakis, The Orphic Hymns (Scholars Press, 1977). [75] Act of Thomas 50, as cited and discussed by Susan E. Myers, Spirit Epicleses in the Acts of Thomas (Mohr Siebeck, 2010), p. 174. [76] Hans Dieter Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1992), passim; John G. Gager, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 12 (examples invoking Pluto pp. 99, 135, 143–144, 207–209) and passim on Hades. [77] Bolt, Jesus’ Defeat of Death, p. 152; John Scheid, “Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors”, in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 264. [78] Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 212, with English translation of the curse. [79] Gager, Curse Tablets, p. 131, with translations of both tablets, and note 35. [80] Derek Collins, Magic in the Ancient Greek World (Blackwell, 2008), p. 73.

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[81] Esther Eidinow, “Why the Athenians Began to Curse,” in Debating the Athenian Cultural Revolution: Art, Literature, Philosophy and Politics 430–380 BC (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 50; Ogden, Magic, Withcraft, and Ghosts, p. 212. [82] Bernard Dietrich, “The Religious Prehistory of Demeter’s Eleusinian Mysteries,” in La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' Impero Romano (Brill, 1982), p. 454. [83] Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation, p. 163 online, citing IG 13 356.155 and IG 22 1672.140; see also The Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Topography and Architecture (American School of Classical Studies, 1997), p. 76, note 31. [84] Strabo 14.1.44; “Summaries of Periodicals,” American Journal of Archaeology 7 (1891), p. 209; Hewitt, “The Propitiation of Zeus,” p. 93. [85] Frederick E. Brenk, “Jerusalem-Hierapolis. The Revolt under Antiochos IV Epiphanes in the Light of Evidence for Hierapolis of Phrygia, Babylon, and Other Cities,” in Relighting the Souls: Studies in Plutarch, in Greek Literature, Religion, and Philosophy, and in the New Testament Background (Franz Steiner, 1998), pp. 382–384, citing Photius, Life of Isidoros 131 on the dream. [86] Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reconstructing Change: Ideology and the Eleusinian Mysteries,” in Inventing Ancient Culture: Historicism, Periodization and the Ancient World (Routledge, 1997), p. 137; Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 505. [87] Strabo C244–6, as cited by Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 190 –191. [88] Kevin Clinton, Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries (Stockholm, 1992), pp. 105. As Clinton notes (p. 107), the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae does not distinguish between Hades and Plouton, and combines evidence for either in a single entry. The only vase to label the Eleusinian Theos with an inscription is a redfigured footed dinos in the collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum, attributed to the Syleus Painter. The main scene is the departure of Triptolemos, with Demeter on the left and Persephone as Pherephata ([Φε]ρ[ε]φάτα) on the right. Theos wears a himation over a spangled tunic with decorated hem (Clinton, p. 106). [89] Catherine M. Keesling, “Endoios’s Painting from the Themistoklean Wall: A Reconstruction,” Hesperia 68.4 (1999), p. 544, note 160. [90] Pausanias 5.20. [91] Natale Conti, Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, pp. 173–174. [92] Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1051 (“Rites they to none betray, / Ere on his lips is laid / Secrecy’s golden key / By their own acolytes, / Priestly Eumolpidae,” in the 1912 translation of F. Storr), as cited by Jane Ellen Harrison, introduction to Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, a translation of Pausanias by Margaret de G. Verrall (London, 1890), pp. liv–lv. It is unclear whether a literal key is meant, or a golden lamella (Totenpass). [93] Robert Turcan, Les religions de l'Asie dans la vallée du Rhône (Brill, 1972), p. 26. [94] Turcan, Les religions de l'Asie, pp. 23–26. Both Persephone (as Persephassa and “Kore out of Tartaros”) and Anubis are key-holders throughout the Greek Magical Papyri. Jesus Christ, as the conqueror of death and Hades, holds keys in the Book of Revelation 1:18; see Walter A. Elwell and Philip W. Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Tyndale, 2001), p. 561. [95] For extensive notes on Aiakos, see Radcliffe Guest Edmonds, Myths of the Underworld Journey: Plato, Aristophanes, and the 'Orphic' Gold Tablets (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 148, note 116. As a possessor of keys, he appears in Apollodorus 3.12.6, PGM IV.1264, and inscriptions. [96] Ancient sources on phasganion, xiphion and gladiolus, generally called “corn-flag” by historical botanists, include Theophrastus, Historia Plantarum 7.12.3; Dioscorides, De Materia Medica E 2.101; Pliny, Natural History 21.107–115; Pseudo-Apuleius, Herbarius 79, as cited by Andrew Dalby, Food in the Ancient World from A to Z (Routledge, 2003), p. 105, characterizing Pliny’s entry on the plant as “confused.” The correspondence of ancient plant names to modern species is always uncertain. Both the Greek xiphion and the Latin word gladiolus (“little sword”) come from a word meaning “sword.” [97] Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle (Paris, 1819), pp. 315–316; Julius Billerbeck, Flora classica (Leipzig, 1824), p. 13; “L'origine dei maccheroni,” Archivo per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari 17 (1898), vol. 36, p. 428. [98] Francis Adams, The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta (London, 1847), p. 270; Dalby, Food in the Ancient World, p. 105; Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, p. 315. [99] John M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 42; Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, p. 315.

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[100] P.G. Maxwell-Stuart, Studies in Greek Colour Terminology: ΓΛΑΥΚΟΣ (Brill, 1981), vol. 1, pp. 40, 42, citing Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium 9, 20, 35. The word γλαυκότης (glaukotēs), however, is a textual crux in the passage pertaining to Pluto. [101] Lucifuga inumbratione pallescens and Tartareae noctis obscuritate furvescens, Martianus Capella, De nuptiis 1.79–80; Danuta Shanzer, A Philosophical and Literary Commentary on Martianus Capella’s De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii Book 1 (University of California Press, 1986), p. 171. [102] Ovid, Fasti 4.446, as cited John G. Fitch, Seneca’s Hercules furens: A Critical Text with Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 166, note to Seneca’s identical description of the horses of the Sun (line 132). Ovid describes the horses as black (ater) in his version of the abduction myth in the Metamorphoses, 5.310. On the color caeruleus, see also Hendrik Wagenvoort, “Caerimonia,” in Studies, pp. 98–101. [103] Natale Conti, Mythologiae 2.9. Conti’s sources on this point are unclear, and he thoroughly conflates traditions pertaining to the various classical rulers of the underworld. [104] Homeric Hymn to Demeter, lines 7–9, as cited by Radford, Lost Girls, p. 145; Clayton Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus: A Study of the First Idyll of Theocritus (Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 2. [105] Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 681, and scholion, on Demeter and Persephone (the two “Great Goddesses”); Euphorion, fragment 94, on the Eumenides; Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 2; Jan Coenradd Kamerbeek, The Plays of Sophocles, Commentaries: The Oedipus Colonus (Brill, 1984), vol. 7, p. 106, noting that garlands of flowers were expressly forbidden at the Thesmophoria; James C. Hogan, A Commentary on the Plays of Sophocles (Southern Illinois University Press, 1991), p. 99. [106] “Death and Greek Myths,” in Greek and Egyptian Mythologies, edited by Yves Bonnefoy (University of Chicago Press, 1991, 1992), p. 110. [107] Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 2; Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 92. The phallus as a magic charm was the remedy for invidia or the evil eye, a self-induced form of which was the ruin of the mythological figure Narcissus. [108] On the difficulty of identifying precisely which flower the ancients meant by “narcissus,” see R.C. Jebb, Sophocles: The Plays and Fragments (Cambridge University Press, 1900, 3rd edition), p. 115. [109] Artemidorus, Oneirocritica 1.77, as noted by Jebb, Sophocles, p. 115. [110] Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.505; Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 48. The Styx here is a pool. [111] Theophrastus, Historia plantarum 7.13–14; Nicander, Theriaca 846; Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel 4.24; Adams, The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta, pp. 22–23; Richard Hunter, Theocritus: A Selection (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 277, noting that “the association of lush vegetation ... with female 'otherness’ and sexuality has a long history.” [112] Riddle, Contraception and Abortion, pp. 31, 82, 180 (note 5). [113] Samuel Beckett, “Jusque dans la caverne ciel et sol”, the last of twelve poems in the cycle Poèmes 38–39 (1946); C.J. Ackerley and S.E. Gontarski, The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett (Grove Press, 2004), pp. 293, 443, 599. [114] Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, p. 25. [115] Servius, note to Aeneid 3.680. [116] Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 17.7.34. [117] Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.106ff.; Servius, note to Vergil’s Georgics 1.20. [118] Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 25–28. [119] The nymph Minthē, a rival for the attentions of Hades (not named as Pluto), was transformed by Persephone into the mint plant, a major ingredient in the ritual drink of the mysteries (Strabo 8.3.14). [120] Servius, note to Vergil's Eclogue 7.61. Persephone is not mentioned. [121] Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 93 and 124–125, citing Harpocration. [122] Arthur Calvert, P. Vergili Maronis. Aeneidos Liber V (Cambridge University Press, 1879), p. 48. This was a particular custom of the Rhodians; the heroine Polyxo awarded white poplar wreaths to child athletes at the games she presented in honor of her husband; Pierre Grimal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology (Blackwell, 1986, 1996), p. 385. [123] Riddle, Contraception and Abortion, p. 33.

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[124] Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1925), pp. 420–422; Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 25–26; W.K.C. Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion (Princeton University Press, 1952, 1993), p. 182. [125] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.1–2, 1911 Loeb Classical Library edition, translation and notes by J.G. Frazer. [126] Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182. Apparent references to the “helmet of Pluto” in other authors, such as Irenaeus (Against Heresies), are misleading; “Pluto” is substituted by the English translator for “Hades.” [127] Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel Book 5, Chapter 8. [128] Erasmus, Adagia 2.10.74 (Orci galea). [129] Francis Bacon, Essays Civil and Moral 21, “Of Delays.” [130] A.L. Millin, “Mythologie,” in Magasin Encyclopédique (Paris, 1808), p. 283; G.T. Villenave, Les métamorphoses d'Ovide (Paris, 1806), p. 307; Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Oxford University Press, 1924), vol. 2, p. 798 ff.; John G. Fitch, Seneca’s Hercules Furens: A Critical Text With Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. [131] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 801. [132] Inferni Iovis (genitive case), Hercules Furens line 47, in the prologue spoken by Juno. [133] Diro Iovi, line 608 of Hercules Furens; compare Vergil, Aeneid 4.638, Iove Stygio, the “Jove of the Styx". Fitch, Seneca’s Hercules Furens, p. 156. [134] Codex Augustanus, note to Euripides' Phoenician Women, line 188, as cited by Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 806, note 6. [135] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 803. [136] Friedrich Solmsen, “The Powers of Darkness in Prudentius’ Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination,” Vigiliae Christianae 19.4 (1965), pp. 238, 240–248 et passim. [137] Richard Stemp, The Secret Language of the Renaissance: Decoding the Hidden Symbolism of Italian Art (Duncan Baird, 2006), p. 114; Clare Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Museum, 1996), p. 78. [138] Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections, pp. 78–79. [139] Creighton Gilbert, Caravaggio and His Two Cardinals (Penn State University Press, 1995), pp. 124–125. [140] A.M. Bowie, Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual and Comedy (Cambridge University Press, 1993, 1996), p. 229. [141] As summarized by Benjamin Bickley Rogers, The Comedies of Aristophanes (London, 1902), pp. xvii and 214 (note to line 1414). [142] Bowie, Aristophanes, pp. 231–233, 269–271. [143] Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 127–128. [144] Identified as Pluto by Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, p. 275. [145] Identified as Hades by Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 181. [146] Morrow, Plato’s Cretan City, pp. 452–453. [147] Translation by Benjamin Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato (London, 1873), vol. 1. [148] Plato, Laws 828d, translation from Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 69. [149] Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Harvard University Press, 1985, originally published 1977 in German), pp. 231, 336. See also Homo Necans (University of California Press, 1983, originally published 1972 in German), p. 143. [150] Hesychius, entry on Ἰσοδαίτης, 778 in the 1867 edition of Schmidt, as translated and discussed by Richard Seaford, Money and the Early Greek Mind: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 51. Hesychius notes that Isodaites may alternatively refer to a son of Pluto as well as Pluto himself. [151] H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 119, especially note 93. [152] Plato, Laws 828 B-D; Morrow, Plato’s Cretan City p. 452; Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 179.

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[153] Morrow, Plato’s Cretan City, p. 453; Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 179. [154] Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.14; Brian P. Copenhaver, Polydore Vergil: On Discovery (Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 564. [155] Clare Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Museum, 1996), p. 35. [156] This parenthetical remark is part of the original text. Several manuscripts of Lactantius read Diespiter, which is usually a title of Jupiter, but Dis pater is regarded as the more likely reading. See Katherine Nell MacFarlane, “Isidore of Seville on the Pagan Gods (Origines VIII. 11),” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 70 (1980), p. 20, citing Migne, Patrologia Latina vol. VI, col. 190. The relation of the title Dis Pater to Diespiter in Latin is debated. [157] “Titan” usually refers to a class or race of deities, but sometimes means Helios or other divine personifications of the Sun. [158] Cicero, De natura deorum 3.58: “Likewise, there are multiple Dianas. The first is said to have been born as a winged Cupid, with Jove and Proserpina [as parents]. The second, whom we regard as the daughter of the third Jove and Latona, is better known. A tradition holds that Upis is the father and Glauca the mother of the third [Diana]" (Dianae item plures: prima Iovis et Proserpinae, quae pinnatum Cupidinem genuisse dicitur; secunda notior, quam Iove tertio et Latona natam accepimus; tertiae pater Upis traditur, Glauce mater: eam saepe Graeci Upim paterno nomine appellant); Copenhaver, Polydore Vergil: On Discovery, p. 564. [159] Boccaccio’s Expositions on Dante’s Comedy, translated by Michael Papio (University of Toronto Press, 2009), pp. 332–333, 355. [160] Rieuwerd Buitenwerf, Book III of the Sibylline Oracles and Its Social Setting (Brill, 2003), p. 157. [161] Gábor Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretations (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 151, has noted that “one cannot establish a linear descent between the different versions"; though efforts to do so have been made, “we cannot find a single mytheme which would occur invariably in all the accounts and could thus create the core of all Orphic theogonies.” [162] J. van Amersfoort, “Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony in the Pseudo-Clementines,” in Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions, Presented to Gilles Quispel on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday (Brill, 1981), p. 13. [163] Van Amersfoort, “Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony,” pp. 16–17. [164] Van Amersfoort, “Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony,” pp. 17–18. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, p. 151, summarizes this version as follows: “The story starts with Chaos; then comes the egg; the bottom part of the egg submerges and becomes Pluton, and Kronos — not a separate god but identified with Chronos — swallows this heavy matter. The middle part, covering the first sediment, becomes Poseidon. The upper part of the egg, being purer and lighter, fiery in nature, goes upward and is called Zeus, and so forth.” [165] Van Amersfoort, “Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony,” p. 23; Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, p. 150. [166] Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1925), p. 746. [167] Cornutus 5; Varro, De lingua latina 5.66 (on Dis); Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 25; all as cited by Joseph B. Mayor, De natura deorum libri tres (Cambridge University Press, 1883), vol. 2, p. 175, note to 2.26.66. [168] R.M. van den Berg, Proclus’ Commentary on the Cratylus in Context: Ancient Theories of Language and Naming (Brill, 2008), pp. 34–35. [169] David Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (University of California Press, 1992), p. 33, citing Epidrome 5.5.7–9. [170] Plutarch, The Face of the Moon, LacusCurtius edition of the Loeb Classical Library translation online, as discussed by Leonard L. Thompson, “ISmyrna 753: Gods and the One God,” in Reading Religions in the Ancient World: Essays Presented to Robert McQueen Grant on His 90th Birthday (Brill, 2007), p. 113, with reference also to Iamblichus. See also Van den Berg, Proclus’ Commentary, p. 49, with reference to Plutarch, On the E at Delphi. [171] This interpretation is attributed to the Greek Neoplatonist Numenius (2nd century AD), by the French scholastic William of Conches, as cited and translated by Peter Dronke, Fabula: Explorations into the Uses of Myth in Medieval Platonism (Brill, 1985), p. 54. [172] Thompson, “ISmyrna 753,” p. 101ff. The other deities are Helios Apollon, who is paired with Artemis (p. 106); Zeus, who is subordinated to “God Himself"; and Mēn, an Anatolian moon deity sometimes identified with Attis, who had a table before him for ceremonial dining (pp. 106, 109). [173] Thompson, “ISmyrna 753,” pp. 104–105.

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[174] Thompson, “ISmyrna 753,” p. 111. [175] Thompson, “ISmyrna 753,” pp. 110–111, 114, with reference to the teachings of Ammonius as recorded by Plutarch, The E at Delphi. The relevant passage (21) is: “This appears from the names, in themselves opposite and contradictory. He is called Apollo, another is called Pluto; he is Delius (apparent), the other Aidoneus (invisible); he is Phoebus (bright), the other Skotios (full of darkness); by his side are the Muses, and Memory, with the other are Oblivion and Silence; he is Theorius and Phanæus, the other is 'King of dim Night and ineffectual Sleep'.” See also Frederick E. Brenk, “Plutarch’s Middle Platonic God,” Gott und die Götter bei Plutarch (Walter de Gruyter, 2005), pp. 37–43, on Plutarch’s etymological plays that produce these antitheses. [176] Thompson, “ISmyrna 753,” passim, conclusion presented on p. 119. Thompson bases his argument on the particular collocation of deities at the sanctuary, and explicating theological details in the inscription through comparative material. See also Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. [177] In the Latin dialogue Asclepius sometimes attributed to Apuleius; see B.L. Hijmans, “Apuleius, Philosophus Platonicus,” Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.36.1 (1987), p. 441, et passim on the question of authorship. Terrae vero et mari dominatur Iupiter Plutonius, et hic nutritor est animantium mortalium et fructiferarum (Asclepius 27), noted by G.F. Hildebrand, L. Apuleii Opera Omnia (Leipzig, 1842), p. 314, as equivalent to the Pluto described by Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 1.780, where, however, the god is called Dis and not Pluto. Translation from Brian P. Copenhaver, Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius (Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2002), p. 83; see also note to the passage p. 245. Influence from Roman Africa, particularly the figure of Baal-Hammon, may explain this particular syncretism; Jean-Pierre Mahé, Le fragment du “Discours parfait” dans la Bibliothèque de Nag Hammadi, Colloque International sur les textes de Nag hammadi (Québec, 22–25 août 1978) (Éditions Peeters, 1981), p. 310. [179] Pseudo-Callisthenes, I.30–33, as cited by Jarl Fossum, “The Myth of the Eternal Rebirth: Critical Notes on G.W. Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity,” Vigiliae Christianae 53.3 (1999), p. 309, note 15. On the oracle and for the passage in which Aion Plutonius is named, see Irad Malkin, Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece (Brill, 1987), p. 107, especially note 87. [180] “On this day and at this hour the Virgin gave birth to Aion": Gilles Quispel, “Hermann Hesse and Gnosis,” in Gnostica, Judaica, Catholica: Collected Essays (Brill, 2008), p. 258, noting that this date coincided with Epiphany and was a new year’s celebration. [181] As at Horace, Carmen 1.4.17, where the domus ... Plutonia renders in Latin the Greek phrase “house of Hades.” [182] Entry on “Demiurge,” The Classical Tradition (Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 256. [183] Entry on “Orpheus,” The Classical Tradition, p. 665. It was even said that the soul of Orpheus had been reborn into Ficino. [184] Entry on “Demiurge,” in The Classical Tradition p. 256. [185] Friedrich Solmsen, “The Powers of Darkness in Prudentius' Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination,” Vigiliae Christianae 19 (1965) 237–257; Margaret English Frazer, “Hades Stabbed by the Cross of Christ,” Metropolitan Museum Journal 9 (1974) 153–161. [186] K.M. Coleman, “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments,” Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), p. 67. [187] Tertullian, Ad nationes 1.10. Augustine regularly calls the Roman ruler of the underworld Pluto in De civitate Dei; see 2.15, where Pluto and Neptune are described as the brothers of Jove; 4.10, in noting their three-way division of sovereignty over the earth and with Proserpina as Pluto’s spouse (coniunx); 4.11, in deriding the allegorizing of divinity in physical cosmogony; and 6.7, in denouncing the mysteries (sacra) as obscene. [188] Daniel P. Harmon, “The Religious Significance of Games in the Roman Age,” in The Archaeology of the Olympics: The Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity (University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 242; Paul-Marie Duval, “Sucellus, the God with a Hammer,” in American, African, and Old European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 222. [189] Prudentius, Contra Symmachum 1.379–398; Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1998, 2001), p. 59. [190] Solmsen, “The Powers of Darkness,” pp. 237–257; Frazer, “Hades Stabbed by the Cross of Christ,”, pp. 153–161. [191] Dic igitur, praepulchra polis, quod Danea munus / Libavit tibimet soboles Plutonis amica, Bella Parisiacae urbis 1.21, as noted by Nirmal Dass, “Temporary Otherness and Homiletic History in the Late Carolingian Age: A Reading of the Bella Parisiacae urbis of Abbo of Stain-Germain-des-Prés,” in Difference and Identity in Francia and Medieval France (Ashgate Publishing, 2010), p. 106. In his earlier edition, translation, and commentary of the work, Dass gives “Speak, most wondrous of cities, of the gift the Danes brought for you, / Those friends of Pluto”, in Viking Attacks on Paris: The 'Bella Parisiacae Urbis’ of Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (Peeters, 2007), pp. 28–29, but soboles (classical Latin suboles) means “progency, offspring,” modified by amica, “dear, beloved.”

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241

[192] De deorum imaginibus libellus, chapter 6, “De Plutone": homo terribilis in solio sulphureo sedens, sceptrum regni in manu tenens dextra: sinistra, animam constringes, cui tricipitem Cerberum sub pedibus collocabant, & iuxta se tres Harpyias habebat. De throno aurê eius sulphureo quatuor flumina manabunt, quae scilicet Lethum, Cocytû, Phlegethontem, & Acherontem appellabant, & Stygem paludem iuxta flumina assignabant. [193] The questions of authorship involving the De deorum imaginibus libellus and the Liber Ymaginum deorum (“Book of Images of the Gods”) are vexed; Ronald E. Pepin, The Vatican Mythographers (Fordham University Press, 2008), pp. 7–9. [194] Dante, Inferno, Canto VII. [195] For instance, Peter Bondanella in his note to the translation of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, The Inferno: Dante Alighieri (Barnes & Noble Classics, 2003), pp. 202–203. Dante may simply be preserving the longstanding conflation of Greek Plouton and Ploutos; see Allen Mandelbaum, note to his translation of The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Inferno (Bantam Dell, 2004, originally published 1980), p. 357. In modern Italian, the name of the classical ruler of the underworld is Plutone. [196] The tormented souls wail “Perché tieni? e “Perché burli?" ("'Why do you hoard?' 'Why do you squander?'"): Inferno, Canto VII, line 30. [197] Il gran nemico, Inferno, Canto VI, line 115. [198] Bondanella, The Inferno p. 206; Mandelbaum, Inferno p. 69. [199] Ralph Nash, Jerusalem Delivered: An English Prose Version (Wayne State University Press, 1987), pp. xi and 475. [200] Tasso, Jerusalem Delivered, Canto 13.7, translated by Edward Fairfax (1907). [201] In The House of Fame (lines 1510–1511), Chaucer explicitly acknowledges his debt to Claudian “That bar up al the fame of helle, / Of Pluto, and of Proserpyne,” as noted by Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 25. [202] In Troilus and Criseyde (lines 590–503), as noted by Rosalyn Rossignol, Critical Companion to Chaucer: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work (Facts on File, 2006), p. 540. [203] Chaucer, “The Knight’s Tale” 2082 and 2299. [204] Rossignol, Critical Companion pp. 432, 540. [205] John M. Fyler, “Pagan Survivals,” in A Companion to Chaucer (Blackwell, 2000, 2002), p. 351. [206] Seth Lerer, “The Canterbury Tales,” in The Yale Companion to Chaucer (Yale University Press, 2006), p. 270. Pluto and Proserpina in The Merchant’s Tale have been seen as Shakespeare’s model for Titania and Oberon in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, a view at least as old as Chaucer’s editor Thomas Tyrwhitt (see 1798 edition) and reiterated by Walter William Skeat in his edition of The Canterbury Tales (1894 edition). [207] William Dunbar, The Goldyn Targe (1503), lines 126–7, as cited by Ian Simpson Ross, William Dunbar (Brill, 1981), p. 252. Compare also Arthur Golding's “elves of hell” to translate Ovid’s Avernales ... nymphas, "nymphs of Avernus" (Metamorphoses 5.670, in his account of the abduction). [208] Shakespeare’s references to Pluto are conventional. Pluto is associated with Hell in the “Roman” plays Coriolanus (I.iv, “Pluto and Hell!" as an exclamation) and Titus Andronicus (IV.iii, “Pluto’s region,” and “Pluto sends you word, / If you will have Revenge from hell, you shall”), as also in Henry IV, Part 2 (II.iv): “I'll see her damn'd first; — to Pluto’s damned lake, by this hand, to th' infernal deep, with Erebus and tortures vile also.” Pluto’s gates are a metaphor for strength in Troilus and Cressida (V.ii), where Pluto is also sworn by (III.iv and V.ii). The performance of Orpheus is referenced in The Rape of Lucrece (line 553): “And moody Pluto winks while Orpheus plays.” Shakespeare also uses the name of Roman Dis, as in Perdita’s catalogue of flowers in A Winter’s Tale (IV.iii): “O Proserpina, / For the flowers now, that, frighted, thou lett’st fall / From Dis’s waggon!" [209] In Doctor Faustus (III.ii, 1616 quarto), Mephistopheles invokes “Pluto’s blue fire” in casting a spell of invisibility on the protagonist. In his translation of Lucan's epic, Marlowe uses Pluto for Dis (First Book of Lucan, lines 449, where “Pluto” refers to the druidic god Julius Caesar identified with Dis, and 576), but uses both names in the mythological narrative Hero and Leander. [210] Spenser plays on the conflation of Pluto and Plutus: “but a little stride ... did the house of Richesse from hell-mouth divide” and “Here Sleep, there Richesse, and Hel-gate them both betwext” (24.5), as noted by Thomas E. Maresca, entry on “Hell”, The Spencer Encyclopedia, p. 352. See Offspring of Pluto (above) on the daughter Spenser invents for Pluto. His favored epithet for Pluto is griesly, an archaism for "grisly" (FG I.iv.11.1, II.vii.24.1, IV.iii.13.2, VI.xii.35.6, applied to Proserpina at I.i.37.4; Pluto named also at FG I.v.14.8, II.viii.24.1, VI.xii.35.6, VII.vii.5.9, and The Shepheardes Calender “October” 29).

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[211] Robert DeMaria Jr. and Robert D. Brown, Classical Literature and Its Reception: An Anthology (Blackwell, 2007), p. 453. Both Dis and Pluto appear in the works of Shakespeare and Marlowe, but Pluto with greater frequency; Spenser prefers the name Pluto. [212] Arthur Golding, Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001) passim, with a few instances of Dis; Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 25. [213] For instance, at Paradise Lost 4.270, as cited by Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 25, where Proserpine is described as a flower fairer than those she was gathering and “by gloomy Dis / was gathered.” [214] Ovid’s Metamorphosis Translated by Arthur Golding, edited by Madeleine Forey, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 164. Pluto rules over Hell throughout Spenser’s Faerie Queene, as noted by Maresca, The Spenser Encyclopedia, p. 352. [215] John Block Friedman, Orpheus in the Middle Ages (Syracuse University Press, 2000), p. 238; Li Tournoiemenz Anticrit (Le tornoiement de l'Antéchrist) text. [216] Theresa Lynn Tinkle, Medieval Venuses and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry (Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 132. [217] The Assembly of Gods, lines 82, 51, 311, 314, in the edition of Oscar Lovell Triggs (London, 1896). [218] Entry on “Popular Culture,” The Classical Tradition, p. 766. [219] Sheila Lindenbaum, “Ceremony and Oligarchy: The London Midsummer Watch,” in City and Spectacle in Medieval Europe, (University of Minnesota Press, 1994), p. 171; Maria Hayward, Rich Apparel: Clothing and the Law in Henry VIII’s England (Ashgate, 2009), p. 290. The court of Pluto continued to inspire public pageantry into the late 19th century, when floats such as the “blazing 'Palace of Pluto'" were part of the Mardi Gras parades in New Orleans; Henri Schindler, Mardi Gras Treasures: Costume Designs of the Golden Age (Pelican, 2002), p. 15. [220] Nino Pirrotta, Music and Theatre from Poliziano to Monteverdi (Cambridge University Press, 1992, originally published in Italian 1969), passim, especially p. ix. [221] Pirrotta, Music and Theatre from Poliziano to Monteverdi, with Leonardo’s drawing (n.p.); Carlo Pedretti, Leonardo: The Machines (Giunti, 1999), p. 72. [222] Mark Ringer, Opera’s First Master: The Musical Dramas of Claudio Monteverdi (Amadeus Press, 2006), pp. 34, 75, 103– 104; Tim Carter, Monteverdi’s Musical Theatre (Yale University Press, 2002), p. 95; Enid Welsford, The Court Masque (Cambridge University Press, 1927), pp. 112–113. [223] Tim Carter, Monteverdi’s Musical Theatre p. 81, quoting Follino, Compendio delle sontuose feste (1608), and p. 152. [224] George J. Buelow, A History of Baroque Music (Indiana University Press, 2004), p. 37. [225] Kristiaan Aercke, Gods of Play: Baroque Festive Performances as Rhetorical Discourse (SUNY Press, 1994), p. 230. [226] Piero Gelli and Filippo Poletti, Dizionario dell'opera 2008 (Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2005, 2007), p. 36. [227] Charpentier’s Pluto is a bass-baritone. [228] Gelli and Poletti, Dizionario dell'opera 2008, p. 625. [229] James R. Anthony, French Baroque Music from Beaujoyeulx to Rameau (Amadeus Press, 1997), p. 115. [230] Pluto does not have a singing role in Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762). [231] Aercke, Gods of Play, p. 250; Ringer, Opera’s First Master, p. 71. [232] Andrew Trout, City on the Seine: Paris in the Time of Richelieu and Louis XIV (St. Martin’s Press, 1996), pp. 189–190; Buelow, A History of Baroque Music, p. 160. [233] Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720–1780 (W.W. Norton, 2003), pp. 488–492. [234] Sasha Anawalt, The Joffrey Ballet: Robert Joffrey and the Making of an American Dance Company (University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 66. [235] Frederick Kiefer, Shakespeare’s Visual Theatre: Staging the Personified Characters (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 60–61. [236] Amy Golahney, “Rembrandt’s Abduction of Proserpina,” in The Age of Rembrandt: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Painting (Penn State University Press, 1988), p. 30; Eric Jan Sluijter, Rembrandt and the Female Nude (Amsterdam University Press, 2006), pp. 109–111.

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[237] Mary Margaret Heaton, The History of the Life of Albrecht Dürer of Nürnberg (London, 1870), p. 187; Walter L. Strauss, The Complete Engravings, Etchings, and Drypoints of Albrecht Dürer (Dover, 1973), p. 178. [238] Strauss, The Complete Engravings, p. 178. [239] Entry on “Orpheus,” The Classical Tradition p. 665. [240] Entry on “Sculpture,” The Classical Tradition, p. 870. [241] Golahny, “Rembrandt’s Abduction of Proserpina,” p. 30ﬀ. [242] Amy Golahny, Rembrandt’s Reading: The Artist’s Bookshelf of Ancient Poetry and History (Amsterdam University Press, 2003), pp. 102–103. [243] Radford, The Lost Girls, pp. 85, 98, 114, citing Chelser, Women and Madness, pp. 240, 266. [244] Perhaps a play on the Italian verb chioccia used by Dante to describe Pluto’s manner of speaking in Inferno, Canto VII, line 2. [245] Radford, The Lost Girls, pp. 247, 252, 254, et passim. [246] Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 254. [247] Rick Riordan, The Son of Neptune (Disney-Hyperion Books, 2011), p. 111 (vol. 2 of The Heroes of Olympus series).

31.11 External links • Media related to Pluto (mythology) at Wikimedia Commons

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Serapis with moon and sun on oil lamp

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Etruscan Charun presiding over an execution

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Albrecht DÃ¼rer, Abduction of Proserpine on a Unicorn (1516)

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Jean Raoux's Orpheus and Eurydice (1718â&#x20AC;&#x201C;20), with Pluto and Proserpina releasing the couple

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Rembrandtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Abduction of Proserpina (ca. 1631)

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[178] Baal-Hammon

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Chapter 32

Persephone This article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, see Persephone (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Persephone (/pərˈsɛfəni/, per-SEH-fə-nee; Greek: Περσεφόνη), also called Kore (/ˈkɔəriː/; “the maiden”) or Cora,[n 1] is the daughter of Zeus and the harvest goddess Demeter, and is the queen of the underworld. Homer describes her as the formidable, venerable majestic princess of the underworld, who carries into effect the curses of men upon the souls of the dead. Persephone was married to Hades, the god-king of the underworld.[1] The myth of her abduction represents her function as the personification of vegetation, which shoots forth in spring and withdraws into the earth after harvest; hence, she is also associated with spring as well as the fertility of vegetation. Similar myths appear in the Orient, in the cults of male gods like Attis, Adonis, and Osiris,[2] and in Minoan Crete. Persephone as a vegetation goddess and her mother Demeter were the central figures of the Eleusinian mysteries that predated the Olympian pantheon and promised the initiated a more enjoyable prospect after death. Persephone is further said to have become by Zeus the mother of Dionysus, Iacchus, or Zagreus, usually in orphic tradition.[3] The origins of her cult are uncertain, but it was based on very old agrarian cults of agricultural communities. Persephone was commonly worshipped along with Demeter and with the same mysteries. To her alone were dedicated the mysteries celebrated at Athens in the month of Anthesterion. In Classical Greek art, Persephone is invariably portrayed robed, often carrying a sheaf of grain. She may appear as a mystical divinity with a sceptre and a little box, but she was mostly represented in the process of being carried off by Hades. In Roman mythology, she is called Proserpina, and her mother, Ceres.

32.1 Name 32.1.1

Etymology

In a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription on a tablet found at Pylos dated 1400–1200 BC, John Chadwick reconstructed[n 2] the name of a goddess *Preswa who could be identified with Persa, daughter of Oceanus and found speculative the further identification with the first element of Persephone.[5] Persephonē (Greek: Περσεφόνη) is her name in the Ionic Greek of epic literature. The Homeric form of her name is Persephoneia (Περσεφονεία,[6] Persephoneia). In other dialects she was known under variant names: Persephassa (Περσεφάσσα), Persephatta (Περσεφάττα), or simply Korē (Κόρη, “girl, maiden”).[7] Plato calls her Pherepapha (Φερέπαφα) in his Cratylus, “because she is wise and touches that which is in motion”. There are also the forms Periphona (Πηριφόνα) and Phersephassa (Φερσέφασσα). The existence of so many different forms shows how difficult it was for the Greeks to pronounce the word in their own language and suggests that the name may have a Pre-Greek origin.[8] Persephatta (Περσεφάττα) is considered to mean “female thresher of grain,” going by “perso-" relating to Sanskrit “parsa”, “sheaf of grain” and the second constituent of the name originating in Proto-Indo European *-gʷʰn-t-ih, from the root *gʷʰen “to strike”.[9] An alternative etymology is from φέρειν φόνον, pherein phonon, “to bring (or cause) death”.[10] John Chadwick speculatively relates the name of Persephone with the name of Perse, daughter of Oceanus.[11] 251

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Persephone or “the deceased woman” holding a pomegranate. Etruscan terracotta cinerary statue. National archaeological museum in Palermo, Italy

32.1.2

Roman Proserpina

The Romans ﬁrst heard of her from the Aeolian and Dorian cities of Magna Graecia, who used the dialectal variant Proserpinē (Προσερπίνη). Hence, in Roman mythology she was called Proserpina, a name erroneously derived by the Romans from proserpere, “to shoot forth”[12] and as such became an emblematic ﬁgure of the Renaissance.

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253

Cinerary altar with tabula representing the rape of Proserpina. White marble, Antonine Era, 2nd century CE. Rome, Baths of Diocletian

At Locri, perhaps uniquely, Persephone was the protector of marriage, a role usually assumed by Hera; in the iconography of votive plaques at Locri, her abduction and marriage to Hades served as an emblem of the marital state, children at Locri were dedicated to Proserpina, and maidens about to be wed brought their peplos to be blessed.[13]

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Persephone opening a cista containing the infant Adonis, on a pinax from Locri

32.1.3

Nestis

In a Classical period text ascribed to Empedocles, c. 490 – 430 BC,[n 3] describing a correspondence among four deities and the classical elements, the name Nestis for water apparently refers to Persephone: “Now hear the fourfold roots of everything: enlivening Hera, Hades, shining Zeus. And Nestis, moistening mortal springs with tears.”[14] Of the four deities of Empedocles’ elements, it is the name of Persephone alone that is taboo—Nestis is a euphemistic cult title[n 4] —for she was also the terrible Queen of the Dead, whose name was not safe to speak aloud, who was euphemistically named simply as Kore or “the Maiden”, a vestige of her archaic role as the deity ruling the underworld.

32.2 Titles and functions The epithets of Persephone reveal her double function as chthonic and vegetation goddess. The surnames given to her by the poets refer to her character as Queen of the lower world and the dead, or her symbolic meaning of the power that shoots forth and withdraws into the earth. Her common name as a vegetation goddess is Kore and in Arcadia

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she was worshipped under the title Despoina “the mistress”, a very old chthonic divinity. Plutarch identifies her with spring and Cicero calls her the seed of the fruits of the fields. In the Eleusinian mysteries, her return is the symbol of immortality and hence she was frequently represented on sarcophagi.[10] In the mystical theories of the Orphics and the Platonists, Kore is described as the all-pervading goddess of nature[15] who both produces and destroys everything and she is therefore mentioned along or identified with other mystic divinities such as Isis, Rhea, Ge, Hestia, Pandora, Artemis, and Hecate.[16] The Orphic Persephone is further said to have become by Zeus the mother of Dionysus, Iacchus, Zagreus,[10] and the little-attested Melinoe.[17]

32.2.1

Epithets

As a goddess of the underworld, Persephone was given euphemistically friendly names.[18] However it is possible that some of them were the names of original goddesses: • Despoina (dems-potnia) “the mistress” (literally “the mistress of the house”) in Arcadia. • Hagne, “pure”, originally a goddess of the springs in Messenia.[19] • Melindia or Melinoia (meli, “honey”), as the consort of Hades, in Hermione. (Compare Hecate, Melinoe)[18] • Melivia[18] • Melitodes[18] • Aristi cthonia, “the best chthonic".[18] • Praxidike, the Orphic Hymn to Persephone identiﬁes Praxidike as an epithet of Persephone: “Praxidike, subterranean queen. The Eumenides' source [mother], fair-haired, whose frame proceeds from Zeus’ ineﬀable and secret seeds.”[20][21] As a vegetation goddess she was called:[19][22] • Kore, “the maiden”. • Kore Soteira, “the savior maiden” in Megalopolis. • Neotera, “the younger " in Eleusis. • Kore of Demeter Hagne, in the Homeric hymn. • Kore memagmeni, “the mixed daughter” (bread). Demeter and her daughter Persephone were usually called:[22][23] • The goddesses, often distinguished as “the older” and “the younger” in Eleusis. • Demeters, in Rhodes and Sparta • The thesmophoroi, “the legislators” in the Thesmophoria. • The Great Goddesses, in Arcadia. • The mistresses in Arcadia.[24] • Karpophoroi, “the bringers of fruit”, in Tegea of Arcadia.

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Gold ring from Isopata tomb, near Knossos, Crete, 1400–1500 BC. Depicted are female ﬁgures dancing among blossoming vegetation; Heraklion Archaeological Museum

32.3 Origins of the cult The myth of a goddess being abducted and taken to the Underworld is probably Pre-Greek in origin. Samuel Noah Kramer, the renowned scholar of ancient Sumer, has posited that the Greek story of the abduction of Persephone may be derived from an ancient Sumerian story in which Ereshkigal, the ancient Sumerian goddess of the Underworld, is abducted by Kur, the primeval dragon of Sumerian mythology, and forced to become ruler of the Underworld against her own will.[25] The location of Persephone’s abduction is different in each local cult. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter mentions the “plain of Nysa”.[26] The locations of this probably mythical place may simply be conventions to show that a magically distant chthonic land of myth was intended in the remote past.[27][28] Demeter found and met her daughter in Eleusis, and this is the mythical disguise of what happened in the mysteries.[29] Persephone is an old chthonic deity of the agricultural communities, who received the souls of the dead into the earth, and acquired powers over the fertility of the soil, over which she reigned. The earliest depiction of a goddess who may be identified with Persephone growing out of the ground, is on a plate from the Old-Palace period in Phaistos. The goddess has a vegetable-like appearance, and she is surrounded by dancing girls between blossoming flowers.[30] A similar representation, where the goddess appears to come down from the sky, is depicted on the Minoan ring of Isopata. In some forms Hades appears with his chthonic horses. The myth of the rape of Kore was derived from the idea that Hades catches the souls of the dead like his booty, and then carries them with his horses into his kingdom. This idea is vague in Homer, but appears in later Greek depictions, and in Greek folklore. “Charos” appears with his horse and carries the dead into the underworld.[31][32] The cults of Persephone and Demeter in the Eleusinian mysteries and in the Thesmophoria were based on old agrarian cults.[33] A lot of ancient beliefs were based on initiation into jealously-guarded mysteries (secret rites) because they

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Rape of Persephone. Hades with his horses and Persephone (down). An Apulian red-ﬁgure volute krater, c. 340 BC. Antikensammlung Berlin

oﬀered prospects after death more enjoyable than the ﬁnal end at the gloomy space of the Greek Hades. There is evidence that some practices were derived from the religious practices of the Mycenaean age.[34][30] Kerenyi asserts that these religious practices were introduced from Minoan Crete.,[35][36] The idea of immortality which appears in the syncretistic religions of the Near East did not exist in the Eleusinian mysteries at the very beginning.[37][38]

32.3.1

Near East - Minoan Crete

In the Near eastern myth of the primitive agricultural societies, every year the fertility goddess bore the “god of the new year”, who then became her lover, and died immediately in order to be reborn and face the same destiny. Some findings from Catal Huyuk since the Neolithic age, indicate the worship of the Great Goddess accompanied by a boyish consort, who symbolizes the annual decay and return of vegetation.[39] Similar cults of resurrected gods appear in the Near East and Egypt in the cults of Attis, Adonis and Osiris.[40] In Minoan Crete, the “divine child” was related to the female vegetation divinity Ariadne who died every year.[41] The Minoan religion had its own characteristics. The most peculiar feature of the Minoan belief in the divine, is the appearance of the goddess from above in the dance. Dance floors have been discovered in addition to “vaulted tombs”, and it seems that the dance was ecstatic. Homer memorializes the dance floor which Daedalus built for Ariadne in the remote past.[42] On the gold ring from Isopata, four women in festal attire are performing a dance between blossoming flowers. Above a figure apparently floating in the air seems to be the goddess herself, appearing amid the whirling dance.[43] An image plate from the first palace of Phaistos, seems to be very close to the mythical image of the Anodos (ascent) of Persephone. Two girls dance between blossoming flowers, on each side of a similar

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Lady of Auxerre Louvre-An Archaic (640 BC) image from Crete. A version of a Minoan Goddess who may be identiďŹ ed with Kore

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but armless and legless figure which seems to grow out of the ground. The goddess is bordered by snake lines which give her a vegetable like appearance She has a large stylized flower turned over her head. The resemblance with the flower-picking Persephone and her companions is compelling.[30] The depiction of the goddess is similar to later images of “Anodos of Pherephata”. On the Dresden vase, Persephone is growing out of the ground, and she is surrounded by the animal-tailed agricultural gods Silenoi.[44] Kerenyi suggests that the name Ariadne (derived from ἁγνή, hagne, “pure”), was an euphemistical name given by the Greeks to the nameless “Mistress of the labyrinth" who appears in a Mycenean Greek inscription from Knossos in Crete. The Greeks used to give friendly names to the deities of the underworld. Cthonic Zeus was called Eubuleus, “the good counselor”, and the ferryman of the river of the underworld Charon, “glad”.[32] Despoina and “Hagne” were probably euphemistic surnames of Persephone, therefore he theorizes that the cult of Persephone was the continuation of the worship of a Minoan Great goddess. The labyrinth was both a winding dance-ground and, in the Greek view, a prison with the dreaded Minotaur at its centre.[45][46] It is possible that some religious practices, especially the mysteries, were transferred from a Cretan priesthood to Eleusis, where Demeter brought the poppy from Crete.[47] Besides these similarities, Burkert explains that up to now it is not known to what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenean religion.[48] In the Anthesteria Dionysos is the “divine child”.

32.3.2

Mycenean Greece

There is evidence of a cult in Eleusis from the Mycenean period;[49] however, there are not sacral ﬁnds from this period. The cult was private and there is no information about it. As well as the names of some Greek gods in the Mycenean Greek inscriptions, also appear names of goddesses, like “the divine Mother” (the mother of the gods) or “the Goddess (or priestess) of the winds”, who don't have Mycenean origin .[29] In historical times Demeter and Kore were usually referred to as “the goddesses” or “the mistresses” (Arcadia) in the mysteries .[50] In the Mycenean Greek tablets dated 1400–1200 BC, the “two queens and the king” are mentioned. John Chadwick believes that these were the precursor divinities of Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon.[51][52] Some information can be obtained from the study of the cult of Eileithyia at Crete, and the cult of Despoina. In the cave of Amnisos at Crete, Eileithyia is related with the annual birth of the divine child and she is connected with Enesidaon (The earth shaker), who is the chthonic aspect of the god Poseidon.[53] Persephone was conﬂated with Despoina, “the mistress”, a chthonic divinity in West-Arcadia.[36] The megaron of Eleusis is quite similar with the “megaron” of Despoina at Lycosura.[29] Demeter is united with the god Poseidon, and she bears a daughter, the unnameable Despoina.[54] Poseidon appears as a horse, as it usually happens in Northern European folklore. The goddess of nature and her companion survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered “Mighty Potnia bore a great sun”.[53] In Eleusis, in a ritual, one child (“pais”) was initiated from the hearth. The name pais (the divine child) appears in the Mycenean inscriptions,[29] and the ritual indicates the transition from the old funerary practices to the Greek cremation.[55] In Greek mythology Nysa is a mythical mountain with an unknown location.[28] Nysion (or Mysion), the place of the abduction of Persephone was also probably a mythical place which did not exist on the map, a magically distant chthonic land of myth which was intended in the remote past.[56]

32.4 Mythology 32.4.1

Abduction myth

Persephone used to live far away from the other gods, a goddess within Nature herself before the days of planting seeds and nurturing plants. In the Olympian telling, the gods Hermes and Apollo had wooed Persephone; but Demeter rejected all their gifts and hid her daughter away from the company of the Olympian gods.[57] The story of her abduction by Hades against her will is traditionally referred to as the Rape of Persephone. It is mentioned briefly in Hesiod's Theogony,[58] and told in considerable detail in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Zeus, it is said, permitted Hades, who was in love with the beautiful Persephone, to abduct her as her mother Demeter was not likely to allow her daughter to go down to Hades. Persephone was gathering flowers with the Oceanids along with Artemis and Athena—the Homeric Hymn says—in a field when Hades came to abduct her, bursting through a cleft in the earth.[59] Demeter, when she found her daughter had disappeared, searched for her all over the earth with Hecate’s torches. In most versions she forbids the earth to produce, or she neglects the earth and in the depth of her despair she causes nothing to grow. Helios, the sun, who sees everything, eventually told Demeter what had happened and at length she

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Two women or goddesses on a chariot. Fresco from Tiryns, 1200 BC. National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

discovered the place of her abode. Finally, Zeus, pressed by the cries of the hungry people and by the other deities who also heard their anguish, forced Hades to return Persephone.[60] Hades indeed complied with the request, but ďŹ rst he tricked her, giving her some pomegranate seeds to eat. Persephone was released by Hermes, who had been sent to retrieve her, but because she had tasted food in the underworld, she was obliged to spend a third of each year (the winter months) there, and the remaining part of the year with

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Sarcophagus with the abduction of Persephone. Walters Art Museum. Baltimore, Maryland

Oil painting of Hades abducting Persephone. Oil on wood with gilt background. 18th century. Property of Missing Link Antiques.

the gods above.[61] With the later writers Ovid and Hyginus, Persephone’s time in the underworld becomes half the year.[62] Various local traditions place Persephone’s abduction in a diﬀerent location. The Sicilians, among whom her worship

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was probably introduced by the Corinthian and Megarian colonists, believed that Hades found her in the meadows near Enna, and that a well arose on the spot where he descended with her into the lower world. The Cretans thought that their own island had been the scene of the rape, and the Eleusinians mentioned the Nysian plain in Boeotia, and said that Persephone had descended with Hades into the lower world at the entrance of the western Oceanus. Later accounts place the rape in Attica, near Athens, or near Eleusis.[60]

The return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton (1891)

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The Homeric hymn mentions the Nysion (or Mysion) which was probably a mythical place. The location of this mythical place may simply be a convention to show that a magically distant chthonic land of myth was intended in the remote past.[22] Before Persephone was abducted by Hades, the shepherd Eumolpus and the swineherd Eubuleus saw a girl in a black chariot driven by an invisible driver being carried off into the earth which had violently opened up. Eubuleus was feeding his pigs at the opening to the underworld when Persephone was abducted by Plouton. His swine were swallowed by the earth along with her, and the myth is an etiology for the relation of pigs with the ancient rites in Thesmophoria,[63] and in Eleusis. In the hymn, Persephone returns and she is reunited with her mother near Eleusis. Demeter as she has been promised established her mysteries (orgies) when the Eleusinians built for her a temple near the spring of Callichorus. These were awful mysteries which were not allowed to be uttered. The uninitiated would spend a miserable existence in the gloomy space of Hades after death.[n 5] In some versions, Ascalaphus informed the other deities that Persephone had eaten the pomegranate seeds. When Demeter and her daughter were reunited, the Earth flourished with vegetation and color, but for some months each year, when Persephone returned to the underworld, the earth once again became a barren realm. This is an origin story to explain the seasons. In an earlier version, Hecate rescued Persephone. On an Attic red-figured bell krater of c. 440 BC in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Persephone is rising as if up stairs from a cleft in the earth, while Hermes stands aside; Hecate, holding two torches, looks back as she leads her to the enthroned Demeter.[64] The 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia Suda introduces a goddess of a blessed afterlife assured to Orphic mystery initiates. This Macaria is asserted to be the daughter of Hades, but no mother is mentioned.[65]

32.4.2

Interpretation of the myth

In the myth Pluto abducts Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm.[66] Pluto (Πλούτων, Ploutōn) was a name for the ruler of the underworld; the god was also known as Hades, a name for the underworld itself. The name Pluton was conflated with that of Ploutos (Πλούτος Ploutos, “wealth”), a god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because Pluto as a chthonic god ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest.[67] Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone’s husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility.[68] In the Theogony of Hesiod, Demeter was united with the hero Iasion in Crete and she bore Ploutos.[58] This union seems to be a reference to a hieros gamos (ritual copulation) to ensure the earth’s fertility.[68] This ritual copulation appears in Minoan Crete, in many Near Eastern agricultural societies, and also in the Anthesteria.[n 6] Nilsson believes that the original cult of Ploutos (or Pluto) in Eleusis was similar with the Minoan cult of the “divine child”, who died in order to be reborn. The child was abandoned by his mother and then it was brought up by the powers of nature. Similar myths appear in the cults of Hyakinthos (Amyklai), Erichthonios (Athens), and later in the cult of Dionysos.[70] The Greek version of the abduction myth is related to grain – important and rare in the Greek environment – and the return (ascent) of Persephone was celebrated at the autumn sowing. Pluto (Ploutos) represents the wealth of the grain that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi), during summer months. Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for burials and Pluto is fused with Hades, the King of the realm of the dead. During summer months, the Greek grain-Maiden (Kore) is lying in the grain of the underground silos, in the realm of Hades and she is fused with Persephone, the Queen of the underworld. At the beginning of the autumn, when the seeds of the old crop are laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother Demeter, for at that time the old crop and the new meet each other. For the initiated, this union was the symbol of the eternity of human life that flows from the generations which spring from each other.[71][72]

32.4.3

Arcadian myths

The primitive myths of isolated Arcadia seem to be related to the ﬁrst Greek-speaking people who came from the north-east during the bronze age. Despoina (the mistress), the goddess of the Arcadian mysteries, is the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios (horse), who represents the river spirit of the underworld that appears as a horse as often happens in northern-European folklore. He pursues the mare-Demeter and from the union she bears the horse Arion and a daughter who originally had the form or the shape of a mare. The two goddesses were not clearly separated and they were closely connected with the springs and the animals. They were related with the god of rivers and

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Pinax of Persephone and Hades from Locri. Reggio Calabria, National Museum of Magna Graecia.

springs; Poseidon and especially with Artemis, the Mistress of the Animals who was the ﬁrst nymph.[1] According to the Greek tradition a hunt-goddess preceded the harvest goddess.[73] In Arcadia, Demeter and Persephone were often called Despoinai (Δέσποιναι, “the mistresses”) in historical times. They are the two Great Goddesses of the Arcadian cults, and evidently they come from a more primitive religion.[22] The Greek god Poseidon probably substituted the companion (Paredros, Πάρεδρος) of the Minoan Great goddess[74] in the Arcadian mysteries.

32.4.4

Queen of the Underworld

Persephone held an ancient role as the dread queen of the Underworld, within which tradition it was forbidden to speak her name. This tradition comes from her conﬂation with the very old chthonic divinity Despoina (the mistress),

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265

From L-R, Artemis, Demeter, Veil of Despoina, Anytus, Tritoness from the throne of Despoina at Lycosura. National Archaeological Museum of Athens

whose real name could not be revealed to anyone except those initiated to her mysteries.[54] As goddess of death she was also called a daughter of Zeus and Styx,[75] the river that formed the boundary between Earth and the underworld. Homer describes her as the formidable, venerable majestic queen of the shades, who carries into eﬀect the curses of men upon the souls of the dead, along with her husband Hades.[76] In the reformulation of Greek mythology expressed in the Orphic Hymns, Dionysus and Melinoe are separately called children of Zeus and Persephone.[77] Groves sacred to her stood at the western extremity of the earth on the frontiers of the lower world, which itself was called “house of Persephone”.[78] Her central myth served as the context for the secret rites of regeneration at Eleusis,[79] which promised immortality to initiates.

32.5 Cult of Persephone Persephone was worshipped along with her mother Demeter and in the same mysteries. Her cults included agrarian magic, dancing, and rituals. The priests used special vessels and holy symbols, and the people participated with rhymes. In Eleusis there is evidence of sacred laws and other inscriptions.[80] The Cult of Demeter and the Maiden is found at Attica, in the main festivals Thesmophoria and Eleusinian mysteries and in a lot of local cults. These festivals were almost always celebrated at the autumn sowing, and at full-moon according to the Greek tradition. In some local cults the feasts were dedicated to Demeter.

32.5.1

Thesmophoria

Main article: Thesmophoria Thesmophoria, were celebrated in Athens, and the festival was widely spread in Greece. This was a festival of secret women-only rituals connected with marriage customs and commemorated the third of the year, in the month Pyanepsion, when Kore was abducted and Demeter abstained from her role as goddess of harvest and growth. The ceremony involved sinking sacriﬁces into the earth by night and retrieving the decaying remains of pigs that had been placed in the megara of Demeter (trenches and pits or natural clefts in rock), the previous year. These were placed on altars, mixed with seeds, then planted.[81] Pits rich in organic matter at Eleusis have been taken as evidence that the Thesmophoria was held there as well as in other demes of Attica.[82] This agrarian magic was also used in the cult of the earth-goddesses potniai (mistresses) in the Cabeirian, and in Knidos.[83] The festival was celebrated over three days. The ﬁrst was the “way up” to the sacred space, the second, the day of feasting when they ate pomegranate seeds and the third was a meat feast in celebration of Kalligeneia a goddess of beautiful birth. Zeus penetrated the mysteries as Zeus- Eubuleus[81] which is an euphemistical name of Hades (Chthonios Zeus).[18] In the original myth which is an etiology for the ancient rites, Eubuleus was a swineherd who was feeding his pigs at the opening to the underworld when Persephone was abducted by Plouton. His swine were swallowed by the earth along with her.[63]

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Eleusinian mysteries

Main article: Eleusinian mysteries The Eleusinian mysteries was a festival celebrated at the autumn sowing in the city of Eleusis. Inscriptions refer to “the Goddesses” accompanied by the agricultural god Triptolemos (probably son of Ge and Oceanus),[84] and “the God and the Goddess” (Persephone and Plouton) accompanied by Eubuleus who probably led the way back from the underworld.[85] The myth was represented in a cycle with three phases: the “descent”, the “search”, and the “ascent”, with contrasted emotions from sorrow to joy which roused the mystae to exultation. The main theme was the ascent of Persephone and the reunion with her mother Demeter.[71] The festival activities included dancing, probably across the Rharian field, where according to the myth the first grain grew. At the beginning of the feast, the priests filled two special vessels and poured them out, the one towards the west, and the other towards the east. The people looking both to the sky and the earth shouted in a magical rhyme “rain and conceive”. In a ritual, a child was initiated from the hearth (the divine fire). It was the ritual of the “divine child” who originally was Ploutos. In the Homeric hymn the ritual is connected with the myth of the agricultural god Triptolemos[55] The high point of the celebration was “an ear of grain cut in silence”, which represented the force of the new life. The idea of immortality didn't exist in the mysteries at the beginning, but the initiated believed that they would have a better fate in the underworld. Death remained a reality, but at the same time a new beginning like the plant which grows from the buried seed.[29] In the earliest depictions Persephone is an armless and legless deity, who grows out of the ground.[30]

32.5.3

Local cults

Local cults of Demeter and Kore existed in Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, Magna Graecia, and Libya. • Attica:[86] • Athens, in the mysteries of Agrae. This was a local cult near the river Ilissos. They were celebrated during spring in the month Anthesterion. Later they became an obligation for the participants of the “greater” Eleusinian mysteries. There was a temple of Demeter and Kore, and an image of Triptolemos.[87]

•

• Piraeus: The Skirophoria, a festival related to the Thesmophoria. • Megara: Cult of Demeter thesmophoros and Kore. The city was named after its megara .[88] • Aegina: Cult of Demeter thesmophoros and Kore. • Phlya, near Koropi, in the mysteries of Phlya: These have very old roots, and were probably originally dedicated to Demeter Anesidora, Kore, and Zeus- Ktesios, who was the god of the underground stored grain. Pausanias mentions a temple of Demeter-Anesidora, Kore Protogone, and Zeus Ktesios. The surname Protogonos, indicates a later Orphic inﬂuence. It seems that the mysteries were related to the mysteries of Andania in Messene.[89]

• Boeotia: • Thebes, which Zeus is said to have given to her as an acknowledgement for a favour she had bestowed upon him.[90] Pausanias records a grove of Cabeirian Demeter and the Maid, three miles outside the gates of Thebes, where a ritual was performed, so-called on the grounds that Demeter gave it to the Cabeiri, who established it at Thebes. The Thebans told Pausanias that some inhabitants of Naupactus had performed the same rituals there, and had met with divine vengeance.[91] The Cabeirian mysteries were introduced from Asia Minor at the end of the archaic period. Nothing is known of the older cult, and it seems that the Cabeiri were originally wine-daemons. Inscriptions from the temple in Thebes mention the old one as Cabir, and the new one as son (pais), who are diﬀerent.[89] According to Pausanias, Pelarge, the daughter of Potnieus, was connected with the cult of Demeter in the Cabeirian (potniai).[83] • A feast in Boeotia, in the month Demetrios (Pyanepsion), probably similar with the Thesmophoria. • Thebes: Cult of Demeter and Kore in a feast named Thesmophoria but probably diﬀerent. It was celebrated in the summer month Bukatios.[22][92] • Peloponnese (except Arcadia)[22]

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267

• Hermione: An old cult of Demeter Chthonia, Kore, and Klymenos (Hades). Cows were pushed into the temple, and then they were killed by four women. It is possible that Hermione was a mythical name, the place of the souls.[18] • Asine: Cult of Demeter Chthonia. The cult seems to be related to the original cult of Demeter in Hermione.[18] • Lakonia: Temple of Demeter Eleusinia near Taygetos. The feast was named Eleuhinia, and the name was given before the relation of Demeter with the cult of Eleusis. • Lakonia at Aigila: Dedicated to Demeter. Men were excluded. • near Sparta: Cult of Demeter and Kore, the Demeters (Δαμάτερες, “Damaters”). According to Hesychius, the feast lasted three days (Thesmophoria). • Corinth: Cult of Demeter, Kore and Pluton.[18] • Triphylia in Elis: Cult of Demeter, Kore and Hades.[18] • Pellene: Dedicated to the Mysian Demeter. Men were excluded. The next day, men and women became naked. • Andania in Messenia (near the borders of Arcadia): Cult of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Hagne. Hagne, a goddess of the spring, was the original deity before Demeter. The temple was built near a spring. • Arcadia[23] • Pheneos : Mysteries of Demeter Thesmia and Demeter Eleusinia. The Eleusinian cult was introduced later. The priest took the holy book from a natural cleft. He used the mask of Demeter Kidaria, and he hit his stick on the earth, in a kind of agrarian magic. An Arcadian dance was named kidaris. • Pallantion near Tripoli: Cult of Demeter and Kore. • Karyai: Cult of Kore and Pluton.[18] • Tegea: Cult of Demeter and Kore, the Karpophoroi, “Fruit givers”. • Megalopolis: Cult of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Kore Sotira, “the savior ". • Mantineia: Cult of Demeter and Kore in the fest Koragia.[93] • Trapezus: Mysteries of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Kore. The temple was built near a spring, and a fire was burning out of the earth. • near Thelpusa in Onkeion: Temple of Demeter Erinys (vengeful) and Demeter Lusia (bathing). In the myth Demeter was united with Poseidon Hippios (horse) and bore the horse Arion and the unnamed. The name Despoina was given in West Arcadia. • Phigalia: Cult of the mare-headed Demeter (black), and Despoina. Demeter was depicted in her archaic form, a Medusa type with a horse’s head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin.[94] The temple was built near a spring. • Lycosura, Main article: Despoina Cult of Demeter and Despoina. In the portico of the temple of Despoina there was a tablet with the inscriptions of the mysteries. In front of the temple there was an altar to Demeter and another to Despoine, after which was one of the Great Mother. By the sides stood Artemis and Anytos, the Titan who brought up Despoine. Besides the temple, there was also a hall where the Arcadians celebrated the mysteries[95][96] A fire was always burning in front of the temple of Pan (the goat-god), the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks. In a relief appear dancing animal-headed women (or with animal-masks) in a procession. Near the temple have been found terracotta figures with human bodies, and heads of animals.[23] • Islands • Paros: Cult of Demeter, Kore and Zeus-Eubuleus.[18] • Amorgos: Cult of Demeter, Kore and Zeus-Eubuleus.[18] • Delos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus. Probably a different feast with the name Thesmophoria, celebrated in a summer month (the same month in Thebes). Two big loaves of bread were oferred to the two goddesses. Another feast was named Megalartia.[22][92] • Mykonos: Cult of Demeter, Kore and Zeus-Buleus.

268

CHAPTER 32. PERSEPHONE • Crete : Cult of Demeter and Kore, in the month Thesmophorios. • Rhodes: Cult of Demeter and Kore, in the month Thesmophorios. The two goddesses are the Damaters in an inscription from Lindos

• Asia Minor • Knidos: Cult of Demeter, Kore and Pluton.[18] Agrarian magic similar to the one used in Thesmophoria and in the cult of the potniai (Cabeirian).[22] • Ephesos : Cult of Demeter and Kore, celebrated at night-time.[97] • Priene: Cult of Demeter and Kore, similar to the Thesmophoria.[22] • Sicily •

• Syracuse: There was a harvest festival of Demeter and Persephone at Syracuse when the grain was ripe (about May).[98] • A fest Koris katagogi, the descent of Persephone into the underworld.[22]

• Magna Graecia • Epizephyrian Locri: A temple associated with childbirth; its treasure was looted by Pyrrhus.[99] • Archaeological ﬁnds suggest that worship of Demeter and Persephone was widespread in Sicily and Greek Italy. • Libya • Cyrene: Temple of Demeter and Kore[22]

32.6 Ancient literary references • Homer: • Iliad: • “the gods fulﬁlled his curse, even Zeus of the nether world and dread Persephone.” (9, line 457; A. T. Murray, trans) • "Althea prayed instantly to the gods, being grieved for her brother’s slaying; and furthermore instantly beat with her hands upon the all-nurturing earth, calling upon Hades and dread Persephone” (9, 569) • Odyssey: • “And come to the house of Hades and dread Persephoneia to seek sooth saying of the spirit of Theban Teiresias. To him even in death Persephoneia has granted reason that ...” (book 10, card 473) • Hymns to Demeter[100] • Hymn 2: • “Mistress Demeter goddess of heaven, which God or mortal man has rapt away Persephone and pierced with sorrow your dear heart?(hymn 2, card 40) • Hymn 13: • “I start to sing for Demeter the lovely-faced goddess, for her and her daughter the most beautiful Persephoneia. Hail goddess keep this city safe!" (hymn 13, card 1) • Pindar[100] • Olympian: • “Now go Echo, to the dark-walled home of Phersephona."(book O, poem 14) • Isthmean: • “Aecus showed them the way to the house of Phersephona and nymphs, one of them carrying a ball."(book 1, poem 8)

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269

• Nemean: • “Island which Zeus, the lord of Olympus gave to Phersephona;he nodded descent with his flowers hair."(book N, poem 1) • Pythian: • “You splendor-loving city, most beautiful on earth, home of Phersephona. You who inhabit the hill of well-built dwellings."(book P, poem 12) • Aeschylus[100] • Libation bearers: • Electra:"O Phersephassa, grant us indeed a glorious victory!" (card 479) • Aristophanes[100] • Thesmophoriazusae: • Mnesilochos:"Thou Mistress Demeter, the most valuable friend and thou Pherephatta, grant that I may be able to offer you!" (card 266) • Euripides[100] • Alcestis: • “O you brave and best hail, sitting as attendand Beside’s Hades bride Phersephone!" (card 741) • Hecuba: • “It is said that any of the dead that stand beside Phersephone, that the Danaids have left the plains to Troy.” (card 130) • Bacchylides[100] • Epinicians: • “Flashing thunderbolt went down to the halls of slender-ankled Phersephona to bring up into the light of Hades.” (book Ep. poem 5) • Vergil[101] • The Aeneid: • “For since she had not died through fate, or by a well-earned death, but wretchedly, before her time, inflamed with sudden madness, Proserpine had not yet taken a lock of golden hair from her head, or condemned her soul to Stygian Orcus.” (IV.696–99)

32.7 Modern reception Main article: Persephone in popular culture In 1934, Igor Stravinsky based his melodrama Perséphone on Persephone’s story. In 1961, Frederick Ashton of the Royal Ballet appropriated Stravinsky’s score, to choreograph a ballet starring Svetlana Beriosova as Persephone. Persephone also appears many times in popular culture. Featured in a variety of young adult novels such as “Persephone”[102] by Kaitlin Bevis, “Persephone’s Orchard”[103] by Molly Ringle, “The Goddess Test” by Aimee Carter, “The Goddess Letters” by Carol Orlock, and “Abandon” by Meg Cabot, her story has also been treated by Suzanne Banay Santo in “Persephone Under the Earth” in the light of women’s spirituality. Here Santo treats the mythic elements in terms of maternal sacriﬁce to the burgeoning sexuality of an adolescent daughter. Accompanied by the classic, sensual paintings of Frederic Lord Leighton and William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Santo portrays Persephone not as a victim but as a woman in quest of sexual depth and power, transcending the role of daughter, though ultimately returning to it as an awakened Queen.[104]

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32.8 See also • Eleusinian Mysteries • Rape of Persephone • Anthesphoria, festival honoring Proserpina, and Persephone

32.9 Notes and references Notes [1] Cora, the Latinization of Kore, is not usually used anymore in modern English. [2] The actual word in Linear B is

, pe-re-*82 or pe-re-swa; it is found on the PY Tn 316 tablet.[4]

[3] Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher who was a citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily. [4] Kingsley 1995 identiﬁes Nestis as a cult title of Persephone. [5] Hom. Hymn. to Demeter 470: “Awful mysteries which no one may in any way transgress or pry into or utter, for deep awe of the gods checks the voice. Happy is he among men upon earth who has seen these mysteries; but he who is uninitiate and who has no part in them, never has lot of like good things once he is dead, down in the darkness and gloom”. [6] “This is the time when Zeus mated with Semele, who is also Persephone, and Dionysos was conceived. It is also the time when Dionysos took Ariadne to be His wife, and so we celebrate the marriage of the Basilinna (religious Queen) and the God”. [69]

References [1] Martin Nilsson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I pp 462–463, 479–480 [2] Fraser. The golden bough. Adonis, Attis and Osiris. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 215 [3] reference needed [4] Raymoure, K.A. “pe-re-*82”. Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. “PY 316 Tn (44)". DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. [5] Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-52129037-6. At Google Books. [6] Homer (1899). Odyssey. Clarendon Press. p. 230. Retrieved 31 March 2014. [7] H.G. Liddell and R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon [8] Martin P. Nilsson (1967), Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, Volume I, C.F. Beck Verlag, p. 474 [9] R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1179. [10] Smith, “Perse'phone” [11] Comments about the goddess pe-re-*82 of Pylos tablet Tn 316, tentatively reconstructed as *Preswa “It is tempting to see ... the classical Perse ... daughter of Oceanus ... ; whether it may be further identiﬁed with the ﬁrst element of Persephone is only speculative.” John Chadwick. Documents in Mycenean Greek. Second Edition [12] Cicero. De Natura Deorum 2.26 [13] Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, “Persephone” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 98 (1978:101–121). [14] Peter Kingsley, in Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1995). [15] Orphic Hymn 29.16

32.9. NOTES AND REFERENCES

271

[16] Schol. ad. Theocritus 2.12 [17] In the Hymn to Melinoe, where the father is Zeus Chthonios, either Zeus in his chthonic aspect, or Pluto; Radcliﬀe G. Edmonds III, “Orphic Mythology,” in A Companion to Greek Mythology (Blackwell, 2011), p. 100. [18] Rhode (1961), Psyche I, pp. 206–210 [19] Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 478–480 [20] Orphic Hymn 29 to Persephone [21] “PERSEPHONE - Greek Goddess of Spring, Queen of the Underworld (Roman Proserpina)". [22] Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 463–466 [23] Nilsson, pp. 477–480 :"The Arcadian Great goddesses” [24] Pausanias.Description of Greece 5.15.4, 5, 6 [25] Kramer, Samuel Noah. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.: Revised Edition. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961, Philadelphia. ISBN 0-8122-1047-6 (Pages 76-79) available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/sum/sum08.htm. “Moreover, the crime involved is probably that of abducting a goddess; it therefore brings to mind the Greek story of the rape of Persephone.” [26] Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 17. [27] Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 463 [28] “In Greek mythology Nysa is a mythical mountain with unknown location, the birthplace of the god Dionysos.": Fox, William Sherwood (1916), The Mythology of All Races, v.1, Greek and Roman, General editor, Louis Herbert Gray, p.217 [29] Burkert (1985), pp. 285–290. [30] Burkert (1985) p. 42 [31] Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 453–455 [32] Charon, “glad”, probably euphemistically “death”. Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entries on χαροπός and χάρων, pp. 1980–1981; Brill’s New Pauly (Leiden and Boston 2003), vol. 3, entry on “Charon”, pp. 202–203. [33] Nilsson, Vol I, p.470 [34] Dietrich “The origins of the Greek Religion” p.220,221 [35] “Kerenyi (1976), Dionysos, archetypal image of indestructible life.Princeton University Press. p. 24 [36] Karl Kerenyi (1967). Eleusis. Archetypal image of mother and daughter. Princeton University Press. p. 31f [37] Burkert (1985) p. 289 [38] “According to the Greek popular belief,ἕν ἀνδρῶν, ἕν θεῶν γένος".(One is the nature of men, another one the nature of gods): Erwin Rhode (1961), Psyche Band I, p. 293 [39] Burkert p.12 [40] J.Frazer The Golden Bough, Part IV, Adonis, Attis and Osiris [41] F.Schachermeyer (1972), Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta, W.Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 141, 308 [42] Burkert (1985) pp. 34–40 [43] Burkert (1985) p. 40 [44] “Hermes and the Anodos of Pherephata": Nilsson (1967) p. 509 taf. 39,1 [45] Karl Kerenyi (1976), Dionysos: archetypal image of indestructible life, pp. 89, 90 ISBN 0-691-02915-6 [46] Hesychius, listing of ἀδνόν, a Cretan-Greek form for ἁγνόν, “pure” [47] Kerenyi(1976), p.24

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[48] “To what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenaean religion is a question which has not yet found a conclusive answer” :.Burkert (1985). p. 21. [49] G. Mylonas (1932). Eleusiniaka. I,1 ff [50] Nilsson (1967), pp. 463–465 [51] John Chadwick (1976).The Mycenean World. Cambridge University Press [52] “Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain ": George Mylonas (1966) Mycenae and the Mycenean age” p. 159 : Princeton University Press [53] Dietrich p. 220,221 [54] “Pausanias 8.37.9”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 July 2012. [55] “In Greek mythology Achileus becomes immortal by the divine fire. His heel was his only mortal element, because it was not touched by the fire : Wunderlich (1972), The secret of Crete p. 134 [56] Nilsson, Vol I p. 463 [57] “Loves of Hermes : Greek mythology”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [58] Hesiod, Theogony 914. [59] Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 4–20, 414–434. [60] “Theoi Project - Persephone”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [61] Gantz, p. 65. [62] Gantz, p. 67. [63] Reference to the Thesmophoria in Lucian's Dialogues of the Courtesans 2.1. [64] The figures are unmistakable, as they are inscribed “Persophata, Hermes, Hekate, Demeter"; Gisela M. A. Richter, “An Athenian Vase with the Return of Persephone” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 26.10 (October 1931:245–248) [65] Suidas s.v. Makariai, with English translation at Suda On Line, Adler number mu 51 [66] William Hansen (2005) Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 180–182. [67] Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182. [68] Ap. Athanassakis (2004), Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days, Shield ,Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 56. [69] The Anthesteria Bibliotheca Arcana (1997) [70] Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 215–219 [71] “Martin Nilsson, The Greek popular religion, The religion of Eleusis, pp 51-54”. Sacred-texts.com. 2005-11-08. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [72] Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 473–474 [73] Pausanias 2.30.2 [74] Nilsson, VoI, p. 444 [75] Apollodorus, Library 1.3. [76] Homer. Odyssey, 10.494 [77] Orphica, 26, 71 [78] Odyssey 10.491, 10.509 [79] Károly Kerényi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, 1967, passim [80] Burkert (1985), pp. 285–289

32.10. SOURCES

273

[81] Burkert (1985), pp. 240–243 [82] Clinton, Greek Sanctuaries, p. 113. [83] Potniai: Pelarge daughter of Potnieus is connected with the cult of Demeter in the Cabeirian : Pausanias 9.25,8, Nilsson (1967) Vol I pp. 151, 463 [84] Pseudo Apollodorus Biblioteca IV.2 [85] Kevin Klinton (1993), Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, Routledge, p. 11 [86] Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 463–465 [87] Pausanias 1.14,1: Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 668–670 [88] Pausanias I 42,6 , Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 463 [89] Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 668–670 [90] Scholia ad. Euripides Phoen. 487 [91] Pausanias 9.25.5 [92] Diodorus Siculus (v.4.7) :"At Thebes or Delos the festival occurred two months earlier, so any seed-sowing connection was not intrinsic.” [93] For Mantinea, see Brill’s New Pauly “Persephone”, II D. [94] L. H. Jeﬀery (1976). Archaic Greece: The Greek city states c. 800–500 B.C (Ernest Benn Limited) p. 23 ISBN 0-51003271-0 [95] “Pausanias 8.37.1,8.38.2”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [96] “Reconstruction of interior of Sanctuary of Despoina”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [97] Herodotus VI, 16: Nilsson (1967) ,Vol I, p. 464 [98] Brill’s New Pauly, “Persephone”, citing Diodorus 5.4 [99] Livy: 29.8, 29.18 [100] “perseus tufts-persephone”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [101] “Virgil: Aeneid IV”. Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 2012-07-06. [102] “Persephone (Daughters of Zeus, #1)". [103] “Persephone’s Orchard”. [104] Santo, Suzanne Banay (2012). Persephone Under the Earth. Red Butterﬂy Publications. ISBN 0-9880914-0-2.

32.10 Sources • Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. • Bowra Maurice (1957), The Greek experience. The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York. • Burkert Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press . ISBN 0-674-36281-0 • Farnell, Lewis Richard (1906), The Cults of the Greek States, Volume 3 (Chapters on: Demeter and KorePersephone; Cult-Monuments of Demeter-Kore; Ideal Types of Demeter-Kore). • Gantz, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). • Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.

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• Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. • Janda, Michael (2010), Die Musik nach dem Chaos. Innsbruck • Kerenyi Karl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal image of mother and daughter . Princeton University Press. • Kerenyi, Karl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton: Bollingen, Google Books preview • Nilsson Martin (1967), Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion, Vol I, C.F Beck Verlag, Muenchen. Revised ed. • Nilsson Martin (1950), Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, and its Survival in Greek Religion, Lund:Gleerup. Revised 2nd ed. • Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. • Rohde Erwin (1961), Psyche. Seelenkult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellshaft. Darmstad. (First edition 1893): full text in German downloadable as pdf. • Rohde Erwin (2000), Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality among the Greeks , trans. from the 8th edn. by W. B. Hillis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted by Routledge, 2000), online • Schachermeyr Fritz (1964), Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta, W.Kohlhammer Verlag Stuttgart. • Stephen King (2008), Duma Key • Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). “Perse'phone” • Zuntz Günther (1973), Persephone: Three Essays on Religion and Thought in Magna Graecia

32.11 External links • Martin Nilsson. The Greek popular religion • Adams John Paul. Mycenean divinities • Theoi project:Persephone Goddess • Theoi project:The Rape of Persephone • The Princeton Encyclopedia of classical sites:Despoina • Theoi project:Despoine • Kore Photographs • Flickr users’ photos tagged with Persephone

32.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

275

Seated goddess, probably Persephone on her throne in the underworld, Severe style ca 480â&#x20AC;&#x201C;60, found at Tarentum, Magna Graecia (Pergamon Museum, Berlin)

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Kore, daughter of Demeter, celebrated with her mother by the Thesmophoriazusae (women of the festival). Acropolis Museum, Athens

32.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

277

The Eleusinian trio: Persephone, Triptolemus and Demeter on a marble bas-relief from Eleusis, 440â&#x20AC;&#x201C;430 BC. National Archaeological Museum of Athens

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A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC

Hades abducting Persephone, wall painting in the small royal tomb at Vergina. Macedonia, Greece

32.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

Italy. Renaissance relief, Rape of Persephone. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection

Fragment of a marble relief depicting a Kore, 3rd century BC, from Panticapaeum, Taurica (Crimea), Bosporan Kingdom

279

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Demeter drives her horse-drawn chariot containing her daughter Persephone at Selinunte, Sicily 6th century BC

32.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

Head of Persephone. Earthenware. From Sicily, Centuripae, c. 420 BCE. The Burrell Collection, Glasgow, UK

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Achlys For the plant genus named Achlys, see Achlys (plant). In Greek mythology, Achlys (Greek language: Ἀχλύς “mist”) was, according to some ancient cosmogonies, the eternal Night (perhaps the Mist of Death, which fell before the eyes preceding death), and the first created being which existed even before Chaos. According to Hesiod, she was the personification of misery and sadness, and as such she was represented on the shield of Heracles: pale, emaciated, and weeping, with chattering teeth, swollen knees, long nails on her fingers, bloody cheeks, and her shoulders thickly covered with dust.[1] She may also have been the goddess of deadly poisons. If she was a daughter of Nyx (Night) then she may have been numbered amongst the Keres.[2]

33.1 Mythology 33.1.1

Hesiod’s Account

Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 264 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic 8th or 7th century BC): “And beside them [the Keres (Deaths) and the Moirai (Fates) on the battlefield] was standing Akhlys (Achlys), dismal and dejected, green and pale, dirty-dry, fallen in on herself with hunger, knee-swollen, and the nails were grown long on her hands, and from her nostrils the drip kept running, and off her cheeks the blood dribbled to the ground, and she stood there, grinning forever, and the dust that had gathered and lay in heaps on her shoulders was muddy with tears.”

33.1.2

Nonnus’ Account

Nonnus, Dionysiaca 14. 143 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic 5th century AD): "(Hera spies the nurses of the infant god Dionysos:) Hera, who turns her all-seeing eye to every place, saw from on high the everchanging shape of Lyaios [Dionysos], and knew all. Then she was angry with the guardians of Bromios. She procured from Thessalian Akhlys (Achlys, Death-Mist) treacherous flowers of the field, and shed a sleep of enchantment over their heads; she distilled poisoned drugs over their hair, she smeared a subtle magical ointment over their faces ,and changed their earlier human shape. Then they took the form of a creature with long ears, and a horse’s tail sticking out straight from the loins and flogging the flanks of its shaggy-crested owner; from the temples cow’s horns sprouted out, their eyes widened under the horned forehead, the hair ran across their heads in tuft, long white teeth grew out of their jaws, a strange kind of mane grew of itself, covering their necks with rough hair, and ran down from the loins to feet underneath.” 282

33.2. SEE ALSO

283

33.2 See also • List of Greek mythological ﬁgures

33.3 References [1] Scut. Here. 264, etc. [2] Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), “Achlys”, in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, MA, p. 12

33.4 Sources • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "article name needed ". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

33.5 External links • Theoi - Daimones Achlys

Chapter 34

Angelos (mythology) In Greek mythology, Angelos (Ancient Greek: Ἄγγελος) or Angelia (Ἀγγελία) was a daughter of Zeus and Hera who became known as a chthonic deity. Her story only survives in scholia on Theocritus' Idyll 2, and is as follows: Angelos was raised by nymphs to whose care her father had entrusted her. One day she stole her mother Hera’s anointments and gave them away to Europe. To escape Hera’s wrath, she had to hide first in the house of a woman in labor, and next among people who were carrying a dead man. Hera eventually ceased from prosecuting her, and Zeus ordered the Cabeiroi to cleanse Angelos. They performed the purification rite in the waters of the Acherusia Lake in the Underworld. Consequently, she received the world of the dead as her realm of influence, and was assigned an epithet katachthonia (“she of the underworld”).[1] The story of Angelos is cited by the scholiast in a series of rare myths concerning the birth of Hecate, which makes it possible to think that Angelos was essentially equal to Hecate. This is to some extent confirmed by the fact that, according to Hesychius,[2] Angelos was a surname of Artemis in Syracuse, being that Artemis as goddess of the moon was identified with Hecate.[3] Angelos could be an early version of Hecate, the one that pertained both to the upper world and the underworld, similar to the position of Persephone.[4]

34.1 References [1] Scholia on Theocritus, Idyll 2. 12 referring to Sophron [2] Hesychius s. v. Ἄγγελος, again referring to Sophron [3] Cf. e. g. scholia on Theocritus, Idyll 2. 33: "...she whom [the author] called Hecate above, is now referred to by him as Artemis, because there exists a certain similarity between the goddesses” [4] Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Band I, Halbband 2, Alexandrou-Apollokrates (1894), s. 2189

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Hecate For other uses, see Hecate (disambiguation). Hecate or Hekate (/ˈhɛkətiː/; Greek Ἑκάτη Hekátē) is a goddess in Ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding two torches or a key[1] and in later periods depicted in triple form. She was variously associated with crossroads, entrance-ways, light, magic, witchcraft, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, ghosts, necromancy, and sorcery.[2][3] She appears in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter and in Hesiod's Theogony, where she is promoted strongly as a great goddess. The place of origin of her following is uncertain, but it is thought that she had popular followings in Thrace.[4] She was one of the main deities worshiped in Athenian households as a protective goddess and one who bestowed prosperity and daily blessings on the family.[5] In the post-Christian writings of the Chaldean Oracles (2nd–3rd century CE) she was regarded with (some) rulership over earth, sea and sky, as well as a more universal role as Saviour (Soteira), Mother of Angels and the Cosmic World Soul.[6][7] Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, “she is more at home on the fringes than in the center of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes deﬁnition.”[8]

35.1 Name and origin The etymology of the name Hecate (Ἑκάτη, Hekátē) is not known. Suggested derivations include: • From the Greek word for 'will'.[9] • From Ἑκατός Hekatos, an obscure epithet of Apollo.[8] This has been translated as “she that operates from afar”, “she that removes or drives off”,[10] “the far reaching one” or “the far-darter”.[11] • the name of the Egyptian goddess of childbirth, Heqet, has been compared.[12] In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced disyllabically (as /ˈhɛkɪt/) and sometimes spelled Hecat. It remained common practice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final e, well into the 19th century. The spelling Hecat is due to Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses,[13] and this spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the Elizabethan-Jacobean period.[14] Noah Webster in 1866 particularly credits the influence of Shakespeare for the then-predominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name.[15] Hecate may have originated among the Carians of Anatolia, where variants of her name are found as names given to children. Hecate was also worshipped in the ancient city of Colchis. William Berg observes, “Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving hekat- refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens.”[16] In particular, there is some evidence that she might be derived from the local sun goddesses (see also Arinna), based on similar attributes.[17] She also closely parallels the Roman goddess Trivia, with whom she was identified in Rome. Her most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs.[4] Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian 285

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colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city’s patroness.[18] In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesserHermes, namely a governess of liminal regions (particularly gates) and the wilderness.

35.1.1

Other names and epithets

• Apotropaia (that turns away/protects)[19] • Chthonia (of the earth/underworld)[20] • Enodia (on the way)[21] • Klêidouchos (holding the keys)[22] • Kourotrophos (nurse of children)[22] • Melinoe[23] • Phosphoros, Lampadephoros (bringing or bearing light)[22] • Propolos (who serves/attends)[22] • Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate)[24] • Soteria (savior)[25] • Trimorphe (three-formed)[22] • Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads)[22] • Trivia (mythology) (Roman form)

35.2 Representations The earliest Greek depictions of Hecate were not three-formed. Farnell states: “The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate is almost as full as that of to express her manifold and mystic nature.”[26] The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the main historical value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier form, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion.[26] The 2nd-century travel writer Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alkamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BCE[3] which was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens. Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art resisted representing her with three faces: a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BCE (illustration, left), shows three single images against a column; round the column of Hecate dance the Charites. Some classical portrayals show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch, a key, serpents, daggers and numerous other items.[27] Depictions of both a single form Hekate and triple formed, as well as occasional four headed descriptions continued throughout her history. In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in magical papyri of Late Antiquity she is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar.[28] Hecate’s triplicity is elsewhere expressed in a more Hellenic fashion in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, “This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon.” (Description of Greece 2.22.7) A 4th-century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner.[29] It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. She is commonly attended by a dog or dogs, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Images of her attended by a dog[30] are also

35.2. REPRESENTATIONS

287

Statuette of Triple-bodied Hekate. Pen, ink and light brown and grey wash.

found at times when she is shown as in her role as mother goddess with child, and when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Kybele in reliefs.[31] In the Argonautica, a 3rd-century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material,[32] Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of ďŹ&#x201A;owing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of an ewe, sacriďŹ cing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the

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pit as a holocaust. He is told to sweeten the oﬀering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs.[33] All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity.

35.3 Mythology Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. The ﬁrst literature mentioning Hecate is the Theogony by Hesiod:

And she conceived and bore Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea.[34] According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things:

Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother’s only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honours.[35] Hesiod emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, a star-goddess who was the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. Hesiod’s inclusion and praise of Hecate in the Theogony has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have been the exception. One theory is that Hesiod's original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers.[36] Another theory is that Hekate was mainly a household god and humble household worship could have been more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple worship.[37] In Athens Hecate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Hestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as they were the main gods of the household.[5][38] However, it is clear that the special position given to Hecate by Zeus is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on coins depicting Hecate on the hand of Zeus[39] as highlighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and Rankine.[40] Hecate possibly originated among the Carians of Anatolia,[4] the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested,[41] and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled[42] cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that “Hecate must have been a Greek goddess.”[43] The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date.[44]

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If Hecate’s cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage, or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan who aided Zeus in the battle of gods and Titans, she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians. One surviving group of stories suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis.[36] Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigeneia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal’s suicide. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi, officiated.[45] Hecate also came to be associated with ghosts, infernal spirits, the dead and sorcery. Shrines to Hecate were placed at doorways to both homes and cities with the belief that it would protect from restless dead and other spirits. Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils.[46] An medieval commentator has suggested a link connecting the word “jinx” with Hecate: “The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus [...] speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a iunx (hence “jinx”), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate.”[47] Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the Chaldean Oracles (2nd-3rd century CE),[48] where she is associated in fragment 194 with a strophalos (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) “Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate.”[49] This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus.[50] Variations in interpretations of Hecate’s role or roles can be traced in 5th-century Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hecate is called the “tender-hearted”, a euphemism perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the sun, Helios. Subsequently she became Persephone’s companion on her yearly journey to and from the realms of Hades; serving as a psychopomp. Because of this association, Hecate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone.[1] The modern understanding of Hecate has been strongly influenced by syncretic Hellenistic interpretations. Many of the attributes she was assigned in this period appear to have an older basis. For example, in the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the 'she-dog' or 'bitch', and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. However, her association with dogs predates the conquests of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Hellenistic world. When Philip II laid siege to Byzantium she had already been associated with dogs for some time; the light in the sky and the barking of dogs that warned the citizens of a night time attack, saving the city, were attributed to Hecate Lampadephoros (the tale is preserved in the Suda). In gratitude the Byzantines erected a statue in her honor.[51] As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla.[52] Hecate was generally represented as three-formed, which probably has some connection with the appearance of the full moon, half moon, and new moon.[53] Triple Hecate was the goddess of the moon with three forms: Selene the Moon in heaven, Artemis the Huntress on earth, and Persephone the Destroyer in the underworld.[54][55][56] Although associated with other moon goddesses such as Selene, she ruled over three kingdoms: the earth, the sea, and the sky. She had the power to create or hold back storms, which influenced her patronage of shepherds and sailors.[57]

35.4 Animals Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. “In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate’s regular sacriﬁcial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament.”[58] The sacriﬁce of dogs to Hecate is

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attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens.[8] It has been claimed that her association with dogs is “suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Although in later times Hecate’s dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog’s connection with birth than the dog’s underworld associations.”[59] The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth. The friendly looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hekabe, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar.[60] Another metamorphosis myth explains why the polecat is also associated with Hecate. From Antoninus Liberalis: “At Thebes Proitos had a daughter Galinthias. This maiden was playmate and companion of Alkmene, daughter of Elektryon. As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alkmene, the Moirai (Fates) and Eileithyia (BirthGoddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alkmene in continuous birth pangs. They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed. Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alkmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eleithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alkmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished. At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms. Alkmene’s pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born. The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods. They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating. She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat. Hekate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself.”[61] Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat: ""I have heard that the polecat was once a human being. It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (Pharmakis); that she was extremely incontinent, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires. Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature. May the goddess be gracious to me : fables and their telling I leave to others.”[62] Athenaeus (writing in the 1st or 2nd century BCE, and drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens) notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, “on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is trimorphos, of a triple form”. The Greek word for mullet was trigle and later trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse “O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets”.[63] In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, “The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things,' and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep.”[64] At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate Triglathena, to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice.[65] After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes, “Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire. The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change.”[66] The frog, which was also the symbol of the similarly-named Egyptian goddess Heqet,[67] has also become sacred to Hecate in modern Pagan literature, possibly due in part to its ability to cross between two elements.[68] In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse.[69]

35.5 Plants Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, “I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs.”[70] The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles' lost play The Root Diggers (or The Root Cutters),

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and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes’ Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak.[71] The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate. “Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate... Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientiﬁc name for yew today, taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, toxos, which is hauntingly similar to toxon, their word for bow and toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison.”[72] Hecate was said to favor oﬀerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult.[73] She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities.[74] A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate.[75] These include aconite (also called hecateis),[76] belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic.[77]

35.6 Places Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal" goddess. “Hecate mediated between regimes — Olympian and Titan —, but also between mortal and divine spheres.”[79] This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: Apotropaia (that turns away/protects); Enodia (on the way); Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate); Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads); Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc. As a goddess expected to avert harmful or destructive spirits from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also refuse to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals.[80] It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate’s identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia’s very name (“In-the-Road”) suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants.[81] This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. “In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate’s importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions.”[82] This suggests that Hecate’s close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans.[83]

35.6.1

Goddess of the crossroads

Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three-way crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates).[8] In this form she came to be known as the goddess Trivia (“the three ways”) in Roman mythology. In what appears to be a 7th-century indication of the survival of cult

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practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his Sermo warns the sick among his recently converted ﬂock in Flanders against putting “devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads”,[84] and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them “No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...”.[85] Like Hecate, "[t]he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it.”[86]

35.7 Festivals Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her.

35.7.1

The Deipnon

The Athenian Greeks honored Hekate during the Deipnon. In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day. Hekate’s Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hekate and the restless dead once a lunar month on the night when there is no visible moon, usually noted on modern calendars as the new moon.[87] The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia,[88] when the first sliver of moon is visible, and then the Agathos Daimon the day after that. The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honor Hekate and to placate the souls in her wake who “longed for vengeance.”[89] A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hekate, causing her to withhold her favor from them. The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home[90] 2) an expiation sacrifice,[91] and 3) purification of the household.[92]

35.8 Cross-cultural parallels The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of Isis in Egyptian myth. Lucius Apuleius (c. 123 — c. 170 CE) in his work The Golden Ass associates Hecate with Isis: “I am she that is the natural mother of all things, mistress and governess of all the elements, the initial progeny of worlds, chief of powers divine, Queen of heaven, the principal of the Gods celestial, the light of the goddesses: at my will the planets of the air, the wholesome winds of the Seas, and the silences of hell be disposed; my name, my divinity is adored throughout all the world in divers manners, in variable customs and in many names, [...] Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis. [...]”[93] In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic and late Babylonian ("Chaldean") elements, Hecate was identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography. In the Michigan magical papyrus (inv. 7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE, Hecate Ereschigal is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife.[94] Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with Artemis (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies)[95] Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead. They played a similar symbolic role in ancient China, where dogs were conceived as representative of the household sphere, and as protective spirits appropriate when transcending geographic and spatial boundaries. Dogs were also sacrificed to the road. As Roel Sterckx observes, “The use of dog sacrifices at the gates and doors of the living and the dead as well as its use in travel sacrifices suggest that dogs were perceived as daemonic animals operating in the liminal or transitory realm between the domestic and the unknown, danger-stricken outside world”.[96] This can be compared to Pausanias’ report that in the Ionaian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as “the wayside goddess”, and Plutarch’s observation that in Boeotia dogs were

35.9. SURVIVAL IN PRE-MODERN FOLKLORE

293

killed in puriﬁcatory rites. Dogs, with puppies often mentioned, were oﬀered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess.[97]

35.9 Survival in pre-modern folklore Strmiska notes that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an “emerging legend complex” associated with gatherings of women, the moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established “in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans.”[98] This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807[99] and is reflected in numerous etymological claims by lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, deriving “hag” and/or “hex” from Hecate by way of haegtesse (Anglo-Saxon) and hagazussa (Old High German).[100] Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority[101] since being refuted by Grimm, who was skeptical of theories proposing non-Germanic origins for German folklore traditions.[102] Modern etymology reconstructs Proto-Germanic *hagatusjon- from haegtesse and hagazussa;[103] the first element is probably cognate with hedge, which derives from PIE *kagh- “hedge, enclosure”,[104] and the second perhaps from *dhewes- “fly about, be smoke, vanish.”[103]

35.10 Modern expressions Hecate is now firmly established as a figure in Neopaganism,[105] which draws heavily on folkloric traditions[106] associating Hecate with 'The Wild Hunt',[107] witches, hedges and 'hedge-riding',[108] and other themes that parallel, but are not explicitly attested in, Classical sources. Hecate is worshiped by people who have reconstructed and revived the indigenous polytheist religion of Greece, Hellenismos, such as groups like Hellenion (Hellenion is a 501c3 religious organization based in the USA dedicated to reviving the religions indigenous to Greece)[109] and YSEE. The Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes is an umbrella group based in Greece that is a legally recognized Non Profit Organization (NPO) and was “founded in June of 1997 aiming to the morale and physical protection and restoration of the Polytheistic, Ethnic Hellenic religion, tradition and way of life in the “modern” Greek Society from which is oppressed due to its institutional intolerance and theocracy”. Hecate is mentioned in Act 2, Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's Macbeth, in the title character’s “dagger” soliloquy: “Witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate’s offerings...”[110] Hecate also appears as a main character in the British theater company Punchdrunk's New York-based site-specific theatre work, Sleep No More, an adaptation of Macbeth. The character functions as a villain of the work, silently conducting the three witches who prophesy Macbeth’s rise to power, and leading certain audience members into private interactions and stories in her small grotto. Many of Hecate’s dominions are represented in various ways throughout the show, such as one of her familiars behaving in a dog-like manner around her; her grotto being connected to an herb-filled apothecary space; and watching from the shadows as the witches give their prophecies to Macbeth. Catweazle often calls upon Hecate in the series of the same name. Hecate is also one of the “patron” goddesses of many Wiccans, who in some traditions identify her with the Triple Goddess’ aspect of the "Crone". In other circles Wiccan witches associate her with the “Maiden”, or the “Mother” aspects as well, for Hecate has three faces, or phases. Her role as a tripartite goddess, which many modern-day Wiccans associate with the concept of “the Maiden, the Mother and the Crone”,[111] was made popular in modern times by writers such as Robert Graves in The White Goddess, and many others, such as the 20th century occultist and author, Aleister Crowley. Historical depictions and descriptions show her facing in three different directions, a clear and precise reference to the tripartite nature of this ancient Goddess; the later Greek Magical Papyri sometimes refer to her as also having the heads of animals, and this can be seen as a reference to her aspect of Motherhood; in this portrayal she is known as “Mistress of Animals”. Modern Hellenic polytheists honor Hecate during the Deipnon.[112] In 1929, Dr. Lewis Brown, an expert on religious cults, connected the 1920s Blackburn Cult (also known as, “The Cult of the Great Eleven,”) with Hecate worship rituals. He noted that the cult regularly practiced dog sacrifice and had secretly buried the body of one of its “queens” with seven dogs.[113] Researcher Samuel Fort noted additional parallels, to include the cult’s focus on mystic and typically nocturnal rites, its female dominated membership, the sacrifice of other animals (to include horses and mules), a focus on the mystical properties of roads and portals, and an emphasis on death, healing, and resurrection.[114]

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35.11 See also • Asura (Buddhism) • Janus • Amphisbaena • Lampade • Hecate (journal)

35.12 Notes [1] The Running Maiden from Eleusis and the Early Classical Image of Hekate by Charles M. Edwards in the American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 90, No. 3 (Jul., 1986), pp. 307–318 [2] “HECATE : Greek goddess of witchcraft, ghosts & magic ; mythology ; pictures : HEKATE”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [3] d'Este, Sorita & Rankine, David, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009. [4] Walter Burkert, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, p. 171. Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. [5] “Hecate - Greek goddess”. [6] “Bryn Mawr Classical Review 02.06.11”. Bmcr.brynmawr.edu. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [7] Sarah Iles Johnston, Hekate Soteira, Scholars Press, 1990. [8] Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 671. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. [9] At least in the case of Hesiod's use, see Clay, Jenny Strauss (2003). Hesiod’s Cosmos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-521-82392-7. Clay lists a number of researchers who have advanced some variant of the association between Hecate’s name and will (e.g. Walcot (1958), Neitzel (1975), Derossi (1975)). The researcher is led to identify “the name and function of Hecate as the one 'by whose will' prayers are accomplished and fulfilled.” This interpretation also appears in Liddell-Scott, A Greek English Lexicon, in the entry for Hecate, which is glossed as “lit. 'she who works her will'" [10] Anthon, Charles (1869). A Classical Dictionary. Harper & Brothers. p. 579. [11] Wheelwright, P. E. (1975). Metaphor and Reality. Bloomington. p. 144. ISBN 0-253-20122-5. [12] McKechnie, Paul; Guillaume, Philippe (2008). Ptolemy II Philadelphus and His World. Leiden: Brill. p. 133. ISBN 978-90-04-17089-6. [13] Golding, Arthur (1567). Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book Seven. [14] Marlowe, Christopher (first published 1604; performed earlier). Doctor Faustus, Act III, Scene 2, line 21: “Pluto’s blue fire and Hecat’s tree”. Shakespeare, William (c. 1594-96). A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Act V, Scene 1, line 384: “By the triple Hecat’s team”. Shakespeare, William (c. 1603-07). Macbeth, Act III, Scene 5, line 1: “Why, how now, Hecat!" Jonson, Ben (c. 1637, printed 1641). The Sad Shepherd, Act II, Scene 3, line 668: “our dame Hecat”. [15] Webster, Noah (1866). A Dictionary of the English Language (10th ed.). Rules for pronouncing the vowels of Greek and Latin proper names”, p.9: "Hecate..., pronounced in three syllables when in Latin, and in the same number in the Greek word Ἑκάτη, in English is universally contracted into two, by sinking the final e. Shakespeare seems to have begun, as he has now confirmed, this pronunciation, by so adapting the word in Macbeth.... And the play-going world, who form no small portion of what is called the better sort of people, have followed the actors in this world, and the rest of the world have followed them. Cf. Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1894): "Hec'ate (3 syl. in Greek, 2 in Eng.)" [16] Berg 1974, p. 129. [17] Mary Bachvarova, Hecate: An Anatolian Sun-Goddess of the Underworld, SSRN Electronic Journal · May 2010 DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1608145

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[18] Strabo, Geography 14.2.25; Kraus 1960. [19] Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p. 68. [20] Jon D. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion, UNC Press, 1987, p. 76. [21] Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, pp. 208-209. [22] Liddell-Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. [23] Ivana Petrovic, Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (C.H. Beck, 1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 16. [24] Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p. 207. [25] Sarah Iles Johnston, Hekate Soteira, Scholars Press, 1990. [26] Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). “Hecate in Art”, The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford University Press, Oxford. [27] Hekate Her Sacred Fires, ed. Sorita d'Este, Avalonia, 2010 [28] Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 195. [29] This statue is in the British Museum, inventory number 816. [30] Archived 24 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. [31] “Images”. Eidola.eu. 2010-02-28. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [32] “The legend of the Argonauts is among the earliest known to the Greeks,” observes Peter Green, The Argonautika, 2007, Introduction, p. 21. [33] Apollonios Rhodios (tr. Peter Green), The Argonautika, University of California Press, 2007, p140 [34] Hesiod, Theogony 411–425. [35] Hesiod, Theogony 429–452. [36] Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. ISBN 0-52021707-1 [37] Household and Family Religion in Antiquity by John Bodel and Saul M. Olyan, page 221, published by John Wiley & Sons, 2009 [38] "Λ Α Β Ρ Υ Σ :: Λατρευτική κοινότητα Λάβρυς". [39] “Baktria, Kings, Agathokles, ancient coins index with thumbnails”. WildWinds.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [40] d'Este & Rankine, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009 [41] Theodor Kraus, Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der Göttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland (Heidelberg) 1960. [42] Berg 1974, p. 128: Berg comments on Hecate’s endorsement of Roman hegemony in her representation on the pediment at Lagina solemnising a pact between a warrior (Rome) and an amazon (Asia) [43] Berg 1974, p. 134. Berg’s argument for a Greek origin rests on three main points: 1. Almost all archaeological and literary evidence for her cult comes from the Greek mainland, and especially from Attica—all of which dates earlier than the 2nd century BCE. 2. In Asia Minor only one monument can be associated with Hecate prior to the 2nd century BCE. 3. The supposed connection between Hecate and attested “Carian theophoric names” is not convincing, and instead suggests an aspect of the process of her Hellenization. He concludes, “Arguments for Hecate’s “Anatolian” origin are not in accord with evidence.” [44] Kraus 1960, p. 52; list pp.166ﬀ. [45] Strabo, Geography, 14.1.23 [46] “CULT OF HEKATE : Ancient Greek religion”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24.

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[47] Mark Edwards, Neoplatonic saints: the Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by their Students, Liverpool University Press, 2000, p. 100; Writing at some length about the ancient greek 'iunx' Marcel Detienne never mentions any connection to Hecate, see Detienne M, The Gardens of Adonis, Princeton UP, 1994, pp.83-9.. [48] The Chaldean Oracles is a collection of literature that date from somewhere between the 2nd century and the late 3rd century, the recording of which is traditionally attributed to Julian the Chaldaean or his son, Julian the Theurgist. The material seems to have provided background and explanation related to the meaning of these pronouncements, and appear to have been related to the practice of theurgy, pagan magic that later became closely associated with Neoplatonism, seeHornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 316. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. [49] English translation used here from: William Wynn Wescott (tr.), The Chaldean Oracles of Zoroaster, 1895. [50] “A top of Hekate is a golden sphere enclosing a lapis lazuli in its middle that is twisted through a cow-hide leather thong and having engraved letters all over it. [Diviners] spin this sphere and make invocations. Such things they call charms, whether it is the matter of a spherical object, or a triangular one, or some other shape. While spinning them, they call out unintelligible or beast-like sounds, laughing and flailing at the air. [Hekate] teaches the taketes to operate, that is the movement of the top, as if it had an ineffable power. It is called the top of Hekate because it is dedicated to her. In her right hand she held the source of the virtues. But it is all nonsense.” As quoted in Frank R. Trombley, Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C. 370-529, Brill, 1993, p. 319. [51] “In 340 B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were attacked by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess [...]" William Gordon Holmes, The Age of Justinian and Theodora, 2003, pp. 5-6; “If any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of “liminal places”, in Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate’s importance to Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever-present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the 'Lampadephoros’ was erected on the hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate’s defensive aid.” Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress, Routledge, 1994, pp. 126-127; this story apparently survived in the works Hesychius of Miletus, who in all probability lived in the time of Justinian. His works survive only in fragments preserved in Photius and the Suda, a Byzantine lexicon of the 10th century CE. The tale is also related by Stephanus of Byzantium and Eustathius. [52] Joseph Eddy Fontenrose, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1974, p. 96. [53] Otto Seemann (1884), The Mythology of Greece and Rome, p. 178. [54] Harry E. Wedeck (1961 by Philosophical Library Inc), A Treasury of Witchcraft: A Source Book of Magic Arts, p. 203 ISBN 0-8065-0038-7 [55] Barbara G. Walker (1983), The Women’s Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets, p. 378 ISBN 0-06-250925-X [56] Sarah Amelia Scull (1880), Greek Mythology Systematized, p. 263. [57] “Hecate, Greek Goddess of the Crossroads”. Goddess Gift: Meet the Goddesses Here. Retrieved 18 April 2011. [58] Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p67 [59] Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead, University of California Press, 1999, pp. 211-212. [60] “LYCOPHRON, ALEXANDRA - Theoi Classical Texts Library”. [61] Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses 29, translation by Francis Celoria, Psychology Press, 1992 [62] On the Characteristics of Animals by Aelian, translated by Alwyn Faber Scholfield, Harvard University Press, 1958 [63] Charles Duke Yonge, tr., The Learned Banqueters, H.G. Bohn, 1854. [64] Robert Parker, Miasma: Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 362-363. [65] William Martin Leake, The Topography of Athens, London, 1841, p. 492. [66] Alan Davidson, Mediterranean Seafood, Ten Speed Press, 2002, p. 92.

35.12. NOTES

297

[67] Armour, Robert A. (2001). Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt. American University in Cairo Press. p. 116. [68] Varner, Gary R. (2007). Creatures in the Mist: Little People, Wild Men and Spirit Beings Around the World: A Study in Comparative Mythology, p. 135. New York: Algora Publishing. ISBN 0-87586-546-1. [69] Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 195; “Hecate” article, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1823. [70] R. L. Hunter, The Argonautica of Apollonius, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 142, citing Apollonius of Rhodes. [71] Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 82-83. [72] Matthew Suffness (Ed.), Taxol: Science and Applications, CRC Press, 1995, p. 28. [73] Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, University of Wisconsin Press, 1998, p. 143; Fragkiska Megaloudi, Plants and Diet in Greece From Neolithic to Classic Periods, Archaeopress, 2006, p. 71. [74] Freize, Henry; Dennison, Walter (1902). Virgil’s Aeneid. New York: American Book Company. pp. N111. [75] “Hecate had a “botanical garden” on the island of Colchis where the following alkaloid plants were kept: Akoniton (Aconitum napellus), Diktamnon (Dictamnus albus), Mandragores (Mandragora officinarum), Mekon (Papaver somniferum), Melaina (Claviceps pupurea), Thryon (Atropa belladona), and Cochicum [...]" Margaret F. Roberts, Michael Wink, Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications, Springer, 1998, p. 16. [76] Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, Penguin Books, 1977, p. 154. [77] Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, University of Wisconsin Press, 1998, pp. 121-124. [78] Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [79] Bonnie MacLachlan, Judith Fletcher, Virginity Revisited: Configurations of The Unpossessed Body, University of Toronto Press, 2007, p. 14. [80] Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p. 209. [81] Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p. 208. [82] Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary And The Creation of Christian Constantinople, Routledge, 1994, pp. 126-127. [83] Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. [84] Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the history of Christianity, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 72. [85] Saint Ouen, Vita Eligii book II.16. [86] Richard Cavendish, The Powers of Evil in Western Religion, Magic and Folk Belief, Routledge, 1975, p. 62. [87] [5] The play Plutus by Aristophanes (388BCE), line 594 any translation will do or Benjamin Bickley Rogers is fine [88] Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 65, No.2, 1972 pages 291-297 [89] These are the biaiothanatoi, aoroi and ataphoi (cf. Rohde, i. 264 f., and notes, 275-277, ii. 362, and note, 411-413, 424-425), whose enthumion, the quasi-technical word designating their longing for vengeance, was much dreaded. See Heckenbach, p. 2776 and references. [90] Antiphanes, in Athenaeus, 313 B (2. 39 K), and 358 F; Melanthius, in Athenaeus, 325 B. Plato, Com. (i. 647. 19 K), Apollodorus, Melanthius, Hegesander, Chariclides (iii. 394 K), Antiphanes, in Athenaeus, 358 F; Aristophanes, Plutus, 596. [91] Hekate’s Suppers, by K. F. Smith. Chapter in the book The Goddess Hekate: Studies in Ancient Pagan and Christian Philosophy edited by Stephen Ronan. Pages 57 to 64 [92] Roscher, 1889; Heckenbach, 2781; Rohde, ii. 79, n. 1. also Ammonius (p. 79, Valckenaer) [93] Apuleius, The Golden Ass 11.47.

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[94] Hans Dieter Betz, “Fragments from a Catabasis Ritual in a Greek Magical Papyrus”, History of Religions 19,4 (May 1980):287-295). The goddess appears as Hecate Ereschigal only in the heading: in the spell itself only Erschigal is called upon with protective magical words and gestures. [95] Heidel, William Arthur (1929). The Day of Yahweh: A Study of Sacred Days and Ritual Forms in the Ancient Near East, p. 514. American Historical Association. [96] Roel Sterckx, The Animal and The Daemon In Early China, State University of New York Press, 2002, pp 232-233. Sterckx explicitly recognizes the similarities between these ancient Chinese views of dogs and those current in Greek and Roman antiquity, and goes on to note “Dog sacriﬁce was also a common practice among the Greeks where the dog ﬁgured prominently as a guardian of the underworld.” (Footnote 113, p318) [97] Frederick J. Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present, University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, pp 233-234 [98] Michael Strmiska, Modern paganism in world cultures, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p. 68. [99] Francis Douce, Illustrations of Shakspeare, and of Ancient Manners, 1807, p. 235-243. [100] John Minsheu and William Somner (17th century), Edward Lye of Oxford (1694-1767), Johann Georg Wachter, Glossarium Germanicum (1737), Walter Whiter, Etymologicon Universale (1822) [101] e.g. Gerald Milnes, Signs, Cures, & Witchery, Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2007, p. 116; Samuel X. Radbill, “The Role of Animals in Infant Feeding”, in American Folk Medicine: A Symposium Ed. Wayland D. Hand. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. [102] “Many have been caught by the obvious resemblance of the Gr. Hecate, but the letters agree to closely, contrary to the laws of change, and the Mid. Ages would surely have had an unaspirated Ecate handed down to them; no Ecate or Hecate appears in the M. Lat. or Romance writings in the sense of witch, and how should the word have spread through all German lands?" Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, 1835, (English translation 1900) [103] Etymology Online, entry 'hag', accessed 8/23/09 [104] Mallory, J.P, Adams, D.Q. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 223 [105] For Hecate as a protector deity of a contemporary (mid-nineties) neopagan coven see: Sabina Magliocco, Witching Culture: Folklore and Neopaganism in America, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, p79 [106] “Neo-paganism/witchcraft is a spiritual orientation and a variety of ritual practices using reconstructed mythological structures and pre-Christian rites primarily from ancient European and Mediterranean sources. [...] most see in goddess worship a rediscovery of folk practices that persisted in rural Europe throughout the Christian era and up to recent times.” Timothy Miller (Ed.), America’s Alternative Religions, State University of New York Press, 1995, p339; “Neopaganism sees itself as a revival of ancient pre-Christian religion: the old nature religions of Greece and Rome, of the wandering Teutonic tribes and of others as well.” Gaustad, Noll (Eds.),A Documentary History of Religion In America Since 1877, Eerdmans, 2003, p603; “A second theme in the Neo-Pagan combination is the pre-Christian European folk religion or Paganism.” James R. Lewis, Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft, State University of New York Press, 1996, p303 [107] For a summary of the wild hunt as a neopagan 'tradition' see the entry in James R. Lewis, Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions, 1999, pp 303-304; For a 'moon magick' reference to Hecate as “Lady of the Wild Hunt and witchcraft” see: D. J. Conway, Moon Magick: Myth & Magic, Crafts & Recipes, Rituals & Spells, Llewellyn, 1995, p157 [108] For an extensive discussion of the symbolism of the hedge and hedge-riding as it relates to contemporary witchcraft see: Eric De Vries, Hedge-Rider: Witches and the Underworld, Pendraig Publishing, 2008, pp 10-23 (De Vries also mentions Hecate in this liminal context); and for the relation between hedges, hedge-riding and witches in German folklore see: C. R. Bilardi, The Red Church or The Art of Pennsylvania German Braucherei, Pendraig Publishing, 2009, pp 127-129; As a general indicator of the currency of the association of hedge and witch see titles such as: Silver Ravenwolf, Hedge Witch: Spells, Crafts & Rituals for Natural Magick, Llewellyn, 2008 and Rae Beth, Hedge Witch: Guide To Solitary Witchcraft, Hale, 1992 [109] “Hellenion”. [110] “No Fear Shakespeare: Macbeth: Act 2, Scene 1, Page 2”. [111] E.g. Wilshire, Donna (1994). Virgin mother crone: myths and mysteries of the triple goddess. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International. p. 213. ISBN 0-89281-494-2. [112] “Hekate’s Deipnon - Temenos”.

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[113] Weird Rituals Laid to Primitive Minds, Los Angeles Examiner, October 14, 1929. [114] “Cult of the Great Eleven,” Samuel Fort, 2014, 320 pages. ASIN B00OALI9O4

35.13 References 35.13.1

Primary sources

• Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. • Pausanias, Description of Greece • Ovid, Metamorphoses, VI 140, VII 74, 94, 174, 177, 194, 241, XIV 44, 405. • Strabo, Geography

35.13.2

Secondary sources

• Berg, William, “Hecate: Greek or “Anatolian"?", Numen 21.2 (August 1974:128-40) • Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) Published in the UK as Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, 1987. (Oxford: Blackwell) ISBN 0-631-15624-0. • Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). “Hecate in Art”, The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford University Press, Oxford. • Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate’s Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature. • Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. ISBN 0-520-21707-1 • Mallarmé, Stéphane, (1880). Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée. • Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. 1951. • Rabinovich, Yakov. The Rotting Goddess. 1990. A work which views Hekate from the perspective of Mircea Eliade's archetypes and substantiates its claims through cross-cultural comparisons. The work has been sharply criticized by Classics scholars, some dismissing Rabinowitz as a neo-pagan. • Ruickbie, Leo. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History. Robert Hale, 2004. • Von Rudloﬀ, Robert. Hekate in Early Greek Religion. Horned Owl Publishing (July 1999)

35.14 External links • Myths of the Greek Goddess Hecate • Encyclopædia Britannica 1911: “Hecate” • The Rotting Goddess by Yakov Rabinovich, complete book included in the anthology “Junkyard of the Classics” published under the pseudonym Ellipsis Marx. • Theoi Project, Hecate Classical literary sources and art • Hekate in Greek esotericism: Ptolemaic and Gnostic transformations of Hecate • The Covenant of Hekate • Cast of the Crannon statue, at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. • The Hekate/Iphigenia Myth

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Hecate, Greek goddess of the crossroads; drawing by Stéphane Mallarmé in Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée in Paris, 1880

302

Hecate by Richard Cosway

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35.14. EXTERNAL LINKS

Triple Hecate

303

304

The Triple Hecate, 1795 William Blake

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35.14. EXTERNAL LINKS

A goddess, probably Hekate or else Artemis, is depicted with a bow, dog and twin torches.

The coins of Agathocles of Bactria (ruled 190-180 BCE), show Zeus holding Hecate in his hand.[78]

305

306

Isis and her various other names and symbols from The Golden Ass.

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Chapter 36

Hypnos “Somnus” redirects here. For the thoroughbred racehorse, see Somnus (horse). For other uses, see Hypnos (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Hypnos (/ˈhɪpnɒs/; Greek: Ὕπνος, “sleep”)[1] is the personiﬁcation of sleep; the Roman equivalent is known as Somnus.[2]

36.1 Description In the Greek Mythology, Hypnos is the son of Nyx (“The Night”) and Erebus (“The Darkness”). His brother is Thanatos (“Death”). Both siblings live in the underworld (Hades) or in Erebus, another valley of the Greek underworld. According to rumors, Hypnos lives in a big cave, which the river Lethe (“Forgetfulness”) comes from and where night and day meet. His bed is made of ebony, on the entrance of the cave grow a number of poppies and other hypnotic plants. No light and no sound would ever enter his grotto. According to Homer, he lives on the island Lemnos, which later on has been claimed to be his very own dream-island. His children Morpheus (“Shape”), Phobetor (“Fear”) and Phantasos (“Imagination, Phantasy”) are the gods of the dream. It is claimed that he has many more children, which are also Oneiroi. He is said to be a calm and gentle god, as he helps humans in need and, due to their sleep, owns half of their lives.[3][4]

36.2 Family Hypnos lived next to his twin brother, Thanatos (Θάνατος, “death personified”) in the underworld. Hypnos’ mother was Nyx (Νύξ, “Night”), the deity of Night, and his father was Erebus, the deity of Darkness. Nyx was a dreadful and powerful goddess, and even Zeus feared entering her realm. His wife, Pasithea, was one of the youngest of the Graces and was promised to him by Hera, who is the goddess of marriage and birth. Pasithea is the deity of hallucination or relaxation. Hypnos’ three brothers (according to Hesiod and Hyginus) or sons (according to Ovid) were known as the Oneiroi, which is Greek for “dreams.” Morpheus is the Winged God of Dreams and can take human form in dreams. Phobetor is the personification of nightmares and created frightening dreams, he could take the shape of any animal including bears and tigers. Phantasos was known for creating fake dreams full of illusions. Morpheus, Phobetor, and Phantasos appeared in the dreams of kings. The Oneiroi lived in a cave at the shores of the Ocean in the West. The cave had two gates with which to send people dreams; one made from ivory and the other from buckhorn. However, before they could do their work and send out the dreams, first Hypnos had to put the recipient to sleep.[5] 307

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36.3 Hypnos in the Iliad Hypnos used his powers to trick Zeus. Hypnos was able to trick him and help the Danaans win the Trojan war. During the war, Hera loathed her brother and husband, Zeus, so she devised a plot to trick him. She decided that in order to trick him she needed to make him so enamoured with her that he would fall for the trick. So she washed herself with ambrosia and anointed herself with oil, made especially for her to make herself impossible to resist for Zeus. She wove flowers through her hair, put on three brilliant pendants for earrings, and donned a wondrous robe. She then called for Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and asked her for a charm that would ensure that her trick would not fail. In order to procure the charm, however, she lied to Aphrodite because they sided on opposites sides of the war. She told Aphrodite that she wanted the charm to help herself and Zeus stop fighting. Aphrodite willingly agreed. Hera was almost ready to trick Zeus, but she needed the help of Hypnos, who had tricked Zeus once before. Hera called on Hypnos and asked him to help her by putting Zeus to sleep. Hypnos was reluctant because the last time he had put the god to sleep, he was furious when he awoke. It was Hera who had asked him to trick Zeus the first time as well. She was furious that Heracles, Zeus’ son, sacked the city of the Trojans. So she had Hypnos put Zeus to sleep, and set blasts of angry winds upon the sea while Heracles was still sailing home. When Zeus awoke he was furious and went on a rampage looking for Hypnos. Hypnos managed to avoid Zeus by hiding with his mother, Nyx. This made Hypnos reluctant to accept Hera’s proposal and help her trick Zeus again. Hera first offered him a beautiful golden seat that can never fall apart and a footstool to go with it. He refused this first offer, remembering the last time he tricked Zeus. Hera finally got him to agree by promising that he would be married to Pasithea, one of the youngest Graces, whom he had always wanted to marry. Hypnos made her swear by the river Styx and call on gods of the underworld to be witnesses so that he would be ensured that he would marry Pasithea. Hera went to see Zeus on Gargarus, the topmost peak of Mount Ida. Zeus was extremely taken by her and suspected nothing as Hypnos was shrouded in a thick mist and hidden upon a pine tree that was close to where Hera and Zeus were talking. Zeus asked Hera what she was doing there and why she had come from Olympus, and she told him the same lie she told Aphrodite. She told him that she wanted to go help her parent stop quarreling and she stopped there to consult him because she didn't want to go without his knowledge and have him be angry with her when he found out. Zeus said that she could go any time, and that she should postpone her visit and stay there with him so they could enjoy each other’s company. He told her that he was never in love with anyone as much as he loved her at that moment. He took her in his embrace and Hypnos went to work putting him to sleep, with Hera in his arms. While this went on, Hypnos traveled to the ships of the Achaeans to tell Poseidon, God of the Sea, that he could now help the Danaans and give them a victory while Zeus was sleeping. This is where Hypnos leaves the story, leaving Poseidon eager to help the Danaans. Thanks to Hypnos helping to trick Zeus, the war changed its course to Hera’s favor, and Zeus never found out that Hypnos had tricked him one more time.[6]

36.4 Hypnos in Endymion myth According to a passage in Deipnosophistae, the sophist and dithyrambic poet Licymnius of Chios[7] tells a diﬀerent tale about the Endymion myth, in which Hypnos, in awe of his beauty, causes him to sleep with his eyes open, so he can fully admire his face.

36.5 Hypnos in art Hypnos appears in numerous works of art, most of which are vases. An example of one vase that Hypnos is featured on is called “Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus,” which is part of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston’s collection. In this vase, Hypnos is shown as a winged god dripping Lethean water upon the head of Ariadne as she sleeps.[9] One of the most famous works of art featuring Hypnos is a bronze head of Hypnos himself, now kept in the British Museum in London. This bronze head has wings sprouting from his temples and the hair is elaborately arranged, some tying in knots and some hanging freely from his head.[10]

36.6 Words derived from Hypnos The English word "hypnosis" is derived from his name, referring to the fact that when hypnotized, a person is put into a sleep-like state (hypnos “sleep” + -osis “condition”).[11] The class of medicines known as "hypnotics" which induce

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309

sleep also take their name from Hypnos. Additionally, the English word "insomnia" comes from the name of his Latin counterpart, Somnus. (in- “not” + somnus “sleep”),[12] as well as a few less-common words such as “somnolent”, meaning sleepy or tending to cause sleep and hypersomnia meaning excessive sleep, which can be caused by many conditions (known as secondary hypersomnia) or a rare sleep disorder causing excessive sleep with unknown cause, called Idiopathic Hypersomnia.[13]

36.7 See also • Aergia, a goddess of sloth and attendant of Hypnos • Hesiod’s Theogony • Morpheus, god of dreams • Nyx, goddess of the night

36.8 References [1] ὕπνος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [2] James H. Mantinband. Concise Dictionary of Greek Literature. New York: Philosophical Library, 1962. [3] Wilhelm Vollmer: Wörterbuch der Mythologie aller Völker. Reprint-Verlag, Leipzig 2003 (new edition), ISBN 3826222008, page 263. [4] Scott C. Littleton: Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4. Marshall Cavendish/Tarrytown, New York (US) 2005, ISBN 076147563X, page 474 - 476. [5] Ovid. “Book the Eleventh.” Trans. John Dryden. Metemorphoses. Trans. Sir Samuel Garth. Cambridge, 1717. [6] Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. Ed. Bernard Knox. New York: Viking, 1990. [7] Licymnius is known only through a few quoted lines and second-hand through references (William Smith, ed. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 1870) [8] British Museum Highlights [9] “Ancient Greek Art: Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus.” Ancient Greek Art: Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. [10] “Bronze Head of Hypnos.” British Museum −. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. [11] “Hypnosis | Define Hypnosis at Dictionary.com”. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. [12] “Insomnia | Define Insomnia at Dictionary.com”. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. [13] “Somnolent | Define Somnolent at Dictionary.com”. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27.

36.9 External links • Hypnos at theoi.com • 3D model of Bronze head of Hypnos via laser scan of a cast of British Museum’s bronze.

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36.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Bronze Head of Hypnos in the British Museum, from Civitella d'Arna near Perugia in Italy, 1st-2nd Century AD.[8]

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Chapter 37

Keres (mythology) In Greek mythology, the Keres /ˈkɪriːz/ (Κῆρες), singular Ker /ˈkɜːr/ (Κήρ), were female death-spirits. The Keres were daughters of Nyx, and as such the sisters of beings such as Moirai, who controlled the fate of souls and Thanatos, the god of peaceful death. Some later authorities, such as Cicero, called them by a Latin name, Tenebrae, or the Darknesses, and named them daughters of Erebus and Nyx.

37.1 Etymology The Greek word Kir or Ker ( κήρ ), means goddess of death, or doom. Homer uses the word with this meaning κήρες θανάτοιο , “goddesses of death”, or meaning “violent death”. By extension the word may mean “plague, disease” and in prose “blemish or defect”. The relative verb κεραίζω or κείρω means “ravage or plunder”.[1] Sometimes in Homer the words “ker” and moira, have almost similar meaning. The older meaning was probably “destruction of the dead”, and Heshychius relates the word with the verb κηραινειν, “decay”.[2]

37.2 Description And Nyx (Night) bare hateful Moros (Doom) and black Ker (Violent Death) and Thanatos (Death), and she bare Hypnos (Sleep) and the tribe of Oneiroi (Dreams). And again the goddess murky Nyx, though she lay with none, bare Momos (Blame) and painful Oizys (Misery), and the Hesperides ... Also she bare the Moirai (Fates) and the ruthless avenging Keres (Death-Fates) ... Also deadly Nyx bare Nemesis (Revenge) to aﬄict mortal men, and after her, Apate (Deceit) and Philotes (Friendship) and hateful Geras (Old Age) and hard-hearted Eris (Strife). — Hesiod, Theogony 211, translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White

They were described as dark beings with gnashing teeth and claws and with a thirst for human blood. They would hover over the battlefield and search for dying and wounded men. A description of the Keres can be found in the Shield of Heracles (248-57): The black Dooms gnashing their white teeth, grim-eyed, fierce, bloody, terrifying fought over the men who were dying for they were all longing to drink dark blood. As soon as they caught a man who had fallen or one newly wounded, one of them clasped her great claws around him and his soul went down to Hades, to chilly Tartarus. And when they had satisfied their hearts with human blood, they would throw that one behind them and rush back again into the battle and the tumult. As death daimons, they were also associated with Cerberus. Though not mentioned by Hesiod, Achlys may have been included among the Keres.[3] A parallel, and equally unusual personification of “the baleful Ker” is in Homer’s depiction of the Shield of Achilles (Iliad,ix.410ff), which is the model for the Shield of Heracles. These are works of art that are being described. 312

37.3. KERES AND VALKYRIES

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In the fifth century, Keres were portrayed as small winged sprites in vase-paintings adduced by J.E. Harrison (Harrison, 1903), who described apotropaic rites and rites of purification that were intended to keep the Keres at bay. According to a statement of Stesichorus noted by Eustathius, Stesichorus “called the Keres by the name Telchines", whom Eustathius identified with the Kuretes of Crete, who could call up squalls of wind and would brew potions from herbs (noted in Harrison, p 171). The term Keres has also been cautiously used to describe a person’s fate.[4] An example of this can be found in the Iliad where Achilles was given the choice (or Keres) between either a long and obscure life and home, or death at Troy and everlasting glory. Also, when Achilles and Hector were about to engage in a fight to the death, the god Zeus weighed both warrior’s keres to determine who shall die.[5] As Hector’s ker was deemed heavier, he was the one destined to die.[6] During the festival known as Anthesteria, the Keres were driven away. Their Roman equivalents were Letum (“death”) or the Tenebrae (“shadows”). Hunger, pestilence, madness,. nightmare have each a sprite behind them; are all sprites,” J.E. Harrison observed (Harrison 1903, p 169), but two Keres might not be averted, and these, which emerged from the swarm of lesser ills, were Old Age and Death. Odysseus says, “Death and the Ker avoiding, we escape” (Odyssey xii.158), where the two are not quite identical: Harrison (p. 175) found the Christian parallel “death and the angel of death. Keres is also used to describe a branch of paganism that follows the goddess Nyx. When applied in this way, Keres is taken to mean “daughters of Nyx.” Among destructive personifications are (not all called Keres); • Anaplekte (quick, painful death), • Akhlys (mist of death), • Nosos (disease), • Ker (destruction), • Stygere (hateful).

37.3 Keres and Valkyries It is possible that a connection exists between Keres and the Valkyries of Norse myth.[7] Both deities are war spirits that fly over battlefields during conflicts and choose those to be slain. The difference is that Valkyries are benevolent deities in contrast to the malevolence of the Keres, perhaps due to the different outlook of the two cultures towards war. The word valkyrie derives from Old Norse valkyrja (plural valkyrjur), which is composed of two words; the noun valr (referring to the slain on the battlefield) and the verb kjósa (meaning “to choose”). Together, they mean “chooser of the slain”.[8] The Greek word “Ker” etymologically means destruction, death,[9] and in Kerostasia, Zeus chooses Hector to be killed.

37.4 See also • Badb • Kerostasia • Valkyrie

37.5 References [1] Perseus Greek-English Lexicon. κήρες [2] Nilsson Vol I, p.224

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[3] Akhlys [4] In the second century AD Pausaniuas equated the two (x.28.4). “Here and elsewhere to translate 'Keres’ by fates is to make a premature abstraction,” Jane Ellen Harrison warned (Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, “The Ker as Evil Sprite” p 170. See also Harrison’s section “The Ker as Fate” pp 183-87). [5] This Kerostasia, or weighing of keres may be paralleled by the Psychostasia or weighing of souls; a lost play with that title was written by Aeschylus and the Egyptian parallel is familiar. [6] The subject appears in vase-paintings, where little men are in the scales: “it is the lives rather than the fates that are weighed”, Harrison remarks (Prolegomena p 184). [7] Egeler, M. (2008) “Death, Wings, and Divine Devouring: Possible Mediterranean Aﬃnities of Irish Battleﬁeld Demons and Norse Valkyries.” Studia Celtica Fennica, 5, pp. 5-26. [8] The Prose Edda. P.142-143 Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044755-5 [9] Lidell.Scott: Greek-English Lexicon

37.6 Sources • March, J., Cassell’s Dictionary Of Classical Mythology, London, 1999. ISBN 0-304-35161-X • Harrison, Jane Ellen, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion 1903. Chapter V: “The demonology of ghosts and spites and bogeys” • Theoi Project, Keres references in classical literature

37.7 External links • The dictionary deﬁnition of Keres at Wiktionary

Chapter 38

Lampad The Lampads or Lampades (Greek: Λαμπάδες) are the nymphs of the Underworld in Greek mythology.

38.1 Mythology Companions of Hecate, the Greek goddess of witchcraft and crossroads, they were a gift from Zeus for Hecate’s loyalty in the Titanomachy. They bear torches and accompany Hecate on her night-time travels and hauntings. Some accounts tell of how the light of the Lampads’ torches has the power to drive one to madness. The Lampads were probably the daughters or sons of various Underworld gods, Daimones, river gods, or Nyx. The Lampads’ Roman name is nymphae Avernales (“infernal nymphs”).[1]

38.2 References [1] Adam, Alexander (1814). A Compendious Dictionary of the Latin Tongue. Edinburgh. p. 146. Avernales nymphae, the infernal nymphs, Ovid. Met. 5, 540.

38.3 External links • Lampades at Theoi

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Macaria For the fictional place, see A Description of the Famous Kingdome of Macaria. For the geometer moth genus, see Semiothisa. For the 19th century novel, see Augusta Jane Evans. Macaria or Makaria (Greek Μακαρία) is the name of two figures from ancient Greek religion and mythology. Although they are not said to be the same and are given different fathers, they are discussed together in a single entry both in the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia the Suda and by Zenobius.[1]

39.1 Daughter of Heracles In the Heracleidae of Euripides, Macaria (“she who is blessed”) is a daughter of Heracles.[2] Even after Heracles’s death, King Eurystheus pursues his lifelong vendetta against the hero by hunting down his children. Macaria flees with her siblings and her father’s old friend Iolaus to Athens, where they are received by Demophon, the king. Arriving at the gates of Athens with his army, Eurystheus gives Demophon an ultimatum, threatening war upon Athens unless Demophon surrenders Heracles’s children. When Demophon refuses and begins to prepare for war, an oracle informs him that Athens will be victorious only if a noble maiden is sacrificed to Persephone. Upon hearing this, Macaria sees that her only choice is immediate death on the altar or eventual death at the hands of Eurystheus. Since in neither case will she be granted a normal, happy life, she offers herself as the victim to save the welcoming city and its inhabitants, declining a lottery that would put other girls at risk. The Athenians honored her with lavish funeral rites, and the myth has an aetiological aspect: the spring where she died was named the Macarian in her honor.

39.2 Goddess A goddess Macaria ('μακαρία', literally 'blessed') is named in the Suda.[3] This Macaria is the daughter of Hades (no mother is mentioned). She seems to have embodied a blessed death; the Suda connects her name to the ﬁgure of speech “be gone to blessedness,” instead of misery or damnation, which may be euphemistic, in the way that the dead are referred to as “the blessed ones.” The phrase was proverbial for those whose courage endangered them.[4]

39.3 References [1] Zenobius 2.61 in Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum, edited by E.L. von Leutsch and F.W. Schneidwein (Vandenhoeck et Ruprecht, 1839), vol. 1, p. 48. [2] Euripides, Heracleidae [3] Suidas s.v. Makariai, with English translation at Suda On Line, Adler number mu 51. [4] Suda On Line, Adler number beta 74.

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39.4 External links • Makaria at The Theoi Project • English translation of Euripides’ Heracleidae

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Chapter 40

Melinoe Melinoë /mᵻˈlɪnoʊiː/ (Ancient Greek: Μηλινόη) is a chthonic nymph or goddess invoked in one of the Orphic Hymns and propitiated as a bringer of nightmares and madness.[1] The name also appears on a metal tablet in association with Persephone.[2] The hymns, of uncertain date but probably composed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. In the hymn, Melinoë has characteristics that seem similar to Hecate and the Erinyes,[3] and the name is sometimes thought to be an epithet of Hecate.[4] The terms in which Melinoë is described are typical of moon goddesses in Greek poetry.

40.1 Name Melinoë may derive from Greek mēlinos (μήλινος), “having the color of quince,” from mēlon (μῆλον), “tree fruit”.[5] The fruit’s yellowish-green color evoked the pallor of illness or death for the Greeks. A name derived from melas, “black,” would be melan-, not melin-.[6]

40.2 Hymn Following is the translation by Apostolos Athanassakis and Benjamin M. Wolkow, of the hymn to Melinoe: I call upon Melinoe, saﬀron-cloaked nymph of the earth, whom revered Persephone bore by the mouth of the Kokytos river upon the sacred bed of Kronian Zeus. In the guise of Plouton Zeus and tricked Persephone and through wiley plots bedded her; a two-bodied specter sprang forth from Persephone’s fury. This specter drives mortals to madness with her airy apparitions as she appears in weird shapes and strange forms, now plain to the eye, now shadowy, now shining in the darkness— all this in unnerving attacks in the gloom of night. O goddess, O queen of those below, I beseech you to banish the soul’s frenzy to the ends of the earth, show to the initiates a kindly and holy face.[7]

40.3 Birth Melinoë is the daughter of Persephone, who was visited by Zeus disguised as her husband Hades.[8] Although the wording of the hymn is unclear at this point,[9] Pluto (or perhaps Zeus) becomes angry upon learning of the pregnancy and rends her ﬂesh. The ﬁgure called Zeus Chthonios in the Orphic Hymns is either another name for Pluto or Zeus in a chthonic aspect.[10] Melinoë is born at the mouth of the Cocytus, one of the rivers of the underworld, where Hermes in his underworld aspect as psychopomp was stationed.[11] In the Orphic tradition, the Cocytus is one of four underworld rivers.[12] 318

40.4. ATTRIBUTES AND FUNCTIONS

319

The Souls of Acheron (1898) by Adolf Hirémy-Hirschl

Although some Greek myths deal with themes of incest, in Orphic genealogies lines of kinship, express theological and cosmogonical concepts, not the realities of human family relations.[13] The ancient Greek nymphē in the ﬁrst line can mean "nymph", but also “bride” or “young woman”.[14] As an underworld “queen” (Basileia), Melinoë is at least partially syncretized with Persephone herself.[15]

40.4 Attributes and functions Melinoë is described in the invocation of the Orphic Hymn as krokopeplos, “clad in saﬀron” (see peplos), an epithet in ancient Greek poetry for moon goddesses.[16] In the hymns, only two goddesses are described as krokopeplos, Melinoë and Hecate.[17] Melinoë's connections to Hecate and Hermes suggest that she exercised her power in the realm of the soul’s passage, and in that function may be compared to the torchbearer Eubouleos in the mysteries.[18] According to the hymn, she brings night terrors to mortals by manifesting in strange forms, “now plain to the eye, now shadowy, now shining in the darkness,” and can drive mortals insane. The purpose of the hymn is to placate her by showing that the Orphic initiate understands and respects her nature, thereby averting the harm she has the capacity for causing. The translation of Thomas Taylor (1887) has given rise to a conception of Melinoe as half-black, half-white, representing the duality of the heavenly Zeus and the infernal Pluto. This had been the interpretation of Gottfried Hermann in his annotated text of the hymns in 1805.[19] This duality may be implicit, like the explanation oﬀered by Servius for why the poplar leaf has a light and dark side to represent Leuke (“White”), a nymph loved by Pluto. The Orphic text poses interpretational challenges for translators in this passage.[20]

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Bronze tablet (3rd century AD) from Pergamon invoking Melinoë along with Persephone and Leucophryne; the three goddesses pictured are labeled as Dione, Phoebe, and Nyche

40.5 Inscriptions Melinoë appears on a bronze tablet for use in the kind of private ritual usually known as “magic”. The style of Greek letters on the tablet, which was discovered at Pergamon, dates it to the ﬁrst half of the 3rd century AD. The use of bronze was probably intended to drive away malevolent spirits and to protect the practitioner. The construction of the tablet suggests that it was used for divination. It is triangular in shape, with a hole in the center, presumably for suspending it over a surface. The content of the triangular tablet reiterates triplicity. It depicts three crowned goddesses, each with her head pointing at an angle and her feet pointing toward the center. The name of the goddess appears above her head: Dione (ΔΙΟΝΗ), Phoebe (ΦΟΙΒΙΗ), and the obscure Nyche (ΝΥΧΙΗ). Amibousa, a word referring to the phases of the moon, is written under each goddess’s feet. Densely inscribed spells frame each goddess: the inscriptions around Dione and Nyche are voces magicae, incantatory syllables (“magic words”) that are mostly untranslatable. Melinoë appears in a triple invocation that is part of the inscription around Phoebe: O Persephone, O Melinoë, O Leucophryne. Esoteric symbols are inscribed on the edges of the triangle.[21]

40.6 Notes [1] Orphic Hymn 70 or 71 (numbering varies), as given by Richard Wünsch, Antikes Zaubergerät aus Pergamon (Berlin, 1905), p. 26: Μηλινόην καλέω, νύμφην χθονίαν, κροκόπεπλον, ἣν παρὰ Κωκυτοῦ προχοαῖς ἐλοχεύσατο σεμνὴ

40.7. REFERENCES

321

Φερσεφόνη λέκτροις ἱεροῖς Ζηνὸς Κρονίοιο ᾗ ψευσθεὶς Πλούτων᾽ἐμίγη δολίαις ἀπάταισι, θυμῷ Φερσεφόνης δὲ διδώματον ἔσπασε χροιήν, ἣ θνητοὺς μαίνει φαντάσμασιν ἠερίοισιν, ἀλλοκότοις ἰδέαις μορφῆς τὐπον έκκπροφανοῦσα, ἀλλοτε μὲν προφανής, ποτὲ δὲ σκοτόεσσα, νυχαυγής, ἀνταίαις ἐφόδοισι κατὰ ζοφοειδέα νύκτα. ἀλλἀ, θεά, λίτομαί σε, καταχθονίων Βασίλεια, ψυχῆς ἐκπέμπειν οἶστρον ἐπὶ τέρματα γαίης, εὐμενὲς εὐίερον μύσταις φαίνουσα πρόσωπον. [2] Edmonds, p. 100 n. 58; Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 195. [3] Edmonds, pp. 84–85. [4] Ivana Petrovic, Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (C.H. Beck, 1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 16. [5] Morand, p. 127, citing H. Bannert, RE suppl. 15, entry on “Melinoe” (1978), p. 135. [6] Morand, p. 182. [7] Athanassaki and Wolkow, p. 57. [8] In the Orphic Hymns, the name of the ruler of the underworld is Plouton, and Hades refers to the underworld as a place. [9] Edmonds, p. 100 n. 58. [10] Noel Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities: The Sacred Laws of Selinus and Cyrene (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 102. [11] Hymn to Chthonic Hermes (57); Morand, p. 182. [12] In other mythological traditions, it had been regarded as a branch of the Styx; Morand, p. 182. [13] Morand, pp. 184–185. [14] Morand, p. 182. [15] Morand, p. 185. [16] In the Iliad (8.1 and 19.1), the dawn goddess Eos is krokopeplos; Eva Parisinou, “Brightness Personified: Light and Divine Image in Ancient Greece,” in Personification In The Greek World: From Antiquity To Byzantium (Ashgate, 2005), p. 34. [17] Morand, pp. 127, 182; Pierre Brulé, La fille d'Athènes: la religion des filles à Athènes à l'époque classique (CNRS, 1987), p. 242. [18] Morand, pp. 182, 185. [19] Gottfried Hermann , Orphica (Leipzig, 1805), p. 340. [20] Hermann, Orphica, p. 340. [21] Morand, p. 185ff.

40.7 References • Athanaassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, The Orphic Hymns, Johns Hopkins University Press; First Printing edition (May 29, 2013). ISBN 978-1421408828. • Edmonds, Radcliﬀe G., “Orphic Mythology”, in A Companion to Greek Mythology, edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone. Wiley-Blackwell; 1 edition (January 28, 2014). ISBN 978-1118785164. • Morand, Anne-France, Études sur les Hymnes Orphiques Brill, 2001. ISBN 9789004120303.

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40.8 External links â&#x20AC;¢ Melinoe at the Theoi Project

CHAPTER 40. MELINOE

Chapter 41

Ascalaphus The name Ascalaphus (/əˈskæləfəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀσκάλαφος Askalaphos) is shared by two people in Greek mythology: • Ascalaphus, son of Acheron and Orphne.[1] • Ascalaphus, son of Ares and Astyoche.[2]

41.1 References [1] Bibliotheca 1.5.3 [2] Homer. Iliad, XIII, 518.

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Ceuthonymus Ceuthonymus (or Keuthonymos[1] ) (Κευθωνυμος) is a spirit in mythology who is the father of Menoites (or Menoetes, Menoetius).[2][3]:322[1] Ceuthonymus is a mysterious daimon or spirit of the underworld, who lives in the realm of Hades. Ceuthonymus is possibly the same as Iapetos, a Titan, and father of a certain Menoitios.[3]:353

42.1 References [1] Apollodorus (of Athens). The Llibrary. 2.5.12. [2] Vermeule, Emily (1981). Aspects of Death in early Greek Art and Poetry. University of California Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-520-04404-3. [3] Thomas Keightley (1896). The Mythology of ancient Greece and Italy. George Bell and Sons.

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Chapter 43

Eurynomos Not to be confused with Euronymous. In Greek mythology, Eurynomos (/jʊˈrɪnəməs/; Greek Εὐρύνομος; Latin Eurynomus) was the netherworld daimon (spirit) of rotting corpses dwelling in the Underworld.[1] Eurynomos is either a minor figure whose associated literature is lost to time, or possibly an invention by the painter Polygnotos. The sole piece of evidence concerning him is the following paragraph by Pausanias: [In a painting of Hades by Polygnotos at Delphoi, Phocis]: Eurynomos, said by the Delphian guides to be one of the daimones of Hades, who eats off all the flesh of the corpses, leaving only their bones. But Homer’s Odyssey, the poem called the Minyad, and the Returns, although they tell of Hades and its horrors, know of no daimon called Eurynomos. However, I will describe what he is like and his attitude in the painting. He is of a colour between blue and black, like that of meat flies; he is showing his teeth and is seated, and under him is spread a vulture’s skin.[2] Eurynomos is mentioned in the Satanic Bible, where the name is misspelled as “Euronymous”.

43.1 Other uses Eurynomos also refers to the following ﬁgures in Greek mythology: • Eurynomos, in the Odyssey, the third son of Aigyptios, brother of Antiphos and one of the suitors of Penelope.[3][4] • Eurynomos, according to Ovid, one the Centaurs who fought against the Lapiths at the wedding of Hippodamia.[5] • Eurynomos, a son of Magnes and Phylodice and brother of Eioneus; father of Hippios, who was devoured by Sphinx,[6] and of Orsinome, who married Lapithes.[7] • Eurynomos, a defender of Troy killed by Ajax the Great.[8]

43.2 In popular culture • The late Norwegian guitarist of the Black Metal band Mayhem, “Euronymous”, took his stage name from the mythical ﬁgure. • In the last book of The Cronus Chronicles, The Immortal Flame, Eurynomus is mentioned. He was stated as wearing vulture feathers as a cloak, with blue-black skin the colour of ﬂies. He also had the ability to turn invisible and intangible, the perfect spy. He was “hired” by the antagonist Philonecron to spy on the protagonist, and Philonecron stated that he had hygiene issues. 325

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• In the 1976 horror anthology ﬁlm Dead of Night, the main character in the third vignette entitled “Bobby” uses a rite from the Lesser Key of Solomon calling on Eurynomos as “Prince of Death” to bring her son back to life. • In the Japanese animated series Yondemasuyo, Azazel-san, Eurynomos appears as a blue-black pig demon who spreads despair by inﬂicting his victims with severe hemorrhoids. • This character is found in Umberto Eco’s Foucault’s Pendulum (chapter 41) with the spelling 'Eurynomius’ as an example of a “principal of evil.”

43.3 Notes [1] Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). “Eurynomus” [2] Pausanias, Description of Greece, 10.28.7 [3] Homer, Odyssey, 2.22; 22. 242 [4] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, Epitome of Book 4, 7. 30 [5] Ovid, Metamorphoses, 12.311 [6] Scholia on Euripides, Phoenician Women, 1760 [7] Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 69. 2 [8] Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy, 1. 530

43.4 Further reading • Anton LaVey, The Satanic Bible • Miriam Van Scott, The Encyclopedia of Hell

Chapter 44

Menoetius (Greek mythology) Not to be confused with Menoeceus. Menoetius or Menoetes (/məˈniːʃiəs/; Greek: Μενοίτιος, Μενοίτης Menoitios), meaning doomed might, is a name that refers to three distinct beings from Greek mythology: • Menoetius, a second generation Titan, son of Iapetus and Clymene or Asia, and a brother of Atlas, Prometheus and Epimetheus, Menoetius was killed by Zeus with a ﬂash of lightning in the War of the Titans, and banished to Tartarus.[1][2][3] His name means “doomed might,” deriving from the Ancient Greek words menos (“might, power”) and oitos (“doom, pain”). Hesiod described Menoetius as hubristic, meaning exceedingly prideful and impetuous to the very end. From what his name suggests, along with Hesiod’s own account, Menoetius was perhaps the Titan god of violent anger and rash action.[4] • Menoetius, guard of the cattle of Hades. During Heracles twelfth labor, which required him to steal the hound Cerberus from the Underworld, he slays one of Hades cattle. A certain Menoetius, son of Keuthonymos, challenges Heracles to a wrestling match during which Heracles hugs him and breaks his ribs before Persephone intervenes.[5] • Menoetius, one of the Argonauts. He was the father of Patroclus and Myrto (by either Sthenele, Periopis or Polymele),[6][7] son of Actor[8] and Aegina.

44.1 References [1] Hesiod, Theogony 507, &c., 514 [2] Bibliotheca 1. 2. § 3 [3] Scholia to Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound 347 [4] Smiley, Charles N (1922). “Hesiod as an Ethical and Religious Teacher”. The Classical Journal. 1922: 514. [5] The Library. p. 2.125. |ﬁrst1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help) [6] Bibliotheca 3. 13. 8 [7] Plutarch, Aristides, 20. 6 [8] Homer, Iliad, XI, 785

44.2 External links • Theoi Project: “MENOITIOS”

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44.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 44.3.1

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• Greek underworld Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_underworld?oldid=788497599 Contributors: Ubiquity, WolfgangRieger, Andrewman327, Wetman, Lowellian, Auric, Timrollpickering, DocWatson42, Alensha, Jackol, Discospinster, Paul August, Bender235, El C, Bobo192, Polylerus, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, LeonWhite, Rjwilmsi, MZMcBride, Baryonic Being, Gurch, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Pip2andahalf, Odysses, Aldux, Zzuuzz, SmackBot, CSZero, Arny, HeartofaDog, Alaroz33, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Skizzik, MaxSem, Rrburke, RedHillian, Valfontis, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, Midnightblueowl, EdC~enwiki, Sir Fastolfe, FleetCommand, Dogman500, Cydebot, Matrix61312, Fuzzibloke, Doug Weller, N5iln, Nonagonal Spider, Marek69, E. Ripley, Hmrox, Goldenrowley, Sluzzelin, Rez31, AlmostReadytoFly, Cynwolfe, VoABot II, Theranos, KConWiki, Sgr927, Dane, Simon Peter Hughes, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Captain panda, BigrTex, MercuryBlue, IdLoveOne, Skullketon, Alexander m91, (jarbarf), NewEnglandYankee, EnderW, 2help, STBotD, Treisijs, ManofTheAtom, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Erik the Red 2, BwDraco, Monty845, Yintan, Goustien, Angel David, Denisarona, Ratiuglink, Stillwaterising, ClueBot, PipepBot, Niceguyedc, RafaAzevedo, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Jusdafax, Thehelpfulone, Catalographer, Editor2020, Addbot, Brumski, Download, Tide rolls, Luckas Blade, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Phlyght, Jim1138, Aditya, Citation bot, LilHelpa, I Feel Tired, Jeffwang, Happybutterfly, FrescoBot, Wikipe-tan, Haykayyaygfay, Freebirds, Redrose64, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Amanningman18, Calmer Waters, MrHighway, Serols, Fixer88, Vrenator, Aoidh, Cowlibob, Tbhotch, EmausBot, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Slightsmile, Fæ, Osman-pasha, AvicAWB, Wilarcher, Supreme Masticator, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Donner60, Grapple X, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Asif.al.noor, Widr, BG19bot, Krenair, KNIGHTa135, Davidiad, BattyBot, David.moreno72, Asdfghjklgyascutus, Dexbot, LightandDark2000, Gre regiment, Lugia2453, Frosty, Graphium, Aslak Kittelsen, Emhinkes, Infinite610, Faizan, Epicgenius, Hwalter42, ArmbrustBot, Haminoon, FaustoLG, Kharkiv07, Zenibus, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, Thewikiguru1, NovaScotia12, Monkbot, Tophet, Crystallizedcarbon, C. Shields Wuz Heer, Gaelan, Prometheus2552, Feminist, Linguist111, Omnipotentus, Mr rnddude, Creativitysoars, Thomasp3864, InternetArchiveBot, Random guy in the corner, Marvellous Spider-Man, Here2help, Katolophyromai, Suede Cat and Anonymous: 354 • Acheron Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acheron?oldid=778723827 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Rmhermen, Enchanter, Tucci528, TUF-KAT, Andres, Jallan, Zoicon5, Mythrandia, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Finlay McWalter, UtherSRG, Ninjamask, Gtrmp, Wikibob, Ketil, DO'Neil, Bacchiad, OldakQuill, Lydgate, MichaelD, Ellsworth, Sam Hocevar, Haggen Kennedy, Eyrian, Number 0, Dbachmann, Zaslav, Mandramas, Markussep, Reinyday, Redf0x, Joshbaumgartner, DreamGuy, Wyvern, Sburke, YannisKollias, EnSamulili, Matijap, Marudubshinki, Sjakkalle, Ukdan999, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, 2ct7, YurikBot, RussBot, Mark Ironie, Dforest, MakeChooChooGoNow, Deucalionite, Menelaos, Lt-wiki-bot, SmackBot, Kimon, KocjoBot~enwiki, Davewild, Wakuran, Hmains, Sadads, A. B., Cplakidas, Fuhghettaboutit, SashatoBot, Saccerzd, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Nareek, Richard L. Peterson, The Man in Question, Mallaccaos, MTSbot~enwiki, Menswear, Eickenberg, Tarynmu18, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Jeromebustos, JavaEnabled, T-1, Faigl.ladislav, GentlemanGhost, RoboServien, JimScott, D. Webb, JAnDbot, Fanxy, SiobhanHansa, Elizabennet, T@nn, Jllm06, Lajagt, Dcroe05, CommonsDelinker, Nev1, MercuryBlue, Uncle Dick, DorganBot, Deor, VolkovBot, Dr Steven Plunkett, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Mostafazizi, EmxBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Ichi TK, BenoniBot~enwiki, Finetooth, Eebahgum, EoGuy, Shoemoney2night, Cyucheng, Panellet, Phso2, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Bustacaptx, DerBorg, PeterAS, Starstriker7, Addbot, Tanhabot, Egan86, Ahorstm, Rehman, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, J04n, Omnipaedista, Δρακόλακκος, Steve Quinn, Alltat, RedBot, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, EmausBot, Giorgi13, SporkBot, Polisher of Cobwebs, Tot12, Frietjes, Wbm1058, Dainomite, Gre regiment, RobAdams8832, CAPTAIN RAJU, Thefjordhusky201, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 98 • Cocytus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocytus?oldid=753629684 Contributors: The Anome, Andre Engels, Shsilver, Atlan, Tucci528, DopefishJustin, Angela, Bogdangiusca, Emperorbma, Mirv, Square1ace, UtherSRG, GreatWhiteNortherner, Snobot, DocWatson42, TOttenville8, Bacchiad, Ellsworth, Sam Hocevar, El-Ahrairah, Dbachmann, RoyBoy, Jojit fb, SnowFire, Maikeru, Kelly Martin, Sburke, Daniel Lawrence, Alofferman, FlaBot, Mitsukai, YurikBot, Shimirel, Hairy Dude, Royalbroil, Deucalionite, Mieciu K, Drboisclair, Deville, SmackBot, DracoLord Haven, Kimon, DarkAdonis255, Reycount, Tenka Muteki, Tragic Taco, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, The Man in Question, Arctic-Editor, Archiesteel, DangerousPanda, Cydebot, EdenMaster, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Headbomb, “D”, AntiVandalBot, Ingolfson, T@nn, Klausok, Cocytus, LittleOldMe old, MercuryBlue, Ja 62, Barbaking, Erik the Red 2, EmxBot, Lethesl, ClueBot, Gits (Neo), Narom, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Uhhlive, Catalographer, BodhisattvaBot, Addbot, ColinMB, Erutuon, Legobot, Heisenbergthechemist, Ayrton Prost, JackieBot, Xqbot, Erud, Omnipaedista, Masterknighted, Virgilio Marone, Whisky drinker, Axel Kockum, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, Calidum, Ctrt12, Biggs Pliff, Gre regiment, Mark viking, DivermanAU and Anonymous: 71 • Eridanos (river of Hades) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridanos_(river_of_Hades)?oldid=778202563 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Mic, SebastianHelm, Bogdangiusca, Wikiborg, Roepers, Wetman, Robbot, Jhi, Jor, DocWatson42, Jyril, Mboverload, Anthony Appleyard, Maqs, Sburke, -Ril-, BD2412, Chronographos, Nihiltres, Todd Vierling, Deucalionite, Lt-wiki-bot, Felicity4711, Jamie C, XSG, Maksim-bot, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, The Man in Question, Amakuru, Lavateraguy, Thijs!bot, Deflective, Magioladitis, T@nn, NatureA16, MercuryBlue, Caspian blue, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Abyca, Rei-bot, Tom Meijer, SieBot, AS, Iwfi, Susurrousone, PipepBot, Estirabot, Catalographer, Addbot, Hagfet1, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Omnipaedista, GregKaye, Malcolm77, PBS-AWB, Davidiad, Lemnaminor, Library Guy, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 14 • Lethe Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethe?oldid=786978197 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, The Anome, Ed Poor, Rgamble, Karen Johnson, Apollia, Tucci528, Delirium, Kosebamse, Kingturtle, Bogdangiusca, Jallan, Lfh, Eugene van der Pijll, Gtrmp, Herr Klugbeisser, Lethe, Dmmaus, Bacchiad, Ctachme, Ellsworth, Dmilosev~enwiki, Eyrian, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Number 0, Dbachmann, Paul August, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Jonathan Drain, Officiallyover, HasharBot~enwiki, Jason One, Gunter.krebs, Njaard, Hu, Caesura, Woohookitty, Sburke, Chupon, Qwertyus, Jclemens, Ccson, ElKevbo, Bigfan~enwiki, WriterHound, EamonnPKeane, Alma Pater, Blueaster, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Expensivehat, Deucalionite, Bota47, Raveled, SmackBot, Malkinann, Unyoyega, BiT, Hmains, Chris the speller, Nbarth, Colonies Chris, Dantadd, Wybot, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mircea, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, Jmgonzalez, Michael Greiner, Gclinkscales, Iridescent, JoeBot, Igoldste, Opblaaskrokodil, Fordmadoxfraud, Revolus, EdenMaster, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, SGGH, Julia Rossi, AngelVigilante, Kedi the tramp, Tadramgo, Armagion, MegX, Magioladitis, T@nn, Beklemmt, Mrathel, Oren0, R'n'B, Nev1, Mayneverhave, Eirein, STBotD, DorganBot, JLStamper, FeralDruid, VolkovBot, Abyca, Redskinfan325, Mia noi, Natg 19, Ashnard, Thanatos666, Pefstath, Why Not A Duck, AlleborgoBot, Richard1608, SieBot, Gerakibot, Phe-bot, Hxhbot, Undront, KathrynLybarger, Pearbo, Terence Kuch, SalineBrain, Plastikspork, Shoemoney2night, Drmies, Rosuav, Emarcus, Patricio Paez, Catalographer, Editor2020, Lisette79, Six string brad, Jaimicus, Skyfinity, Addbot, Ttrese, Xaledeib, Omnipedian, AnnaFrance, Hierroneous, Yobot, Hcnebono, Adeliine, Mintrick, Antique1967, Jfxnaradzay, J04n,

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, Bquinn42, D'ohBot, Jonesey95, RedBot, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, ScottyBerg, JSquish, ZéroBot, Amodio11, Suslindisambiguator, DBigXray, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Dan653, Exercisephys, BluishPixie, PatheticCopyEditor, Khazar2, Ewqtree, Gre regiment, Robot433, Killuminator, Pincrete, Kennethaw88, Shankarsivarajan, Eenelson6, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 142 • Phlegethon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegethon?oldid=779563894 Contributors: Tucci528, Ixfd64, Bogdangiusca, Charles Matthews, DocWatson42, Bacchiad, Gdr, Ellsworth, El-Ahrairah, Yaz0r, Eyrian, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, Paul August, Fiveless, Falcorian, Marasmusine, Pgilman, FlaBot, Mordicai, Digitalme, Kummi, YurikBot, GeeJo, Deucalionite, SmackBot, DarkTemplarFury, Egsan Bacon, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Anemos~enwiki, Sir Fastolfe, Courcelles, Escarbot, Goldenrowley, Canadian-Bacon, Leuko, Robert hareland, Gwern, Misarxist, Captain panda, M-le-mot-dit, Erik the Red 2, AlleborgoBot, EmxBot, SieBot, ClueBot, Mr. Laser Beam, Turgonofgondolin, Alexbot, Catalographer, BodhisattvaBot, Addbot, Btdonovan, Chzz, Tassedethe, AnomieBOT, Mintrick, Xqbot, Erud, 98windows, Omnipaedista, DarkFlemy, Redrose64, Carrjones, Orphan Wiki, Immunize, Opnelrisnoena, ClueBot NG, Antiqueight, Davidiad, Khazar2, Gre regiment, Missmistysherrie, Kcim2000, Glenn J. 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Webb, MalcolmSpudbury, Modernist, ClassicSC, Rnorve, JAnDbot, Deflective, Epein, Xando18, PhilKnight, Cynwolfe, Acroterion, Dudshan, Magioladitis, Pedro, VoABot II, T@nn, Davidjk, Koolman435, Froid, Hekerui, Catgut, Waltke, NomadSoul, Esanchez7587, Zachary crimsonwolf, Oderus, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Nev1, Aoosten, Ina kulot, Jxspectre87, Mirey~enwiki, Ivan Scott Warren, Thesis4Eva, Tatrgel, 83d40m, Jsalvado, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Delvebelow, Macedonian, TXiKiBoT, RelinquishedSanity, DeeKenn, Java7837, Red Act, Rei-bot, JhsBot, MarshallKe, CO, Cantiorix, EmxBot, SieBot, Zquiza, Weeliljimmy, Gerakibot, Flyer22 Reborn, Laladuh, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Bardenite, Escape Orbit, Ricklaman, Martarius, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, Alvaroduck, The Thing That Should Not Be, Unbuttered Parsnip, Styxo, Drmies, Scottxcore, ChandlerMapBot, Excirial, Estirabot, Okiefromokla, Tnxman307, Dustpelt96, Catalographer, Michielodb, RadicalxEdward, Savabubble, Dtpeck, Glavkos, Addbot, Man with one red shoe, Fluffernutter, Rejectwater, Favonian, ChenzwBot, Keds0, OlEnglish, MuZemike, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Washburnmav, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Dburg2332, Xqbot, Sionus, Capricorn42, Nikofeelan, GrouchoBot, JukeJohn, The Interior, Elrofivjxhsudghhgdx, Shadowjams, Logonalump, FrescoBot, Fortdj33, Tghm1801, DrilBot, Hoo man, RedBot, Trec'hlid mitonet, Xeworlebi, Dinamik-bot, Groundhog68, Лобачев Владимир, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Jdudar5, Wikipelli, PBS-AWB, Suslindisambiguator, DASHBotAV, Johnydfor3, ClueBot NG, Delusion23, Muon, Widr, Pbmaise, Seekquaze111, Newyork1501, BG19bot, Servranckx, Davidiad, Soluna soul, Warsilver, Tolistefl65, Jlm97jlm, Peanutsfish, Md219, W.D., Raphael The Archangle, Gre regiment, Frosty, Lemnaminor, Itc editor2, Bever, M1sf1t actual, Noyster, Lakdfhia, HMSLavender, Isambard Kingdom, Kashley727267, Sirgored, SireWonton, Chackerian, Iotacist, Pingu654, Jakeacts, Katolophyromai, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 316 • Acherusia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acherusia?oldid=557281907 Contributors: MrH, Tucci528, Gtrmp, Anythingyouwant, YUL89YYZ, Mjk2357, WadeSimMiser, Rjwilmsi, GeeJo, Syrthiss, Deucalionite, Fang Aili, EmersonLowry, Kaoak, Idioma-bot, Niceguyedc, Catalographer, Addbot, Dodo, D'ohBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 5 • Lerna Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lerna?oldid=775567551 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Mdebets, Zoicon5, Wetman, Pumpie, Dimadick, AlainV, Chris Roy, Folks at 137, D6, RossPatterson, MeltBanana, Paul August, Markussep, Viriditas, Hooperbloob, Sleigh, FlaBot, Tufflaw, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Marcus Cyron, Deucalionite, SmackBot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Andrew Dalby, Hu12, JohnCD, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Languagehat, Dmitri Lytov, Darklilac, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Ulrichstill, Gun Powder Ma, R'n'B, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Tyl1924, PipepBot, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Fkitselis, AlexanderVanLoon, FrescoBot, Animalparty, Miracle Pen, Tot12, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Jjtimbrell, Lugia2453, JJMC89 bot and Anonymous: 10 • Cape Matapan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Matapan?oldid=727735848 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Panairjdde~enwiki, Pumpie, YUL89YYZ, Markussep, Darwinek, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Kalogeropoulos, Kyriakos, RussBot, Botteville, Nahaj, SmackBot, Hmains, Cplakidas, Jugbo, Rockpocket, Andrew Dalby, Mathiasrex, Marco polo, Uogbuji, Man77, Biruitorul, Wikid77, Eastmain, Bobblehead, Magioladitis, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Simon Peter Hughes, N734LQ, Zdtrlik, STBotD, Lucifero4, Hirokun, Funandtrvl, Camster, Cf23, Khirurg, MystBot, Addbot, Hborn45~enwiki, Luckas-bot, JackieBot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Prezbo, Lotje, CN3777, Tgvtornado, Delusion23, BG19bot, Joshua G Smyth, Konmarks, Adûnâi and Anonymous: 15 • Aornum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aornum?oldid=771854810 Contributors: Megistias, SmackBot, Roscelese, Cplakidas, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, JamesAM, Catalographer, Davidiad, Corinne, Ydoc6, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot and MaryroseB54 • Lake Avernus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Avernus?oldid=755322554 Contributors: Menchi, Docu, ChrisO~enwiki, Marcika, D6, Brian0918, Darwinek, WikiParker, Avenue, Japanese Searobin, Simetrical, Ccson, GünniX, YurikBot, Cjcaesar, Szarka, Ian Spackman, Frokor, Lo2u, Escarbot, Burntnickel, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Pere prlpz, Byronic Hero, Grthro, Андрей Романенко, Plasticup, DorganBot, Rémih, VolkovBot, Seattle Skier, TXiKiBoT, Elphion, Tomaxer, Phe-bot, DragonBot, PixelBot, Estirabot, Protozoon, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Bilgin adem, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Drdhaval2785, Jaguar, EmausBot, Lunaibis, ZéroBot, FAM1885, Velo Vrbata, CocuBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4 • Heraclea Pontica Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica?oldid=785447913 Contributors: Panairjdde~enwiki, GreatWhiteNortherner, TOO, DocWatson42, J. 'mach' wust, Eregli bob, Paul August, Shanes, Saga City, Sleigh, Woohookitty, Sburke, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, YurikBot, RobotE, Alma Pater, David Pierce, Bluebot, Rhollenton, Cplakidas, Greenshed, Khoikhoi, The Man in Question, Slakr, Mallaccaos, Hyperboreios, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, WVhybrid, JAnDbot, Deflective, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Baristarim, TXiKiBoT, Yone, Alcmaeonid, Niceguyedc, Catalographer, Addbot, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot,

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CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, Xqbot, Erud, Omnipaedista, AlexanderVanLoon, AmphBot, Böri, Suslindisambiguator, Hannibalianus, Marcocapelle, JJMC89 bot and Anonymous: 20 • Ploutonion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploutonion?oldid=762534653 Contributors: WolfgangRieger, DNewhall, Anthony Appleyard, Sburke, Widefox, Cynwolfe, David Eppstein, ClarkSui, Niceguyedc, Editor2020, Addbot, LlywelynII, FrescoBot, Proclus27, BG19bot, PrinceTriton and Bender the Bot • Ploutonion at Hierapolis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploutonion_at_Hierapolis?oldid=787521800 Contributors: BDD, Rjwilmsi, Cydebot, Hebrides, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, ClarkSui, Johnbod, Karmos, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, AlexanderVanLoon, Marcocapelle, Cerabot~enwiki, Lekoren, Pseudonymous Rex, Fearjonty, Thantounderscore, PrinceTriton, JJMC89 bot, Conist, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 11 • Elysium Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysium?oldid=783701026 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Jeronimo, Enchanter, MrH, Ewen, Tucci528, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Gabbe, Dcljr, Mxn, Schneelocke, Ehn, Choster, JCarriker, Jogloran, Selket, Kaare, Itai, Topbanana, Wetman, Pfortuny, Merovingian, Sunray, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Elf, Tom harrison, Lestatdelc, Zumbo, Gracefool, Macrakis, ChicXulub, Albrecht, PFHLai, Divadiane, Kelson, Mschlindwein, Karl Dickman, Mike Rosoft, Eyrian, Florian Blaschke, User2004, Michael Zimmermann, Paul August, Tsujigiri~enwiki, Bender235, Mateo SA, Mjk2357, Tom, Pablo X, Goblim, Smarmon, Physicistjedi, Haham hanuka, Polylerus, Anthony Appleyard, Calton, Redfarmer, WikiParker, Ronark, Maqs, Kusma, Djsasso, Spartacus007, Veemonkamiya, Tabletop, Shikai shaw, Pictureuploader, Pfalstad, Rjwilmsi, PMCash3, Wahkeenah, Filipvr, DoubleBlue, MarnetteD, Heilemann, Margosbot~enwiki, Wingsandsword, Spriteless, Adoniscik, Former user 6, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Snek01, Brian Olsen, Aldux, Deucalionite, AdelaMae, Praetorian42, Bota47, Black Falcon, Wknight94, Drboisclair, Tadpole256, Nikkimaria, Theda, LucaviX, Arthur Rubin, Opiaterein, LeonardoRob0t, Fastifex, Zvika, Beeurd, SmackBot, Kimon, Power piglet, Alsandro, Gilliam, Valley2city, Fuzzform, Patriarch, Akhilleus, DR04, Adamantios, Ryan Roos, Taylor28, Leon..., Will Beback, Paragonofevil, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Rklawton, NJZombie, Steven3x, 16@r, A. Parrot, Redeagle688, Bespantheos, Hectorian, Slicedoranges, Psifer, Eastlaw, Ryoga-2003, Macca7174, Urutapu, CBM, RealityDeviantt, Crazy Ivan (usurped), Neelix, Lars951, Cydebot, Cammcharg, Goldfritha, Tewapack, Thijs!bot, Peter morrell, Mojo Hand, Fluxbot, Sirpent, Muaddeeb, Vaniac, ReallyMale, AntiVandalBot, Aethumus, Makeinu, Designatevoid, WANAX, Pozcircuitboy, MegX, LittleOldMe, Nunki~enwiki, T@nn, Michael Goodyear, Hanmade, Slingsarrows, Randomdej, JaGa, Urco, Hugh McFadden, Ekki01, Arynknight, Tommo1957, Catoni52, Shadzar, Nev1, ZamZodZeo, Violask81976, Yonidebot, PC78, Mamyles, Tractorkingsfan, Michaelphone, Adanedhel21, Gorba, TheNewPhobia, Blairtummock, VolkovBot, Sethant, Jeff G., ChromeWulf ZX, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, Simpsonary, Qxz, Johnred32, Bentley4, Tesswiki, FinnWiki, Cnilep, Alcmaeonid, RedRabbit1983, SieBot, Goustien, Lightmouse, Angel David, KathrynLybarger, Ihsbislns, Gr8opinionater, Chounch, Paul Gilmurray, Martarius, ClueBot, Victor Chmara, Distress.bark, Boogur, ThreeKings, Mild Bill Hiccup, Onikiri, Kbar1, TheOldJacobite, RafaAzevedo, Sjdunn9, DragonBot, Grundig, Ktr101, Spock of Vulcan, Catalographer, Bkwrmgrl1, Omnitelik, Cpt.schoener, MystBot, Lovingwhatisnt, Addbot, Little sawyer, Atethnekos, Elysiumsuck, Crispypetal, Michaelm 22, Electron, Proxima Centauri, D.c.camero, TheOneTrueDoddy, Debresser, SamatBot, Splodgeness, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Gwmaniac, KDS4444, Jim1138, Mintrick, Flopsy Mopsy and Cottonmouth, Materialscientist, InfowikStuff, Obersachsebot, NickBridwell84, MauritsBot, Fftpa813, TechBot, Jeffrey Mall, DSisyphBot, Ched, Paradise seeker, Mattisrich, RibotBOT, Steamerst, FrescoBot, WildEcat12345, Servus Triviae, Leestevec, RedBot, Helios13, Thinksion, Олексій Гейленко, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Lotje, QueenEliz78, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Böri, Alph Bot, Beyond My Ken, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, Lebrouillard, ZéroBot, Mksprd, TYelliot, ClueBot NG, Mac 62, ElysiumArtwork, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, GhostA113, BG19bot, Merik 7, Davidiad, CitationCleanerBot, BluishPixie, Nleksan, ChrisGualtieri, Sowlos, EntroDipintaGabbia, Corinne, N68188, KalenQ, Fbryce, Cloudyjbg27512, Eric Corbett, Sirwigwam, Man of Steel 85, Arryak24, Tophet, Vítor, Whispering hands, Rhoark, Cewbot, Xephiel, Oluwa2Chainz, Bender the Bot, Andrew R. Collins and Anonymous: 448 • Erebus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erebus?oldid=784435041 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Ortolan88, Roadrunner, Tucci528, Infrogmation, Karada, Aarchiba, WhisperToMe, Haukurth, Moros~enwiki, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Bearcat, UtherSRG, Modeha, DocWatson42, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Bacchiad, Mackeriv, The Singing Badger, Karl-Henner, El-Ahrairah, Robin Hood~enwiki, Quota, Didactohedron, Gerrit, Eyrian, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Paul August, Aranel, FirstPrinciples, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, FoekeNoppert, Alansohn, Qtgeo, Godheval, Zudduz, Tabletop, Dzordzm, Akoch, Koavf, Erebus555, MarnetteD, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Gurch, Str1977, Mordicai, DVdm, 334a, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, NTBot~enwiki, Hellbus, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Krea, Moritz, Apokryltaros, Pyrotec, PhilipC, Deucalionite, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Petr.adamek, HeleneSylvie, Opiaterein, Kubra, Allens, GrinBot~enwiki, robot, Eskimbot, Bblakeney, Yamaguchi , Rasteraster, MalafayaBot, SchfiftyThree, Frap, Bardsandwarriors, DMacks, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, UberCryxic, Michael Bednarek, A. Parrot, Noah Salzman, Scyrene, SuedeHead, Ryulong, MTSbot~enwiki, Phatzmb, Courcelles, Zotdragon, Galo1969X, WeggeBot, Jonathan Tweet, Besieged, DrunkenSmurf, Urashimataro, Srajan01, DumbBOT, PamD, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Qwyrxian, KrakatoaKatie, Streifengrasmaus, Deflective, Kaobear, RandyS0725, Rothorpe, Siddharth Mehrotra, Cynwolfe, Militiades, Magioladitis, T@nn, Waacstats, KConWiki, Simon Peter Hughes, DGG, J.delanoy, Nev1, Singaraja, Ian.thomson, Robertson-Glasgow, NewEnglandYankee, Zerokitsune, Idioma-bot, Redtigerxyz, TreasuryTag, ICE77, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, GcSwRhIc, LeaveSleaves, Madhero88, David Marjanović, Temporaluser, Thanatos666, Ceranthor, Shaidar cuebiyar, EmxBot, SieBot, Rob.bastholm, BenoniBot~enwiki, Maelkoch, IdreamofJeanie, OKBot, CharlesGillingham, Martarius, ClueBot, LAX, EoGuy, Shoemoney2night, Jan1nad, Arrowintwolakes, Sun Creator, Panellet, Razorflame, Catalographer, Sanada Yuki-kun, NellieBly, Addbot, Oculus42, Ronhjones, Тиверополник, Tide rolls, Gail, Borg2008, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, IRP, Mintrick, Xufanc, Citation bot, ChristianH, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Unctions Unit, GrouchoBot, MrMizfit, Omnipaedista, Amaury, Spinach Monster, Gilligan Skipper, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Pinethicket, XRDoDRX, Serols, Lotje, TjBot, Bento00, Batang bulbulin, E25691, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, RenamedUser01302013, Slightsmile, Waidanian, Googipy, Music Sorter, Donner60, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Lord Roem, The385842, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, GhostA113, Davidiad, CitationCleanerBot, Fraulein451, Gre regiment, The MEGA user, Fycafterpro, Jadephx, Jestmoon, MrScorch6200, Goddessoftheshadowsanddarkness, Kittenykittens, JaconaFrere, Tophet, Officialsixsixsix, MelGibsuhn, My Pants Metal, Bender the Bot, Aidan879, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 241 • Asphodel Meadows Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphodel_Meadows?oldid=780303563 Contributors: Lowellian, Firepacket, Ellsworth, NightMonkey, Eyrian, Ziggurat, Ricky81682, InShaneee, Woohookitty, Rtkat3, Aldux, SmackBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Werdan7, Treemaster4, JoeBot, Thebandman, Jamoche, Basawala, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, John254, VoABot II, T@nn, Michael Goodyear, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Prism247, Tholly, J.delanoy, Stephenhiro, Sidhekin, VolkovBot, Synthebot, ClueBot, CaptainJae, Niceguyedc, Hananoshi, Catalographer, Editor2020, Addbot, Tide rolls, Yobot, Maxis ftw, Erud, Mononomic, MondalorBot, WikitanvirBot, Neigh94, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, The1337gamer, Mogism, AshFR, GLEEFAN222013, Sam Sailor, Matthewjcox.2000, Tophet, Bender the Bot, Here2help and Anonymous: 53

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

331

• Fortunate Isles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortunate_Isles?oldid=770451732 Contributors: Error, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Finlay McWalter, Merovingian, Gtrmp, Macrakis, Dbachmann, Paul August, Bender235, Aecis, Mjk2357, QuartierLatin1968, Moilleadóir, Mairi, BillC, Pictureuploader, Cuchullain, Ygmarchi, Peter G Werner, Mark Ironie, Theelf29, GeeJo, JoanneB, Michael%Sappir, McCharles, Lambiam, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Kuru, Chipmunk15, Cydebot, SteveMcCluskey, Fluxbot, Goldenrowley, Brendandh, Narssarssuaq, WANAX, Nevermore27, 100110100, NoychoH, Captain panda, M-le-mot-dit, Deor, YKWSG, Goustien, Kerrio, Erik Henning Edvardsen, Foofbun, Niceguyedc, Alexthekiwi, Friedlibend und tapfer, Catalographer, Editor2020, Kaldar, Addbot, CBHA, AndersBot, SpBot, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, Mintrick, LlywelynII, Omnipaedista, Haon 2.0, LuzoGraal, Suslindisambiguator, ClueBot NG, Joefromrandb, The Gaon, DrPhen, Dexbot, Tophet, EmDee15, Dauntlessrosie and Anonymous: 47 • Tartarus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartarus?oldid=780993696 Contributors: The Epopt, Andre Engels, Toby Bartels, Enchanter, Stepnwolf, MrH, Tucci528, Olivier, Someone else, Александър, Glenn, Cratbro, Evercat, Charles Matthews, Magnus.de, WhisperToMe, Saltine, Adia~enwiki, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Robbot, Kristof vt, Academic Challenger, Auric, Blainster, UtherSRG, Benc, Xanzzibar, Jacob1207, Jiawen, Joshuapaquin, Bacchiad, Alexf, Kaldari, August~enwiki, Pmanderson, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Histrion, El-Ahrairah, Gscshoyru, Robin Hood~enwiki, Didactohedron, GreenReaper, Eyrian, Erc, Discospinster, Pak21, Yuval madar, Martpol, Paul August, Aranel, El C, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Pablo X, Thuresson, Alphax, DCEdwards1966, OGoncho, Alansohn, Andrewpmk, Oz1cz, Mysdaao, Marasmusine, Sburke, WadeSimMiser, Miss Madeline, Obersachse, Rjwilmsi, Lamb~enwiki, Sango123, Str1977, Jeremygbyrne, Chobot, Lord Patrick, Roboto de Ajvol, Reverendgraham, Hairy Dude, Rtkat3, RussBot, Simoncpu, Mark Ironie, Gaius Cornelius, Dalek~enwiki, Oni Lukos, Ravenous, Megistias, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Apokryltaros, Aldux, Deucalionite, Aaron Schulz, AdelaMae, DeadEyeArrow, Antley, Wknight94, Jcvamp, Zain, Shabd sound, Lt-wiki-bot, Nikkimaria, Baerwb, LucaviX, QmunkE, Geoffrey.landis, The Yeti, Crystallina, SmackBot, Samix, McGeddon, KocjoBot~enwiki, Vlada511~enwiki, Antrophica, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Darthanakin, Bluebot, Bartimaeus, Tarun2k, NCurse, Hibernian, Droll, Moonstone, Pegua, Rpgdude, Thomas Graves, Tsop, BesselDekker, Bronzie, Eaf1138, Kleuske, Myths1233, SashatoBot, Esrever, Vriullop, Johncatsoulis, JanderVK, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Redeagle688, Jack O'Neill, Yodin, Clarityfiend, Zero sharp, Spiteful Crow, Aeons, Erikringmar, Wolfdog, Maerin, Ale jrb, Tassadar1987, Electricmic, Lars951, Jonathan Tweet, Gogo Dodo, Sullivan9211, Jwsalzer, DumbBOT, Alaibot, Englishnerd, Thijs!bot, Calengurth, Natiow59, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Dfrg.msc, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Gr4yJ4Y, Blue Tie, Salgueiro~enwiki, Crazyaces, RandyS0725, Neonhawk, 100110100, Vultur~enwiki, Kirrages, Fmcgee, Hroðulf, Malvorean, Jacce, T@nn, Gbuelens, P4poetic, Cameronw, Gau1990, JaGa, Simon Peter Hughes, Cadalach, MartinBot, Kiore, Niclisp, R'n'B, Gotyear, Trusilver, Mcguffin, MikeEagling, AVestors, NewEnglandYankee, Nwbeeson, Zerokitsune, CDuck2, Rumpelstiltskin223, DrakeKobra, Serph, Cmathis5, Deor, ICE77, Jeff G., RPlunk2853, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Abyca, Erik the Red 2, Zun-zun, Rei-bot, Orkz, Metatron’s Cube, Scezumin, PaladinWhite, XxDirgeofCerberusxX, PericlesofAthens, SieBot, AS, Mungo Kitsch, Yulu, Flyer22 Reborn, Faradayplank, Goustien, Kudret abi, OKBot, 9eyedeel, Denisarona, EPadmirateur, Chignecto, ClueBot, IPAddressConflict, Bioexorcist, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Drmies, Trivialist, Robert Skyhawk, Jusdafax, Axisfreedomfighters, Catalographer, EpicDream86, Egmontaz, ILord, Addbot, Fyrael, Thomas888b, Percy Jackson, Diablokrom, West.andrew.g, Тиверополник, Konstantinos~enwiki, Willondon, Zorrobot, Jarble, LuK3, Megaman en m, Borg2008, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Nallimbot, DemocraticLuntz, Mintrick, MauritsBot, Xqbot, XZeroBot, Gookaba, Jsharpminor, Ender’s Shadow Snr, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Kyng, AkuTenshiiZero, FrescoBot, Goodbye Galaxy, Xjk, Trevorz, DivineAlpha, Scarce, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, RedBot, Evenrød, TobeBot, LilyKitty, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, J3tforc3g3mini, In ictu oculi, Perspeculum, DASHBot, J36miles, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Mordgier, Heracles31, Ibbn, Drekmorin, Dcirovic, Pueblolanghead, Aeonx, Ri4ardsons, Donner60, Spicemix, ClueBot NG, ThanatorRider, Hiperfelix, O.Koslowski, Widr, Alicestyles, EvilResident, Arch8887, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Mark Arsten, North911, NotWith, BluishPixie, Minsbot, Bonzi777, Yodawg71097, ChrisGualtieri, Ryan1370, Impenate, Hmainsbot1, Peter7638, Ginsuloft, AngelicHawk7, Anna Reise, Emilyannewilson, Sherlockholmes221bbakerstreet, Indubitablyamudkip, Daylight15, JaconaFrere, Percyjackonlover, Billtanin, XjangoonX, Blue43sethuthut, Abhaddhyon0711, Erjredeemer, Crystallizedcarbon, TriforceRaven99, Cumminspit, Elli-Jane-4, Musa Raza, Lawrence D. A., Hfhfhhfhfhf, Bostinnova, Ella charlotte, Noahloveless, Doron.rose, 72, SilentSword, Katolophyromai, Lj, Sha3rawy2006 and Anonymous: 423 • Aeacus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeacus?oldid=787963301 Contributors: 0, Andre Engels, JeLuF, Tucci528, Dante Alighieri, GTBacchus, Delirium, Angela, Mulad, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Wetman, DavidBrooks, El-Ahrairah, Eyrian, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Paul August, El C, Jumbuck, Jeffsterz, Japanese Searobin, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, Not A Ghost, FlaBot, Flowerparty, Gurch, Shauni, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Mark Ironie, Ravenous, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Deucalionite, Rwalker, Bota47, Igiffin, Npeters22, Paxse, Alex earlier account, Betacommand, Bluebot, Neroleadstone, SashatoBot, The Man in Question, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Drinibot, Neelix, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, Refuteku, Alaibot, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, T@nn, Revery~enwiki, MartinBot, Aqwis, Robert Redford, STBotD, Inwind, S (usurped also), Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, ICE77, Rei-bot, Natg 19, Witchzilla, EmxBot, SieBot, CultureDrone, Mx. Granger, Estirabot, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Triciachan, Omnipedian, Killy mcgee, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Che!, Citation bot, Omnipaedista, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, Egmontbot, RedBot, Pezanos, EmausBot, Cassius235, Movses-bot, Stenvenhe, Mottenen, Davidiad, KasparBot, InternetArchiveBot, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 31 • Minos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos?oldid=787580523 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zoe, Tucci528, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Schneelocke, Stone, Zenzee, Dsebesta, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Robbot, Modeha, Lzur, Curps, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Alensha, Macrakis, Utcursch, Ellsworth, Trevor MacInnis, Eyrian, Haiduc, Discospinster, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, CanisRufus, Summer Song, Shanes, Fiveless, Smalljim, Func, Mtiedemann, Unchorner, WilliamKF, Woohookitty, Wikiklrsc, Pictureuploader, Qwertyus, BlueMoonlet, Not A Ghost, FlaBot, Alphachimp, Chobot, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Rtkat3, CanadianCaesar, Ravenous, PaulGarner, RazorICE, Apokryltaros, Aldux, Crasshopper, AnnaKucsma, Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Markvs88, OranginaMan~enwiki, DVD R W, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Whollabilla, Alex earlier account, Jordansmith, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Durova, Chris the speller, Sadads, Sparsefarce, Colonies Chris, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JohnWheater, Cplakidas, Akhilleus, Beta.s2ph, Glengordon01, Mbertsch, Nakon, Iamorlando, Tijawi, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Melody Concerto, The Man in Question, JHunterJ, Ghelae, Neddyseagoon, MTSbot~enwiki, TheFarix, Tawkerbot2, Wolfdog, 850 C, Drinibot, Lmcelhiney, Neelix, Fordmadoxfraud, Phatom87, Trimp, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, Corpx, Fuzzibloke, Doug Weller, Mdhennessey, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Escarbot, Porqin, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Luna Santin, Matthew Connolly, ClassicSC, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Gcm, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Kerotan, Magioladitis, VoABot II, T@nn, Hveziris, JaGa, Not telling, MartinBot, Anaxial, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Nev1, Trusilver, KrytenKoro, It Is Me Here, Wavemaster447, Cometstyles, CardinalDan, ICE77, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Abyca, WRJF, TheMexican2007, LeaveSleaves, Falcon8765, Anson Stark, Deconstructhis, Thebisch, SieBot, Ninington, StaticGull, Mygerardromance, Nipsonanomhmata, Yair rand, Denisarona, MenoBot, ClueBot, Drmies, Niceguyedc, Bbb2007, Ouedbirdwatcher, Catalographer, SoxBot III, Egmontaz, Slayerteez, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Euterpe the Muse, MartinezMD, Fieldday-sunday, Zarcadia, NjardarBot, Wallhiker, Tide rolls, Gail, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Cflm001, Yngvadottir, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Materialscientist, Amit6, Bob

332

CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Yuwerty, Xqbot, Crete1, Syed Nur Kamal, Omnipaedista, Stefanfain, Dumu Eduba, LucienBOT, Alhamzus, Phlyaristis, Bobrednek, Scarabocchio, I dream of horses, Bernarddb, LittleWink, MondalorBot, Serols, Fumitol, Jauhienij, NintendoTim, Zvn, Böri, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, BCtl, Mixx tapes, EmausBot, Acather96, Mclovin2594, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Symfono gram, Bongoramsey, Fæ, A930913, Mtersegno, Syriusdaimon, L Kensington, Donner60, Nancydrew202, Tot12, Cassius235, ClueBot NG, Stenvenhe, Mottenen, DrJackDempsey, Widr, Deliade, Snozzzze, Keivan.f, AngBent, Davidiad, Altaïr, Tigercub212, Shaun, David.moreno72, JYBot, Gre regiment, BrooksMaxwell, Giomazetto, Finners123, CensoredScribe, Ivan’s Hella Swag, ENG203N, BiologicalMe, Aledownload, Eio-cos, Zortwort, BoogieDancer2.0, KasparBot, Clancy1337, NobleFrog, Pootpootbrosita, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT, Katolophyromai, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 278 • Rhadamanthus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhadamanthus?oldid=782367722 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tucci528, GTBacchus, WhisperToMe, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Robbot, Ruakh, Uncljoedoc, Snobot, DocWatson42, Jyril, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Utcursch, Quarl, NightMonkey, Eyrian, Haiduc, Discospinster, Bender235, Dungodung, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Pjohanneson, Immanuel Giel, Japanese Searobin, Sburke, Sasoriza, YurikBot, Alma Pater, Rtkat3, Mark Ironie, Ravenous, Rhadamanthys~enwiki, Lt-wiki-bot, LeonardoRob0t, SmackBot, Unyoyega, EncycloPetey, Eskimbot, KelleyCook, Whollabilla, Chlewbot, Lapisphil, Seduisant, T-borg, Bejnar, SashatoBot, Rsweeney, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cody5, The Man in Question, Ginkgo100, BranStark, Iridescent, Hyperboreios, Drinibot, Neelix, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, MilleR, Thijs!bot, Bobblehead, Jj137, JAnDbot, Fiona CS, T@nn, Mclay1, Simon Peter Hughes, Albion432, Wikilaura~enwiki, Varnent, Abyca, Erik the Red 2, Aymatth2, FKmailliW, SieBot, AstrolobeJones, Nipsonanomhmata, ClueBot, Binksternet, Niceguyedc, Trivialist, Tnxman307, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Addbot, Tassedethe, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, Jacobs, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Arcclone, FrescoBot, RedBot, MondalorBot, Lotusfield2, EmausBot, Dewritech, Cookzon, Mychele Trempetich, Stephencdickson, Everything Else Is Taken, ZéroBot, Cassius235, Kevboh, Stenvenhe, BG19bot, Carryanation, Grogersrn, Davidiad, BattyBot, Heinsickle31, Herring4209, Navarretedf, Lemnaminor, Daemyth, Ganimay, Mattwillmarron, Eio-cos, Jshatch75, C. Shields Wuz Heer, KasparBot, Jalpicard, Katolophyromai, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 68 • Cerberus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerberus?oldid=786680744 Contributors: WojPob, Vicki Rosenzweig, Gianfranco, Shii, Valhalla, Tucci528, Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki, Dan Koehl, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, TUF-KAT, Charles Matthews, Lfh, Fuzheado, Furrykef, Gutsul, Earthsound, Fvw, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Raul654, AnonMoos, Wetman, Amphioxys, Robbot, Romanm, Ajd, Rursus, Ojigiri~enwiki, Wereon, Michael Snow, Vacuum, TOO, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Elf, Inter, Everyking, Yekrats, Matt Crypto, Pne, Tagishsimon, Alan Au, Bacchiad, OverlordQ, Ruzulo, Icairns, Jcw69, Andy Christ, Mare-Silverus, DanielCristofani, Eyrian, Rich Farmbrough, Randee15, EliasAlucard, Ajplmr, HCA, Paul August, ESkog, Violetriga, Kwamikagami, Tverbeek, Sietse Snel, V3rt1g0, Thunderbrand, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson, .:Ajvol:., Pikawil, JW1805, Guiltyspark, Boredzo, Apostrophe, Haham hanuka, OGoncho, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Denoir, Supine, Kitambi, MarkGallagher, Lightdarkness, Mailer diablo, Hu, DreamGuy, Wtmitchell, Tony Sidaway, Pauli133, Alai, Plattopus, Stuartyeates, Weyes, OwenX, Blumpkin, Mu301, Mathmo, Rocastelo, Percy Snoodle, Chris Mason, Davidkazuhiro, -Ril-, Damicatz, EvilOverlordX, Dtaw2001, Paxsimius, Graham87, User-Name, Deltabeignet, AllanBz, Pazuzu413, Jake Wartenberg, Nneonneo, IronPalm, Remurmur, Pruneau, RobertG, Jeepo~enwiki, Master Thief Garrett, Nihiltres, Ewlyahoocom, Hannu83, Leonardwee, Jonny2x4, JegaPRIME, Alphachimp, Tnarb, Schandi, Chobot, DVdm, Satanael, RobotE, Cabiria, Rtkat3, FrenchIsAwesome, Stephenb, Pseudomonas, RadioKirk, ENeville, Aeusoes1, Jepaan~enwiki, Semperf, Deucalionite, DeadEyeArrow, Lord Sephiroth, Thnidu, Closedmouth, Josh3580, JQF, BorgQueen, Tevildo, Urocyon, Eaefremov, Junglecat, JCheng, CIreland, Jagflame, UltimatePyro, Torgo, Mike Teavee, SmackBot, AngelovdS, Depressed Marvin, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Pgk, Zaqarbal, Reiko Sazanami, Alan McBeth, Cessator, Francisco Valverde, Gary2863, Yamaguchi , Siradia, Gilliam, Betacommand, Chanlord, Trmiller, Rampart, Tianxiaozhang~enwiki, Mitsurya, Schi, Gracenotes, Garydave, Njál, Fiziker, Writtenright, Narge, The Placebo Effect, Rrburke, Amazins490, JSmith9579, Aldaron, Amphytrite, Justiceteam, WoodElf, Michael Harrington, AndyBQ, Pilotguy, Kukini, Ohconfucius, Jamiedouglas, Aviper2k7, SashatoBot, MusicMaker5376, Markschilsky, Cereberus, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Harryboyles, JpGrB, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, IronGargoyle, Yuri Gouveia Ribeiro~enwiki, The Man in Question, Voceditenore, BillFlis, Neddyseagoon, Ryulong, Dr.K., Dl2000, DabMachine, Norm mit, Yodin, Clarityfiend, Morhighan, JoeBot, Tophtucker, Courcelles, Elegarth~enwiki, Tawkerbot2, OtakuMan, Mellery, FleetCommand, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, Foot Dragoon, Kwinston, Zeddicus966, Tim Long, Lurlock, Phenylfairy, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Steel, Ramitmahajan, Mato, Achangeisasgoodasa, Tm8992, Gogo Dodo, Piroko, Corpx, Carlroller, Geekboy6, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Smileybone, Ameliorate!, Nabokov, Optimist on the run, Eine, Raoul NK, Rosser1954, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Nonagonal Spider, Marek69, Nadav1, James086, Tellyaddict, Db26, Bob the Wikipedian, Scottandrewhutchins, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Luna Santin, QuiteUnusual, NeilEvans, Prolog, Altamel, Leevclarke, DarkAngel007, Sluzzelin, Deflective, PhilKnight, Doctorhawkes, Alastair Haines, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Goddess Gift, JimRhodes, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Chevinki, T@nn, Theranos, Marinerdawg, EXcapiZm, Majester, Nyttend, BrianGV, Altecocker, Allstarecho, Schumi555, DerHexer, JaGa, TheRanger, Dark hyena, Oroso, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Nando.sm, Anaxial, Wylve, Hiretsu, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, JoDonHo, Paris1127, Johnbod, DarkFalls, McSly, Ignatzmice, Turkish van, AntiSpamBot, InspectorTiger, NewEnglandYankee, Lafftaffy, Zerokitsune, GEWilker, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, STBotD, Kenneth M Burke, Jpkole, PortraitOfRuin, Bioform 1234, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Bgtgwazi, Wayland-smith, CardinalDan, Caribbean H.Q., Deor, LongLiveHendrix, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Pegaiai, Oshwah, Moumouza, Maximillion Pegasus, Thund3rSh33p, GcSwRhIc, Agricola44, Bass fishing physicist, Longsnout, Cremepuff222, Wiae, Gnuslov, Y, PateraIncus, MCTales, ObjectivismLover, Sesshomaru, Raphaelaarchon, Chisel28, Logan, EmxBot, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Gerakibot, Caltas, Oxymoron83, Goustien, Hobartimus, Drewdrummr, Mygerardromance, LaVey Charkus Veros BeruDeJusu, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Atif.t2, Martarius, ClueBot, EverybodyLovesSomebody, Drmies, Nesoo, Etherjammer, CounterVandalismBot, CyberCerberus, Ktr101, Excirial, Jusdafax, Rambopliskin, ChorleyBoy, BobKawanaka, Vivio Testarossa, Lartoven, MacedonianBoy, Arjayay, 0XQ, Razorflame, Kappamakiman, Catalographer, Thingg, Camster360, Versus22, SoxBot III, Against the current, Spitfire, Dthomsen8, Sakura Cartelet, Ost316, Noctibus, KAVEBEAR, Thatguyflint, Anticipation of a New Lover’s Arrival, The, Jojhutton, Landon1980, Vaporizer, Triciachan, Haruth, Muzicmad99, Blethering Scot, Morning277, Glane23, Favonian, Doniago, Igglepoo, Bellend77, Tide rolls, Pokemonpunk, Legobot, Luckasbot, Yobot, 2D, Oldsunnygirl, Washburnmav, Kjaer, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Anne McDermott, Coopkev2, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Eduardo8a, Templatehater, Xufanc, Ipatrol, Flewis, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Chetlaiho, Onesius, Bob Burkhardt, Lipinki, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Cereberus1204, DirlBot, Xqbot, Mariomassone, Addihockey10, Capricorn42, Gigemag76, Mrc1028, Archetypo, Barrygross, Locos epraix, TheIntersect, WSHansen, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Omnipaedista, Shirik, Shadowjams, Miyagawa, WebCiteBOT, Andrewaltogether, Haploidavey, Gillett Coles Family, Electrovalve, Saturn-78, Enter the Dragon, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Ryryrules100, VS6507, ThiagoRuiz, ProtoDrake, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, Longhorned37, Aldy, Dnkjdjaj8, I dream of horses, Mr Really Big Book Fan, Edderso, MJ94, Pikiwyn, Σ, Bgpaulus, Orenburg1, Lotje, Tomlucky, Jeffrd10, New Age Epitome, MegaSloth, Unioneagle, Bento00, DRAGON BOOSTER, Salvio giuliano, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, John of Reading, Immunize, FakeAvJs-A, Racerx11, Jonneyisabamf, RenamedUser01302013, Drekmorin, Guitarechoes, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, John Cline, Ida Shaw, Whitley.101, A930913, Thestaff, Nakkene199167, Staszek Lem, L1A1 FAL, Gardener101, Donner60, Inka 888, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Vacation9, Mottenen, O.Koslowski, Rage3000, Widr, Paddlewaggle, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, Calabe1992,

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

333

BG19bot, Roberticus, JeBonSer, One.tall.chick, Northamerica1000, Azuizo, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Mark Arsten, Cncmaster, Dipankan001, ItisandwillalwaysbeAnik, BluishPixie, Sneaky12, FlashThePony, BattyBot, Elainalogiurato, Pratyya Ghosh, The Illusive Man, Coolcatj99, ChrisGualtieri, DoctorKubla, Harrybrothers, 3462352345gsgfasdg, EuroCarGT, Sha-256, Allermesuffit, TwoTwoHello, Gre regiment, Lugia2453, SFK2, Sfgiants1995, JustAMuggle, Jakequinn2666, Epicgenius, Joe parrett 101, Nitpicking polish, FrigidNinja, Eyesnore, Ceberous, NYBrook098, Nigroball, CthulhuGirl88, Zenibus, PortlandDude, Ginsuloft, Logo4566, Wei75631, JawsOfDoom, Xenxax, Gway15, Wiki123456789987654321, Bigpoppaj, BANJOMAN10, Epicbob200, Thelimiter, Cooldude5521d, DivermanAU, Spawnoftyphon, TheMagikBOT, Longhorndms, MusikBot, Ira Leviton, Sro23, Lolilord, Alexlikesoreos, CLCStudent, CERBERUS MG, DinoFright, Derpy Dolphin, Marianna251, Zombizakholl, Chas. Caltrop, Chrissymad, Koebs136, Bender the Bot, L3X1, A picture of a dead fish, Obviouslynotused12, Jackalojohn, Katolophyromai, Not a Bot, Magic links bot, Jccrazybros, Zickedy and Anonymous: 1050 • Charon (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charon_(mythology)?oldid=787089200 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, XJaM, Tucci528, Goatasaur, Ellywa, TUF-KAT, Angela, LMB, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Robbot, Altenmann, JustinHall, UtherSRG, Widsith, Eric42, Gtrmp, Pne, SonicAD, Jrk~enwiki, Gugganij, Bacchiad, OldakQuill, Andycjp, LiDaobing, Quarl, Gene s, Ellsworth, Pmanderson, Zfr, Robin Hood~enwiki, Hmmm~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da yu, Eyrian, Silence, Number 0, Paul August, Bender235, Aranel, Syp, Kwamikagami, Viriditas, Elipongo, Polylerus, PrimEviL, Alansohn, Pouya, J Heath, Gene Nygaard, Ghirlandajo, Red dwarf, Japanese Searobin, StradivariusTV, JFG, Eleassar777, Palica, Mandarax, Schmendrick, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Kalogeropoulos, The wub, King of Hearts, Dj Capricorn, Satanael, YurikBot, RussBot, Longbow4u, Phantomtiger, Darker Dreams, Deucalionite, S. Neuman, Jayamohan, AnnaKucsma, Lt-wiki-bot, Superp, GrinBot~enwiki, SmackBot, Nsayer, JoshDuffMan, Kimon, Eskimbot, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Sbharris, CaveatLector, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, OrphanBot, Daniel Halmi, Glengordon01, Sailorptah, BehemothCat, Amphytrite, RossF18, SashatoBot, Vriullop, Srikeit, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Konklone, SQGibbon, Ace Frahm, Kurtle, Kencf0618, Newone, Igoldste, Courcelles, OtakuMan, CmdrObot, Memetics, Aherunar, Cuckkoo, Mike 7, Cydebot, Corpx, Tawkerbot4, Nishidani, Thijs!bot, Accio.arjun, Sobreira, Dmws, Tijsjoris, Danielfowl, Scottandrewhutchins, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Goldenrowley, Dark T Zeratul, Sluzzelin, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Deflective, TostitosAreGross, RandyS0725, MegX, Denimadept, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, Lucid Reverie, Theranos, Baccyak4H, Jvhertum, Animum, TakaraLioness, Boffob, Shocktrooper000, Riccardobot, MartinBot, Serpent 849, Arjun01, Nev1, FANSTARbot, Huey45, Numbo3, Philologia Sæculārēs, A Nobody, IdLoveOne, Bdodo1992, Naniwako, Lizzie Harrison, Nwbeeson, Smitty, Austinian, DorganBot, Wikieditor06, Caribbean H.Q., 7thsanctum, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, TallNapoleon, Jeff G., Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, ^demonBot2, Natg 19, Eubulides, Enviroboy, Seresin, Struway, FlyingLeopard2014, EmxBot, SieBot, SheepNotGoats, Phe-bot, Thebomb8, Flyer22 Reborn, Caidh, Antonio Lopez, Goustien, RSStockdale, BenoniBot~enwiki, Nipsonanomhmata, WikiLaurent, Buddhu, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, Agentfred, CyberCerberus, Alexbot, Catalographer, Yaja212, Ihadaids, SilvonenBot, Noctibus, Shoemaker’s Holiday, Metodicar, Addbot, PJonDevelopment, Helloqwerty4, HerculeBot, Kjell Knudde, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Ekwos, Zeusperson, RadiX, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Mattis, Shadowjams, Haploidavey, FrescoBot, Jayburr2293, Cabro-foto, 10metreh, Newtonsand, NickStuy, Pikiwyn, Double sharp, Fama Clamosa, Lotje, Viktor Laszlo, CobraBot, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Moontripper, EmausBot, Mk5384, Striggy69, Alsguhdgh, GroGaBa, Wayne Slam, Spicemix, Anthonyt19, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Chatumao, Widr, Pbmaise, Vogel2014, Davidiad, BluishPixie, Lautensack, ChrisGualtieri, Xyzspaniel, MystrangeaccountforEMslashS, Gre regiment, Magister Regina, Nelsochris, Eteethan, KasparBot, Bender the Bot, Katolophyromai and Anonymous: 274 • Charon’s obol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charon’{}s_obol?oldid=787605535 Contributors: Palnatoke, Dan Koehl, Charles Matthews, Topbanana, Icairns, Bender235, Furius, Woohookitty, BD2412, Nihiltres, Bgwhite, EamonnPKeane, Odysses, Bloodofox, 2over0, Mais oui!, SmackBot, Hmains, Colonies Chris, Metallurgist, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Lampman, Chris55, ShelfSkewed, Jros83, Riffle, Qwerty Binary, Cynwolfe, Nyttend, JaGa, Pax:Vobiscum, CommonsDelinker, Malcolmxl5, Flyer22 Reborn, Mx. Granger, Deanlaw, Niceguyedc, Boneyard90, Catalographer, Addbot, Download, Soupforone, Ettrig, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Wargo, Falconaumanni, J04n, Mattis, Miyagawa, Haploidavey, FrescoBot, Poliocretes, Newtonsand, Moonraker, Lotje, Aircorn, Eekerz, GA bot, GrindtXX, Philafrenzy, Proclus27, Helpful Pixie Bot, LouisAlain, Davidiad, Solomon7968, Bombadil.Esquire, Hypnopompus, Biblioworm, FourViolas, BD2412bot, InternetArchiveBot, Usernameunique, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 19 • Psychopomp Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopomp?oldid=787562308 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Gianfranco, Tucci528, Infrogmation, Ixfd64, Paul A, Minesweeper, Ihcoyc, TUF-KAT, Cyan, Haukurth, Jose Ramos, Joy, Wetman, TowerDragon, Hjr, The Phoenix, Altenmann, Ashley Y, Hemanshu, Dodger~enwiki, Aetheling, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marnanel, Jyril, Tom harrison, Varlaam, Chinasaur, Jorge Stolfi, ChicXulub, Andycjp, Elektron, Joyous!, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Silence, Dbachmann, Bender235, Man vyi, Polylerus, Jonathunder, Alansohn, Zik-Zak, BDD, Nightstallion, Ceyockey, Sdgjake, -Ril-, Wikiklrsc, Cyranix, BD2412, Hlangeveld, Cantorman, Nandesuka, FlaBot, Mitsukai, Proserpine, Jeffr, Economy1, EamonnPKeane, Satanael, Mercury McKinnon, Wavelength, RussBot, Theelf29, Rsrikanth05, Darker Dreams, BirgitteSB, Elenthel, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, C.Fred, Korossyl, Arjay369, Bluebot, Eellee, Sjb0926, Nakon, Mightyfastpig, Ceoil, Esrever, MegA, BrownHairedGirl, Radicaladz, Physis, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, InedibleHulk, PeterCScott, TheFarix, Marilyn.hanson, Jwhale9382, Batshua, Cydebot, Daven200520, Mamalujo, Thijs!bot, Sobreira, Caboose789, Heroeswithmetaphors, Scottandrewhutchins, Salavat, Goldenrowley, Modernist, Fmercury1980, IrrTJMc, Bongwarrior, Saritav, Ling.Nut, ZackTheJack, Just H, Inhumandecency, Urco, CommonsDelinker, Anthony S, Vanished user g454XxNpUVWvxzlr, Jayfool, Master shepherd, MishaPan, Suaven, Idioma-bot, ABF, DOHC Holiday, Macedonian, Jmrowland, Oshwah, Heroville, Alphaios~enwiki, FinnWiki, Enviroboy, Sesshomaru, Brianga, SieBot, Brenont, AccipiterQ, Smsarmad, ChandlerH, Ipodamos, Louismaddox, Midnightowl, Martarius, ClueBot, Binksternet, Yahboo, O not, Dfkaplan99, Thingg, Darrell37, Everdien, Richard-of-Earth, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Tustin2121, Addbot, Lstrong, Bennó, USchick, Download, Proxima Centauri, Soupforone, Tide rolls, ‫ماني‬, Jarble, Yobot, USA12345, AnomieBOT, ThaddeusB, LlywelynII, Erud, Omnipaedista, HamonRat, Mattis, FrescoBot, Haeinous, Machine Elf 1735, Wolf of the Cedars, LittleWink, Jauhienij, Lotje, Hanchenxing, Athene cheval, SatansHelper666, EmausBot, Jonathan Hardin', Moswento, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Bteed, NC360, Appledoze, Imnug0219, Yetisyny, FiveColourMap, Pietade, Brhiba, ChrisGualtieri, TheJJJunk, Mogism, AnnaCrieff, Corinne, Hermione Elliott, Imegj, Eagle3399, SJ Defender, OmoYemaya, Mousenight, Grammarian3.14159265359, Sparklethechicken, H.dryad, Jaireeodell, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 146 • Hermes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes?oldid=787492528 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Zundark, Ed Poor, Amillar, Andre Engels, William Avery, SimonP, Shii, Zoe, KF, Tucci528, Olivier, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Tenbaset, Nixdorf, Ixfd64, (, Paul A, Minesweeper, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Notheruser, TUF-KAT, Angela, Jebba, David Stewart, Adam Bishop, EmphasisMine, Jallan, WhisperToMe, Thue, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, Chris 73, Simonf, Forseti, Securiger, Hadal, Ruakh, SoLando, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Jyril, Wiglaf, Peruvianllama, Curps, DO'Neil, Per Honor et Gloria, Jason Quinn, Bacchiad, SarekOfVulcan, SURIV, Slowking Man, Antandrus, ShakataGaNai, Andux, Jossi, Vina, Oneiros, DragonflySixtyseven, Wikster E, Paideuma, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Didactohedron, Ratiocinate, Adashiel, Canterbury Tail, Perey, Haiduc, Newkai, Discospinster, Guanabot, Hydrox, Wclark, Randee15, Wrp103, YUL89YYZ, Xezbeth, Erolos, Dbachmann, JPX7, Paul August, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Bender235, Martinman11, Aranel, MBisanz, El C, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Art LaPella, Markussep,

334

CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

Adambro, Bobo192, Vervin, Johnkarp, Feitclub, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Juzeris, MPerel, Sam Korn, Polylerus, Nsaa, Lycanthrope, Alansohn, Voyelles, Katefan0, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Velella, TaintedMustard, G026r, Tony Sidaway, Maqs, TenOfAllTrades, Sciurinæ, LFaraone, Bsadowski1, W7KyzmJt, Pauli133, Kriscrash, Natalya, Bobrayner, WilliamKF, OwenX, Woohookitty, JarlaxleArtemis, Ataru, Camw, LOL, NeoChaosX, WadeSimMiser, Jwanders, Mrs Trellis, Schzmo, Macaddct1984, D0t, Palica, Tslocum, Deadcorpse, FreplySpang, Sjö, Coemgenus, Саша Стефановић, Arabani, Bruce1ee, SMC, Ccson, Filipvr, The wub, Matt Deres, Avocado, Titoxd, FlaBot, Daderot, Nihiltres, Nivix, Chanting Fox, Jameshfisher, RexNL, Gurch, Alphachimp, Erp, BMF81, King of Hearts, Chobot, Bornhj, DVdm, Random user 39849958, Bgwhite, Flcelloguy, Rboyce, Solberger0127, Satanael, YurikBot, Michial, RussBot, Longbow4u, Muchness, Mark Ironie, RastNim, RadioFan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Wimt, Odysses, NawlinWiki, Anomie, Astral, Markwiki, Aeusoes1, Veledan, AJHalliwell, Chick Bowen, Astorknlam, Nutiketaiel, Ches88, Anetode, Moe Epsilon, Nigel Campbell, Yano, EEMIV, Samir, Morgan Leigh, DeadEyeArrow, Asarelah, Elkman, Nlu, TransUtopian, AnnaKucsma, 21655, Ninly, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, KGasso, Dspradau, JoanneB, Red Jay, Alemily, Robskin, Argos’Dad, Katieh5584, Jer ome, Luk, Neier, Errickfoxy, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Kimon, Unyoyega, Blue520, Bomac, Thunderboltz, Delldot, Cessator, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi , PeterSymonds, Macintosh User, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Tyciol, Chris the speller, TimBentley, MWiik, Persian Poet Gal, Tghe-retford, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Rediahs, CyberSach, J. Spencer, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Gracenotes, MaxSem, Gsp8181, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tamfang, Laura Anglin, Akhilleus, Skidude9950, Matchups, Rrburke, Rsm99833, Kcordina, Ithacan, Celarnor, Jmlk17, Sjb0926, BehemothCat, Iapetus, Jwy, Nakon, Blake-, Wanjuscha, Brainyiscool, Jbergquist, Drc79, Jeremyb, Nairebis, Jitterro, Salamurai, Bejnar, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, CoeurDeLion, SashatoBot, Tarohi, ChopMonkey, Titus III, Drahcir, Jan.Smolik, Lazylaces, Dumelow, Scharb, Sotaru, IronGargoyle, RandomCritic, Katsuhagi, Stupid Corn, Werdan7, Emmy12345, ILorbb, Martian.knight, Neddyseagoon, Abjad, Midnightblueowl, Anonymous anonymous, MTSbot~enwiki, Cerealkiller13, Ginkgo100, Iridescent, JoeBot, Kapohogrrl, Kmbush40, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Qvamp, JForget, Tanthalas39, Ale jrb, The ed17, JohnCD, Sack36, Basawala, GHe, Strike Chaos, Anil1956, Stebulus, Karenjc, Fordmadoxfraud, Roman Motley, Equendil, Cydebot, Slp1, Oosoom, Gogo Dodo, A Softer Answer, JamesLucas, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Asenine, Alaibot, Dehoqu, Nol888, Spyder Monkey, Epbr123, Mercury~enwiki, Pstanton, Ante Aikio, Sagaciousuk, Сидик из ПТУ, Marek69, RickinBaltimore, Aericanwizard, AgentPeppermint, Heroeswithmetaphors, MichaelMaggs, Pfranson, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, Dalliance, AntiVandalBot, Stephen Wilson, Luna Santin, Designervalet, Seaphoto, Turlo Lomon, QuiteUnusual, 1927 Orchestra, EarthPerson, Bm gub, Bookworm857158367, Jj137, TimVickers, Malcolm, Spencer, Altamel, Jssfrk, Ed, Leuqarte, MikeLynch, Deflective, Leuko, Husond, Planescape:Nameless, MER-C, Fetchcomms, Andonic, Sitethief, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Rothorpe, Cynwolfe, Mr. G. Williams, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Goddess Gift, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jacce, T@nn, Theranos, Hasek is the best, JamesBWatson, ***Ria777, Aka042, Catgut, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Hveziris, Frotz, Cpl Syx, Enquire, DerHexer, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, Strider01, Bieb, Greenguy1090, MartinBot, Rettetast, Drewmutt, Burnedthru, R'n'B, Joie de Vivre, Mycroft7, AlexiusHoratius, Someone1234512345, Ash, Elementtal X2, Thirdright, Shellwood, J.delanoy, Kimse, Trusilver, Katblack, Rrostrom, Rhinestone K, Uncle Dick, Ginsengbomb, Alsandair, Ian.thomson, Peregrinmac, Seshiro~enwiki, AvatarMN, Der.mann.aus.den.bergen, Rochelimit, LordAnubisBOT, Firedraikke, McSly, Freakfrog14, L'Aquatique, AntiSpamBot, Robertson-Glasgow, SuzanneKn, Comp25, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Kraftlos, Mufka, Jhoopie, BrettAllen, SSSN, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Shaffyre, Austinian, Natl1, Allendanze, Ja 62, Inwind, Funandtrvl, RoyFocker, Lights, Deor, VolkovBot, Macedonian, ICE77, Jeff G., Sha0000, Philip Trueman, Dchmelik, JuneGloom07, Clay4president2, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Erik the Red 2, Neo63, Anonymous Dissident, Agriffinny, Rposthau, Pandacomics, Asiaj, Someguy1221, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Clarince63, Descoladaa, Fingaz260679, Melsaran, Artsunlimited, Claidheamohmor, Leafyplant, Florencelau, Palkaman34, David in DC, BotKung, Ilyushka88, Wiae, Dragana666, CO, Ike245, Madhero88, Matjroger, Eubulides, Blurpeace, Brainmuncher, Hapenny, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, JesterCountess, TML, Magiclite, Thanatos666, Insanity Incarnate, Nagy, Logan, Legoktm, Davidjan, EmxBot, D. Recorder, A.M.Hudor, Ponyo, Chynzboi, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Caulde, WereSpielChequers, Jauerback, Hertz1888, Rystheguy, Legion fi, Caltas, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Yintan, Peter cohen, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Exert, Grimey109, Enti342, Ferret, HERMETICK, Aruton, Granf, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Faradayplank, AngelOfSadness, KoshVorlon, Steven Crossin, KathrynLybarger, RSStockdale, Svick, Maelgwnbot, Pink Surfer, StaticGull, Cyfal, Thelmadatter, Thatotherdude, Denisarona, JL-Bot, Beemer69, Explicit, Khirurg, WikipedianMarlith, Cutterfly, Martarius, Ricardo Frantz, De728631, ClueBot, Fox, The Thing That Should Not Be, Lastbetrayal, Keeper76, Plastikspork, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Meekywiki, Drmies, Tejoman, Polyamorph, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, MARKELLOS, Blanchardb, Copycatloki, Puchiko, Auntof6, Ordinaterr, Boneyard90, DragonBot, Kasbec, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, PixelBot, John Nevard, Lartoven, Tyler, Himynameishelen, Cenarium, Arjayay, Phlegmswicke of Numbtardia, LukeKutler, Dekisugi, Random86, SchreiberBike, Aetherine, Kakofonous, Rui Gabriel Correia, Etymologyrocks, Catalographer, Thingg, Nicoholowko, Chovin, Aitias, Greekofthegodz, Leopea, Versus22, Nahcihc, Egmontaz, Apparition11, Wecl0me12, Templarion, Ratman1999, Editorofthewiki, XLinkBot, Greasynmoist, Kumarxc, Stickee, Rror, Duncan, Nepenthes, Masterbob92, Sergay, Mimarx, WikiDao, Thatguyflint, HexaChord, Samurai Man, Addbot, Willking1979, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, Twaz, Freakmighty, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, Download, LaaknorBot, Glane23, Favonian, West.andrew.g, Shobizboy112, Timeu, Bluestar232, Tide rolls, Malwinder25, OlEnglish, Jan eissfeldt, Apteva, Gail, Zorrobot, Eatermon, Borg2008, Legobot, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, 2D, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Darfellan, Yngvadottir, Kjell Knudde, AnakngAraw, Alexkin, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Kristen Eriksen, Killiondude, Jim1138, IRP, Dwayne, Mintrick, Piano non troppo, Ipatrol, Disneyvillainman, Chuckiesdad, Kingpin13, RandomAct, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, MysticOrbot, ArthurBot, Roxxan929, Xqbot, 2008seo, Sketchmoose, Capricorn42, Wperdue, Gilo1969, Arthur Mc, Dhfreedman, FlightTime, Jnskms12, RadiX, Corruptcopper, Ute in DC, Omnipaedista, Frankie0607, Oking613, RibotBOT, Queen Rhana, Mathonius, ARiX-3.22.08, Shadowjams, Samwb123, Haploidavey, Saturn-78, FrescoBot, Oupyee, Paine Ellsworth, Sirtywell, Quinn d, Number55555, Luke.Handle, Muskyhunter49, Benthelemonlord, Woodyjojo, Louperibot, Cannolis, Javert, SuperJew, AstaBOTh15, Phlyaristis, 11kellen11, Rushbugled13, Hamtechperson, A8UDI, BRUTE, Kuak, Freakazoid93, Xxunrealxx1, Serols, Blueneo104, Meaghan, Kibi78704, IJBall, Greco22, TobeBot, LogAntiLog, Soenke Rahn, Sysiphuslove, TBloemink, January, Inferior Olive, Allen4names, BC Rocky, Reaper Eternal, Chihuahualuver9, Diannaa, Some Wiki Editor, PleaseStand, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Skate0s, Minimac, Cardinalsfan4ever, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Courtneyownstheworld, The Utahraptor, TheArguer, Yozman32, DRAGON BOOSTER, Justin769, Forenti, Slon02, Chessofnerd, LcawteHuggle, DASHBot, CanadianPenguin, Pinkbeast, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Alagos, Immunize, Gfoley4, Dewritech, Junior94, Wollont, Bua333, Yt95, Timerian, Deathprank, RenamedUser01302013, Trey73, Iphonegrant, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Dineshp97, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Athena120, Savh, Hereforhomework, Loganpederson, Checkingfax, Susfele, Ida Shaw, Krishguna, Josve05a, Traxs7, Tigeronice3000, Doddy Wuid, PenutButerJely, BigBangKaboomFace, Bamyers99, Timmytoddler24, Dawritter, THewritta, FinalRapture, Wayne Slam, Щщщ, Tolly4bolly, Isarra, Rcsprinter123, TyA, Rachelannececilia, Philafrenzy, Donner60, Orange Suede Sofa, Tot12, ChuispastonBot, Liltr3tv, PGGroh, Sonicyouth86, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Cmcalpine, Herpes the god of love, Iiii I I I, LittleJerry, VenacKonjoljubovic, Hermes the Wise, Frietjes, Cntras, Twillisjr, , Animalover1011, Widr, Gman123mario, Joshuajohnson555, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Ramaksoud2000, BG19bot, Neptune’s Trident, Keivan.f,

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

335

Wasbeer, Bobbyrick, Wikfresh, CityOfSilver, Cyberpower678, MusikAnimal, Warjna, Davidiad, J991, Dan653, Mark Arsten, ᏳᎴᏂ, Drift chambers, Joydeep, Wikih101, Crh23, WP Editor 2011, LowinS, Emaha, Ἑρμῆς, Insidiae, 150209abch, E.criner, Whodatbe 9, Rhinopias, Pollywolly23, XtremeFanatic, Iliketopoopmypants, LegacyOfValor, Several Pending, Srowell14, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, Haymouse, Cyberbot II, Kornell13, GoShow, Khazar2, MadGuy7023, Yoonjae2ee, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Euripilo, Mogism, Jeccabreen, Suresevensu, C1793Sc006y, TwoTwoHello, Gre regiment, Lugia2453, Frosty, Jamesx12345, Corinne, Chamillionaire1, Walkawalka2323, JamaicanMann, Maniesansdelire, Derpderpderp7, Uranis, I am One of Many, Cheifkeef, Sosthenes12, JamesMoose, NYACsprinter, EvergreenFir, Srowell123, NYBrook098, Pioufopgofah, Lilgiugiu, DavidLeighEllis, Hdfhshsdgh, Mmay2, BadKittieKat76, Rgsagshsgjk, Kharkiv07, Fmazam, Bro(sv), Addyisawesome, Melody Lavender, Drcrazy102, Respositob, Philroc, Chelsea831, Ugglifglyfv, Robevans123, Crow, Man of Steel 85, Serenexjy, JaconaFrere, Adamtt9, Hermes120, Mattymmoo, Justin15w, Hesher04, Tweters33, Gia22017, BethNaught, Сяра, Lambsig12, Billybob23423213, Csudeepta, A Great Catholic Person, Sigehelmus, KurodaSho, Asdklf;, Karl’s Wagon, EvilLair, Crystallizedcarbon, 2072chester, Kautilya3, EoRdE6, Julietdeltalima, Amintly, CreativityQueen, BIG BAD BILL FROM RED PEPPER HILL, Govindaharihari, Bhavenhayer, Rubbish computer, Caeciliusinhorto, Factfinder69, ScrapIronIV, Cameronmomdad, TheGracefulSlick, Homiegdog21, Whalestate, KasparBot, Karie marking, A. Scholar (Nabu), Titaniumninjamaster, ProprioMe OW, The name, Wmib3, BU Rob13, Feminist, KYNGKHAOS!, Ciridae, MB, QQJoy123, Teason19su, Ollimoo2015, H.dryad, Boomer Vial, Machavarianin, Purplefuzzy, Mitchunk13, Dangercat1, Marianna251, GreenessItself, KGirlTrucker81, GreenC bot, Jerrytheexterminator, RunnyAmiga, Wikipediahacker20202020, KevindeAmsterdam, Funkquake, Bender the Bot, Justeditingtoday, Catfisher40, Penskins, Katolophyromai, Ampuke, JIMMYJOHNSON, 8559b, MUDKIPPLAZ, MCMANERBARY, Bennv3771, Nightslikeu, Markx121993, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 1761 • Thanatos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanatos?oldid=781772431 Contributors: Youandme, Tucci528, Pit~enwiki, Kaijan, Jahsonic, Liftarn, Tregoweth, TUF-KAT, Andres, Emperorbma, Krithin, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Jerzy, Robbot, ChrisO~enwiki, Cgranade, Altenmann, Romanm, Tanuki Z, Saforrest, Benc, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Herbee, Mboverload, Eequor, Dvavasour, Beland, El-Ahrairah, Cerebral, Esperant, RevRagnarok, DanielCD, Pyrop, Paul August, Rjo, Bender235, ESkog, Jnestorius, Carlon, Spearhead, Cmdrjameson, Thanos6, Lanz, Alansohn, Mailer diablo, Snowolf, Dzhim, SteinbDJ, Woohookitty, Sburke, Macronyx~enwiki, WadeSimMiser, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, SDC, Deansfa, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Reisio, Mendaliv, Dymaxion, Mana Excalibur, Deledrius, Bolinball, Nightscream, Mobius Soul, SanGatiche, FlaBot, Hibana, Visor, Satanael, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, Rtkat3, DanMS, Gaius Cornelius, Mobilesworking, Deucalionite, Bota47, Analoguedragon, Ketsuekigata, Sarefo, BorgQueen, Gildemax, Opiaterein, Pratheepps, Veinor, Kai svenson, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, Kimon, Anachronist, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Fuzzform, OutSidEr, Huddlebum, SchfiftyThree, OrphanBot, EvelinaB, Gladrius, R3xj, Makemi, Soulxlight, DJ What the Bleep, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Wickethewok, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, E. Megas, Silverthorn, Menjensen57, Meco, TheFarix, Iridescent, Antonio Prates, McJeff, PN123, Wwallacee, Isotopian, Linuxerist, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Woudloper, Sdorrance, Dogman15, Cydebot, Thend, Sephknows, Asenine, DBaba, Omicronpersei8, Smellyk, Thijs!bot, PedroCarvalho~enwiki, Mojo Hand, HadesDragon, Kosmocentric, KP Botany, Hopiakuta, ClassicSC, Kaobear, Slothroplopez, Aeldaar, AussieOzborn au, Andonic, Roleplayer, Cynwolfe, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Takusa, T@nn, Mclay1, Wretched wraith, NinjaSkitch, Daibot~enwiki, Fuzzyllama, Inhumandecency, Simon Peter Hughes, Billy2qt, Knave84~enwiki, APT, Gvaccari, LocKi, R'n'B, Fearnothing, Kaoak, Shadzar, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Kimse, KrytenKoro, RegretionPrice, Thesis4Eva, Kraftlos, Pundit, BrettAllen, S (usurped also), Rpeh, Jrugordon, Deor, Nothingbutmeat, ABF, Macedonian, Shinju, Fourdegrees, Dom Kaos, Irish Pearl, Philip Trueman, XavierGreen, Rei-bot, Hu.alexandre, Seraphchoir, Eldaran~enwiki, Κασσανδρα, Mallerd, Thanatos666, Links42, PericlesofAthens, EmxBot, SieBot, Ttonyb1, Iwfi, Da Joe, Aabicus, Keilana, Android Mouse, Kkateq, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Lisatwo, Ganymede Deimos, Dstlascaux, Thelmadatter, Invertzoo, ClueBot, C xong, The Thing That Should Not Be, DionysosProteus, Plastikspork, TheOldJacobite, Niceguyedc, Auntof6, Excirial, Gnome de plume, Jusdafax, Teknocrat123, Eeekster, Thecowflys, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Stickee, Appius Psychopompos~enwiki, ErkinBatu, Alexius08, Daniel andersson, Thanatos necrium, Addbot, Triciachan, M.nelson, Proxima Centauri, Omegafouad, CuteHappyBrute, Tide rolls, Suzumebachisecret, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, AnomieBOT, Psixx, Mauro Lanari, Rubinbot, Cause of chaos, Acropolis of Thanatos, Piano non troppo, Tremor99, Kingpin13, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Queen Rhana, AntiAbuseBot, Morkolds, Troglo, TobeBot, Throwaway85, Fama Clamosa, TheStrayCat, Dinamik-bot, LilyKitty, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Bigamusj, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, Info232, Slightsmile, Sandalfury, Andyman1125, FinalRapture, IJKL, 2tuntony, Ihardlythinkso, Deathdante66613, Petersr22, PurpleHeartEditor, Stenvenhe, Anupmehra, MerlIwBot, MarnerSilas, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Gabriel Yuji, Davidiad, Peanutsfish, Haymouse, Ngoquangduong, YFdyh-bot, JYBot, SaintAloysius, Copperknickers, DavidLeighEllis, KasparBot, LightningScout, GSS-1987, KevindeAmsterdam, PrimeBOT, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 383 • Hades Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hades?oldid=786870179 Contributors: Magnus Manske, The Epopt, Zundark, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Scipius, Josh Grosse, Matusz, Atorpen, Enchanter, William Avery, Ark~enwiki, MrH, Hephaestos, Tucci528, Paul Ebermann, Frecklefoot, Kchishol1970, Infrogmation, Norm, Ixfd64, Qaz, Delirium, Logotu, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Irmgard, GoGi, Glenn, Kwekubo, Shammack, Evercat, Raven in Orbit, Hike395, Timwi, Dysprosia, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Imc, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, GPHemsley, David.Monniaux, Hajor, Jni, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, Kizor, Romanm, Mirv, Hadal, UtherSRG, SoLando, HaeB, Oobopshark, Dina, Christopher Parham, Flordeneu, Wiglaf, Tom harrison, Spencer195, Everyking, No Guru, Alison, Gamaliel, McGravin, DJSupreme23, Mboverload, Eequor, Macrakis, Bacchiad, Gadfium, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, SURIV, Gzuckier, Ran, Antandrus, Balkaster, Jossi, Kesac, One Salient Oversight, Ellsworth, Tubedogg, DenisMoskowitz, Urhixidur, Joyous!, Jcw69, Ukexpat, Didactohedron, Andrew123, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Canterbury Tail, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Eyrian, ‫أحمد‬, Discospinster, RuiMalheiro, Rama, Florian Blaschke, Silence, David Schaich, Notinasnaid, Xezbeth, Zazou, Paul August, ESkog, Aecis, *drew, El C, Mjk2357, CJWilly, Lima, Art LaPella, Pablo X, Causa sui, Bobo192, Circeus, Smalljim, Fremsley, AKGhetto, Pikawil, Sampo Torgo, Thanos6, SpeedyGonsales, Sam Korn, Polylerus, Pearle, Nsaa, Ogress, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Wendell, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Anthony Appleyard, Arthena, Slugmaster, Andrewpmk, Mailer diablo, Imaku~enwiki, Cdc, Denniss, Bart133, Velella, Kanodin, Super-Magician, Staeiou, Jon Cates, Drat, Pauli133, SteinbDJ, Markaci, CoolMike, Bobrayner, Woohookitty, Camw, StradivariusTV, Scjessey, Robert K S, Qaddosh, Bennetto, Schzmo, Firien, Striver, Ignus, , Christopher Thomas, Palica, KHM03, Gerbrant, Dysepsion, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Qwertyus, Roger McCoy, Island, Gorrister, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Саша Стефановић, NatusRoma, Jake Wartenberg, Arabani, JHMM13, Tangotango, MZMcBride, SMC, Ligulem, Tomtheman5, The wub, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, El Cid, Nihiltres, Tumble, Who, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Ayla, Kolbasz, TheDJ, Codex Sinaiticus, Terrx, King of Hearts, Chobot, Jim Bell, DTOx, DVdm, Igordebraga, Antiuser, Antipatros, Gwernol, Ben Tibbetts, The Rambling Man, Satanael, Measure, YurikBot, Iro~enwiki, StuffOfInterest, Phantomsteve, Alyx Bradford, Mark Ironie, Vladislaus Draculea, RadioFan, Stephenb, Rintrah, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, RadioKirk, Ugur Basak, Big Brother 1984, Odysses, NawlinWiki, Vyran, Alternator, Wiki alf, Johann Wolfgang, Taco325i, Irishguy, Nick, Retired username, InvaderJim42, Aldux, Moe Epsilon, Feiriri, Deucalionite, Zythe, Kyle Barbour, S. Neuman, BOT-Superzerocool, AdelaMae, Asarelah, Kewp, Haemo, Black Falcon, Phenz, Nick123, Wknight94, Jkelly, FF2010, AnnaKucsma, SFH, Theodolite, Encephalon, Sshadow, Closedmouth, LucaviX, Arthur Rubin, E Wing, Ratagonia, GraemeL, CWenger, Alemily, Argos’Dad, Katieh5584, Greatal386, Grin-

336

CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

Bot~enwiki, Samuel Blanning, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, UltimatePyro, Crystallina, SmackBot, The Dark, Moeron, Haza-w, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Kimon, Pgk, Davewild, Thunderboltz, ScaldingHotSoup, Delldot, Tpellman, HalfShadow, Francisco Valverde, Master Deusoma, Kookoo275, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, ERcheck, Andy M. Wang, Jeffro77, Izehar, Dither, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Platypusjones, Keegan, Tomfulton, Ian13, Jprg1966, Happylobster, SchfiftyThree, HubHikari, J. Spencer, Nbarth, Ctbolt, DHN-bot~enwiki, Methnor, T-man, the Wise Scarecrow, Darth Panda, Gracenotes, BW95, Charlesrdill, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Seleukosa, OrphanBot, Glengordon01, Avb, Thisisbossi, EvelinaB, Rrburke, Pnkrockr, Bud0011, Shadebug, Jmlk17, CWesling, Emre D., BehemothCat, Makemi, Nakon, 1337 r0XX0r, Blake-, Dreadstar, DoubleAW, WoodElf, Hammer1980, Hygelac~enwiki, DMacks, Potmos, Millerwiki, Myths1233, Salamurai, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Zero3, CIS, The undertow, Tevam1, Chaldean, Krashlandon, Chazchaz101, Ian Spackman, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, James.S, Hemmingsen, Tim Q. Wells, CaptainVindaloo, Mightymartin, IronGargoyle, Alefor, RandomCritic, BillFlis, George The Dragon, Mr Stephen, Snake712, Waggers, Martian.knight, Funnybunny, Tuspm, KJS77, BranStark, Ben loper, Iridescent, MFago, Grothmag, Lakers, JoeBot, JensenDied, Igoldste, Tony Fox, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Ouishoebean, Tigrahawk, The Haunted Angel, JForget, Thedemonhog, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Porterjoh, Wafulz, Scohoust, Galo1969X, Eponymous-Archon, Lmcelhiney, Im.a.lumberjack, Reahad, Dogman500, Evilgohan2, Tex, Fordmadoxfraud, Equendil, Rakwiki, Jac16888, Cydebot, A hebrew, Ntsimp, Abeg92, Jonathan Tweet, AndrewP86, MC10, Aristophanes68, CovenantD, Goldfritha, Gogo Dodo, Arthurian Legend, Chasingsol, Studerby, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Mallanox, Optimist on the run, Omicronpersei8, Nathee, Daniel Olsen, Yahadreas, Gimmetrow, Phi*n!x, Eubulide, Thijs!bot, Mitsumasa, Epbr123, Thor2000, Kajisol, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral, Sagaciousuk, Nyttyn, N5iln, Simeon H, Marek69, John254, NorwegianBlue, Aericanwizard, Sturm55, Frizzydevil, Nick Number, Big Bird, MichaelMaggs, Brian123zx, Natalie Erin, MainMod, Scottandrewhutchins, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Turlo Lomon, NeilEvans, Quintote, Abbabash, Jj137, Pmantosh, Farosdaughter, Credema, Myanw, Gökhan, ClassicSC, Sluzzelin, WANAX, Dan D. Ric, Deflective, Davidnvn, MER-C, BlindEagle, Instinct, Db099221, Awien, Andonic, Hut 8.5, East718, Cynwolfe, Ringil, Twospoonfuls, SiobhanHansa, Skorpio-88, Magioladitis, Gekedo, Thiaf, Kurtto, Bakilas, Bennybp, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Iriseyes, Theranos, JNW, Repoed2, Demix17, Phunting, Dougz1, Chunkylefunga, Catgut, ClovisPt, Animum, Nine124, Abbadonnergal, Andrew86, Andi d, Afaprof01, Allstarecho, Cpl Syx, PoliticalJunkie, Erinallen09, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes, Eclipsio, Patstuart, Hans404, Seba5618, Gjd001, Mnem05yne, MartinBot, Okloster, Ebizur, Arjun01, Mrpescud, Poeloq, Drichter53, Mike6271, Anaxial, Mschel, R'n'B, Kateshortforbob, AlexiusHoratius, VirtualDelight, Ash, Tadpole9, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Nev1, Kimse, Greatone1234567, Numbo3, Hans Dunkelberg, Uncle Dick, Msmaggiemay, Ginsengbomb, Andresfelquintero, Ian.thomson, Noble-savage, Underwoodl06, Xbspiro, Bluetorch43, GrimKeeper, McSly, L'Aquatique, Dmitri Yuriev, Dr. Zoidberg2.0, Pyrospirit, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Comp25, Plasticup, NewEnglandYankee, EinsteinClone, SJP, Twoskieswatching, JHeinonen, Doomsday28, Nikolaus013, Juliancolton, Entropy, Vanished user 39948282, DorganBot, Mrclean2, Wjhurley9, TheNewPhobia, Funandtrvl, Signalhead, Wikieditor06, Izicata, Blue bolt9, Deor, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, ABF, Murderbike, Choft, ICE77, Atm153, Hersfold, Tunnels of Set, Jeff G., Johnny Au, Nburden, Willow177, AlnoktaBOT, MysterM, Philip Trueman, Scrazen, Oshwah, Erik the Red 2, Moogwrench, Deadlystrike6, Hejimony, GDonato, Bacchiboy, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Captain Wikify, IPSOS, Apacheneo, Oxfordwang, Anna Lincoln, Lradrama, Cicaneo, DennyColt, Khabs, Martin451, Don4of4, Dlae, LeaveSleaves, Blainegamez, Elyada, Gunner768, BotKung, Agharo, Tuttiverdi, Goaliemaster121, Roland Kaufmann, Coching, Ninjatacoshell, Cantiorix, SmileToday, Falcon8765, Coopol, Brianga, Sue Rangell, AlleborgoBot, Quantpole, Jeno84, PericlesofAthens, Therealnyquist, Dingbat46, Hmwith, Ponyo, Hatred is so simple, Wjl2, SieBot, Cunaaay, Reevnar, Jsc83, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Tamarslay3, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Smenge32, Calabraxthis, Til Eulenspiegel, Merotoker1, Arda Xi, Keilana, Tiptoety, Radon210, Oda Mari, Momo san, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Goustien, KoshVorlon, AnonGuy, Tombomp, RSStockdale, BenoniBot~enwiki, Macy, Oceanblueeyes87, OKBot, Diego Grez-Cañete, C'est moi, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, StaticGull, Thomasfhowardiii, Purplerains06, Latics, Mygerardromance, SuperSaiyaMan, Ccwedwards, Nipsonanomhmata, Dimboukas, Ken123BOT, Dabomb87, Lord Opeth, 3rdAlcove, Beemer69, TheCatalyst31, Flyaway07, Krnpride4liv, De728631, Elassint, ClueBot, Phoenix-wiki, Gforce20, Saburo Hirano, Snigbrook, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tremolobleu, Plastikspork, Gawaxay, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, MorganaFiolett, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, JTBX, Mayfly may fly, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, Harland1, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Leadwind, Neverquick, Hunter42294, Auntof6, Sirius85, DragonBot, Dudeman40k, Excirial, Jusdafax, Dukedeniro, Erebus Morgaine, Djp144, Eeekster, Estirabot, Lartoven, Asiznfire, Tyler, NuclearWarfare, Gunther211, Sharpie83, Arjayay, SpudHawg948, Divespluto, Itz refleks, Frozen4322, The Red, Xahras, BOTarate, La Pianista, Whsshuka, Catalographer, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, SoxBot III, Editor2020, B'er Rabbit, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Lamina-le-sédentaire, RiTWVesta, BarretB, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Superlaharl, Koolokamba, Michael bin, Avoided, WikHead, NellieBly, Manfi, Alexius08, ZooFari, Lolia1234567, Nas777, Addbot, Pugu, ConCompS, Friginator, Haruth, Alambra, GSMR, Dvmsnicster, Jncraton, Fieldday-sunday, Kahimari, Morning277, Mjr162006, Glane23, AnnaFrance, Favonian, 5 albert square, Numbo3-bot, Grover714, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Malwinder25, Sjheiss, Pokemonpunk, Gail, Zorrobot, Ochib, Killy mcgee, MissAlyx, DangersPrincess, Borg2008, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Amirobot, Medusalover, KamikazeBot, Farsight001, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, A More Perfect Onion, Hairhorn, Marauder40, Rubinbot, Jim1138, IRP, Mintrick, Piano non troppo, Fahadsadah, Bobisbob2, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Arimasa, Singerspell, Csigabi, Bluerasberry, Worldspass, Citation bot, 98fan300, Chetlaiho, OllieFury, Maxis ftw, Grossmünster, DirlBot, Dodo, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, I Feel Tired, S h i v a (Visnu), Ekwos, The sock that should not be, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Renaissancee, Jeffrey Mall, Joshdibbo, Stuartcallow, Teddks, Almabot, J04n, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Wikieditor1988, IShadowed, Bigger digger, Shadowjams, Imperators II, Natsume One-up, NaivaxWolf, Samwb123, Haploidavey, Mgosse, Dan6hell66, Prari, FrescoBot, Calamitas-92, HJ Mitchell, Athenais39, ADRkid94, CynofGavuf, Javert, Pshent, FriscoKnight, Buzzy661, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jarnocky, Thanatos Nikos, Jonesey95, Jws1986, Padme22, 11kellen11, Bigfred12345846382625, Xx kaya-chan xx, RedBot, Freakazoid93, SpaceFlight89, Île flottante, Jauhienij, Aimzzz, Jan11989, AmpicoJSteinway, Vrenator, Littlebutterfly26, Schwam, Capt. James T. Kirk, Defender of torch, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, Lord zolan, Markerer, Arabella13, Animalslover, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Qwertyfood, Lilflip007, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jonathan jh, Sojoho09, Koifish4life, Vanilla Cake becca, RjwilmsiBot, Bluecolor2, Phlegat, Agent Smith (The Matrix), In ictu oculi, CalicoCatLover, DASHBot, Superk1a, Mengesman, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Alagos, Gfoley4, Tsailun, Ajraddatz, ScottyBerg, NamelessPig4321, Smitty1337, Johncab593, Robinandroid, Jghelfi097, Drekmorin, 16keske, Mr.superawsome, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, PBS-AWB, Ida Shaw, KuduIO, Aeonx, Pitrus, Wayne Slam, L Kensington, Flightx52, MonoAV, Inka 888, Mentibot, ChuispastonBot, HandsomeFella, Peter Karlsen, VictorianMutant, Nateking11295, LikeLakers2, HadesSon, DASHBotAV, Boxingdon, Iamironman101, Imorthodox23, Rocketrod1960, Nickhawk979895, Nickhawk254654, Dudedude12341234, Princeton147, Special Cases, ClueBot NG, Zeon96, Peter James, Cmcalpine, Gen Scinmore, Ducksauce1727, Yetikiller5, Mjanja, Gilderien, LittleJerry, Forgetaboutme123, Millermk, Stenvenhe, Kori9000, Matt789654, Twillisjr, Hazhk, O.Koslowski, Dream of Nyx, Marechal Ney, Widr, WikiPuppies, Theopolisme, Secret of success, GuitarDudeness, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Keivan.f, AngBent, Davidiad, DrPhen, Warsilver, CitationCleanerBot, North911, BluishPixie, WikiHannibal, Batman1123, Justincheng12345-bot, GamingWithStatoke, ~riley, Victor Yus, JYBot, Dexbot, Zeeyanwiki, Ilovescrews3423, Morgan Katarn, Kbevis1, Gre regiment, Lugia2453, Mrzom-

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

337

biezzz, Sturmgewehr88, Davidiad.mobilis, Bezell19, Griffman21, Laurajwilkinson, Gabby Merger, Fr4ud27, MambaMode, Aswartz702, Polojj35, NightWolf52, WalkingKebab, Patwake25, DavidLeighEllis, Mmay2, BadKittieKat76, Glaisher, Thắng L.Đ.Q., Gts-tg, ThatRusskiiGuy, Monkbot, Mianne23, Karl’s Wagon, PrinceTriton, West32, Gonzales John, KasparBot, Anderostolaza, Ermahgerd9, Jfeiks, NickTheRipper, Funkquake, AmarisMagic, Here2help, Katolophyromai, Sarahlancaster, Markx121993, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 1854 • Pluto (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)?oldid=784984199 Contributors: Christian List, Toby Bartels, Karen Johnson, Bth, Montrealais, Ubiquity, Menchi, Ixfd64, SebastianHelm, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, Junesun, Hashar, Charles Matthews, Andrevan, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Robbot, Hadal, GreatWhiteNortherner, DocWatson42, Eequor, LiDaobing, Antandrus, OwenBlacker, Gauss, Roberdin, Paul August, Bender235, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson, King nothing, OGoncho, Alansohn, Harej, Randy Johnston, Ttownfeen, Ceyockey, Woohookitty, Camw, PatGallacher, Schzmo, JRHorse, Shikai shaw, Palica, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Phoenix-forgotten, Саша Стефановић, YAZASHI, Chronographos, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Chobot, Igordebraga, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Kurt Leyman, Bovineone, Wimt, Lusanaherandraton, NawlinWiki, Grafen, SigPig, Tony1, Botteville, Josh3580, SMcCandlish, Red Jay, Nixer, Splee, SmackBot, Abhimat.gautam, Jihiro, Wakuran, Yamaguchi , Hmains, Skizzik, Bluebot, Quinsareth, FordPrefect42, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Jachapo, Sspecter, Nakon, Kleuske, SashatoBot, Lambiam, ArglebargleIV, Vriullop, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Robofish, NJZombie, Chodorkovskiy, Sotaru, The Man in Question, RandomCritic, Agathoclea, Xiaphias, Midnightblueowl, MTSbot~enwiki, Dantheman102100, Newone, Courcelles, Eponymous-Archon, PurpleChez, Neelix, Cydebot, Mato, DumbBOT, Meladina, Omicronpersei8, Pstanton, Jed, JustAGal, AgentPeppermint, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Opelio, Ste4k, North Shoreman, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Nevermore27, Cynwolfe, Meeples, Bongwarrior, AuburnPilot, T@nn, Moonian, Catgut, Athryn, Decidedly so, Revery~enwiki, Adrian J. Hunter, David Eppstein, Pax:Vobiscum, Bieb, MartinBot, Arjun01, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Thirdright, J.delanoy, Nev1, ClarkSui, Melamed katz, Uncle Dick, Katalaveno, Chiswick Chap, Sunderland06, FuegoFish, Alfajuj, CJArgus, Qxz, Dalegriffa, Felixthetushie211, BotKung, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Dropzink~enwiki, Shrivenzale, Vector Potential, Mallerd, PericlesofAthens, Rknasc, Norhelt, GirasoleDE, SieBot, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Zucchini Marie, Vaeworld7, Oxymoron83, Goustien, Onopearls, Big BLA, ClueBot, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Helenabella, EoGuy, Niceguyedc, Nickersonl, Ivyblack21, Lartoven, EncyclopediaUpdaticus, Catalographer, Laser brain, Avoided, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Non-dropframe, Blethering Scot, Dyadron, Andrew75024, Download, Omnipedian, Favonian, XJubeo, Tide rolls, Jan eissfeldt, William.keiser, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Vs64vs, TaBOT-zerem, 1exec1, JackieBot, Kingpin13, Eleph23, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Lipinki, GB fan, Xqbot, J04n, RibotBOT, Haploidavey, Erik9bot, Fotaun, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Iruleha, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, HamburgerRadio, Jcpennygex, SUL, 11kellen11, A8UDI, RedBot, Serols, Kibi78704, GregKaye, Diannaa, Böri, Уральский Кот, NerdyScienceDude, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Wikipelli, John.deangelis2, Lucas Thoms, Lateg, The Nut, HyperSonic X, Aeonx, Wayne Slam, Philafrenzy, Donner60, Gricehead, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, LittleJerry, Mottenen, SharkAIC, Marechal Ney, GuitarDudeness, Lowercase sigmabot, Vagobot, LouisAlain, Davidiad, Who R you?, Solomon7968, Mmovchin, NotWith, WikiHannibal, Glacialfox, Shanerowell11, Joemama69, Garycolemangrills, Munpete, Webclient101, Gre regiment, Frosty, DASL51984, Morgriz, Bbbellarock, Narky Blert, PrinceTriton, Informational10, DiscantX, Reus Irae, Unclearceaser, Whovian02, Ira Leviton, Quackriot, NicoScribe, 2A02A03F, L3X1, Suede Cat, DoomsdayJesus and Anonymous: 283 • Persephone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persephone?oldid=787875835 Contributors: The Epopt, Zundark, Andre Engels, Gianfranco, William Avery, Zoe, Montrealais, Tucci528, Frecklefoot, D, Vaughan, Kroose, Ixfd64, Yann, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Ijon, Glenn, Evercat, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, JonMoore, WhisperToMe, Imc, Ed g2s, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Postdlf, Academic Challenger, Morganmichaels, Timrollpickering, Hadal, UtherSRG, Lzur, Alan Liefting, Centrx, DocWatson42, Jyril, Omegium, Peruvianllama, Zora, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Eequor, Luigi30, Jastrow, Wmahan, Bacchiad, Gdr, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Rdsmith4, Gauss, Pmanderson, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Picapica, Mare-Silverus, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Yuval madar, Cfailde, Silence, Upi, Dbachmann, Paul August, ESkog, Brian0918, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Susvolans, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Smalljim, Wisdom89, Deryck Chan, Krellis, Nsaa, Alansohn, Arthena, Babajobu, Demi, Lectonar, Denniss, Yuckfoo, Rentastrawberry, Unicorn 21, Versageek, Ron Ritzman, Boothy443, Woohookitty, Zoul, BillC, Madchester, Before My Ken, Tabletop, Skywayman, Hbdragon88, Mandarax, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Kbdank71, Pmj, Rjwilmsi, Chrisabraham, Arabani, Stardust8212, Bhadani, FlaBot, Winhunter, GünniX, RexNL, Gurch, Foolishgrunt, Ayla, Proserpine, Chobot, Gdrbot, Antiuser, Gwernol, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Rtkat3, Severa, SpuriousQ, Stephenb, Bill52270, Thane, Ugur Basak, Marcus Cyron, Jessesaurus, Buckdj, Grafen, Nick, Anetode, Aldux, RL0919, Aaron Schulz, Dissolve, DeadEyeArrow, CLW, Botteville, Phenz, Theodolite, Lt-wiki-bot, Sotakeit, GrinBot~enwiki, Attilios, Neier, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Unschool, Reedy, Hydrogen Iodide, Symphony Girl, Shoy, Unyoyega, C.Fred, Furry, Davewild, Delldot, Eskimbot, Dyersgoodness, Alan McBeth, Kintetsubuffalo, Whollabilla, Athinaios, Andy Genné, Gilliam, Tv316, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Xchrisblackx, TimBentley, Persian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, Fluri, FTAAPJE, Patriarch, The Muffin Man, Sneltrekker, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Akhilleus, Lesnail, Teoryn, NoIdeaNick, Jwy, Valenciano, Duinemerwen, Ndouchi, WoodElf, DMacks, Yambond, Pilotguy, Tinatreason, Kukini, Tesseran, Snowgrouse, SashatoBot, Mukadderat, ArglebargleIV, Cody5, General Ization, Gobonobo, Lazylaces, Evenios, Michael Bednarek, The Man in Question, Ripe, A. Parrot, Mr Stephen, Randomdude28, Xiaphias, Midnightblueowl, MTSbot~enwiki, Nonexistant User, Lmblackjack21, Tony Fox, Wwallacee, CapitalR, Mathfan, TFD~enwiki, Xaari, Courcelles, Arco Acqua, Thetrick, JForget, Wolfdog, Tanthalas39, Hermitage17, Dycedarg, Lmcelhiney, Benwildeboer, Kylu, ShelfSkewed, SelfStudyBuddy, Mrkuder, Slazenger, Cydebot, AniMate, Reywas92, MC10, JonnyLightning, Goldfritha, The Great Honker, Gogo Dodo, Anonymous44, ThatPeskyCommoner, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Observation, PreRaphaelite, Btharper1221, Hakimbashir, Jvcurrie, Ohnjaynb, JamesAM, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Pstanton, Douglas Michael Massing, X., Mr pand, Picus viridis, Melanieazure, Dfrg.msc, Grayshi, Philippe, Nick Number, Sean William, Dantheman531, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Luna Santin, JAnDbot, Fiona CS, Deflective, Husond, Sanchom, Andonic, 1000poems, UtDicitur, Cynwolfe, Twospoonfuls, Steveprutz, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Igwelldowntrodden, Michael Goodyear, Rivertorch, Englishmajor07, Catgut, Boffob, JohnofPhoenix, Glen, JaGa, Germoid, Edward321, TheRanger, Patstuart, MartinBot, GoldenMeadows, Crvst, Charles Edward, Healthinspector, R'n'B, Kateshortforbob, Smokizzy, Thirdright, Shellwood, Huzzlet the bot, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, Kimse, Trusilver, Bogey97, Marvellsmuse, Uncle Dick, Ginsengbomb, Extransit, Ggadow, Андрей Романенко, Katalaveno, H8jd5, GhostPirate, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, 83d40m, Evb-wiki, Pdcook, Beezhive, Deor, Almw113, VolkovBot, CWii, Thedjatclubrock, Sporti, Jeff G., Lear’s Fool, Irish Pearl, Philip Trueman, Blue Beta, Oshwah, Abyca, Erik the Red 2, Stevensaylor, Abtinb, Rei-bot, Jdcrutch, Oxfordwang, Seraphim, Farazars, Leafyplant, BotKung, Pigslookfunny, MearsMan, Themusicteacher, JasonPenney, Enigmaman, Enviroboy, Seresin, Thanatos666, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Crimsonshadow61636, Swim2win4evr, PericlesofAthens, EmxBot, Ciararavenblaze, SieBot, YonaBot, Tiddly Tom, Happy7091, Gravitan, Wheresmichellex3, Srushe, Rudoleska, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, CutOffTies, Phalanxpursos, Goustien, Mblau~enwiki, Evilbunnie, Maelgwnbot, MadmanBot, Anchor Link Bot, Denisarona, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, GorillaWarfare, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, 100percentrecord, Jan1nad, MikeVitale, Nickeleon, Arakunem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Osm agha, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, LizardJr8, Auntof6, Grunty Thraveswain, Luke4545, Szark~enwiki, Excirial, Quercus basaseachicensis, Sun Creator, Arjayay, Razorflame, SchreiberBike, Muro Bot, Catalogra-

338

CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

pher, Emre121212, SoxBot III, Ivantis, DumZiBoT, BarretB, Staticshakedown, Gnowor, PL290, Manfi, Addbot, Jojhutton, Ave Caesar, Non-dropframe, KairosX23, Ronhjones, Vishnava, Leszek Jańczuk, Dudedudeman, Download, Rchard2scout, Morning277, Glane23, Omnipedian, Chzz, Favonian, SamatBot, Xev lexx, Ks 7508, Тиверополник, Anna 125, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Bfigura’s puppy, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Ettrig, Leovizza, Borg2008, Legobot, Yobot, Aitchdawg, SwisterTwister, Tonyrex, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Isablidine, Flewis, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, 90 Auto, Citation bot, OllieFury, Jock Boy, GB fan, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Ekwos, Capricorn42, Jmundo, Athyna, Hi878, C+C, Shufy111, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Locobot, Flowmotion920, Shadowjams, Eugene-elgato, RavShimon, Haploidavey, ChiMama, RetiredWikipedian789, Mythbusters101, 1234567890cheese, FrescoBot, 13711jw, Abc123katie, Phlyaristis, DrilBot, I dream of horses, Vajragarlic, 5Celcious, Rameshngbot, EDG161, A8UDI, Moskoff, Serols, Evenrød, Helios13, Gitana7, Upsiddown, DC, Mono, Abc.mikey, Lotje, Vrenator, Sizzle Flambé, Acooper619, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, RobertMfromLI, Chicorytip, Helloher, Alph Bot, Boticariomezcalero, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Ajraddatz, Super48paul, Dewritech, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Solarra, Winner 42, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, PersephoneM, ZéroBot, John Cline, Fæ, Josve05a, Azuris, Gwarfan3333, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Alexpinette, RogierWV, Thestaff, Stacerrox23, Donner60, Millat.ibrahim, Puffin, Samohtar, Axosman, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, Imorthodox23, Messier 87, MICHAELRAMAS, ClueBot NG, Sah911, Serasuna, Yurtyurt, Carandraug, Mondigomo, Stenvenhe, Frietjes, Cyrtis, Nfbjdfj, O.Koslowski, Liam.johannesson, Go Phightins!, Deep Thought, Sayouka, Bahnheckl, Helpful Pixie Bot, Clausangeloh, HMSSolent, Wbm1058, DonMan8848, Dionysodorus, BG19bot, Flax5, Keivan.f, JjOhNn KkONiNgSs, George Ponderevo, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, Lerura, QueenPersephone, DARIO SEVERI, BluishPixie, Glacialfox, ‫ارژنگ‬, Docsufi, Carylle, BattyBot, Millennium bug, Cimorcus, Gtsheep, Neuroforever, Makalathomas22, RosannaTufts, Rkoole, Maddyandrachel, Raymond1922A, FoCuSandLeArN, Cwobeel, Mogism, Ranze, Kbevis1, Lugia2453, Jamesx12345, Sowlos, Mountaincirque, Missinglinkantiques, Epicgenius, Simonrj-k, Debouch, Lfdder, Tentinator, Monboddo1799, Hoppeduppeanut, Jestmoon, BadKittieKat76, Jackmcbarn, JaconaFrere, Crētus, AKS.9955, Ndurkee328, Justin15w, Artlover87, ChildrenInMyBed, Sendtoanthony, Liv olivia liv, Mayberryassassination, Bridenh, RMikhail, Karl’s Wagon, KH-1, Eurodyne, RegistryKey, Russiamosscow, GeneralizationsAreBad, Eric0928, Pxncil, KasparBot, Cynthia McBell, the daughter of Neptune, Equinox, Morphdog, ProprioMe OW, CAPTAIN RAJU, Wikislavic, Tuyết xanh, FiendYT, DatGuy, Qzd, Letmedowhatifeellike, Bostinnova, Boomer Vial, Hyena laughs, Bpatte16, Anequizabethan, Aburat913, Dilon da Hakr, Bender the Bot, -glove-, PrimeBOT, Ilovewikipedia44564376596abc334, Here2help, Katolophyromai, Rgilks8, CupcakeKitty, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 1024 • Achlys Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achlys?oldid=772983789 Contributors: MPF, Pmanderson, Lectiodifficilior, Paul August, Sburke, Eubot, Mark Ironie, Deucalionite, Bluezy, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Drinibot, Fordmadoxfraud, RandyS0725, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Idioma-bot, TreasuryTag, SchreiberBike, Addbot, Omnipedian, Luckas-bot, GoingBatty, Peaceray, Just granpa, Davidiad, Dainomite, DPL bot, RichardMills65, Gre regiment, ForAllIKnow, Tophet, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 9 • Angelos (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelos_(mythology)?oldid=763854533 Contributors: Fordmadoxfraud, Auntof6, Triciachan, Phlyaristis, Susfele, Keivan.f, PhnomPencil, Davidiad, WikiHannibal, Gre regiment, Tophet, Laurdecl and Anonymous: 5 • Hecate Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecate?oldid=787544492 Contributors: Kpjas, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, Danny, XJaM, Tucci528, Merinda, Patrick, Paul Barlow, Pit~enwiki, Fcp, Tregoweth, TUF-KAT, Evercat, Samw, Charles Matthews, Rbraunwa, Dcoetzee, RickK, Wetman, Robbot, Nurg, Modulatum, Psi36, Ashley Y, Academic Challenger, Flauto Dolce, Geogre, Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Wayland, Crculver, DocWatson42, MPF, Gtrmp, Jyril, Mintleaf~enwiki, Prosfilaes, Eequor, Bacchiad, Zeimusu, Ex ottoyuhr, The Singing Badger, Rdsmith4, Ellsworth, Bumm13, M.e, Pmanderson, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Narsil, Dbachmann, JPX7, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Furius, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Davorg, Sietse Snel, Thu, Longhair, FoekeNoppert, La goutte de pluie, Jumbuck, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Arthena, MauriceReeves, CJ, DreamGuy, Hattrem, Tony Sidaway, Alai, NantonosAedui, Mindmatrix, Xover, Sburke, Pyrosim, Marudubshinki, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud, NatusRoma, Tomtheman5, FlaBot, RobyWayne, NotJackhorkheimer, Proserpine, Gwernol, YurikBot, LUckyKLovers24, RobotE, Rtkat3, Jimp, Retodon8, RussBot, Mark Ironie, Yamara, Gaius Cornelius, Dialectric, Veledan, Gabrielbodard, Deucalionite, AdelaMae, CorbieVreccan, Asarelah, Botteville, Open2universe, Lt-wiki-bot, LucaviX, PerlKnitter, BorgQueen, ClaudiaVice, LeonardoRob0t, Nightside eclipse, Moth1701, Singingwolfboy, Kungfuadam, Dorcia, Tadorne, SmackBot, Cubs Fan, Gjs238, Hmains, JP The Wanderer, Durova, Chris the speller, Gonzalo84, Belzub, Cretanforever, Stevage, Colonies Chris, ClaudiaM, Akhilleus, Seleukosa, Vanis314, Rrburke, Artemisboy, BehemothCat, Tinctorius, Fractyl, Fuzzypeg, FlyHigh, Tjchase, SilkTork, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Midnightblueowl, Koweja, Keahapana, UTK007, Geoffg, LadyofShalott, Ewulp, My name is t i double g er, Rychach, Amalas, Falconfly, Mewaqua, Moreschi, Todgar, Cydebot, QuestionMark, The Great Honker, Gogo Dodo, Pascal.Tesson, Q43, DBaba, Daniel Olsen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Typing monkey, Marek69, Missvain, Dawkeye, AntiVandalBot, Xuchilbara, Larien Earfalas, Wild ste, Earrach, .alyn.post., JAnDbot, Deflective, Sophie means wisdom, J Greb, RebelRobot, Cynwolfe, Johnston.2@osu.edu, Goddess Gift, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Theranos, Kim Dent-Brown, Careless hx, Nyttend, Twsx, Froid, Adavies42, DAC1956, Wrad, RedMC, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes, Cocytus, Oroso, Lady Mondegreen, Psycona, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Thirdright, R powers, Failinglunch, Paris1127, RedKlonoa, Belovedfreak, 83d40m, Bodrumlife, BrettAllen, Nrm224, Grey Maiden, Thismightbezach, Michaelcshiner, Deor, VolkovBot, Tunnels of Set, Erik the Red 2, Java7837, Andres rojas22, Dudford, IPSOS, Steven J. Anderson, Annajannajones, Scuzz187, Atelaes, Redmind0, Classicsboy, SieBot, Ttony21, AS, WereSpielChequers, Caltas, Smsarmad, Peter cohen, Oda Mari, Carnun, Mankar Camoran, BenoniBot~enwiki, Alatari, Pinkadelica, Lyonluv, Atif.t2, FlamingSilmaril, ClueBot, Plastikspork, EoGuy, Shir-El too, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Pete unseth, Niceguyedc, Galenthis, Nymf, Research84, IthinkIwannaLeia, Sun Creator, Holothurion, Panellet, SchreiberBike, Audaciter, Catalographer, Thingg, Editor2020, Picatrix, Addbot, Proofreader77, Simonm223, PJonDevelopment, Ronhjones, Leszek Jańczuk, Joechua1996, Chzz, Favonian, Lightbot, Mohsenkazempur, Ettrig, Matt.T, Borg2008, Legobot, Folklore1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, Yngvadottir, Aitchdawg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Mythomaniac, AnomieBOT, Electricpeppers, Jim1138, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Lord Raptorius, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Dodo, LilHelpa, Xqbot, TakeAndRake, Omnipaedista, 00 Sorceress 00, PauAmma, Auréola, Mythomanic, Puplov1997, Samwb123, Haploidavey, Gilligan Skipper, Rebbing, FrescoBot, JMS Old Al, TruHeir, Kavita9, Detroit.import, B3t, Pinethicket, Meaghan, Kibi78704, Snow leopard grace, Fantasyliterary, CertainMiracle, Lotje, Ollios, Sizzle Flambé, Stegop, Minimac, Airbag190, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, Alagos, Juanc1317, Dewritech, Bua333, Dcirovic, Memnon710, Cookiemonster632, Aeonx, Captain Screebo, Bannedman123456789, Ben Ammi, Autoerrant, StephenKingFan100, NC360, Glorious Goddess, AgentSniff, Imorthodox23, ClueBot NG, Gilderien, Ninjaguy155, Leafbob1, Snotbot, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Balanceasia, Plantdrew, Kinaro, Writing fairy70994, AJ295, CaraSchulz, Vagobot, Stevengravel, Davidiad, Solomon7968, Winfredtheforth, Trevayne08, CitationCleanerBot, Harizotoh9, Sophiapedia, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Torvalu4, Khazar2, Redstarburst, FoCuSandLeArN, Jose8122, ObsequiousNewt, American In Brazil, Tentinator, Magickal witch95, DavidLeighEllis, BadKittieKat76, Nera456, WNuman, ShamikaDelicia, Luky360, Monkbot, Rob at Houghton, DaughterofBeauty, Karl’s Wagon, Ryan33397, Jiten Dhandha, Liance, Polyaretos, Nisirtu, KasparBot, Californa, Xactnorge, CLCStudent, Water44, GreenC bot, El cid, el campeador, Bender the Bot, Priyadasi, Katolophyromai, Markx121993, Magic links bot, B123456789A and Anonymous: 406

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

339

• Hypnos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnos?oldid=785946106 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Youandme, Tucci528, Minesweeper, Andres, Schneelocke, Hashar, Ccady, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Robbot, Geogre, Wereon, Guy Peters, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Gdr, Ellsworth, Haiduc, DanielCD, Luxdormiens, Aranel, Obradovic Goran, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Arthena, Ricky81682, Velella, KingTT, Admiral Valdemar, Tripps, Saurian, Woohookitty, Cbdorsett, Bruce1ee, FlaBot, Chobot, DVdm, Aethralis, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Liastnir, Lostangeles, The Chief, Deucalionite, Bota47, Asarelah, Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Feyandstrange, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, KocjoBot~enwiki, Yamaguchi , Busterbros, Bluebot, Gladrius, Gabriel leonardo, Petr Kopač, Theotherness, Brian Gunderson, Muadd, George The Dragon, Whyleee, Simply south, WeggeBot, Alton, Cydebot, Danrok, Reywas92, H4x, Thijs!bot, Z10x, Natalie Erin, Seaphoto, Aseneath, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, PhilKnight, Xact, Magioladitis, T@nn, JamesBWatson, Mclay1, Soulbot, Bolowno, Simon Peter Hughes, NunoAgostinho, FisherQueen, Kimse, Maurice Carbonaro, Vanished user g454XxNpUVWvxzlr, DorganBot, Deor, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Irish Pearl, Philip Trueman, Abyca, Technopat, Lamro, Thanatos666, PericlesofAthens, SieBot, AS, Gerakibot, Flyer22 Reborn, Shakko, Android Mouse Bot 3, Fighting Fefnir, Denisarona, Mx. Granger, Soporaeternus, ClueBot, Plastikspork, Arakunem, Tigerboy1966, Boing! said Zebedee, Pat9118, Excirial, Eeekster, .mrt, SchreiberBike, Avoided, Addbot, Knight of Truth, CanadianLinuxUser, Ccacsmss, Omnipedian, Favonian, Tide rolls, ‫דוד‬55, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Peter Flass, Modkarma, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Sonarklipse, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Joshua111123, Dragospuri, Omnipaedista, Locobot, Aaron Kauppi, Erik9bot, Fullcrygal, FrescoBot, Recognizance, D'ohBot, Nosaj9806, DrilBot, Pinethicket, God of dreams, Mediatech492, VenomousConcept, XX brothers, Agj, Lotje, Nephiliskos, Mr Monkey358, Onel5969, Mean as custard, Aircorn, CalicoCatLover, J36miles, Acather96, Gfoley4, EmCat24, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Tommy2010, Jasonanaggie, Bollyjeff, AvicAWB, Wderiamjh, L Kensington, Donner60, Kriiiiis, Puffin, StephenKingFan100, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, MelbourneStar, Stenvenhe, Widr, BG19bot, Keivan.f, Frze, Davidiad, MrBill3, Shapesjr, Haymouse, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, Chustuck, Wieldthespade, Thebomee, Earlgrey T, GreekMythExpertx, DavidLeighEllis, Ginsuloft, Almondsouffle, Jononmac46, Mr. Smart LION, Achimel, Robyn.downard, CosmoWenman, AssassinCat, KasparBot, Jem supreme, CAPTAIN RAJU, Dreaminganddreaming, Santorsola14, CLCStudent, The Voidwalker, NotSmart77, Roman Stenzel, Marieallore, Bender the Bot, Imminent77, FábioEscorpião, Magic links bot, WHATISTHISJUNK, 6thgradegoddessreporthypnos1 and Anonymous: 205 • Keres (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keres_(mythology)?oldid=786578401 Contributors: Tucci528, Jmartinezot, Wetman, TowerDragon, JerryFriedman, Gtrmp, Pmanderson, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Ish ishwar, Ghirlandajo, Sburke, BD2412, David Levy, FlaBot, Proserpine, Mordicai, Satanael, YurikBot, Cissi, Hairy Dude, Yamara, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, GeeJo, Deucalionite, Asarelah, SmackBot, Trekphiler, The Man in Question, Yodin, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Amerenbach, Missvain, Skio, JAnDbot, RandyS0725, Magioladitis, Theranos, Simon Peter Hughes, DorganBot, VolkovBot, TallNapoleon, TXiKiBoT, Thanatos666, SieBot, ClueBot, Boneyard90, Catalographer, Addbot, Omnipedian, Numbo3-bot, Care, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, Xufanc, Jsmith1000, Omnipaedista, D'ohBot, CobraBot, Perhelion, Azrael Moros, Madhatter198, Card Zero, ClueBot NG, Davidiad, CeraBot, Gre regiment, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Jestmoon, Nightivory, WannaBeEditor, Bender the Bot, Jeff Weskamp, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 48 • Lampad Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampad?oldid=778201386 Contributors: Menchi, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, Rtkat3, Asarelah, SmackBot, Rdunn, Waacstats, RandyWalker, Jakegothic, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Drmies, Addbot, Binary TSO, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Spenpiano, HMSSolent, BG19bot, Gre regiment, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4 • Macaria Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macaria?oldid=779474323 Contributors: Tucci528, Kingturtle, Johan Magnus, Charles Matthews, Wetman, TOO, Jyril, Pmanderson, Mike Rosoft, Paul August, Sparklegurl32, Carioca, FlaBot, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Deucalionite, Fram, SmackBot, Garchy, Schi, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Tim Q. Wells, Drinibot, Thijs!bot, JAnDbot, RandyS0725, Cynwolfe, Bibi Saint-Pol, Magioladitis, T@nn, Captain panda, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Correogsk, Editor2020, Metodicar, Addbot, KairosX23, Luckasbot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Erud, Gumruch, GrouchoBot, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Phlyaristis, HRoestBot, Alph Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, AvicAWB, Bamyers99, Donner60, SabNik, ClueBot NG, Sabbe12, Alafarge, ChrisGualtieri, Gre regiment, Linsey101102103104105, Link0ze, Sro23, Wikisomeisawesomerthanapossum, Bender the Bot, Karyu21 and Anonymous: 43 • Melinoe Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melinoe?oldid=787216927 Contributors: J. 'mach' wust, Discospinster, Paul August, El C, Woohookitty, Rtkat3, RussBot, Asarelah, Nikkimaria, Sorria2000, SmackBot, Bluebot, Fdssdf, MarshBot, Goldenrowley, RandyS0725, Cynwolfe, Bibi Saint-Pol, Magioladitis, T@nn, Waacstats, Uncle Dick, Goustien, JL-Bot, Plastikspork, Boneyard90, DumZiBoT, Addbot, KairosX23, Triciachan, AnomieBOT, Akebai, ArthurBot, SchnitzelMannGreek, Haploidavey, FrescoBot, Sdanir, Kajervi, EmausBot, Ofelia3, ClueBot NG, Keving2011, Keivan.f, Davidiad, BattyBot, Khazar2, Webclient101, Gre regiment, Liberivore, PrinceTriton, Bender the Bot, AmarisMagic, PrimeBOT, Tompop888 and Anonymous: 48 • Ascalaphus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascalaphus?oldid=786683818 Contributors: Tucci528, Llywrch, Snoyes, Emperorbma, Wetman, TOO, Paul August, Drbreznjev, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, YurikBot, GeeJo, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Deucalionite, Asarelah, Igiffin, Dondoolee, The Man in Question, InedibleHulk, Hectorian, Drinibot, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot, Reywas92, VPliousnine, Thijs!bot, Shelley Konk~enwiki, Bibi Saint-Pol, T@nn, Waacstats, Captain panda, STBotD, DorganBot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, AS, BenoniBot~enwiki, Vacio, Catalographer, Egmontaz, MystBot, Metodicar, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Omnipedian, Care, Luckas-bot, Che!, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Pasteurizer, Phlyaristis, DefaultsortBot, Wikielwikingo, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Laszlovszky András, ZéroBot, Neptune’s Trident, ChrisGualtieri, Gre regiment, Rfassbind, YiFeiBot, Narky Blert, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 20 • Ceuthonymus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuthonymus?oldid=785889359 Contributors: CambridgeBayWeather, C.Fred, Timotheus Canens, Mild Bill Hiccup, Metodicar, Addbot, Savonneux, MrHighway, David V Houston, Equd, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gre regiment and Markx121993 • Eurynomos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurynomos?oldid=701562436 Contributors: Rursus, Gtrmp, Kwamikagami, Sburke, Mike s, Xero, Daverocks, Deucalionite, Wknight94, Egsan Bacon, Artemisboy, Drinibot, Thijs!bot, Centrepull, Deflective, T@nn, Belshazzar~enwiki, Penguinwithin, VolkovBot, SieBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Ufinne, Niceguyedc, Catalographer, Oskar71, Metodicar, Addbot, Omnipedian, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Mintrick, Omnipaedista, Phlyaristis, Dinamik-bot, Miracle Pen, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Davidiad, Gre regiment and Anonymous: 15 • Menoetius (Greek mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menoetius_(Greek_mythology)?oldid=781770102 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tucci528, Lizard King, Hpc, The Singing Badger, Urhixidur, Valen1260~enwiki, Paul August, Art LaPella, DrGaellon, Sburke, FlaBot, YurikBot, Tdevries, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Lt-wiki-bot, SMcCandlish, Eskimbot, Stevenmitchell, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Dakart, Drinibot, JAnDbot, WANAX, T@nn, Lights, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Abyca, Erik the Red 2, SieBot, AS, Iwfi, ClueBot, DragonBot, Estirabot, Metodicar, LatitudeBot, SpBot, Borg2008, Che!, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, LucienBOT, Jopelite, Phlyaristis, Savonneux, TobeBot, GregKaye, CobraBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Alagos, TherasTaneel, Peaceray, Rocketrod1960, Widr, Davidiad, ChrisGualtieri, Gre regiment, Thehacker9001, Tophet, Markx121993 and Anonymous: 24

340

CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

44.3.2

Images

• File:035Tanatos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/035Tanatos.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Mauricio García Vega Original artist: Mauricio García Vega • File:12th_labour_of_Heracles_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19119.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 1/18/12th_labour_of_Heracles_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19119.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:3307_-_Athens_-_Stoà_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Eros_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall'Orto,_Nov_9_2009.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/3307_-_Athens_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Eros_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall% 27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giovanni Dall'Orto. • File:AGMA_Tête_d'Hermès.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/AGMA_T%C3%AAte_d%27Herm% C3%A8s.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Self-published work by Marsyas Original artist: Marsyas • File:AN00866037_001_l.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/AN00866037_001_l.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: the british museum Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata: Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-filewidth='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:AN00969955_001_l.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/AN00969955_001_l.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.britishmuseum.org Original artist: Richard Cosway • File:AN01020070_001_l.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/AN01020070_001_l.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.britishmuseum.org Original artist: Richard Cosway • File:Acheron_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Acheron_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oliver Deisenroth • File:Acheron_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Acheron_3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oliver Deisenroth • File:Adolf_Hiremy-Hirschl,_Die_Seelen_des_Acheron.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Adolf_ Hiremy-Hirschl%2C_Die_Seelen_des_Acheron.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Österreichische Galerie Original artist: Adolf Hirémy-Hirschl • File:Aeacus_telemon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Aeacus_telemon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Ravenous at en.wikipedia • File:Agostino_Carracci_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Agostino_Carracci_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.spiritalchemy.com/blog/180/180 Original artist: Agostino Carracci • File:Altes_Museum_-_Antikensammlung_058.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Altes_Museum_ -_Antikensammlung_058.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marcus Cyron • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on: Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat, penubag • File:Amphora_Hades_Louvre_G209.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Amphora_Hades_Louvre_ G209.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: user:Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Oionokles Painter • File:Amphora_Hades_Louvre_G209_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Amphora_Hades_Louvre_ G209_n2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: User:Jastrow, own work, 2008-03-15 Original artist: Oionokles Painter • File:Amphora_with_Theseus_slaying_the_Minotaur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Amphora_ with_Theseus_slaying_the_Minotaur.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Fæ (Own work) Original artist: Attributed to The Oionokles Painter, likely to have died before 400 BC. • File:Archaeological_site_icon_(red).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red% 29.svg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Edgars2007 • File:Atene_-_Partenone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Atene_-_Partenone.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Autel_de_Reims.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Autel_de_Reims.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Baileybridge_over_the_Acheron_river_in_Gliki_-_Greece.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/ Baileybridge_over_the_Acheron_river_in_Gliki_-_Greece.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: H.P.Burger • File:Bardo_Baal_Thinissut.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Bardo_Baal_Thinissut.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rais67 • File:Benevento-Arch_of_Trajan_from_South.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Benevento-Arch_ of_Trajan_from_South.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Decan • File:Birth_of_Venus_detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Birth_of_Venus_detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/b/botticel/5allegor/32birth.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/b/botticel/5allegor/32birth.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Sandro Botticelli

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Bracteate_from_Funen,_Denmark_(DR_BR42).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Bracteate_ from_Funen%2C_Denmark_%28DR_BR42%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bloodofox • File:Buddhist_hell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Buddhist_hell.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mekongantiques.com/Pages/19c-Burmese-Hell.htm Original artist: burmese XIXth artist • File:Byzantine_-_Circular_Pyxis_-_Walters_7164_-_View_C.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/ Byzantine_-_Circular_Pyxis_-_Walters_7164_-_View_C.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http: //thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home. svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_ folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/28991' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_ icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_ icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Byzantine Empire) • File:Cape_Matapan.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Cape_Matapan.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: TCY • File:Cape_Matapan_08.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Cape_Matapan_08.JPG License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Camster • File:Capitoline_Wolf_of_Roman_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Capitoline_Wolf_of_ Roman_Kingdom.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work, source is Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg. Original artist: Samhanin • File:Capua_Antica_Amphitheatre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Capua_Antica_Amphitheatre. jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: private photo Original artist: Rico Heil • File:Caravaggio_Jupiter_Neptune_Pluto_vertical.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2f/Caravaggio_Jupiter_ Neptune_Pluto_vertical.jpg License: PD Contributors: Commons Original artist: Caravaggio • File:CarontediMichelagelo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/CarontediMichelagelo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: (presumably a scan from an unknown book) Original artist: Michelangelo • File:Cerberus-Blake.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Cerberus-Blake.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] from [2] Original artist: William Blake • File:Charon-obol2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Charon-obol2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=103284 Original artist: CNG, (uploaded by Odysses) • File:Charon_and_Psyche.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Charon_and_Psyche.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Private Collection Roy Miles Fine Paintings Original artist: John Roddam Spencer Stanhope • File:Charon_and_Psyche_(cropped).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a5/Charon_and_Psyche_%28cropped% 29.jpg License: PD Contributors: unknown Original artist: John Roddam Spencer Stanhope • File:Charon_receiving_child_(drawing).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Charon_receiving_child_ %28drawing%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Uploaded by Cynwolfe at en.wikipedia • File:Charun_hammer_Cdm_Paris_2783.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Charun_hammer_Cdm_ Paris_2783.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006). Image renamed from Image:Charun hammer CdM.jpg Original artist: ? • File:Coin_of_the_Bactrian_king_Agathokles.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Coin_of_the_Bactrian_ king_Agathokles.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Classical Numismatic Group Original artist: Classical Numismatic Group;[1] • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Cráneo_con_dupondio.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Cr%C3%A1neo_con_dupondio.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Falconaumanni • File:Cumae.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Cumae.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http: //virgil.org/maps/images/cumae.gif Original artist: Andrea de Jorio • File:DAB_list_gray.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/DAB_list_gray.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: modified versions from File:Disambig gray.svg Original artist: Edokter (modified version) • File:DSC00426_-_Statua_cineraria_etrusca_-_Proserpina-defunta_con_melagrana-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/DSC00426_-_Statua_cineraria_etrusca_-_Proserpina-defunta_con_melagrana-_Foto_G._Dall% 27Orto.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: G.dallorto

342

CHAPTER 44. MENOETIUS (GREEK MYTHOLOGY)

• File:Demeter_in_horse_chariot_w_daughter_kore_83d40m_wikiC_Tempio_Y_di_Selinunte_sec_VIa.JPG Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Demeter_in_horse_chariot_w_daughter_kore_83d40m_wikiC_Tempio_Y_di_Selinunte_sec_VIa.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: self-made edit of File:DSC00414 - Tempio Y di Selinunte sec. VIa.C. - Demetra e Kore su quadriga - Foto G. Dall'Orto.jpg Original artist: 83d40m, based on a work by G.dallorto • File:Dionysos_Ploutos_BM_F68.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Dionysos_Ploutos_BM_F68.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol (2006, 22 November) Original artist: English: Attributed to the Pourtalès Painter • File:Doré_-_Styx.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Dor%C3%A9_-_Styx.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Douris_gold_piece.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Douris_gold_piece.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, http://www.dainst.org Original artist: Uploaded by Cynwolfe at en.wikipedia • File:Dürer_-_Die_Entführung_auf_dem_Einhorn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/D%C3%BCrer_ -_Die_Entf%C3%BChrung_auf_dem_Einhorn.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Albrecht Dürer • File:Eleusinian_hydria_Antikensammlung_Berlin_1984.46.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Eleusinian_ hydria_Antikensammlung_Berlin_1984.46.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2008 Original artist: Varrese Painter • File:Eleusis2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Eleusis2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from nl.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Napoleon Vier at Dutch Wikipedia • File:Euphronios_krater_side_A_MET_L.2006.10.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Euphronios_ krater_side_A_MET_L.2006.10.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Contact us/Photo submission Original artist: Jaime ArdilesArce (photographer). Krater by Euphronios (painter) and Euxitheos (potter). • File:Eye_Horus_Louvre_Sb3566.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Eye_Horus_Louvre_Sb3566.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2005) Original artist: ? • File:FT_nyx+erebus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/FT_nyx%2Berebus.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Myrecovery' class='mw-redirect' title='User:Myrecovery'>Own</a> work of <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Myrecovery' class='extiw' title='en:User:Myrecovery'>Uploader</a> Original artist: Amit6 (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Amit6' title='User talk:Amit6'>talk</a>) • File:Fenerbahce_Park_05414_tree.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Fenerbahce_Park_05414_tree. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own Photograph Original artist: Nevit Dilmen (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_ talk:Nevit' title='User talk:Nevit'>talk</a>) • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Ccby-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fragment_of_a_marble_relief_depicting_a_Kore,_3rd_century_BC,_from_Panticapaeum,_Taurica_(Crimea)_(12853680765) .jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Fragment_of_a_marble_relief_depicting_a_Kore%2C_3rd_century_ BC%2C_from_Panticapaeum%2C_Taurica_%28Crimea%29_%2812853680765%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Fragment of a marble relief depicting a Kore, 3rd century BC, from Panticapaeum, Taurica (Crimea) Original artist: Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany

• File:FredericLeighton-TheReturnofPerspephone(1891).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/FredericLeighton-TheReturno 281891%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: cgfa.sunsite.dk Original artist: Frederic Leighton, 1st Baron Leighton • File:Getty_Villa_-_Collection_(5305218066).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Getty_Villa_-_Collection_ %285305218066%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Getty Villa - Collection Original artist: Dave & Margie Hill / Kleerup from Centennial, CO, USA • File:Goethe_Elysium_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Goethe_Elysium_crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Verlag der Kunstanstalt von Piloty & Loehle in München. Aus dem König-Ludwig-Album, Nr. 173. Original artist: Franz Nadorp • File:Greece_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: own work, using United States National Imagery and Mapping Agency data Original artist: Lencer • File:Greek_Roman_Laurel_wreath_vector.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Greek_Roman_Laurel_ wreath_vector.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif By Фёдор Таран (http://fa13.com) [Copyrighted free use], via Wikimedia Commons Original artist: dalovar • File:Gustave_Dore,_The_Divine_comedy,_Inferno,_plate_9,_Charon,_The_Ferryman_of_Hell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Gustave_Dore%2C_The_Divine_comedy%2C_Inferno%2C_plate_9%2C_Charon%2C_The_Ferryman_ of_Hell.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: original prints, 1880 Original artist: Gustave Dore • File:Gustave_Dore_Inferno34.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Gustave_Dore_Inferno34.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://dore.artpassions.net/ Original artist: Gustave Doré • File:Gustave_Doré_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_10_(Canto_III_-_Charon_herds_the_sinners_onto_his_boat).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Dante_Alighieri_-_Inferno_-_Plate_10_%28Canto_ III_-_Charon_herds_the_sinners_onto_his_boat%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dante’s Divine Comedy: Hell - Purgatory - Paradise. Illustrations by Gustave Doré, Translation by Henry W. Longfellow, Published by Arcturus Books, 2007. Original artist: Gustave Doré • File:Hades,_Hierapolis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Hades%2C_Hierapolis.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cobija

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

343

• File:Hades-et-Cerberus-III.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Hades-et-Cerberus-III.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Stella maris assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Hades.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Hades.png License: Public domain Contributors: This file has been extracted from another file: Meyers b13 s0140.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: from Le Musée absolu, Phaidon, 10-2012 Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www. wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Hades_with_cerberus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Hades_with_cerberus.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mark Zamoyski • File:Hates_abduction.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Hates_abduction.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: Oil Painting on wood Immediate source: Purchased in California Original artist: Painter unknown (Life time: 18th century) • File:Head_of_Persephone._Earthenware._From_Sicily,_Centuripae,_c._420_BCE._The_Burrell_Collection,_Glasgow,_UK.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Head_of_Persephone._Earthenware._From_Sicily%2C_Centuripae%2C_ c._420_BCE._The_Burrell_Collection%2C_Glasgow%2C_UK.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg) • File:Hekate_Kharites_Glyptothek_Munich_60.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Hekate_Kharites_ Glyptothek_Munich_60.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-02-08 Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Hendrick_Goltzius_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Hendrick_Goltzius_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: collectionsonline.lacma.org : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Hendrik Goltzius • File:Herakles_Kerberos_Eurystheus_Louvre_E701.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Herakles_ Kerberos_Eurystheus_Louvre_E701.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, Own work, 1 June 2007 Original artist: Eagle Painter • File:Herakles_Kerberos_Louvre_A481.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Herakles_Kerberos_Louvre_ A481.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-06-06 Original artist: Unknown<a href='https:// www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Herakles_Kerberos_Louvre_F204.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Herakles_Kerberos_Louvre_ F204.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-06-15 Original artist: Andokides Painter • File:Herakles_Kerberos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_1493.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/ Herakles_Kerberos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_1493.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, Own work, 2007-02-09 Original artist: Bucci Painter • File:Hercules_and_Cerberus_LACMA_65.37.151.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Hercules_and_ Cerberus_LACMA_65.37.151.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Image: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31724610-O3.jpg Original artist: Wilhelm Janson (Holland, Amsterdam), Antonio Tempesta (Italy, Florence, 1555-1630) • File:Hercules_and_Cerberus_LACMA_65.37.17.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Hercules_and_ Cerberus_LACMA_65.37.17.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Image: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31736133-O3.jpg Original artist: Nicolo Van Aelst (Flanders, 1527-1612), Antonio Tempesta (Italy, Florence, 1555-1630) • File:Hermes-Figur_an_der_Alten_Post_(Flensburg).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Hermes-Figur_ an_der_Alten_Post_%28Flensburg%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Soenke Rahn • File:Hermes-louvre3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Hermes-louvre3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys), 2006 Original artist: English: Copy of Lysippos? • File:Hermes_Logios_Altemps_33.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Hermes_Logios_Altemps_33. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: original file by Jastrow (2006) File:Hermes Logios Altemps Inv8624.jpg Original artist: Phidias (?) • File:Hermes_Maia_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2304.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Hermes_ Maia_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2304.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-02-10 Original artist: Nikoxenos Painter

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• File:Hermes_Psykhopompos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2797_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ d/d8/Hermes_Psykhopompos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2797_n2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-02-10 Original artist: Phiale Painter • File:Hermes_crioforo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Hermes_crioforo.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machinereadable author provided. Tetraktys assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Hermes_e_Sarpedon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Hermes_e_Sarpedon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Euphronios krater - front.jpg Original artist: Jaime Ardiles-Arce (photographer). Krater by Euphronios (painter) and Euxitheos (potter). • File:Hev_11_fig_H_hercules_et_cerberus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Hev_11_fig_H_hercules_ et_cerberus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.atlascoelestis.com/hev%2060.htm Original artist: Johannes Hevelius • File:Houghton_GC6_K6323_652o_-_Oedipus_aegyptiacus,_Isidis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 1/1f/Houghton_GC6_K6323_652o_-_Oedipus_aegyptiacus%2C_Isidis.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Houghton Library at Harvard University Original artist: Athanasius Kircher (author) • File:Hypnos_(BM).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Hypnos_%28BM%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jononmac46 • File:Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Hypnos_Thanatos_ BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project, 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei, DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Permission: [1]. Image renamed from Image:Thanatos-Maler 001.jpg Original artist: English: Thanatos Painter (eponymous vase) • File:Hécate_-_Mallarmé.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/H%C3%A9cate_-_Mallarm%C3%A9. png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Idata_Stigos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Idata_Stigos.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Artemis Katsadoura • File:Illustrations_to_Dante’{}s_Divine_Comedy_object_9_Butlin_812-9Minos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b7/Illustrations_to_Dante%27s_Divine_Comedy_object_9_Butlin_812-9Minos.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: William Blake Archive Original artist: William Blake • File:Inferno_Canto_5_line_4_Minos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Inferno_Canto_5_line_4_ Minos.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Inferno_Canto_6_lines_24-26.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Inferno_Canto_6_lines_24-26. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jan_Brueghel_(I)_-_Orpheus_in_the_Underworld_-_WGA03564.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ a/a2/Jan_Brueghel_%28I%29_-_Orpheus_in_the_Underworld_-_WGA03564.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/b/bruegel/jan_e/1/orpheus.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/ 6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/ b/bruegel/jan_e/1/orpheus.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/ 3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Jan Brueghel the Elder • File:Jean_Raoux_–_Orpheus_and_Eurydice.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Jean_Raoux_%E2% 80%93_Orpheus_and_Eurydice.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj= 720 Original artist: Jean Raoux • File:John_Martin_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/John_Martin_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: John Martin • File:Knight-Death-and-the-Devil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Knight-Death-and-the-Devil. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Gallica Digital Library under the digital ID btv1b6951300k Original artist: Albrecht Dürer • File:Kore55.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Kore55.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys), 2006 Original artist: ? • File:Lady_of_Auxerre_Louvre_Ma3098_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Lady_of_Auxerre_ Louvre_Ma3098_n2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Jastrow (2007) Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata. org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: http://fa13.com Original artist: Фёдор Таран • File:Lerna1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Lerna1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://outis.info/archaia_f/1611/lerna.html Original artist: Heinz Schmitz

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Life_of_Orpheus_Greek_Mythology_(Extra_Details).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Life_ of_Orpheus_Greek_Mythology_%28Extra_Details%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MaryroseB54 • File:Locri_Pinax_Of_Persephone_And_Hades.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Locri_Pinax_Of_ Persephone_And_Hades.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. AlMare assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Locri_Pinax_Persephone_Opens_Liknon_Mystikon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Locri_ Pinax_Persephone_Opens_Liknon_Mystikon.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. AlMare assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Lucian_Samosata.warj.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Lucian_Samosata.warj.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lycosoura-group.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Lycosoura-group.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: J. Matthew Harrington, National Archaeological Museum of Athens, personal digital image February 1, 2007 Original artist: Nefasdicere (= J. Matthew Harrington) • File:Lytovchenko_Olexandr_Kharon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Lytovchenko_Olexandr_Kharon. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Location: Russian Museum, St. Petersburg Original artist: Alexander Litovchenko • File:Mack,_Ludwig,_Die_Unterwelt,_mitte.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Mack%2C_Ludwig% 2C_Die_Unterwelt%2C_mitte.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Arbeiten von Ludwig Mack, Bildhauer in Stuttgart : in Conturen gezeichnet von Rudolph Lohbauer. Mit Gedichten von Rudolph Magenau, Ludwig Neuffer, Gustav Schwab. 1. Heft, Tafel 4a Original artist: Ludwig Mack (1799-1831), Bildhauer • File:Magic_tablet_from_Pergamon_(Wünsch,_Antikes_Zaubergerät).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/72/ Magic_tablet_from_Pergamon_%28W%C3%BCnsch%2C_Antikes_Zauberger%C3%A4t%29.png License: PD-US Contributors: Original publication: Antikes Zaubergerät aus Pergamon Immediate source: Google Books[1] Original artist: Richard Wünsch (Life time: 1869–1915) • File:Medusa_coin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Medusa_coin.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=128768 Original artist: Classical Numismatic Group • File:Michelangelo,_giudizio_universale,_dettagli_50.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Michelangelo% 2C_giudizio_universale%2C_dettagli_50.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scan: De Vecchi, Cappella Sistina, 1999 Original artist: see filename or category • File:Minos_scylla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Minos_scylla.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: ? • File:NAMA_Hermès_&_Myrrhinè.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/NAMA_Herm%C3%A8s_%26_ Myrrhin%C3%A8.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: User:Marsyas (2005-12-16) Original artist: ? • File:NAMA_Ploutos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/NAMA_Ploutos.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Marsyas assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Nekyia_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_1494_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Nekyia_ Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_1494_n2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-02-13 Original artist: Swing Painter • File:Orestes_Delphi_BM_GR1917.12-10.1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Orestes_Delphi_BM_ GR1917.12-10.1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: English: Python (as painter) • File:Ossuary_Hecht_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Ossuary_Hecht_Museum.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Golf Bravo • File:P1010629_crop.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/P1010629_crop.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aeleftherios • File:Paestum_BW_2013-05-17_15-01-57.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Paestum_BW_2013-05-17_ 15-01-57.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner • File:Palazzo_Minosse7.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Palazzo_Minosse7.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Pantikapey.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Pantikapey.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pantikapey.jpg Original artist: en:User:Clipper • File:Persephone_Hades_BM_Vase_E82.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Persephone_Hades_BM_ Vase_E82.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (User:Jastrow), 2007 Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www. wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Persephone_krater_Antikensammlung_Berlin_1984.40.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Persephone_ krater_Antikensammlung_Berlin_1984.40.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2008 Original artist: Circle of the Darius Painter • File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Hercules_and_Cerberus,_1636.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Peter_ Paul_Rubens_-_Hercules_and_Cerberus%2C_1636.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens

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• File:Pinax_with_Persephone_and_Hades_Enthroned,_500-450_BC,_Greek,_Locri_Epizephirii,_Mannella_district,_Sanctuary_ of_Persephone,_terracotta_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC08242.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 6/61/Pinax_with_Persephone_and_Hades_Enthroned%2C_500-450_BC%2C_Greek%2C_Locri_Epizephirii%2C_Mannella_district% 2C_Sanctuary_of_Persephone%2C_terracotta_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC08242.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Daderot Original artist: Daderot • File:Piscina_Mirabilis_2010-by-RaBoe-19.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Piscina_Mirabilis_2010-by-RaBoe-19. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Own work Original artist: © Ra Boe / Wikipedia • File:Pluton_by_Henri_Chapu.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/97/Pluton_by_Henri_Chapu.png License: CCBY-3.0 Contributors: Commons Original artist: User:Mel22 • File:Proserpina_kidnapped_Kircheriano_Terme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Proserpina_kidnapped_ Kircheriano_Terme.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: ? • File:Psyche-Waterhouse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Psyche-Waterhouse.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Red_figure_volute_krater_with_scene_of_the_Underworld,_follower_of_the_Baltimore_Painter,_Hermitage.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Red_figure_volute_krater_with_scene_of_the_Underworld%2C_follower_of_the_ Baltimore_Painter%2C_Hermitage.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wmpearl • File:Rembrandt_-_The_Rape_of_Proserpine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 4/43/Rembrandt_-_The_Rape_of_Proserpine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: hQG4sLnqY3kx1g at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Rembrandt • File:Remiz_pendulinus_nest_in_Greece.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Remiz_pendulinus_nest_ in_Greece.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ΑΡΧΕΙΟ ΧΑΡΑΛΑΜΠΟΥ ΓΚΟΥΒΑ Original artist: ΧΑΡΑΛΑΜΠΟΣ ΓΚΟΥΒΑΣ • File:Rio_Lima_2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Rio_Lima_2.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Osvaldo Gago fotografar.net • File:Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ec/Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg' src='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home. svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home. svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_ folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/9118' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Roman Empire) • File:S03_06_01_020_image_2524.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/S03_06_01_020_image_2524. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Brooklyn Museum Original artist: William Henry Goodyear • File:Sarcophagus_with_the_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Hades_(detail).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/0a/Sarcophagus_with_the_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Hades_%28detail%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by Ad Meskens. Original artist: Anonymous (Roman). • File:Schwabe_Carlos_Elysian_Fields.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Schwabe_Carlos_Elysian_ Fields.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Carlos Schwabe • File:Serapis.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Serapis.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: World Imaging • File:Simone_Martini_044.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Simone_Martini_044.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Simone Martini • File:Skyphos_aus_Argos.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Skyphos_aus_Argos.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Archäologische Zeitung (1843), this page Original artist: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut • File:SorteMuld_guldgubber_600px.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/SorteMuld_guldgubber_600px. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Egen bild Original artist: Martin Stoltze • File:Statue_Hermes_Chiaramonti.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Statue_Hermes_Chiaramonti. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

44.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

347

• File:Sutton.Hoo.PurseLid.RobRoy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Sutton.Hoo.PurseLid.RobRoy. jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://flickr.com/people/robroy/ or http://www.roblog.com Original artist: Rob Roy User: Robroyaus on en:wikipedia.org • File:T16.5Hekate.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/T16.5Hekate.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/T16.5.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata: Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-filewidth='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Tetradrachm_Athens_450_reverse_CdM_Paris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Tetradrachm_ Athens_450_reverse_CdM_Paris.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen Original artist: Unknown<a href='https:// www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto,_Amphipolis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/The_ Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.theamphipolistomb.com/ second-chamber Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata: Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:The_Vestibule_of_Hell_and_Souls_Mustering_to_Cross_the_Acheron_Blake.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/66/The_Vestibule_of_Hell_and_Souls_Mustering_to_Cross_the_Acheron_Blake.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: William Blake Archive Original artist: William Blake • File:Throning_goddess_(Persephone)_480-460_BC_(Sk_1761)_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ f/fb/Throning_goddess_%28Persephone%29_480-460_BC_%28Sk_1761%29_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nemracc • File:Tiryns_chariot_fresco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Tiryns_chariot_fresco.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Tremissis_Julius_Nepos-RIC_3221.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Tremissis_Julius_Nepos-RIC_ 3221.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Turkey_adm_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Turkey_adm_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Own work using: • United States National Imagery and Mapping Agency data • World Data Base II data Original artist: NordNordWest • File:Virgil_solis_ovid_metamorphosen7_11.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Virgil_solis_ovid_ metamorphosen7_11.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.latein-pagina.de/ovid_illustrationen/virgil_solis/buch7/vs7_ 11.htm Originalbild: Virgil Solis, P. Ovidii Metamorphosis VII, Frankfurt MDLXXXI (1581), fol. 94 v., imago 11 Original artist: Virgil Solis • File:Waterhouse-sleep_and_his_half-brother_death-1874.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Waterhouse-sleep_ and_his_half-brother_death-1874.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: John William Waterhouse • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:William_Blake_006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/William_Blake_006.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: William Blake • File:Wilson-avernus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Wilson-avernus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons., Original uploader was ChrisO at en.wikipedia - (21 September 2005) Original artist: Richard Wilson • File:Zeus_Otricoli_Pio-Clementino_Inv257.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Zeus_Otricoli_Pio-Clementino_ Inv257.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

44.3.3

Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0