Tested Methodologies and Results from Europe
High Speed Rail
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................... 4
2 SCOPE OF THE TOPIC................................................. 8 THE COMMON TRANSPORT POLICY .......................... 11 THE EUROPEAN UNION IS ON TRACK – DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SPEED RAIL NETWORK ............................. 15 YES TO HIGH-SPEED RAILWAYS! BUT WHY? ........... 17 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF HIGH-SPEED TRAINS 20 GROWING DEMAND ................................................. 22 NETWORK EXTENSION............................................. 24 SHINING EXAMPLES AND STRATEGIES IN EUROPE . 27 France ............................................................................................................................ 27 Germany ........................................................................................................................ 30 Spain .............................................................................................................................. 33
Comparison of three national projects ......................................................... 36
OUTLOOK ON RESEARCH ......................................... 40 What’s next? ............................................................................................................. 40 Results ......................................................................................................................... 46
3 REFERENCES ............................................................ 48
This publication was produced by the PRESS4TRANSPORT consortium on behalf of the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Research. The European Union, the European Commission or any person acting on their behalf are not responsible for the accurateness, completeness, use of the information contained in this Fiche, nor shall they be liable for any loss, including consequential loss, that might derive from such use or from the findings of the Fiche themselves. Although the authors exercised all reasonable efforts to ensure the accuracy and the quality of the contents of this publication, the Consortium assumes no liability for any inadvertent error or omission that may appear in this publication. Additional information on the analyzed projects is available on the PRESS4TRANSPORT website at http://www.press4transport.eu/vpo/thematic_fiches.php Created by: PRESS4TRANSPORT Consortium Coordinator: CYBION Srl Responsible Scientific Partner: Budapest University of Technology and Economics Author: Balazs Kozak, Gabor Szendro
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY 4
This paper aims at giving an
Transport is organic part of our
overall view of high-speed rail
everyday life, important part of
in Europe. It investigates the
the
policy background of this mode
European
Commission
of transport and shows how the
indifferent
from
high-speed
related
integrated
rail and
became
non-negligible
economy,
therefore
the
problems
increasing
the
is
not
transport such
as
occurrence
of
part of the European policies. It
congestions,
also gives a thorough picture
infrastructure of peripheral and
about the recent situation within
cohesion
the European Union, and how far
pollution coming from transport
the
and related health problems etc.
development
of
network
underdeveloped
regions,
increasing
extensions could reach as well as about
ongoing
research
The European Union is strongly committed
programmes.
sustainable
to
create
transport
a
system
High-speed train is a form of
which is described in the White
passenger
Paper. In this common transport
transport
in
which
trains travel at a speed of at
policy
least 200 km/h and may exceed
specific role and calls attention to
300
km/h
in
railways
have
its
own
special
the recent situation in respect to
circumstances, and this gives its
the future objectives and the
greatest advantage among many
Single European Market in which
others.
high-speed decisive role.
rail
could
play
a
Railways had been an issue of
time,
comfort,
and
previous EU transport policies,
environmental impact.
low
which led to the creation of a core
multi-modal
transport
network of the European Union is created.
5
The
Trans-European
Transport Network (TEN-T) puts large emphasis on the railways with
special regards to high-
speed rail. High-speed rail policy frameworks
come
into
action
through European projects such as the fully functional TransEuropean (TEN-T)
Transport by
Network
2030, finishing
a
complete high-speed rail network concerning all member states of the European Union by 2030, and
use
the
synergies
by
Conventional rail was stagnating or
losing
share
the last two decades, although recently
there
has
been
an
overall slight increase and stop of
fallback
in
market
share,
thanks to high-speed rail, which could
lead
to
the
revival
of
railways 200 years after this transport
technology
changed
the world. The appearance of new
transport
had
an
unprecedented impact on travel habits where it was implemented and gave impetus for further network
combining air transport.
market
depending on member states in
extensions,
albeit
mostly in EU-15 countries. This new technology appeared decades ago in the European market and from its short and successful history, its potentials and European transport policies bright future is foreseen for highspeed rail. The most important factors
are
discussed
in
this
section such as distance, travel
Germany, France and Spain are considered leading countries in the
European
high-speed
market, therefore we decided to give more detailed look on them by introducing three prominent project from each demonstrating
the
success of
this mode
of
transport.
European gauge as well), which changed
radically
the
former
travel habits on that route and France, which is a technological leader in European and world
served as a best practice for future developments.
market, had a major role in
6
implementing high-speed rail in
The European Union must invest
Europe by the Paris-Marseille line
in research and development to
by
maintain its leading position in
which
the
Mediterranean
region is as close as 3 hours
high-speed
from the French capital.
Moreover,
rail the
competitive Germany
invested
mostly
upgrading
conventional
in
tracks,
but creating a decentralized and more or less evenly distributed system.
The
case
of
the
Frankfurt-Cologne line serves as a best practice for intermodality between air and rail transport, which is among the priorities of the European Commission. Spain
has
the
longest
high-
speed rail system and plans to have a dense network that is easily accessible to the majority of the population. The MadridSeville
line
was
the
first
inaugurated line (the first with
technology. EU
needs
and
a
sustainable
transport system in which highspeed rail plays major role. The Seventh Framework Programme of
the
European
Commission
R&D
projects
financed
concentrate on such innovations which and
foster lower
reliability,
costs
of
safety
European
railways,
including
high-speed
rail.
in
innovations
All
all,
contribute to the interoperability of European railway systems The R&D projects concentrate on the physical infrastructure and the rolling stock interoperability ensuring more attractive, safer,
cheaper
and
more
reliable
European high-speed rail system.
communicate
their
surface
transport research results to the media.
PRESS4TRANSPORT
is funded
by the European Commission's Directorate-General for Research
7
PRESS4TRANSPORT
details:
under the Seventh Framework
This fiche is produced within the
Programme
PRESS4TRANSPORT
Technological
Press
Office
Sustainable
to
(Virtual
improve
Surface
EU
Transport
research media visibility on a national
and
regional
level)
project. The overall aim of the project is to assists EU, National and
Regional
funded
projects
(FP7).
for
Research
and
Development
Scope
of
the
topic
The
8
high-speed train (HST)
is a way of passenger railway transport that is much faster than ordinary railways. According to the definition of the European Union 1 HSTs are travelling at a speed on the order of 200 km/h on
existing
lines
which
have
been or are specially upgraded or travelling at a speed of at least 250 km/h on lines specially built
for
enabling km/h
high-speed, speeds
to
be
of
while
over
300
reached
in
Figure 1: HST between Frankfurt-Cologne rising above - symbolically - A3 Motorway (Source: DPA)
appropriate circumstances. This speed makes HST competitive
Transport is part of our everyday
with cars and air transport over
life and everyone is concerned
medium
about it. More than 10 million
length
distances
inter-urban transport.
in
people
are
sector,
which
employed
in
produces
this more
than 10% of the EU’s GDP. Other common policies deal with the transport
sector
as
a
major
source of pollution (greenhouse 1
EC Directive 96/58
gases,
acidifying
substances,
ozone
precursors,
particulate
matter, etc.) with large potential
to the high-performance highspeed lines.
in pollution reduction as well as key
9
consumer
of
scarce
The
White
Paper
on
resources. The EU is aware of
transport
traffic-related
revitalization of railways as one
increasing
problems:
occurrence
congestions,
in
2001
set
the
of
of the major goals. The latest
underdeveloped
data shows that the goals are
infrastructure of peripheral and
only
cohesion
increasing
although railways carried more
pollution coming from transport
goods and passengers in the last
and related health problems etc.
years, but the increase of road
The
transport and aviation was much
regions,
European
committed
Commission
to
create
modern,
a
is
safe,
partially
achieved
and
more significant.
economically
competitive,
environmental-
On the contrary to the overall
friendly
socially
decrease
and
sustainable
fair,
transportation
in
transport
share,
high-speed railway network in Europe is considered as a real
system.
success and numerous shining Mostly
road
transport
the
examples show that the revival
European Union has increased to
of railway transport is on the
the
horizon.
detriment
of
of
railway
transport while there is also a air
That is why the White Paper
transport. This is due to the
2011 is intended to give further
European railway network, which
impetus for the development of
is
high-speed
strong
a
competition
mixture
modern.
This
of
with
ancient
contrast
and
ranges
from decrepit countryside lines
railway
and
network
conventional with
ambitious objectives by 2050.
its
This Fiche aims to give a general
also outline the future trends and
overview on the significance of
how this technology can change
high-speed trains including policy
travel habits and contribute to
background, showing the effects
other common policies.
of
past investments of
operating
10
systems
today
through
shining examples. This paper will
as possible, reinforce safety and
Common Transport Policy The
11
facilitate
international
cooperation
by
creating
an
The European Community had no
integrated
effective
Transport
network of European transport.
Policy for the first three decades
The Cohesion Fund budget was
following the Treaty of Rome
created
(1957)
transport
Common
due
to
inefficient
cooperation between the Member States. The
policy
of
and
later
comprehensive
on
for
such
developments
from
Community sources.
making between
“Since the 2001 release of the
member states by facilitating the
White Paper published by the
free movement of individuals and
European
goods
Single Market policy has been
boundaries
through
irrelevant
gained the
Maastricht
momentum Treaty
(1992),
of which
represents a turning point for the Common Transport Policy. The beginning
of
infrastructural
a
real
policy
common is
dated
from this event, when the TransEuropean
Network
was
established. The main purposes of this transport policy are to complete the European Single Market,
support
sustainable
development, extend networks
throughout
transport Europe,
make use of space as efficiently
Commission,
oriented and
the
towards harmoniously
simultaneously
improving
the various modes of transport, in particular with co-modality. In the 2006 revision of the White Paper, the Commission set an aim
at
increasing
competitiveness
the
of
railway,
improving
transport
systems
operating
with
the
latest
technology, introducing charges for the
use
of
infrastructure,
supporting alternative propulsion vehicles and elaborating methods to reduce congestion.�
As
12
proclaimed
in
the
White
relatively higher growth rate of
Paper on Transport in 2001,
economic development of EU-12
the EU is devoted to decouple
changes gradually the transport
the growth of GDP from the
figures. The integration of the
growth of transport related to it.
EU-12 to the EU-15 changed the
Due to the continuous increase in
direction of trade, and therefore
transport
the
the
demand,
decoupling
of
economy
direction
transport,
which
and
has shifted from the Eastwards
transport does not seem to be
to the Westwards, just like trade
realized. Despite the fact that
is shifting from domestic market
there
to
are
spreading
examples best
practices
sustainable
and in
transportation,
unfortunately
the
international.
restructuring transport
of
from
The
industry large
bulk
and to
technological
smaller bulk give priority to the
shift seems to be slower and not
more flexible and reliable road
even
transport
enough
to
balance
the
instead
of
railroad,
growth of demand deriving from
while in passenger transport the
the
The
liberalization of civil aviation and
ongoing trends project the rapid
the extension of the motorway
growth of motorization in the EU-
network increased considerably
12
to
increase
countries;
of
users.
therefore
the
gradual change of modal split will be similar to EU-15 countries. Future projections and existing experiences show the prevailing of road transport and aviation to the detriment of railroad. The
EU
enlargement
extension of Schengen borders,
detriment
of
railway
transport. The ongoing trends (increasing modal split of aviation and road transport) do not contribute to other horizontal policies of the EU
and
the
on
agenda
environmental
(sustainability, protection,
climate and energy issues).
Furthermore, the transport policy
Transport 2050 Strategy which
of EU-12 enhances the increase
aims at creating a competitive
of
transport
road
transport
infrastructure
13
by
and
new
system
that
will
generated
increase mobility, remove major
traffic. This approach is neither
barriers in key areas and fuel
sustainable
growth and employment. This
nor a
viable
way
concerning the trends, therefore
strategy
sustainable,
described
in
the
environmental
Transport 2011 White Paper for a
impact-minimizing solutions have
Roadmap to a Single European
taken place while meeting the
Transport Area.
mobility demand of people. Key objectives set by European Already in the 2006 revision, the
Transport 2050 Strategy:
revitalization of railway transport and
linking
modes
was
it
up
with
given
other

special
No more conventionally fuelled cars in cities;
attention. The railway system fell behind in the competition (modal

40% use of sustainable low
split shrunk to 10.5% in freight,
carbon fuels in aviation and at
6%
least
in
among
passenger transport
transport) modes
and
40%
cut
in
shipping
emissions;
faces several problems to be solved, even as railway transport is alive and will be an integrated, non-negligible
part
of
the
European transport system.

A 50% shift of medium distance intercity passenger and freight journeys from road to rail and waterborne transport;
The European Commission has presented on 28th March, 2011 the
EU's
comprehensive

Overall 60% cut in transport
8.6% compared to 6.3% of the
emissions by the middle of the
railways in 2008.
century. The
The clear vision of the European
European
Commission
continues opening the
14
market
and moves closer to a single transport
system
attention
to
with
special
interoperability
among the different modes of
Commission is to raise the modal split of railways and create an intermodal, well-functioning and energy-efficient system.
transport
Therefore,
the
completion of the TEN-T network is vital, parallel to creating new,
transport.
high-quality
capacities
to
Large investments are needed to
increase market share in many
change the actual infrastructure
fields namely medium-distance
towards
sustainable
traffic both on passenger and
which
freight transport.
a
optimized modal
more one
split
is
in
more
the
diverse
among the transport players. In 2008, 45.9% of freight traffic was on road, compared to the 10.8%
and
3.6%
share
of
railways and inland waterways, respectively. The passenger transport market is even more distorted, where passenger cars make up 72.5%, while
aviation
gradually
is
increasing
having part
a
with
lines, integrated aviation and rail
The European Union is on track – development of high-speed network
transport services, connections
rail
and systems. There is a large
It is almost two centuries after the first train ran in the world,
15
ever since railways are still a means of transport with major potential. potential
The is
use
the
key
of in
this the
renewal of the railways therefore in achieving modal rebalance in transport. Today it is a mixture of ancient and modern elements. On the one hand, high-speed network
provides
high
quality
service while on the other hand, slow,
rail
infrastructure,
therefore the EU continues its efforts which have started in the last decade. The priority is to build
new
tracks
to
capacity
to free
freight
transport.
increase
up
lines for Adequate
comfort and services could be provided by upgrading existing lines with the latest technology, instead
of
building
new lines
which is evidently more costly. Already in 2001, the White Paper
freight trains crawl in suburban
for transport set the priority to
or even in remote countryside
revitalize
regions.
market-share, the
commuter
high-speed
and
With
crowded
emphasis on the development of
EU
enlargement
distances are increasing among centers at opposite ends of the European
Union,
which
an
effective high-speed passenger network could shrink. Such a network comprises of high-speed railway lines, including upgraded
railways
to
reduce
double pollution
by 50%, and increase efficiency by
50%
by
the
end
of
the
decade. One of the major results was the partial creation of the rail
market.
Some
problems
solved, new challenges came, and still more effort should be put into creating interoperability
among the railway systems of
developing multimodal transport
member states.
corridors.
The
TEN-T
focuses
very closely on the development The programme for the
European
Transport
Networks
16
Trans-
(TEN-T)
is
designed to guarantee optimum
of high-speed transport. Out of the
30
priority
projects
put
forward under this programme, 14 concern high-speed rail lines.
mobility and coherence between
Further
the various modes of transport in
speed railway network belongs to
the Union as introduced under
the reassuring plans of the EU in
the Treaty of Maastricht. The
creating a sustainable transport
main
system. This aims at creating an
priorities
of
this policy,
development
of
high-
which accounts for a large part
environmental
of the White Paper on transport
competitor
and
policy are to establish the key
complementary
of
links
transport and aviation in intercity
needed
to
facilitate
transport, optimize the capacity of
existing
specifications
for
network
interoperability
and
the
environmental
passenger transport. The
existence
extension
of
and
to
achieve
the
objectives of the Lisbon Strategy (increase
gradual
high-speed
rail
network proved to be successful
(London-Paris, order
motorized
in changing people’s travel habits
dimension. In
both
infrastructure,
produce
integrate
friendly
competitiveness
of railways.
and
create new jobs), the European
The
Union has launched the TEN-T
Transport
project,
2011
which
aims
Madrid-Seville)
and this could lead to the revival
at
recently
-
published
White
Paper
Transport
2050
Strategy
entails
ambitious
points
sufficiently connected to the
several
rail
concerning
freight
and,
possible, inland
railways and high-speed railway:
where
waterway
system.
17
By
2050,
complete
a
European high-speed rail
Already
network. Triple the length
examples
to
of the existing high-speed
transport
routes,
rail network (6214 km at
speed
the end of 2009) by 2030
alternative to aviation in terms of
and
time, price and comfort such as
maintain
railway
a
network
dense in
all
the
today
there
follow
trains
on
many
where
high-
offer
London-Paris
are
a
and
real
Madrid-
Member States. By 2050
Seville lines. The EU encourages
the
high-speed
majority
of
distance
mediumpassenger
transport should go by rail.
train
operators,
airlines and airport managers to use to synergies of both means of transport and to cooperate
A fully functional and EU-
while
wide multimodal TEN-T
transport hubs at airport and
‘core network’ by 2030,
integration of both systems are
with
the
a
high
quality
and
capacity network by 2050
competing.
favorable
Intermodal
ways
of
cooperation.
and a corresponding set of
Yes
information services.
to
railways!
By 2050, connect all core network airports to the rail
network,
preferably
high-speed; ensure that all core
seaports
are
The
high-speed
But why?
history
of
high-speed
railways in Europe is dating back to 1977 when Italy introduced the first high-speed railway line
between Rome and Florence, but
operators make large efforts to
the
create the first trans-European
real
technological
breakthrough
was
inauguration
18
of
the
high-speed
HSL, between Cologne,
Paris, Brussels,
Amsterdam
and
railway line between Paris and
London, an effort already close
Lyon with TGV (Train Ă Grande
to completion. This could set a
Vitesse) HSTs. Germany joined
good example for interoperable
the venture in the early 1990s
lines.
with the ICE (InterCity Express), then Spain by the AVE (Alta Velocidad
Espanola)
in
1992.
Today, newly built special track technology is mainly reviving in France,
Germany,
Spain,
Belgium, Netherlands and Italy, while in Great-Britain, Sweden and some parts of Germany still use the upgraded conventional tracks. Although the mixture of technologies, Union
is
the
technology speed
the
train
European
world
provider
Figure 2: Increase in HSLs in Europe in km (1995-2009)
leader
in
It
is
not
easy
to
compare
high-
different modes of transport, but
and
among many factors (distance,
technology,
makes continuous technological
time,
price,
comfort,
and
progress to maintain this position
environmental
impacts)
one
amid increasing competition.
decisive factor is time. Highspeed trains travel at a speed of
Each year, the European HSL is
200-350 km/h in Europe. This
getting
enables them to be the fastest
longer
and
HS
rail
mode
on
definite
distances.
According to studies, high-speed trains
are
the
fastest
on
distances between 150 and 800 km
in
door
to
door
journey
times. Below 150 km they are
19
less competitive with road or conventional
rail
travel,
but
between 150 and 400 km the conventional and high-speed rail offers
faster
airlines,
while
travel for
against journeys
between 400 and 800 km highspeed rail is preferred over air and road travel. Above 800 km air travel takes over high-speed rail, but the difference is still not decisive and this difference is increasing distance.
moderately
with
Figure 3: Journey times vs distance for rail (HS and conventional lines) and air transport
Close
cross-border cooperation
of high-speed line operators is getting
more
important
in
and
more
medium-distance
cross-border journeys and it is related to the competitiveness of high-speed lines such as in case of
Paris-London-Brussels-
Amsterdam-Cologne, see figure below. The development of the highspeed
network
distances
shrunk
between
the
Western
European cities as shown in the
Environmental
figure below.
of high-speed trains Fighting
impact
climate
change,
developing a trans-European HSL network is one of the European Union’s main objectives. Highspeed passenger transport will
20
allow high levels of mobility to be
maintained,
while
guaranteeing the sustainability of
the
European
transport
system. This global issue is on Figure 4: Journey times between stations 1989-2009
the political and social agenda,
Apart from the time factor, high-
attraction to rail transport due to
speed trains provide unrivalled
its
passenger comfort. The interior
Transport accounts for 25.1% of
of the carriages is designed to
EU-27 CO 2 emissions. Out of this
create a relaxing environment
only 0.6% is from rail transport
suitable
both from passenger and freight
both
relaxation.
for
work
High-speed
and trains
therefore,
low
it
transport
(excluding
emissions
large individual space, internet,
consumption).
headrest, folding tables, onboard restaurant, radio and television services,
and
the
unlimited
possibility to use mobile phones.
further
environmental
offer onboard services such as
power socket for electric devices,
gives
from
impact.
indirect electricity
ratio of nuclear and renewable electricity generation is higher. In
case
of
not
taking
into
account the indirect emissions from electricity generation, CO2 emissions (grams per passenger-
21
kilometre) is 2.7 for high-speed trains compared to 153 g/pkm for air and 115.7 g/pkm for car Figure 5: CO2 emissions by mode of transport in the EU-27 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)
Today,
high-speed
trains
in
Europe use only electricity and their direct local CO 2 emissions are almost zero in their operation zones,
though
CO2
emitted
during electricity production has to
be
taken
into
account,
on a Paris-Marseille journey. Several
studies
CO2
emitted
infrastructure, not only the CO2 emitted indirectly by operation.
examined
depends
on
the
the
during the construction of the
Von
therefore
during
production of the rolling stock,
not zero. The
impact
to
the whole life-cycle including also
therefore their carbon footprint is climate
emphasize
reflect the carbon-footprint on
Rozycki the
et
al.
(2003)
environmental
effects of the InterCity Express
primary energy source used for
(ICE)
on
electricity generation. This varies
route
between
among countries may be higher
Wuerzburg. In this section, 14%
in countries where mostly fossil
of total energy use is related to
fuels
the
are
used
for
electricity
generation, and lower where the
traffic
the
high-speed
rail
Hannover
and
infrastructure
and
about 25% of the CO 2 emissions,
which is in total 69.4 g CO2-
Commission
equivalent per pkm.
different measures at the EU level
The
carbon-footprint
from
country
to
changes
country
and
track section to track section
22
because of the different variables that
make
up
this
indicator.
Therefore, it is hard
to give
universal estimation. The carbon footprint of electricity generation of the rolling stock and of the track
system
has
numerous
variables such energy mix used for
electricity
generation,
topography, share of bridge and tunnels,
life-span
infrastructure,
of
maintenance
of
that
has
devised
concerning
harmonisation assessment
the
of
and
noise
management,
market access requirements for certain vehicles and equipment etc. Railway industry measures cover
infrastructure
operators
(e.g. the acoustic grinding of rails, noise barriers, speed limits at night) and
train
(e.g. replacement of
operators cast-iron
brakes with low-noise composite materials).
Newly
high-speed
train
constructed tracks
are
mostly built with noise barriers along sensitive areas.
traffic infrastructure and rolling stock, load factor etc. are all important factors to be taken into account. From this point of view,
French
railways
use
electricity coming from nuclear energy, while Italy and Germany use solid fuel, gas, oil mix for electricity production. Transport-created attention
of
The demand for mobility grows year by year, and in absolute value passenger rail transport grew by about 2.1% between 1990
and
2008.
Since
other
modes of transport grew even faster, therefore the modal split
noise
the
Growing demand
raised
European
of railways in EU-27 shrunk to 6.3% by 2008. However, this
value masked the considerable
growth in passenger transport is
disparity in performance between
driven
the EU-15, which, taken as a
availability
whole, has experienced strong
affordable modes in transport.
primarily of
by
the
faster
and
volume growth (33.8%), and the EU-12 which has experienced a
23
severe
decline
in
passenger
volumes (62%), but since 2005 they shows signs of stabilization.
Since the first high-speed line was
introduced
in
Italy,
the
number of passengers opting for this
mode
continuously
of
transport increased.
has The
passenger volume on all EU-12 lines increased from 15.2 billion pkm in 1990 to 92.33 billion pkm in 2008.
Figure 6: Total rail passenger traffic volume (M passenger-km) 1990-2008 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)
The
growing
demand
for
passenger rail transport is due to the appearance of high-quality service. High-speed rail networks have
been
successful
Figure 7: High-speed and conventional passenger volume trends 1990-2008 (M passenger-km) (Source: Eurostat)
in
increasing the use of rail by
The
attracting entirely new traffic to
investment in high-speed rail on
impact of
rail both as a result of capturing
total rail use can be most clearly
traffic from air and road but also
seen in France, a country which
by generating new traffic. The
has
developed
the
successful
the
most
extensive network
high-speed that
rail through
high-speed
overtaken
trains reached a 24% market share within rail transport. The
with
relative trends in high-speed and
greatest
volume
of
passenger traffic by 2003.
conventional showing
24
which
Germany as the Member State the
has
rail
The
figure
below
shows
the
relative trends of high-speed and
rail
use
the
in
EU,
increasing
importance of high-speed rail to Europe’s railway industry.
conventional traffic in France. States that have invested heavily in
high-speed
rewarded volumes
rail have
with of
been
considerable
traffic
on
HSR
networks. In 2008, high-speed formed 61.9% of total passenger rail traffic in France, 28.5% in Figure 8: High-speed and conventional rail passenger traffic volume (M passenger-km) 1990-2008 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)
Several countries are investing heavily in rail infrastructure for high-speed passenger services or to
expand
provide networks.
capacity new Between
and
to
high-speed 1990
and
2008 the overall volume of rail passenger traffic increased by 33.3 % driven by an increase of 253% in the use of high-speed
Germany,
27.2%
in
Sweden,
22.9% in Spain, and 17.8% in Italy.
Almost
wherever
HSR
services have been provided they are
providing
an
increasing
proportion of total rail use as well.
Network extension According
to forecasts in
the
TEN-T programme, the TransEuropean
high-speed
network
will be 22,140 km long overall by
2020, compared with 9,693 km
south-east, the centre and the
in 2008. By 2030, once the high-
south-west of Europe.”
speed
TEN-T
has
been
completed, the network will have
Several countries plan network
a length of 30,750 km.
extension
projects:
Spain,
Portugal, Poland, Sweden, and
25
“In order to fully develop a Trans-
the United Kingdom as well as
European high-speed line hub,
third countries.
several
priority
projects
are
devoted to the north-south link between Southwest
networks. European
The high-
speed rail axis will link the Iberian Peninsula to the rest of Europe in a fully interoperable
An upgraded line to 220km/h will provide
railway
link
between
Helsinki and St. Petersburg and this will reduce journey time and it will be able to cope with the increasing
forecasted
traffic
volumes.
network. The vital north-south corridor through the Alps (Berlin–
Turkey is building its own high-
Verona–Milan–Bologna–Naples–
speed network partially financed
Messina–Palermo axis) will link
by the EU. The first section was
major German and Italian cities.
opened in March 2009 between
/
Ankara and Eskisehir and it will
The
Lyon-
Trieste–Divača
Koper–Divača–LjubljanaBudapest–Ukrainian border axis, which crosses this corridor at
reach
Istanbul
extension
with
halving
the
further total
journey time.
right angles, will be able to
Another three lines are already
absorb some of the constantly
being planned: Ankara – Konya,
increasing traffic between the
Ankara – Sivas and Istanbul– Bulgarian frontier.
This trend can only to increase as further high-speed rail lines are
commissioned:
Turkey
opened its first high-speed line in 2009, Austria and Switzerland are also constructing lines to
26
allow them to join the “highspeed club�, further high-speed lines are under construction in Spain,
France,
Germany
and
Italy, and lines are planned in a number of other states.
examples and strategies in Europe
leading position other new high-
In
best
been built to the same speed,
practices are introduced how a
voltage and signaling standards,
new
though
Shining this
chapter
or
some
upgraded
HSL
speed rail lines in Europe have
could
change travel habits.
27
TGV
France It
was
France
technological high-speed
that
led
the
breakthrough railways.
high-speed
line
in
reality
interoperability
The
was
of first
opened
trains
border.
The
due
issues,
to
not
all
can
cross
every
first
cross-border
high-speed line was connected to the
completion
of
Channel
Tunnel and complete high-speed infrastructure between
travel
Paris
and
time London
between Paris and Lyon in 1981.
dropped by the Eurostar from 5h
Today
12min to 2h 15min as well as
the
French
high-speed and
from Brussels to London from 4h
densely
52min to 1h 51min. This gave
network
is Paris-centered
reaches
the
largest,
populated areas in France (Lyon,
the
Marseille, Lille, Toulouse etc.).
advantage that on each line the
The total network accounts for
market share rose to 68 and
1,897
63%
km
(December
2010)
high-speed
rail
respectively.
so
The
Thalys
which is the second largest in
international
Europe.
brought Paris closer to Brussels
spreading
The
TGV
out
network beyond
is the
high-speed
much
train
merely to 1:22 away.
borders into other countries like Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland and United Kingdom. Due
to
central
Western
Europe
position and
on early
The
French
(nicknamed
high-speed the
train,
Concorde of
railways), the TGV, changed travel
habits
and
sometimes
radically
changed
modal
split
two steps from Lyon to Valence
between major cities. Today the
in 1994, and since 2001 the
market share of TGVs on Paris-
whole route is served by high-
Lyon line is taking over 90% in
speed tracks.
the air-rail travel market due to less than two hours travel, and
28
the market share is about 60% in corridors where travel time is around three hours. The ParisMarseille line has about 66% market
share,
and
good
connection with CDG airport only
Today the average journey time with
TGV
is
approximately
3
hours, while the scheduled flight time
from
Charles
de
Gaulle
airport is 1 hour 25 minutes. In 1999 45 flights, today only 26 flights per day operate from Paris to Marseille compared to the 17
in 3 hours.
trains.
easyJet attempted to
provide low-cost airline service on this route, but then it stopped operating after a year in 2005. According to estimations, 66% of rail and air traffic is by highspeed trains between the two destinations today. One reason Figure 6: TGV high-speed train (Source: www.presstv.ir)
could be the app. €60 price for a
Since the opening of first high-
half the price of the airplane fare
speed line between Paris and
on
Lyon, Marseille has been served
quality
by TGV, from Lyon to Marseille
better on TGVs and on iDTGVs
via
(“interactive
conventional
tracks.
The
high-speed line was extended in
single one-way TGV fare which is
average. On-board provided
is
service
generally
Relaxation
High-
speed Train”) than on airplanes.
29
In addition, great advantage of
comparable journey times due to
TGVs is the air-rail connection at
high-quality
Paris
comfortable,
Charles
de
Gaulle
service
and
much
better
International Airport; moreover,
terminals
the
located), and limitations on air
intermodality
facilitated
by
agreement
with
is
further
code
share
the
largest
airlines. The greatest competitor of highspeed rail could be the low-cost airlines, although they face two problems, which makes them fall behind in this competition. Due to slot constraint, they do not get enough slots at Paris Orly and the charges at Paris airports are
relatively
high,
therefore
they cannot be real competitors of high-speed rail services. The
development
of
Paris-
Marseille high-speed line was in fact the extension of the 1981 Paris-Lyon line and still this line has
further
extension
perspectives towards the French Riviera, to Nice. Today, TGVs achieved higher share than on other
European
routes
with
are
(more
reliable
competition service.
Germany The German high-speed network varies
significantly
from
the
French one. The geographically
30
distributed political demand and denser
and
more
evenly
distributed population resulted in Germany connecting more cities than France, therefore
it has
90% after shrinking the journey time to 1:10. Due to its central location and important within project, speed
transport
the
Germany line
corridors
boundaries
TEN-T
many
high-
developments
are
going on lately Berlin-Innsbruck, Saarbr端cken-Mannheim
lines,
Stuttgart-Ulm.
more stops. The political demand and
constitutional
obligations2
German
railways
put
on
neighboring countries by ICE and
upgrading existing lines than
plans go even further. It has now
building new high-speed lines,
daily
therefore the whole high-speed
Amsterdam,
rail network has a mixture of
Copenhagen, Zurich, Vienna and
both types of tracks. The fastest
in the near future to London as
section of the network is at a
well.
speed
of
300
emphasis
km/h
between
Frankfurt airport and Cologne by ICE.
The
ICE
took
over
the
market over airplanes on this section with market share above
2
Article 87, German Constitution
connection
almost
good
connection
more
to
have
made German governments to
to
all
Paris, Brussels,
31
Figure 7: ICE train at the Cologne station (Source: www.aito.co.uk)
intermediate stations. Lufthansa
The
high-
despite the strong competitor,
speed line was opened in 2002
and operates some flights, which
and sets a good example for
have scheduled journey times of
linking densely populated urban
40-45 minutes. Today 4 flights,
areas
European
nearly 50 high-speed trains, a
airports by high-speed rail. The
dozen of conventional trains, and
ICE takes the 177 km distance in
hundreds
approximately
Frankfurt-Cologne distance daily.
Cologne-Frankfurt
and
major
1
hour
10
kept some daily airlines in use
of
cars
take
the
minutes. In addition, this is one of
the
two
high-speed
rail
services where through baggage handling is offered for air/rail passengers, and where there is through
ticketing
between
air
and rail. The main competitors of ICE are not classical and lowcost airlines, rather the cars in the ‘country of Autobahn’. In approximately
2
hours
it
is
possible to take this trip by car, while
if
two or more
people
travel together, it is cheaper than
high-speed
train.
As mentioned before, high-speed network in Germany is a mixed network of both passenger and freight transport. This is a unique section in this network, because it is restricted only to passenger traffic. The ICE prices range from €39 to €110, while conventional trains offer a 35% discount compared to ICE. Air link is most likely to be provided between €108 and €418.
The
previous, ‘classic’ rail route along
Despite the great difference in
the Rhine is still in use to provide
prices, the stated reliability for
cheaper, but longer journey for
long-distance trains is 85% to
travellers
arrive within 5 minutes of their
and
to
serve
published time, while 83% in case of Lufthansa to arrive within 15 minutes of their published time. High-speed rail carrying 97% of
32
all passengers on the FrankfurtCologne route and therefore has a
dominant
market
share,
although prior to the high-speed line the market share of rail already considerably high, 8085%.
Spain The
longest
high-speed
railway network of Europe is found in Spain with 2,665 km
33
(2nd longest after China). Spain has serious plans to extend the network by 10,000 km between
including
the
Madrid-Barcelona
and the Madrid-Valencia line. The first AVE line to France was opened 2010 December and by 2012 train to Paris from Madrid trains
will
changing
operate
gauge,
just
without like
to
Lisbon.
2010 and 2020, so that 90% of its inhabitants would reach a high-speed train station within 50 km of their homes and from all
provincial
capitals
Madrid
could be reached within 3 hours. Spain had track gauge problems with the continental connection (France), and the new lines were built up to European standards. The
interoperability
of
the
Spanish high-speed trains (AVE) on conventional tracks is solved by
special
AVE
trains
with
interchangeable gauges. The first line was inaugurated in 1992 between Madrid and Seville that ended up to be a real success with seizing 83% of the market between the two cities. Six other lines have been opened since
Figure 8: AVE high-speed trains (Source: www.raileurope.com)
The
first
HSL
inaugurated
in
just
Spain
was
before
the
Seville World Expo in 1992 after 1986 decision to build the line. The curiosity of the line is that it operates
on
infrastructure,
totally according
new to
standard European gauge unlike the
Spanish
conventional
rail
network. The average journey time is approximately 2 hours 30
34
minutes linking Madrid, Seville
passengers carried by the train,
and cities in between (Ciudad
mostly
Real, Puertollano, Córdoba).
budget travelers.
The opening of the HSL changed
Although
the travel habits fundamentally
journey time is 1 hour by classic
between
air services and costs €140 on
the
two
conventional
cities.
The
competitors:
concentrating
average,
the
on
low-
scheduled
depending
on
air
many
airplane (from 42% to 16%), car
conditions. Only Iberia Airlines
(from 23% to 21%), bus (from
have
4% to 5%) and conventional rail
Seville to the central hub in
(from 33% to 1%) fell behind in
Madrid. Low-cost airlines are not
the competition against the new
operating on this route.
direct
connection
from
high-speed train by 2000. The main
competitor,
air
traffic
shrank to 20% share from 70% in
air/rail
competition
and
railways took over with the help
Traditionally, buses are the main of
long
distance
public
transport in Spain. Prior to the opening
of
the
HSL,
more
passengers travelled by bus on this route than by train. On the Madrid-Seville route it takes 6 hours and costs €17 for one-way ticket. Still today, buses carry 20%
are
Talgo
200
trains,
which offer cheaper tickets than AVE, but provide a bit slower service
between
the
two
destinations.
of AVE.
mode
There
of
the
number
of
Despite high-speed rail being the most expensive mode on this route (a standard one-way ticket for costs €50-70), it has the highest modal share with 58%. The reason for this high share according to the operator - is due to the shortest journey time in point-to-point travel and the approximately 100% punctuality
of
the
operator
service. offers
The a
AVE’s
punctuality
promise, which in fact means that if a train is more than 5 minutes late, the entire cost of the ticket is refunded. Less than
35
0.3%
of
refunded.
tickets The
have AVE
to
be
on-board
services provide equivalent or better than on airplanes. The first Spanish high-speed line proved to be successful and this success gave place for further high-speed rail development in other parts of Spain.
More information at: http://www.renfe.com http://www.sncf.com http://www.bahn.de
Comparison of three
in
national projects
literally a full line with 471 km
In
this
section
the
above-
a
longer
line
or
system,
cost 2.7 billion Euro.
mentioned three projects will be compared. These projects are, but it is interesting to find the
36
common points in them. Above all, the most important common feature is that all of them are a real success stories. General description
The shortest line of them all is the Frankfurt-Cologne line with its 177 km, which cost 6 billion Euros
according
to
Figure 9: Frankfurt-Cologne high-speed rail line (Source: WIkipedia)
Railway track
Deutsche
Bahn. This line is part of the
All three lines were built with the
Western
European
European
high-speed
standard
gauge
many
(1,435mm) and both are double-
countries. The extension of the
tracks. This fact is only worth
LGV Sud-Est and LGV Rhône-
mentioning in the case of Spain,
Alpes, the LGV Méditerranée is
where conventional tracks are of
244 km long and cost 3.8 billion
different gauge, and this line was
Euros. By the extension of the
the first to use the European
line, TGV trains can run from
standards
Paris to Marseille strictly on high-
interoperability of trains on the
speed line. The Seville-Madrid
European Single Market.
rail
network
connecting
line is more than a single section
which
will
help
line gives a good example for interoperability
of
European
systems, just like the gauge, the electric system on conventional lines is different from the newly Figure 10: ICE train passing by (Source: iStockphoto)
37
built high-speed lines.
Highest possible speed On each line, high-speed trains can reach speed of 300 km/h, which is often, such as in these cases, the operation speed of newly
built
high-speed
rail
infrastructures.
Electrification system The Madrid-Seville and the ParisMarseilles lines are built with 25 kV 50 Hz electric systems, in contrast
with
the
Frankfurt-
Figure 11: Madrid-Seville railway line in the Adamuz- Venta de InĂŠs section (Source: www.groupovimac.com)
Regions and cities served There are plenty of regions and
Cologne, which uses 15 kV 16.7
cities
Hz electric systems. The latter
construction of these high-speed
creates interoperability problems
lines.
in the liberalized European rail market, though the latest train engines are prepared to take into account the different national rail electric
systems.
The
Spanish
The
which
benefit from
Frankfurt-Cologne
speed
line
connects
the
high-
not
only
large German cities, but also densely
populated
regions.
Moreover, this railway line brings
other parts of the world closer with
quick
Frankfurt and
accessibility
International
Köln/Bonn
of
Figure 125: Frankfurt Airport Railway Station (Source: Wikipedia)
Airport
Airport.
This
project serves as a best practice for intermodality between air and
38
rail transport.
The
high-speed
rail line links: Frankfurt Main Station–
Frankfurt
Airport
–
Siegburg/Bonn – Cologne Main Station. Almost all trains stop at these stations, while some stop at Montabaur and Limburg Süd. On weekdays, there are nearly 50 ICE trains from Frankfurt to Cologne out of which 7 connects Cologne
Airport and
Frankfurt
Airport directly in about an hour trip, otherwise one change is required
with
short
stopover
from one airport to the other.
Figure 16. Frankfurt Airport - Train Station A3 Motorway complex from bird's-eye view (Source: www.fnp.de)
The main purpose of the MadridSeville line is to provide a fast link between the capital of the country
and
the
centre
of
Andalusia, also linking greater cities along the route. The line has 22 high-speed trains daily per
direction.
stations
are
In
between
Ciudad
Real,
Puertollano, and Toledo. Out of 22 only three trains run just between the two destinations, 19 stop in Cordoba as well, while 8 stop also in Ciudad Real and Puertollano.
The
difference
among different trains with more stops is only 10-10 minutes.
Along the Paris-Marseilles line there are 13 direct and 7 indirect trains per direction on weekdays. There are some shuttle trains between Paris-Gare de Lyon and Marseille
39
some
Saint-Charles, connect
the
while two
destinations with Avignon and fewer
with
Aix-en-Provence.
Indirect trains link Valence and Lyon. The Spanish and the French lines intend to connect greater regions and cities, while the German example connects also smaller cities in between the two final stations to the high-speed rail system.
OUTLOOK
ON
RESEARCH
ERRAC3 roadmap The European railway sector is
What’s next?
facing
challenges,
increasing The European Union can only
40
mainatain
its
world
leading
position in field of high-speed rail technology,
if
R&D
processes
and
the
including
competitiveness
attractiveness
transport
in
of
terms
of
rail speed,
availability, comfort, punctuality and reliability.
back these intentions. These challenges could be met by maintaining and environmental increasing
improving
performance,
capacity,
enhancing
infrastructure and to maintain The
Seventh
Framework
Programme runs several project which aim at improving the rail
the
green
compared
economic to
other
profile transport
modes.
transport in many fields. Within rail
transport
projects,
some
The
ERRAC roadmap
was
deals with high-speed rail, or the
created to coordinate different
project concern high-speed rail
rail related research activities.
besides conventional rail. These
Its
projects
strategic plan and then turn it
aim
at
improving
interoperability, safety, reducing cost
and
making
main
goal
is
to
draft
into reality by 2020.
railways
sustainable. Urban sociology and making
specific
methodologies
are also part of the Seventh Framework Programmes.
3
European Rail Research Advisory Council
a
Main
issues by
which
ERRAC
roadmap deals with are:
holistic
rail
“Environmental Specifications for new Rolling Stock”).
strategies
minimalise costs (operation, environmental maintenance
41
inspection costs);
simple
and
economical
infrastructure
reconstruction
and maintenance;
Improved
real-time
information
system
for
stakeholders
(rail operator,
infrastructure
managers,
customers);
Addressing customers’ needs by coordinating public and private bodies.
The
environmental
railways has issue
with
These guidelines include whole life-cycle
approach
infrastructure
already
procurement
process.
for
the
in
the
Climate
change, natural resources and chemicals are main points to
impact
of
always been
an
methodological
uncertainties. This is what the INFRAGUIDER is about to give clear guidelines for creating an effective environmental impact of the infrastructure, after having done the same process by the rolling stock (UIC leaflet 345
consider
along
railway
evaluation.
evaluation
environmental
phase
procurement
In of
model
environmental
the eco-
specific indicators
(Supplier and Product indicators) Each
element
of
the
infrastructure is examined along such specific points and assessed at the end.
The
WOLAXIM
project
EURAXLES is a similar project to the
WOLAXIM
incorporates is intended to increase reliability
42
topics.
though
wider
The
range
European
of Rail
of rail traffic. A normal axle of a
Association lead project has axle
train is designed for more than
manufacturers,
20
operators,
years.
Although
current
trends show that these must be
technology
withdrawn
to
universities,
For
associations
earlier
unexpected
due
corrosion.
railway
system
operators, suppliers,
and
rail
sector
a
consulting
previous inspection methods the
firm among the 23 members of
trains had to be taken out of
the
traffic and the methods were not
EURAXLES is to minimise the
precise
enough.
fatigue failure of railway axles in
This research project gives better
order to ensure safe operation of
methods of crack detection and
the
corrosion assessment for railway
railway system while reducing
axle inspection. One method is
cost of maintenance and level of
specifically for the hollow axles
service
of high speed trains and aims to
minimum.
improve
complex concept from the design
and
detailed
the
inspection
speed
and
of
improve
the crack
detection reliability. This could be deployed while the train is in depot
at
night
and
without
dismantling of the wheel set. This method is convenient for the train operator, energy and costeffective at once.
of
consortium.
European
The
of
interoperable
disruption The
axles,
aim
to
project
the has
production
a
and
maintenance. A
new
design
approach
is
developed including risk analysis method
with
method
to
probability.
simple
design
predict
failure
The new developments include: improved axle protection
against corrosion, improved adhesion of coating, and innovative coating solutions in order to limit or avoid
43
VOC emissions;
manufactured. Algorithms
are
developed
to
predict rail defect evolutions, and find
the
optimal
schedule
for
maintenance
preventive
and
corrective operations.
Improved NDT in-service inspection method;
condition and prototypes will be
RAMS/LCC analysis of the outcome of the project will be performed.
New tools will be developed on order to monitor the corrective and
preventive
tasks.
The
maintenance
monitoring
maintenance
tasks
of are
automated and optimized and
ACEM-Rail
executed with mobile computers. project is about the
automation and optimisation of both speed
conventional railway
and
high-
The results of the project will be:
of
maintenance
costs;
infrastructure
focusing on the track.
reduction
less
disturbance
of
rail
services;
increased quality, reliability and safety;
increase of rail transport;
reduction of CO2 emissions.
Numerous technologies will be developmed for automated, cost-
The European railways after long
effective inspection of the track
decline have started to increase slowly, while the rolling stocks
changed with time. Faster and
partially
heavier axle loads are rolling on
Framework Programme.
the
European
means
new
railways,
challenges
funded
by
Seventh
which to
be
met. Some catastrophic failure of wheel
44
or
axle
may
lead
to
serious fatal derailment accident such as the greatest high-speed rail accident in 1998 at Eschede.
The main topic is to promote interoperability physical
by
testing
replacing
process
by
virtual simulations and simplified authorisation
process
through
mix of testing and simulations.
1)
AeroTRAIN project aims
at: reducing costs and time of
SAFERAIL
is intended to keep
certification on aerodynamics by
wheelset failures to the minimum
harmonising
by developing and implementing
national standards of high-speed
an on-line system for inspection
and conventional rail’s technical
of axles and wheels of trains in
specification for interoperability.
motion
combined
with
an
ultrasonic-electromagnetic
of
new
and
and
New technologies would replace cross-wind and slipstream tests by
system. This way the quality inspection
European
old
wheelsets during production and maintenance will be faster and
new alternatives. 2)
DynoTRAIN project aims
at limiting cost of the certification by improving cross-acceptance of
more reliable.
track tests in railway dynamics
Trio-TRAIN integrated
is
a
cluster
reasearch
of
projects
with some innovations: 
the characterisation of the irregularities of the track;
the
characterisation
of
contact geometry of wheel and rail;
European railway system. The project aims to:
the determination of the
friction coefficient;
45
contribute largely to a competitive
the
based
cross-
certification
on
numerical
simulations and Hardware-
acceptance. EN
the
process by new procedures
the use of simulation to facilitate
extend
in-the-Loop testing;
standards
on
railway
use physical and numerical
dynamics together with relevant
simulation
technical annexes of the high
homologation
speed technical specification for
catenary systems;
interoperability
prolong
the
facilitate
to
extend
to
the
different
use
of
certification process. Moreover,
innovative and mechatronic
the test do not map all operating
panthographs
conditions and these tests must
understanding
be repeated several times to give
systems
is
The PantoTRAIN project about
which
problem
to
is
interoperability, country
has
the
one
stock
because
each
its
own
system
developed
with
mechanical
properties.
panthographs/catenaries to
major
rolling
different The
approval of a unified method could
use simulated behaviour of new/modified
panthograph/catenary
system,
to
of
homologisation process;
reliable outcome. 3)
by needs
those already certified by line tests;
facilitate
the
use
of
HIL
(Hardware-in-the-Loop) testing as a less expensive and
more
objective
alternative to line tests.
based
Results
on
20%
environmental
performance, 40% quality, 40%
46
All the above mentioned projects
price.
A
are running under the European
could mean a rewarding system,
Commission’s
Seventh
which weighs the three factors
Framework
Programme
above
sustainability
policy
mandatory-demands
of
the product.
and, except for one, they are in execution phase. In the following
Different environmentally related
I will present the results of the
technical
finished INFRAGUIDER project.
materials and components are
specifications
Environmental
called Although railways is considered a green transport mode, it has negative
effects
environment.
The
on
the
outcome
of
on
Performance
Indicators
(EPI). EPI’s
concern
product
and
this project were guidelines for
supplier. The project developed a
eco-procurement
railway
database for eight material and
The
components with impact on three
of
infrastructure.
environmental impact of railway
chosen
infrastructure can be inflenced at
evaluation
a fix point of procurement, which
change, hazardous substances,
influences the whole supply chain
natural resources). The method
of
areas
impact (climate
Considering
for development of indicators for
whole life environmental impact
material and components was
of
developed in EU project RAVEL
due
infrastructure.
environmental
materials and to
the
large
components, quantities,
environmental properties could be
improved.
The
new
procurement policy decision is
(Rail design).
Vehicle
eco-efficient
Weighing
among
the
three
factors is complicated, though
47
environmental
impact
assessment (mining)
there are already some methods
production region
such, the Swedish Environmental
design lifetime
Priority Strategy method which
kg product per meter track
takes both sub-optimisation and
etc.
severity into account. The
following
components
This
materials are
taken
methodology is fully integrated
into
part of the ordinary procurement
account:
Ballast
Steel/rail
process, therefore contributes to unified methodology
Concrete sleeper
Wooden sleeper
Concrete
Cables
Electric installations
Chemicals considered
point
in
environmental impact evaluation are:
carbon-footprint
energy
consumed
during
production/assembly/operat ion
procurement in
the
railway infrastructure.
The
eco-procurement
and
% of recycled materials
EU
for
European
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