
63 minute read
DISCUSSION
from Vegetation Trends and Cycles in the Fire-prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa, and Sonoma Counties
by Pepperwood
FIRE and VEGETATION UNDER INDIGENOUS STEWARDSHIP
“Listen to the land, it will tell you what it needs.”
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Clint McKay (Wappo, Pomo, Wintun)
Applies to: 1) Relationship of vegetation, fire, and people;
2) Fire frequency and vegetation patterns; 5) Fire as a stewardship tool
Indigenous stewardship should be considered within a cultural context with a completely different world view than the mainstream culture. At the root, this is perhaps the most important lesson we can receive from Native people. If we want things to be different in the future, we will need to begin by considering alternative approaches to fire and vegetation and our relationship with them. Conversations with several Indigenous elders led me to reflect on a number of ideas:
• Fire and vegetation are entities with their own agendas.
• Their agendas don’t necessarily align with ours.
• Human knowledge and control are limited, so humility is wise and appropriate.
• Rather than seeking control, ask: what is the appropriate role of human beings in the landscape? This may include: o Tending or stewardship o Helping maintain a balance among living things
• Decisions are based on observation rather than by the calendar.
• Human health and sustenance depend on the health of everything else
• Long-term thinking creates generational wealth
Bullet points cannot capture the nuance and depth of these ideas and may even be misleading. The spoken word is considered the most trustworthy source of knowledge. It should be noted that these are not the direct words of any of the Indigenous elders I spoke with. I don’t believe any of them would claim to speak for someone else. I don’t intend to do that either, but hope to pass along a little of the wisdom and perspective they gifted to me and ask forgiveness for any mistakes or misrepresentations.
As mentioned in the Introduction, Redbird, the Stewardship Coordinator at Heron Shadow, upon seeing the maps in this report, told me that “this is what this place looks like when it’s not being tended properly.” Jose Altimira (as founder of the Sonoma Mission, colonized the traditional lands of the Coast Miwok, Wappo, Pomo and other Indigenous peoples), provides a glimpse of how the land was being tended when he arrived in 1823: “[the hills] were soon to be burned of the long grass by the Indians we met.” Without realizing it, he goes on to describe the result of that tending, “the place is bare of thick woods” (Smilie 1976). What Altimira is describing is a cultural landscape, one shaped by Indigenous practices carried out and refined over many thousands of years Cultural burning was integral to that landscape, an expression of those practices. Just as wildfire is an integral, though unwelcome part of our own cultural landscape.
Cultural burning was widely used by Indigenous peoples in California (Stephens et. al. 2007). Clint McKay’s people occupied three of the four study areas Napa East, Sonoma-Napa and Sonoma West. He described the difference between cultural burning and controlled or prescriptive burning as coming down to who it was intended to benefit "human beings or all living things on the land?” Burning was practiced at a very fine scale. There were no particular fire specialists. Everyone burned the resources they were going to use basket weavers burned willows and sedge beds, hunters burned the chaparral to provide forage for deer.
Clint said that there used to be a lot more redbud and hazel, which were burned to encourage growth. As was elderberry. Cultural burning acted as a pesticide and kept the ground clean. Burning was also used to keep travel corridors open. Such corridors existed between the Dry Creek area and the coast, over to Alexander Valley and across the northern flank of Kanamota (Mt. St. Helena) to the Middletown area and Clear Lake.
Ridgetops, like those at Pepperwood, also served as travel corridors. Clint’s people lived on either side and would burn uphill from both sides. Burning from the base of a slope up tended to push the Douglas fir to the tops of the ridges and kept them from coming down into the valleys. Bays trees tended to be in low places that were cooler than the surrounding area (he remarked that they seem to be adapting to a different climate and showing up in hotter, more open areas, though they don’t seem particularly healthy).
Clint said their goal for burning included the well-being of plants and animals as well as people. They tended chaparral especially for the deer, who use it for forage and cover. There was no set schedule for burning, it didn’t go by the calendar, but rather from observation. Once Chamise, Leather oak and other chaparral plants get to be six or eight feet high, it’s harder for the deer to reach the new growth, so it would be burned at that point.
The area under a black oak might be burned every couple of years, typically in late August. This was partly to make the acorns easier to gather when they fell in the autumn, and fire also knocked back the acorn worms. You’d wait for a morning with a little mist, a little dew on the leaves. It was small scale a couple people could handle it. They also burned areas as large as a hundred or two hundred acres. He heard that near Lytton Springs there were huge beds of clover and places that supported wild onions and carrots.
The GLO surveys used in this study were mostly done in the 1860s and 1870s, with a few going back to as early as 1853. There are reports of cultural burning going on at some scale in the Russian River Valley in 1851 (Marryat 1855) and probably elsewhere in the region. The surveys represent vegetation as it was near the end of extensive tending by Indigenous peoples, or just after. It should be kept in mind that the GLO surveys only covered the boundaries of Mexican land grants and the areas outside them so a detailed record of the valley floors is largely missing. But for the uplands, they are an unmatched source of early vegetation data.
In contrast to modern times, the surveys recorded extensive shrublands from 35% in Lake to over 50% in Napa East (see pg. 54. Grasslands constituted only a few percent of the landscape). At the time of the most recent vegetation maps, shrublands had declined by 15 – 75% from their 19th-century extent (depending on the study area). One of the conclusions from the historical records is that presence and extent of shrublands are closely linked to the frequency of fire. The only known factor which would account for the extensive shrublands recorded in the GLO surveys is the prevalence of cultural burning in the decades before the surveys.
Fire also accounts for another pattern seen in the early survey data the fact that Douglas fir were not particularly common. The ones that were present were mostly restricted to the ridgetops. Clint attributed this to the practice of burning from the bottom of a slope up, which tend to keep seedlings from becoming established on the downhill slope. The top of the ridge acted as a natural fire break where Douglas fir seedlings were able to establish themselves (see pg. 57 for more on this). Large, old Douglas firs still growing on the upper ridges of Pepperwood and elsewhere, may be a remnant of this pattern.
REGIONAL FIRE PATTERNS, 1870 -2020
Applies to: 2) Fire frequency and vegetation patterns; 4) Tipping points for catastrophic fire
As the maps show in the Selected Results section, there is a wide variation in fire histories both within each study area and among them. Variation in fire histories is shown below (Figure 21). The number (#) of fires refers to the average number of times a location within the study area was likely to burn, adjusted for the differing lengths of the fire records (which ranged from 118 years to 150 years). The Sonoma-Napa study area was divided into two portions along the ridgeline, which is also the border of the two counties. This was done to highlight the difference in fire histories between these adjacent areas and the similarity between Napa East and the Sonoma-Napa (Sonoma) portion.
Landscape Variables
Several landscape variables were found to be associated with the fire history of each area:
Distance inland was the most significant factor tested (Fig. 22. Linear trendline)
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Slope aspect was the second most significant factor in explaining the variability in fire history (Figure 23), with the exception of Sonoma West. Even though Sonoma West’s aspect is just two degrees from directly south, this orientation is presumably cancelled out by its position near the coast, where conditions are generally wetter and cooler (including Sonoma West drops the trendline’s r-squared value to an insignificant 0.0072).
Removing Sonoma West from the mix and once again considering Sonoma-Napa as two distinct landscapes separated by a ridge, shows a strong correlation between slope aspect and fire history (linear trendline):
Slope steepness showed a negative relationship (r-squared = 0.68) with the number of fires. The steepest study area is Sonoma West, whose fire history appears to be strongly influenced by its proximity to the coast. Likewise, the Sonoma-Napa (Napa) subarea is also steep, but its burn history seems to be more determined by slope aspect than steepness. Because of these apparently overriding influences as well as the fact that the range in steepness among the study areas is small (between 15 and 24 degrees), we concluded that slope steepness is not a significant factor in the variability in fire history.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
FREQUENT and RARE BURN ZONES
The fire histories of the Frequent Burn Zones (FBZs) are more similar to each other than they are to their surrounding study areas (Figure 24). On average, slopes in the FBZs are slightly steeper (4°), higher elevation (+563’), and more south-facing (by 15°) than their associated study area. However, there are substantial variations and exceptions to these general characteristics and it was not possible to make definitive generalizations about their position within the landscape.
Frequent Burn Zones are where the most dynamic vegetation cycles take place. This is covered in the following section.
As might be expected, the characteristics of Rare Burn Zones (RBZs) are the reverse of the FBZs: on average being slightly gentler (6°), lower elevation (-238’), and more north-facing (by 32°), though there are exceptions to these general characteristics The average number of documented fires in the RBZs is zero, with the exception of the Napa East RBZ, where the average # of fires is 1.6 (adjusted for the length of the fire record).
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
REGIONAL VEGETATION PATTERNS: 1870 – 2020
Applies to: 1) Relationship of vegetation, fire, and people; 2) Fire frequency and vegetation patterns; 3) Minimizing emissions, maximizing sequestration; 4) Tipping points for catastrophic fire; 5) Fire as a stewardship tool
Shrubland Decline
• One of the most significant trends over the 150-year study period was a steep decline in chaparral: o Sonoma West: 27% 2%. (c. 1867 – 2013; early value +8%) o Sonoma-Napa: 43% 13% (c. 1871 – c. 2015; early value +4%) o Lake: 36% 24% (c. 1872 – 1993; early value +4%) o Napa East: 54% 35% (c. 1863 – 2016; early value +9%) o Average: 40% — 19% (c. 1870 – c. 2010)
• Shrublands were largely replaced by hardwood and conifer woodlands. In Napa, vineyards replaced some of the shrublands.
• Fire attenuates this trend for periods of time in some places (note shrubland extent in Figure 2 for Sonoma-Napa, nine years after the 1923 Nunns Fire) during the Fire-Shrub-Woodland-Fire Cycle described on page 63. Shrubs are often the dominant vegetation during the initial decades following fire.
Woodland Expansion
• There has been a general increase in woodland, with the average area with woodland growing from about 53% to 63% of each study area up until 1993, when the most recent vegetation map was made for Lake.
• In the wake of heavy logging between 1875 and 1915, Sonoma West actually increased its tree cover from 61% to 87% over the study period, and from 67% to 87% woodland just between the 1960s and 2013, representing a 30% increase in area (Fig. 25)
• Sonoma-Napa likewise saw an increase from 52% to 72% (a 40% increase in area) over the 150-year study period (Fig. 26)
• Like Sonoma West, the Lake study area saw impacts from logging. While some occurred in the late 19th century, the most significant harvest was in the 1940s. Between 1950 and 1993 (the most recent record) Lake’s woodland cover increased from 39% to 68% (a 74% increase in area), returning it to a forest extent comparable to what existed before timber harvest, though the proportion of hardwood in 1993 is probably substantially higher than it was in the 19th century (Fig 27).
• No evidence was found for commercial logging in Sonoma-Napa or Napa East.
• Napa East may be an exception, showing 7% less woodland cover than in 1932, though possibly a slight increase since the 19th century, depending how the early survey data is interpreted (Fig.28). As the most fire-prone and driest study area, with major wildfires in 1965, 1981 and 2017, conditions in Napa East may make it difficult for extensive woodland to become established.
(Splines in Figures 25-28 were drawn with the “Smoothing” function in Excel, using a Bezier Smoothing Algorithm. Points shown are the actual data points.)
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Douglas Fir Expansion
One of the more notable characteristics recorded by the 19th-century surveys, when compared with the landscape of the last few decades, is the nominal presence of Douglas fir. While they seem to have been avoided as bearing trees, perhaps due to concerns they would be cut for lumber, they are also relatively uncommon in the line descriptions, which were free of such bias. Surveyors were instructed to record vegetation in these descriptions in ‘order of abundance’ and there is no known reason to believe Douglas fir would not have been recorded if they were, in fact, there.
Cover
Clint McKay (Dry Creek Pomo/Wappo/Wintun), as a keeper of Traditional Ecological Knowledge or TEK for much of project area, stated that in pre-white settlement times Douglas fir was mostly found high up, “on the peaks and ridges.” He attributed this to the practice of burning slopes from the bottom up, which restricted the downhill expansion of Doug fir. He also mentioned that: “Pepperwood’s ridgetops were used as a traffic corridor for people and animals” whose open character was maintained by cultural burning Such a burn pattern would have also tended to exclude Douglas fir from some of the highest elevations. Given that by the late 19th-century, Doug fir’s extent was no longer being limited by cultural burning, it would have begun expanding mostly downslope But there would also have been some room to expand upslope
With the exception of Napa East, all study areas showed Douglas fir expanding in area since the early or mid-20th century (Fig. 29). While not symbolized separately in the Results section, Douglas fir is a major component of the Conifer forest shown in these maps (see Table A-4 on page A-10 in the Appendix for an overview of this shift) See vegetation tables in the Appendix for the percent of Doug fir cover). Coverage in the late 19th-century appears to have been on the order of 1-4% in these areas. Coverage in Napa East appears to have been close to 0% until after 1932. This was corroborated by a multi-generational resident of Napa East (Manfree 2023).
All areas except Napa East showed Douglas fir expanding its elevational range by 1800’ (Sonoma West) to 3500’ (Lake). The expansion in both cases was primarily downhill. Graphs and detailed results for each area are covered below Over the study period, slope aspects on which Douglas fir were recorded expanded from one or two directions to all eight cardinal and intermediate directions.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood,
Sonoma-Napa
On the east (Napa) side of the study area, Douglas Fir expanded its elevational range from about 1500 feet in the late 19th century to about 2200 feet in 2013. On the West (Sonoma) side, the expansion was more rapid, increasing from 650’ in the 19th century to over 2000’ in 2013, for an average of 9.6’ annually (Fig. 30).
EAST, Upper & Lower limits
STUDY AREA LIMIT
WEST AV
EAST AV
WEST, Upper & Lower limits
Throughout the Sonoma-Napa study area, downhill expansion of Douglas fir has been about twice as fast downhill as uphill about 3.5’ vs. 1.7’ annually
The speed of downhill expansion appears to have been fastest in the earlier part of the study period, 1871 –1932, when the rate is estimated at 5.9’/year. The speed slowed in the mid-20th century, 1932-1993, to 2.2’/year, and again to 0.8’ year between 1993 and 2013.
The speed of downhill Doug fir expansion appears to have been substantially faster on the west side of the study area (Sonoma County) than on the east side (Napa County).
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood,
Sonoma West
Like the Sonoma-Napa and Lake Study Areas, Sonoma West also saw Douglas fir expanding downhill over the study period. Unlike those areas, up through the 1960s there was no uphill expansion, but a downhill shift of the upper edge of Doug fir woodland. This situation might be attributed to the impact of logging up through that time, as well as the loss of trees in wildfires.
Following the 1960s, Douglas fir expanded rapidly uphill, and was recorded on the study area’s uppermost ridges by 1993. The rate of uphill expansion appears to have been several times that of the other study areas. By 2000, Douglas fir had expanded to the highest and lowest elevations in the study area
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Like the Sonoma-Napa and Sonoma-West Study Areas, the Lake Study Area also saw Douglas fir expanding downhill over the study period. In this case, uphill expansion was only a little slower than downhill. Douglas fir reached about 90% of its current elevational range by 1928.
Doug fir’s apparent movement downhill since 1950 has been very slow, at less than one foot per year (0.8’). This is similar to that seen in the Sonoma-Napa Study Area, where recent expansion has also been under one foot per year (0.7’ on the east side, 0.9 on the west).
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
California Bay Expansion
• In the Napa East, Sonoma-Napa and Sonoma West areas, California Bay were present but not abundant in the 19th century. They do not appear at all in the record for Lake. Early surveys only rarely recorded Bays either as bearing trees or in Line descriptions, which recorded vegetation in ‘order of abundance.’ This absence strongly suggests they were not abundant at that time (see Vegetation tables in the Appendices for each Study Area).
• Vegetation data suggests an increase in California Bay over the study period In Sonoma West, Bay quadrupled (4X) in area between the 1960s and 2010s. The increase in other study areas is less conclusive due to Bay being lumped into the ‘Montane Hardwood’ category in 20th century surveys.
Black Oak Decline
• Black oaks are known to be in decline over much of California (Hammett et. al. 2017; Long et. al 2017). This decline has been tied to fire suppression in the 20th century and the cessation of cultural burning by Indigenous peoples.
• At the time the 19th-century surveys were made, Indigenous tending of Black oaks had only recently come to a close or been severely reduced. Not surprisingly, Black oaks are a significant presence in the early surveys, representing about 15% of the all the 19th-century bearing trees included in this study (148/986).
• Black oak presence ranged from 8% of bearing trees in Lake and Sonoma West, to 18% in Napa East, to 34% for Sonoma-Napa (it’s unknown if surveyors preferred this species over other oaks). In later mapping, Black oaks were often lumped into ‘Montane Hardwood,’ ‘Montane Hardwood-Conifer,’ and ‘Mixed Oak’ categories (Anderson 1993, McDonald 1993, MCV 2009), obscuring their subsequent history.
• Black oak’s varying distribution may reflect both environmental factors and the distribution of Indigenous peoples. As Black oaks are a ‘cultural keystone species’ that were (and still are) tended accordingly, it would be expected to find more Black oaks where high concentrations of Indigenous people as are believed to have been living in Napa and Sonoma Valleys before 19th-century settlement (compared to Sonoma West and Lake). The relationship may well have gone both ways, with people choosing to live near Black oak woodlands and Black oaks prospering under Indigenous stewardship.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Vegetation Response To Fire
Fire-Shrub-Woodland-Fire Cycle
The most dynamic vegetation changes occur in the Frequent Burn Zones (FBZs) of Sonoma-Napa, Sonoma West and Lake study areas. Over a period of 40 to 60 years, vegetation swings back and forth between being primarily shrubland to primarily woodland, with wildfire acting as the ‘reset button’ on the successional clock. Vegetation history and fire history are especially closely linked in these areas.
Immediately after a fire, shrubs, particularly chamise, quickly become the dominant lifeform, covering from half to three-quarters of these FBZs. As years pass without fire, woodlands begin replace the shrublands. By 2013, forty-nine years after the 1964 fire, woodlands covered 78% of the Sonoma-Napa FBZ, having replaced shrublands at an annual rate of 1.30%. After the 2017 Nunns Fire, the area again reverted to shrubland (Dawson 2018), thus presumably beginning another cycle.
Vegetation in the Sonoma West FBZ shows a similar response, being 47% shrub at six years post fire, declining to 7% shrub 54 years after a fire. Woodlands increased during this time from 48% to 90%, for a replacement rate of 0.88%/year The Lake FBZ shows a similar pattern: at 6 years post fire, 50% was designated shrub or ‘barren’ and 41% woodland. Forty-three years later, shrublands were reduced to 21%, while woodlands covered 77% of the landscape—giving an annual replacement rate of shrubland by woodland of 0.84%.
Going one step further, we clipped out the post-fire shrublands in these FBZs that is areas with 100% shrub in the first decade after a fire. Tracking change revealed an even more rapid succession, with woodland replacing shrublands at the rate of 3.25%/year (Sonoma-Napa), 2.4 %/year (Sonoma West), and 1.26%/year (Lake). The rate of replacement declines with time, going down to only 0.5% in Sonoma-Napa and Sonoma West (Lake lacks the data to track this metric).
This agrees with the findings of many researchers that fire has many ecosystem benefits, including promoting the creation of biomass (productivity) by replenishing soil fertility and reducing competition (California Air Resources Board 2021). Chamise and Manzanita have been shown to grow most quickly in the first 8-10 years after fire, with growth tapering off after that (Sampson 1944). Clint McKay stated that his people would burn chaparral when it grew too high for the deer to browse easily, which may have more or less coincided with early post-fire period.
The speed of this transition also points out the potential for error when using vegetation maps more than a few years old for analysis. Within a ten-year time frame, shrublands declined by up to 1/3 while woodlands increased by a similar amount.
The fire vegetation cycle in the Napa East FBZ is nearly non-existent compared to the other three areas, remaining more or less in a steady state between 12 and 35 years post fire. Clipping out just the 1993 shrublands (12 years post fire) reveals weak evidence for the fire-shrub-woodland cycle, with woodland replacing shrub at an annual rate of just 0.13%.
An extensive literature search was unable to locate other studies or documentation of the fire-shrub-woodlandfire cycle.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood,
While the general pattern of woodlands replacing shrublands holds true in all four study areas (if weakly in Napa East), the patterns vary considerably:
Sonoma-Napa: Hardwoods (oaks, madrone and bay, in order of abundance) replace shrublands about twice as fast as conifers. Likewise, the rate of replacement by knobcone pine was more rapid than for Douglas fir, though this could have been enhanced by active seeding after the 1964 fire (Fig. 33).
Sonoma-West: Similar to Sonoma-Napa, Hardwoods initially replaced shrublands more rapidly than conifers in the first few decades after a fire. However, by 54 years post fire, conifers covered twice as much area as hardwoods, with Douglas fir and redwoods taking up about equal portions (Fig. 34).
Lake: By 49 years post-disturbance (possibly a combination of fire and timber harvest) conifers had replaced shrublands at more than twice the rate of hardwoods (Lake lacks any earlier data). Forest types, in order of abundance, are Klamath Mixed Conifer, Closed-Cone Pine Cypress and Douglas fir. It is unknown if any post fire or post harvest planting was done (Fig. 35).
Napa East: Woodlands replaced shrublands very slowly between 1993 and 2016 (12 to 35 years post fire). These were all hardwood species no conifers were recorded (No figure. See Appendix).
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne
Vegetation Response To Timber Harvest
The 1950 Soil-Veg map for the Lake study area includes 9655 acres designated as ‘Barren’ for vegetation type. Two decades earlier, 75% of this area had been forested with conifers (50%) and hardwoods (25%). It is assumed that timber was harvested here in the 1940s as part of a large, documented commercial logging operation (California Department of Forestry). By 1993, 59% of this ‘Barren’ area had returned to woodland, with 35% Conifer and 24% Hardwoods. Ponderosa pine was the most abundant conifer in 1928, while Doug fir was the least abundant (4%). By 1993 it was almost the reverse: Doug fir being the most abundant (14%) and Ponderosa the second least common (6%). It is unknown whether replanting was done after the timber harvest which could account for some of the change.
The annual rate of replacement of ‘barrenland’ with woodland in the Lake study area between 1950 and 1993 was 1.37%, very similar to the rate of shrub-to-woodland replacement in the FBZs, which ranged from about 0.8% to 1.3% annually.
In 1965, fifty years after the end of intensive logging in the Sonoma West study area, the former harvest area (Weber 1926) was 71% forest. This is close to the extent of forest around 1870, before intensive logging. But what had been predominately Redwood forest before harvest (c. 1870) was now Tan oak, Coast Live oak and Madrone woodlands, comprising 61% of the harvest area. By the time this woodland was mapped again, in 1993, it had returned to being predominately conifer (54%), dominated by Redwoods. The hardwoods had shrunk to one-third of their extent less than three decades earlier (from 61% to 20%). Some of this decline can probably be attributed to hardwoods being overtopped by conifers and thus were no longer mapped as the most abundant forest tree. Tan oak in particular shows a steep decline as a forest type, going from 21% in 1965 to 3% in 2013 (or a little higher if you include the 1% Doug fir-Tan Oak mixed woodland).
It should be noted that between 1965 and 2013, the Timber Harvest Zone shows an accelerating decline in the human footprint (22% down to 9% in less than 50 years) with a corresponding increase in the forested area. Interestingly, the combined acreage for ‘Woodland’ and ‘Human’ footprint is remarkably constant (growing only about 100 acres over a half century). The most obvious explanation is to assume that as the trees grew, their canopies hid more and more of the human infrastructure from the mappers’ view directly above (e.g. aerial or satellite imagery).
Second-growth redwoods at one former homestead in the Calabazas Creek Preserve (Sonoma-Napa) indicate timber harvesting by homesteaders in the 19th-th century, probably for their own use and was non-commercial. Salvage logging is known to have occurred at the Preserve after the 1964 fire. As this was concomitant with the fire, the burn and harvest are considered a single disturbance for the purposes of this study. This could skew the analysis of vegetation change in the FBZ, though as shown above, there seems to be little difference in recovery rates between fire and harvest disturbance.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
VEGETATION CHANGE in the ABSENCE OF FIRE: RARE BURN ZONES (RBZs)
Overall, vegetation change in the RBZs occurs at a fraction of the rate seen in the Frequent Burn Zones.
Sonoma-Napa: Given the large proportion (about 2/3) of chamise and young (small diameter) oaks recorded here around 1867, we can infer that this area experienced Indigenous cultural burning in the early 19th century. By 1932, the RBZ was mapped at 56% woodland, which was all oak except for 1% Douglas fir. Sixty years later, in 1993, this area was 72% woodland, one-quarter of which was conifer (mostly Douglas fir).
The annual woodland expansion rate was 0.27%, about half that seen in the FBZ at 30 years+ post fire. Douglas fir was responsible for this increase. The hardwood proportion declined slightly over the 20th century. Between 1993 and 2016, woodland extent continued to increase at roughly the same rate (0.3%/year), adding 7% during this time period. Hardwood forest made up the bulk of the increase (6% vs.1% for conifers).
Sonoma West: As the Rare Burn in Sonoma West also represents the timber harvest area, this RBZ was not assessed as an RBZ.
Lake: The RBZ for Lake is also difficult to interpret due to timber harvest overlapping with this zone. Taking the 43 years of record free from documented disturbance (1950 – 1993), we see the woodland extent growing from 68% to 89%, close to the estimated pre-harvest value in the 19th century. This gives an annual woodland expansion rate of 0.49%, about the same as the later post-fire period in the FBZs. The higher rate here than in Sonoma-Napa (0.27%) may represent a shorter time since disturbance in Lake Conifers were responsible for the majority of this increase in the Lake RBZ.
Napa East: The Napa East Rare Burn Zone was the only RBZ with documented fires, which occurred in 1913 and 1981. In 1932, 19 years after this fire, 31% of this FBZ was recorded as woodland. There was virtually the same woodland extent in 1993 (30%). The 14% decrease in shrublands was primarily taken up by an increased human footprint. The same trajectory happened again between 1993 and 2016, with woodland unchanged and shrublands being converted to agriculture.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Grassland
• Grassland (Herbaceous Lifeform) was not a large component of vegetation in most places and times included in this study, usually covering well below ten percent of the landscape.
• Estimates for grassland cover in the 19th century are all in the low single digits (considering the later record, lumped ‘herb or shrub’ designations applied to the old survey records are probably shrub).
• In Sonoma West, Lake, and Napa East grassland cover peaked in the aftermath of timber harvest and fire, reaching 8%, 11% and 9% respectively, before declining Grassland in the Sonoma-Napa study area appears to be very slowly increasing, from 2% to 5% in 80+ years.
• Grassland appears to be the most stable lifeform on all four landscapes. The dynamic cycle between shrubs and woodland, driven by fire, does not appear to be at work in a significant way between grasslands and shrubs or grasslands and woodland.
EMISSIONS and SEQUESTRATION
Applies to: 1) Relationship of vegetation, fire, and people; 2) Fire frequency and vegetation patterns; 3) Minimizing emissions, maximizing sequestration; 5) Fire as a stewardship tool
We intended to develop recommendations for a management approach that would maximize carbon sequestration, minimize emissions, and reduce the wildfire hazard to communities. After putting substantial thought and effort into background research attempting to quantify emission and sequestration values under different fire regimes, it became clear that so many questions remained that any conclusions drawn would be little more than speculative.
Ottmar (2013) acknowledges that a lack of data restricts “our ability to ascertain the true contribution of wildland fire to GHG and aerosol emissions.” Furthermore, information is limited on the “production and sequestration of BC [black carbon] into the soils following wildfire that may serve as a partial offset of GHG and aerosols.” We do know that wildfires generally consume two to four times as much fuel per acre as prescribed fires, resulting in more greenhouse gas emissions (Berger et. al. 2018; Ottmar 2013). This is because wildfire fuels are usually drier, crown fires contribute additional biomass, and wind speed is higher. All these factors increase fuel consumption and thus emissions as compared to prescribed burns.
Over long time periods (e.g. multiple decades) in unmanaged fire regimes, wildfire carbon emissions “are balanced by carbon capture from forest regrowth…unless a lasting shift in plant community type occurs and/or fire return intervals change” (Sommers et. al. 2014). To the extent that our study areas could be considered to have ‘unmanaged fire regimes” it is possible that such a balance exists in certain places, though it is impossible to know.
Estimating carbon capture or sequestration is equally, or even more difficult than estimating emissions. Research is needed to understand the charred residue and ash remaining after fire, how much of its carbon becomes sequestered, and how much black carbon, organic carbon and brown carbon end up in the atmosphere (Ottmar 2013). Likewise, the fate of underground carbon in roots killed by fire in not well known.
One suggestion to address these questions is to develop “enhanced monitoring programs that improve our understanding of long-term, landscape-scale ecological responses to fire, provide data to evaluate effectiveness of management activities, and identify key emerging ecological dynamics” (Sommers et. al 2014). One consistent finding in this study was that the most fire-prone places, the FBZs, tend to have the most dynamic cycles of vegetation change. The speed of transitions there, from shrubland to woodland in a few decades suggests that these places may be where the highest sequestration rates in the landscape are occurring. The transition rates in the FBZs peak in the first two to three decades after a fire and then slow down by as much as 85% (for example, from 3.25% to 0.5% annually in the Sonoma West FBZ). Likewise, chamise and manzanita are most vigorous in the early years following a fire (Sampson 1944) and thus presumably sequestering more carbon during that period.
A global study of above and below ground carbon stocks (Ma et. al 2021) found that shrublands sequestered nearly half their carbon in underground biomass (47%). In contrast, forests only sequester 22% below ground. This suggests that in some cases, shrublands may be better carbon sinks than forests, assuming that below ground carbon is better protected from wildfire.
One of the goals of Indigenous stewardship, including cultural burning, according to Clint McKay, is to benefit all the living things on the land. This implies a thriving landscape and, in scientific terms, has high productivity. Net primary productivity can be used “to identify ecosystem carbon sources/sinks, playing an important role in
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis carbon balance” (Liao 2022). This suggests that the vegetation patterns created by Indigenous stewardship, practiced with the intent of benefitting all living things, may also have maximized carbon sequestration. In addition, as mentioned above. Intentional burning (e.g. cultural or prescriptive) produces only a fraction of the emissions caused by unintentional burning in a wildfire.
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Addendum
CATASTROPHIC FIRE, WIND vs. FUEL-DRIVEN WILDFIRES, A FIRE EXPOSURE METRIC, and a POSSIBLE TIPPING POINT
Applies to: 1) Relationship of vegetation, fire, and people; 2) Fire frequency and vegetation patterns;
3) Minimizing 4) Tipping points for catastrophic fire; 5) Fire as a stewardship tool
Recent large wildfires in Sonoma, Napa, and Lake Counties include the Valley Fire in 2015; the Nunns, Tubbs and Atlas Fires in 2017; the Kincade Fire in 2019; and the Walbridge and Glass Fires in 2020. Together they burned about 370,000 acres, or nearly 600 square miles. For people who lost their homes, the life of a loved one or even their own, these were obviously catastrophic events. Preparing for and perhaps preventing such huge fires is a key question as climate change steadily moves the world into new and unfamiliar territory. There is concern that “current fire prediction systems…may not be capable of modeling fire behavior in future fire environments” (Sommers et. al. 2014).
Are these recent fires truly unprecedented? Are we already in a “future fire environment? The answers to these questions may be both ‘yes’ and ‘no.’ According the ‘2017 Sonoma Complex Fires’ story map website (Sonoma County 2019): “The 2017 fires were extreme, but not unprecedented” with “similar firestorms in 1964, 1923, and 1870.” But considering just the Nunns Fires of 1923, 1964 and 2017 shows that, although weather conditions were similar, the 2017 fire was close to twice as large as any previous fire (Fig. 36). On the other hand, the 2017 Tubbs fire (outside our study areas) does fit within the historical pattern and was quite a bit smaller than the 1964 Hanley fire (about 36,000 acres vs. 55,000 in 1964).
Looking at the ‘Fire Size’ graphs (as measured within the study areas Figures 36-39), shows the Valley and Nunns fires truly were unprecedented. The Walbridge fire was slightly larger than any before it in Sonoma West. The 2017 Atlas fire was slightly smaller than the 1981 Atlas fire.
For this discussion, ‘catastrophic fire’ is defined as one of the ten labeled fires in Figures 36-40, each of which covered >35% of their respective study area (the 1964 Nunns Fire was smaller but is still within living memory and included for comparison). These wildfires are clearly an order of magnitude larger than the others. Within the human community, these fires are well remembered for many decades afterwards.
What factors are behind these catastrophic fires? Is there a tipping point that might account for their unusual size? A tipping point would exist if a small change in conditions led to a dramatic change in outcome. This could be a slight increase in wind speed or temperature, a slight decrease in humidity, or some other seemingly minor shift in conditions that turns an average fire into a catastrophic one.
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High winds have been a common element in most, if not all these catastrophic fires. Wind speed data is not available for most of these events. But newspaper descriptions ‘howling winds,’ ‘hurricane force,’ and ‘difficult to stand’ suggest conditions similar to those recorded in 2017. The 2017 ‘Wine Country Fires,’ which include the Tubbs and Nunns fires, have been used as examples of ‘winddriven’ versus ‘fuel-driven’ wildfires (Keene and Syphard 2020). Likewise, the ‘2017 Sonoma Complex Fires’ webpages (Sonoma County 2019) link these fires to Sonoma County’s ‘fire-prone wind corridors.’
Wildfire forecasters have identified a trio of tipping points known as the “30-30-30 Crossover Rule.” As described by Steffens (2016), if a wildfire starts while the temperature is 30C or above, the relative humidity is 30% or less and the wind speed is 30km/h or stronger, it will exhibit extreme fire behavior and be difficult to control until weather conditions change.
Using data from Geyser Peak and Sonoma Mountain, we evaluated wind conditions during the 2017 Nunns and Tubbs fires a portion of Nunns and all of Tubbs were outside our study areas but provide a useful comparison in a more regional context. We assumed a critical threshold of 18.6 mph windspeed for a ‘wind-driven’ fire. Using these criteria, the conditions for a wind-driven fire lasted from the evening of October 8 through noon on October 9. Both the Tubbs and Nunns fires started around midnight. Using MODIS data (Fig. 40), which shows heat data at 6hour intervals, we designated areas that burned before 12:30 pm on October 9 as ‘wind-driven’ and those that burned afterwards as ‘fuel-driven.’
Under the “30-30-30” rule, the combination of humidity, temperature and wind creates a
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties tipping point for extreme fire behavior. Since all three are required, removing windspeed from the mix would mean that humidity and temperature do not represent tipping points either individually or in combination.

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Taking both fires together, shows 41% of the area burned during the wind-driven phase and 59% burned during the fuel-driven phase. Separating out the two fires however, shows two very different patterns, visible on the map (Fig. 40) and quantified in Table 10 below:
To some degree, both fires were hybrids of wind-driven and fuel-driven. But it makes sense to designate Tubbs as primarily wind-driven and to consider wind speed a possible tipping point that explains the size of that conflagration. It also seems reasonable to designate the Nunns Fire as primarily fuel-driven and thus wind would not be a tipping point responsible for its size.
As for the question of whether the winds driving these fires are becoming more frequent or intense, Williams (et.al. 2019) found that for the state as a whole, “The character of offshore wind events did not change since records began in the mid-1900s.” In relation to wildfire, in southern California at least, “there is little evidence that the increase in the number of catastrophic fires is the result of increased intensity of … wind events.” (Keene Syphard 2020). This agrees with the apparent similarity in wind conditions during historical and recent catastrophic fires documented in this study. As an example, in Sonoma-Napa, high winds were reported during the catastrophic fires of 1923, 1964 and 2017. Yet the acreage burned spanned a wide range, from roughly 10,000 in 1964 to 20,000 in 1923 to 55,000 in 2017.
While wind plays an important role in these fires, it appears that wind alone does not represent a tipping point driving catastrophic fires, at least in these locations. However, it could be considered a tipping point for ignition given the number of fires started by trees falling on electrical lines and equipment during high wind events.
Given that the Nunns fire began as a wind-driven event but soon became a fuel-driven fire, what might explain its unprecedented size? One possibility is the amount or configuration of the fuel itself. In “A simple metric of landscape fire exposure,” (Beverly et.al. 2020) describes how “Proximity of landcover elements to each other will enable or constrain fire spread” and how “a metric of landscape fire exposure” can be created, “based solely on a grid cell’s proximity to nearby hazardous fuel capable of transmitting fire to its location.” To evaluate the accuracy of this metric, they looked at whether “burned areas occurred preferentially in locations with high exposure.”
A Fire Exposure Metric
The spatial arrangement of vegetation is considered a bottom-up (endogenous) control on fire propagation, while climate and weather are top-down (exogenous). The “fire exposure metric” developed by Beverly is a “numeric rating of the potential for fire transmission to a location given surrounding fuel composition and configuration, irrespective of weather or other fire controls.” Within their study area, which covered 100 million acres in Canada, all “wood fuel types” were “classified as hazardous fuels capable of transmitting fire within a 500m range.” It was assumed that “all hazardous fuel cells” contributed “equally to exposure irrespective of fuel type or configuration within the circular fuel neighborhood.” Exposure was estimated for a single 500m distance range.
The fire exposure metric represents not an estimated probability of occurrence, but rather “a physical quantity whose value at any point in time and space can be measured.” Applying this metric to their study area, Beverly reported ”the results showed average exposure in burned areas was 66.2%, while in unburned areas it was only 49.7%. In other words, a 16.5% change in exposure determined whether a location did or didn’t burn. A minor change in conditions led to a dramatic change in outcome- a tipping point.
Beverly acknowledges that the fire exposure metric may seem overly simplistic, but cites Perera, who noted “the lack of consensus among ecologists about the desirability of simple parsimonious models vs. complex simulations of disturbance processes. The question of appropriate model complexity has been largely ignored by wildland fire modelers” (Perera et. al. 2015). Beverly observes that “simulated burn probability maps,” created with modeling, “have exhibited poor alignment with subsequent observed wildfires.” Yet Beverly’s research found that “simple, deterministic, univariate metric of fire exposure aligned well with real-world fires observed in our study area.” Their approach “represents a departure from computationally complex and data-intensive approaches for characterizing fire spread potential across landscapes.”
Beverly’s results are closely aligned with the predictions of percolation theory. Percolation theory offers a simple approach applicable to many kinds of complex systems, including wildfire. Even the most basic model a grid with empty or occupied cells (trees) shows a tipping point occurs when about 60% of the cells are occupied. A few percent below this, say 57%, results in burns averaging less than 10% of the grid. Raising it slightly to 62%, results in more than 80% of the area being burned (Dawson 2022; Stessel 2016). This illustrates the effect of crossing a tipping point A five percent increase in occupied cells (trees) resulted in an 8x increase in the burned area. Sixty percent is the same value mentioned by Beverly. Caldarelli states that percolation “can help to describe the fire evolution. By mapping fire dynamics into the percolation models, the strategies for fire control might be improved.” (Caldarelli et. al. 2001. Note that some researchers are cautious about applying percolation theory to wildfires see Hunt 2007).
A Possible Tipping Point
The positions of the catastrophic fires in the graphs in Figures 36-39 are well above and separated from those of any other fires. The large difference in outcomes suggests that a tipping point was exceeded which drove these fires to their unusual, and in many cases, unprecedented sizes. In this study, measurements of percent woodland cover appear to work as a rough equivalent to Beverly’s ‘fire exposure metric.’
Using the established rates of woodland expansion for each study area, the percent cover was estimated for fires going back to the 1930s (before that time the data is too sparse for making estimates). Plotting percent woodland cover, estimated for the year of each fire, against fire size shows a clear relationship between fire size and woodland cover, with a tipping point between 60 and 75% (trend lines are exponential).
Because of the century-long gap in vegetation data for Sonoma West, as well as a timber harvest that covered half the study area, only the Frequent Burn Zone there was used for analysis. Given that vegetation patterns for Napa East seem to be of a different nature than elsewhere, it is not surprising that the results there do not indicate a tipping point driven by woodland cover. The prevalence of grassland in Napa East in 1993 and 2016 (9% and 8% respectively) following the 1981 Atlas fire hints at a possible type conversion as has been studied in southern California following fire. The persistence or expansion of grassland in Napa East following the 2017 Atlas fire remains to be seen. But if observed, would suggest fire-vegetation history more akin to southern California than to the other three study areas.
To further test whether ‘percent woodland cover’ might serve as a univariate fire exposure metric, this value was calculated for the footprints of other recent catastrophic fires in Sonoma County using the 2013 Veg Map and also from the 1993 WHR map. Using the established rates of woodland expansion, the values were estimated for the year of each fire (Table 11).
Overall, the results support the possibility that woodland cover is a tipping point for catastrophic fire. In 1993, the woodland cover inside 2/3 of the catastrophic fire perimeters was <62%. By their ignition dates, between 2015 and 2020, all except Kincade were > 66% woodland cover. This is well above both the theoretical percolation threshold and that observed by Beverly
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(2021) in the empirical data (60% in both cases). Other factors may explain the size of the Kincade fire, which was just below this threshold.
As for the Tubbs fire, it’s possible that woodland cover above the threshold contributed to its rapid spread during the wind-driven phase. It also may account for the 10,000 acres burned during the fueldriven phase, which would still be considered a large wildfire for Sonoma County.
The areas within the perimeters of the Walbridge and Valley fires both had > 70% woodland cover in 1993. The random nature of ignitions may account for the firefree period preceding these fires. Averaging the remaining perimeters gives a value well below 60% woodland cover in 1993.
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Management Implications
These results provide a rare opportunity to estimate how the landcover of this fire-prone region may have looked at the time of European contact after millennia of Indigenous stewardship. What we learn is that chapparal would have comprised a much larger extent of vegetation cover over this landscape, on the order of 50% areal extent. We were able to measure how this chaparral extent declined greatly during post-contact periods. The extent of chapparal was effectively reduced to approximately half of what was present at European contact, with a complementary expansion of coniferous (Douglas Fir) and in some cases hardwood landcover extent, amounting to approximately a doubling of forest cover. Our working hypothesis is that this effect is due in part to the removal of cultural fire from the landscape, and other forms of Indigenous stewardship, as a result in changes of land tenure.
Moving forward, a better understanding of these historical trends can help inform what people term “healthy forest” land cover targets. What is considered “health” is worth examining closely to inform project-specific definitions, but in general management efforts appear to aim for a combination of wildfire resilience (including reducing threats of catastrophic fire to human communities) and ecosystem function.
Our results suggest that with the reintroduction of more active stewardship, including the restoration of cultural burning, building management targets with goals for chaparral as a dynamic part of the vegetation landcover mosaic will be key. This will be a deviation from historical approaches to planning management of forested areas as a stand-alone management unit, as these authors have observed when adaptive management plans for the region effectively “clip out” shrubs from management consideration. With this historical understanding, managers should consider chapparal a worthy ecosystem management target, and a critical element of a healthy functioning system in high fire return interval landscapes.
Another take home is that management targets in this landscape need to allow for dynamic vegetation and fire cycles over time, with planning accommodating shorter time intervals between fire events. Given the fire history of the study areas, it should be assumed that wildfire could potentially return within a few decades to places that have recently burned, and conversely that wholesale prevention of burns in these landscapes could lead to higher severity wildfires over the long term. This analysis can start to inform cyclical targets ranging from 1) lowfuel conditions typical of immediate post-treatment (or post-fire), to 2) the maximum tolerable fuels condition that should trigger a treatment scenario to reduce below high fire hazard conditions. In these study areas, the invasion of Douglas Fire into lower elevations has increased fuel hazards: consideration of the removal of low elevation Douglas firs could be part of a landscape-scale fuel reduction strategy. Here we propose a ‘Fire Exposure Metric’ to the region, where % woodland cover serves as a potential risk indicator.
Deeper analysis of what differentiates frequent burn zones from rare burn zones may help refine how to adjust management in response to topographic, weather and ecosystem drivers. The concept of tipping points, especially looking at how essentially “overstocking” of fuels resulting from fire suppression may increase conditions favoring fire spread due to canopy connectivity, could help refine cyclical forest management targets, with an upper threshold for stem density and canopy closure. With more analysis, the existence of a threshold for woodland cover as a tipping point for catastrophic fire would help refine priorities and timing of fuel reduction work. We estimated that a long-term rate of burning or thinning approximately 5 acres per1000 acres management are per year could help keep woody vegetation below the identified 60% threshold of high fire hazard. While this study focused primarily on the vegetation dimensions of frequent burn zones, further exploration of the role of wind corridors should be a high priority.
Given that 90% of wildfires are started by humans, it should also be assumed that, whether intentionally or unintentionally, people will be the ignition source. As this region is experiencing an upsurge in the restoration of cultural and prescribed burning, there is the opportunity to incorporate this body of work into the return of intentional fire to the landscape, with appropriate safeguards and oversight. Leverage the opportunities presented by recent fires to apply stewardship approaches within their perimeters aimed at fuel reduction and ecological health.
Overall, the authors believe that with a better understanding of the historical ecology of our region, and the fact that greater spatial extent particularly of coniferous forest is in fact a historical anomaly, rather than the standard for a “healthy landscape,” can help move managers and the public to embrace more resilient landscape management targets. We are essentially inviting consideration of an alternative model for healthy vegetation patterns, one where chaparral is valued for habitat and carbon sequestration in a balanced mix with woodlands. Included in this proposed paradigm shift is the idea that the return of shrubs, in certain places, indicates the potential to restore a more resilient (and more frequent) fire cycle (including humans) through partnership with our local Indigenous leadership.
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Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
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Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
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Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
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DeWoody, T.J. 1869. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 7 North Range 5 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
DeWoody, T.J. 1873“Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 7 North Range 4 W. Half mile north from corner to Secs 21, 22, 27 and 28.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Dodd, W.W. 1867. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 11 North Range 8 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Dodd, W.W. 1867. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior and Subdivision Lines in Township 11 North Range 8 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Egan, D. and E.A. Howell, Eds. 2001. The Historical Ecology Handbook: A Restorationist’s Guide to Reference Ecosystems. Island Press.
English, Wesla. 2018. “How the 30-30-30 Crossover Rule affects the threat of a wildfire sparking.” Kelownanow website. https://www.kelownanow.com/watercooler/news/news/Okanagan/ How_the_30_30_30_Crossover_Rule_affects_the_threat_of_a_wildfire_sparking/#fs_123343
Evett, R. R., Dawson, A. and Bartolome, J. W. 2013. “Estimating Vegetation Reference Conditions by Combining Historical Source Analysis and Soil Phytolith Analysis at Pepperwood, Northern California Coast Ranges, U.S.A.” Restoration Ecology, 21: 464–473. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2012.00912.x
Frazier, James D. 1999. The 1923 Fire: East of Sonoma Valley. First-hand account published by Regeneration Resources. Glen Ellen.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Galatowitsch, S.M. 1990. “Using the Original Land Survey Notes to Reconstruct Presettlement Landscapes in the American West.” Great Basin Naturalist 50(2), pp. 181-191.
General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. 1855. Instructions to the Surveyors General of Public Lands of the United States, for those Surveying Districts Established in and since the Year 1850; containing, also a Manual of Instructions to regulate the Field Operations of Deputy Surveyors, Illustrated by Diagrams.”
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Grey, N. 1853. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 7 North Range 4 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Gruell, George. 1985. “Fire on the Early Western Landscape: An Annotated Record of Wildland Fires, 1776 – 1900.” Northwest Science. Vol. 50, No. 2. P. 97.
Hagan, Chris and Emily Zentner. 2019. “How We Mapped More than 100 Years of Wildfire History.” Capital Public Radio.https://source.opennews.org/articles/how-we-mapped-more-100-years-california-wildfire-h/
Hammett, E.J., Ritchie, M.W. & Berrill, JP. 2017. Resilience of California Black Oak Experiencing Frequent Fire: Regeneration Following Two Large Wildfires 12 Years Apart. fire ecol 13, 91–103 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4996/fireecology.1301091
Hawes, J.H. 1868. Manual of United States Surveying 1868: System of rectangular surveying employed in subdividing the public lands of the United States; also instructions for subdividing sections and restoring lost corners of the public lands. J.B. Lippincott & Co.
Hawkins, Maureen. 1979. “A History of Beltane Ranch.” Unpublished manuscript at the Sonoma County Library History Annex. R 979.418 Hawkins.
Hays, Jeremy. 2008. “Saving Oaks by Killing Firs.” Santa Rosa Press Democrat. August 24. Includes quotes from Steve Barnhart about his studies of fire frequency at Annadel State Park.
Healdsburg Scimitar. 1902. “Forest Fires Rage in Sonoma County.” October 2.
Healdsburg Tribune Enterprise Scimitar. 1917. “400 Square Miles of Flames.” September 14.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1923a. “Guerneville Threatened by Blazing Forests” September 17.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1923b. “Blaze in Valley is Finally Controlled” and other articles in this issue. September 18.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1923c. “All Blazes in District Now Under Control.” September 19.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1923d. “County Moves to Replace Bridges.” September 21.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1928. “Within little more than a week...” April 23.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1929a. “County Fires Reported Out or Under Control” November 7.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1929b. “Guerneville Fire Again Breaks Out” November 16.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1932a. “Fire Trails Near Here to be Repaired” April 4.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1932b. “Fighters Check Mill Creek Fire” August 25.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1933. “300 Acres of Mill Creek Timber Land Burned” October 20.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Healdsburg Tribune. 1936. “County Fires Sweep 3000 Acres Bare.” Dec. 1.
Healdsburg Tribune. 1936. “Woman Admits Setting Fire on County Line.” Dec. 3.
Hudspeth, J. 1856. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 8 North Range 10 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Hunt, Alan. 2007. “A New Conceptual Model for Forest Fires Based on Percolation Theory.” Complexity. Wiley Periodicals, Inc., Vol. 13, No. 3 DOI 10.1002/cplx.20194
Jacobs, D.F., D.W. Cole, and J.R. McBride. 1985. “Fire History and Perpetuation of Natural Coast Redwood Ecosystems.” J. For. 83 (8): 494-497.
Keeley, Jon E. and Alexandra D. Syphard. 2020. “Nexus Between Wildfire, Climate Change and Population Growth in California.” Fremontia. Vol. 47, No. 2, March.
King, M.G. and T.W. Morgan. 1881. “Map of the Central Portions of Napa Valley and the Town of St. Helena compiled By from The Official Surveys and Records of Napa County.” Accessed via www.raremaps.com, April 2022.
Kroeber, Theodore. Handbook of the Indians of California. Dover Publications, New York. Reprint of Government Printing Office publication Bulletin 78 of the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution.
Lake County Bee. Lakeport, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 8/2/ 1873; 8/6/1874; 9/16/1903; 9/24/1906 (refers to a fire in about 1890); 9/13/1909; 8/2/1916; 7/25/1917; 8/17/1922; 9/13/1923; 9/20/1923; 9/3/1924; 7/21/1926; 7/28/1926; 8/18/1926; 8/22/1928; 7/29/1931; 8/26/1931; 8/23/1933; 8/15/1935; 7/2/1936; 10/1/1936; 12/3/1936; 8/10/1939; 10/19/1939; 8/25/1944; 9/15/1944. Accessed on microfilm at the Lake County Library, Lakeport.
Liao Q, Liu X, Xiao M. Ecological Restoration and Carbon Sequestration Regulation of Mining Areas-A Case Study of Huangshi City. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Mar 31;19(7):4175. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19074175. PMID: 35409858; PMCID: PMC8998505
Liu Feng, David J. Mladenoff, Nicholas S. Keuler and Lisa Schulte Moore. 2011. “Broadscale variability in tree data of the historical Public Land Survey and its consequences for ecological studies.” Ecological Monographs, 81(2). pp. 259–275. Published by the Ecological Society of America.
Long, Jonathan W.; Goode, Ron W.; Gutteriez, Raymond J.; Lackey, Jessica J.; Anderson, M. Kat. 2017. Managing California black oak for tribal ecocultural restoration. Journal of Forestry. 115(5): 426-434. https://doi.org/10.5849/jof.16-033
Los Angeles Herald. 1917. “Probe I.W.W. Plot in Big Forest Fire.” July 21.
Lyman, G.G. 1876.“Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Township 7 North Range 4 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Ma, Haozhi, Lidong Mo, Thomas Crowther et. al. 2021. “The global distribution and environmental drivers of aboveground vs. belowground biomass.” Nature, Ecology & Evolution. Volume 5, pages 1110-1122.
Madera Tribune. 1929. “Fires Burning Near Forest Areas” November 8.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Manies, Kristin L. and David J. Mladenoff. 2000. “Testing Methods to produce landscape scale presettlement vegetation maps from U.S. Public Land Survey Records.” Landscape Ecology 15. 741-54.
Manfree, Amber. 2023. Personal communication.
Manolis, Jim. 2003. “Project Summary: Results from the Minnesota Forest Spatial Analysis and Modeling Project.” Minnesota Forest Resources Council Report LT-1203g.
Marin Journal. 1902. “The Forest Fires in Northern Sonoma.” September.
Marryat, Frank. 1855. Mountains and Molehills; or, Recollections of a Burnt Journal. Harper & Brothers, Publishers. New York.
McKay, Clint. 2022. Personal communication.
Milliken, Randall. 1995. A Time of Little Choice: the disintegration of tribal culture in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1769 – 1810. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42. Ballena Press, Menlo Park.
Millington, Seth. 1866. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Fractional Township 7 North Range 6 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Millington, Seth. 1866. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 8 North Range 10 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 1988. “Natural Vegetation of Minnesota at the time of the Public Land Survey, 1847 – 1907.” Biological Report No. 1.
Minto, A. 1874. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 11 North Range 8 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Moncada, Sara. 2022. Personal communication. Sara is the Director of Heron Shadow in Graton.
Munro-Fraser, J.P. 1880. History of Sonoma County: including its geology, topography, mountains, valleys and streams; together with a full and particular record of the Spanish grants; its early history and settlement. Published by Alley, Bowen & Co., San Francisco.
Napa County Register. Napa, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 9/17/1880; 8/26/1887; Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu.
Napa Register. c. 1990. Undated clipping. Digital copy provided by long-time resident Amber Manfree.
Napa Register. Napa, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 10/10/1890; 10/17/1890; 7/24/1891. Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu.
Napa Valley Register. Napa, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 8/22/1879; 8/26/1879; 11/18/1879; 9/30/1880; 6/9/1885; 9/17/1886; 11/19/ 1886; 10/7/1887; 10/14/1887; 10/21/1887; 10/26/1888; 10/10/1890; 9/11/1922; 7/31/1930; 9/5/1933 Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu.
Napa Weekly Journal, Napa, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 9/24/1909; 10/3/1913; 9/4/1908; 8/5/1910. Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Nay, S. Mark and Bernard T. Bormann. 2014. “Site-Specific Douglas-Fir Biomass Equations from the Siskyou Mountains, Oregon, Compared with Others from the Northwest.” Forest Science 60(6): 1140-47.
Ottmar, Roger. 2014. “Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: Modeling fuel consumption.” Forest Ecology and Management. 317 (2014) 41-50.
Perera AH, Sturtevant BR, Buse L (2015) Simulation modeling of forest landscape disturbances: an overview. In: Perera AH, Sturtevant BR, Buse LJ (eds) Simulation modeling of forest landscape disturbances. Springer, Geneva, pp 1–15.
Perkins, M., C. V. Klimas, J. Dunbar, T. Foti, and J. Pagan. 2011. “Using general land office survey records in ecosystem restoration planning.” EBA Technical Notes Collection. ERDC TN-EMRRP-EBA-9. Vicksburg, MS: U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center.
Petaluma Weekly Argus. Petaluma, CA. Newspaper article published on: 10/22/1870. Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu
Pierce, Wm. 1867. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 6 North Range 5 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Pierce, Wm. 1867. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 6 North Range 5 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Pierce, Wm. A. 1872. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 7 North Range 4 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Pierce, Wm. A. 1873. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 7 North Range 4 W. North parts of Secs 19& 20.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Powell, D.C. 2013. “Using General Land Office Survey Notes to Characterize Historical Vegetation Conditions for the Umatilla National Forest.” USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. White Paper F14-SO-WP-SILV-41. Pendleton, Oregon.
Powell, David C. 2005/2017. “Stand Density Thresholds Related to Crown Fire Susceptibility.” USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. White Paper F14-SO-WP-SILV-37. Pendleton, Oregon.
Press Democrat, The. 1902. “Landscape Doomed.” Fire above Glen Ellen. October 4.
Press Democrat, The. 1913. “Fire in Napa County Hills Last Night.” Described as on the county line opposite Glen Ellen. Started on 9-22. September 23.
Press Democrat. 1902a. “The Forest Fires.” Between Korbel and Guerneville. Started on July 15. July 17 edition. May have been across river from study area.
Press Democrat. 1902b. “Three Fires Burn.”
Press Democrat. 1903. “Two Fires Raging.” Yarbrough Canyon and Fitch Mountain. Started on July 2. July 3 edition.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Press Democrat. 1909. “Campers Must Be Very Careful Now. State Forester Sends Warning Regarding the Starting of Any Forest Fires.” Include a list of 12 fire wardens in the county, including Thomas Johnson in Glen Ellen. 6-121909.
Press Democrat. 1910. “Report Big Forest Fire” July 11.
Press Democrat. 1916. “Flames Menace Rio Nido.” July 9.
Press Democrat. 1916b. “Forest Fire Breaks Out Again.” July 11.
Press Democrat. 1917a. “Great Damage Already Done As Fire Sweeps Over Big Area.” July 22.
Press Democrat. 1917b. “President Palmer of NWP Urges County to Provide Means for Fire Fighting.” July 24.
Press Democrat. 1917c. “Fire Under Control is Word Sent Here Last Night.” July 24
Press Democrat. 1919. “Fire Companies in this County.” July 19.
Press Democrat. 1919. “Forest Fire Does Much Damage” Started on June 18. June 21.
Press Democrat. 1923. “Hundreds Drafted to Fight Fire.” September 19.
Press Democrat. Santa Rosa, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 9/23/1913; 8/22/1916; 9/18/1923. Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu.
Reynolds & Proctor. 1897. Illustrated Atlas of Sonoma County California. Reynolds & Proctor. Santa Rosa, Cal.
Richardson, E.D. 1854. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines in Township 12 North Range 7 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Richardson, E.D. 1854. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 12 North Range 7 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Richardson, E.D. 1854. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 12 North Range 8 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Ricksecker, L.E. 1900. “Official map of Sonoma County, California: compiled from the official maps in the County Assessor's Office, with additions and corrections to June 1st, 1900.” Published by W.B. Walkup. California
Riverside Daily Press. 1916a. “Forest Fires are Checked.” July 14. Riverside, CA.
Riverside Daily Press. 1916b. “Fire Breaks Out Anew.” July 17. Riverside, CA.
Riverside Daily Press. 1917a. “Forest Fires Baffling Men.” July 21. Riverside, CA.
Riverside Daily Press. 1917b. “Fierce Fires Burn Timber.” July 23. Riverside, CA.
Riverside Daily Press. 1917c. “Forest Fire Still Burning.” July 24. Riverside, CA.
Roloff, Gary J., Michael L. Donovan, Daniel W. Linden and Marshal L. Strong. 2009. “Lessons Learned from Using GIS to Model Landscape-Level Wildlife Habitat.” In Models for Planning Wildlife Conservation in Large Landscapes. Academic Press.
Russian River Historical Society. 2021. “Area History.” Webpage accessed Jan. 2021.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis https://www.russianriverhistory.org/about-rrhs/area-history/
Sampson, Arthur W. 1944. Plant Succession on Burned Chaparral Lands in Northern California. Bulletin 685, March. University of California, College of Agriculture. Agricultural Experiment Station. Berkeley, California.
San Francisco Call. 1903 “Fire Threatens Sonoma Ranches.” September 12.
San Francisco Call. 1916a. “Fire Sweeps on Rio Nido.” July 13.
San Francisco Call. 1916b. “12 Big Forest Fires Spread in Sonoma.” September 12.
San Francisco Call. 1917a. “Resort Fire Swept.” July 21.
San Francisco Call. 1917b. “Rich Homes, Wineries of Four Sections Menaced” July 23.
San Francisco Call. 1917c. “Father and Son Believed Dead in the Flames.” July 24.
San Francisco Call. 1917d. “Fighters Win War on Forest Flames.” July 25.
San Francisco Call. 1917e. “Guerneville Fire Out After Long Battle.” July 26.
San Francisco Chronicle. 1902. “Five Forest Fires Around Santa Rosa: Worst, starting on the William Ashe Ranch, Has Burned Five Hundred Acres.” October 2, pg. 4.
San Francisco Chronicle. 1902. “Five Forest Fires Around Santa Rosa.” October 2, pg. 4.
San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 10/5/1890; 9/12/1903. Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu.
Sargent, C.S. 1881. “Map of a Portion of California Showing the Distribution of Redwood Forests with Special Reference to the Lumber Industry.” Department of the Interior, Tenth Census of the United States. Shows conditions in 1880.
Sawyer, John, Todd Keeler-Wolf, Julie Evans. 2009. A Manual of California Vegetation. Second Edition. California Native Plant Society Press. Sacramento.
Sayre, M.S. 1889. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior and Subdivision Lines of Township 12 North Range 8 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Schrader-Patton, Charlie C. and Emma C. Underwood. 2021. “New Biomass Estimates for Chaparral Dominated Southern California Landscapes.” Remote Sens. 2021. 13, 1581.
Sisk, T.D., editor. 1998. Perspectives on the land-use history of North America: a context for understanding our changing environment. U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Biological Science Report USGS/BRD/BSR-1998-0003. 104pp.
Smilie, Robert S. 1975. The Sonoma Mission; The Founding, Ruin and Restoration of California’s 21st Mission. Valley Publishers. Fresno, CA.
Snetsinger, Susan and Steve Ventura. “Land Cover Change in the Great Lakes Region from Mid-19th Century to Present.” Research funded by the U.S. Forest Service, Great Lakes Assessment, and the Forest Service, North Central Research Station.
Sommers, William T., Rachel A. Loehman and Colin C. Hardy. 2014. “Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and climate: Science overview and knowledge needs.” Forest Ecology and Management. 317 (2014) 1-8.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Sonoma County Agricultural Preservation and Open Space District. 2014. “Key to Lifeform Classes—Phase 1 of the Sonoma County Veg Map.” Updated August 15, 2014. Accessed via: https://tukmangeospatial.egnyte.com/h-s/20130220/abc9964b29554abb
Sonoma County. 2019. “2017 Sonoma Complex Fires: Post-Fire Vegetation Assessment and Planning for Landscape & Community Resiliency to Fire.” Story Map. https://sonomavegmap.org/firestory /index.html
Sonoma Democrat. 1870. “The Great Fire.” October 22. This fire may have partially burned through the study area, though location is difficult to accurately locate.
Sonoma Democrat. 1871. “Woods on Fire.” Description of a wildfire in Sonoma Valley burning for five or six miles in a southeasterly direction. October 14.
Sonoma Democrat. 1871b. “Barn and Hay Burned.” Same fire as above October 21.
Sonoma Democrat. 1871c. “Woods Near Calistoga on Fire.” [reprint from the Calistoga Tribune, October 14.] October 28.
Sonoma Democrat. 1882. “That Dry Creek Fire.” Describes intentional burn started by ranchers a week or two earlier (October 7).
Sonoma Index. 1880. Article detailing two fires which broke out in mid-November. Originally printed on November 20. Reprinted in ‘Remember When’ section. Hood House folder, Sonoma Valley Historical Society files.
Sonoma Index-Tribune. 1923. “Fire Sweeps Valley: Boyes Springs, Famous Summer Resort, Leveled by Flames.” VOL. XLVI. No.5. September 22. Sonoma, California. Also see Sept 18 issue.
Sotoyome Scimitar. Healdsburg, CA. Newspaper articles published on: 12/3/1936; 9/8/1938. Accessed online via the California Digital Newspaper Collection, www.cdnc.ucr.edu
Standiford, Richard and Theodore Adams. 1996. “Fire in California’s Hardwood Rangelands” Chapter 10 of Guidelines for Managing California’s Hardwood Rangelands. Published by University of California Integrated Hardwood Range Management Program; California Univ., System (USA). Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources; California Dept. of Fish and Game; California. Dept. of Forestry and Fire Protection.
Steel, Zachary L., Daniel Foster, Michelle Coppoletta, Jamie M. Lydersen et. al. 2021. “Ecological resilience and vegetation transition in the face of two successive large wildfires.” Journal of Ecology. British Ecological Society.
Stephens, Scott L. and Danny L. Fry. 2005. “Fire History in Coast Redwood Stands in the Northeastern Santa Cruz Mountains.” Fire Ecology, 1(1). Association for Fire Ecology California.
Stephens, Scott L., Robert E. Martin, Nicholas E. Clinton. 2007. “Prehistoric fire area and emissions from California’s forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands.” Forest Ecology and Management 251 (2007)205-216.
Stessel, Kevin. 2016. Net Logo Web, Wildfire Model. http://www.netlogoweb.org/launch#http://ccl. northwestern.edu/netlogo/community/Forest%20Fire_v1.nlogo
Stockton Independent. 1916. “Big Forest Fire Threatened Two Towns.” July 14.
Thompson, G.H. 1866. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision and Meander Lines in Township 11 North Range 7 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Thompson, T.H.1877. Historical Atlas Map of Sonoma County California. Published by Thos. H. Thompson & Co. Oakland. Reprint by Sonoma County Historical Society.
Thorne, James H., Brian J. Morgan and Jeffrey A. Kennedy. 2008. “Vegetation Change over Sixty Years in the Central Sierra Nevada, California.” Madroño. Vol. 55, No. 3.
Thorne, James H., Jeffrey A. Kennedy, James F. Quinn, Michael McCoy, Todd Keeler-Wolf and John Menke. 2004. “A Vegetation Map of Napa County Using the Manual of California Vegetation Classification and its Comparison to Other Digital Vegetation Maps.” Madroño. Vol. 51, No. 4. pp. 343–363.
Tolman, G.B. 1874. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines in Township 8 North Range 10 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1858. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 7 North Range 5 W…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1858. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 6 North Range 6 W...” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1858. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 11 North Ranges 3,4,5,6, & 7 W...” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1858. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 6 North Range 3 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1858. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Exterior Lines of Township 7 North Range 3 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1858. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Township 7 North Range 4 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1859. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Line Between Ranges 3 and 4 W. Township 6 N…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1859. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Township 6 North Range 3 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1859. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Township 6 North Range 4 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties
Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis
Tracy, C.C. 1859. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the North Boundary of Township 6 North Range 4 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tracy, C.C. 1859. “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Townships 6 and 7 North Range 4 West…” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
Tucker, G. 1873 “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the South Boundary, Section 26. in Township 12 North Range 8 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
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Tucker, G. 1876 “Transcript of the Field Notes of the Survey of the Subdivision Lines of Township 11 North Range 7 W.” General Land Office, U.S. Department of Interior. Microfiche obtained from Bureau of Land Management. Sacramento, California.
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Vegetation Trends and Cycles in Fire Prone Landscapes of Lake, Napa East and Sonoma Counties Pepperwood, Baseline Consulting, Tukman Geospatial, Thorne Environmental Landscape Analysis