Eager for Glory Extracts

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Eager for Glory The Untold Story of Drusus the Elder, Conqueror of Germania

Lindsay Powell

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Contents

Acknowledgements ......................................................................... vi Foreword .................................................................................... viii Chronology .................................................................................... x List of Illustrations ....................................................................... xv Maps and Plans ........................................................................ xviii Roman Names .......................................................................... xxxi Preface .................................................................................... xxxii 1. Drusus the Youth ..................................................................... 1 2. Drusus the Soldier ................................................................. 18 3. Drusus the Builder ................................................................ 49 4. Drusus the Explorer .............................................................. 68 5. Drusus the Commander ......................................................... 81 6. Drusus the Consul ............................................................... 100 7. Drusus the Hero .................................................................. 109 8. Assessment .......................................................................... 135 Stemmata .................................................................................. 144 The Step-Children of Augustus .................................................... 146 Gazeteer .................................................................................... 147 Glossary .................................................................................... 152 Place Names .............................................................................. 156 Ancient Sources .......................................................................... 159 Notes ........................................................................................ 170 Bibliography .............................................................................. 213 Index ........................................................................................ 226

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Acknowledgements

Writing about the life of another person is a fascinating challenge, especially one long dead and almost entirely forgotten. There were no living family relations or witnesses available to interview. However, there were several living people who knew parts of the story and others who did not but were nevertheless eager to help me tell it. I start with family and friends. My partner, mother, brother and, in particular, my friend Sonia St James (self-styled ‘muse to creative minds’) have all offered much appreciated encouragement throughout the project – they know how much this book meant to me. To my editor at Pen and Sword Books, Philip Sidnell, who responded enthusiastically to my proposal, graciously offered to take on this project, and guided it through to completion, I shall always be grateful.

I feel very privileged indeed that Graham Sumner agreed to kindly write the foreword to this, my first book. I have known Graham since I joined the Ermine Street Guard and have long admired his writings and illustrations, which reveal his deep knowledge of military matters of the Roman period.

This book tells the story of Drusus the Elder in both words and pictures. From the academic community I must thank David Potter, Arthur F. Thurnau Professor of Greek and Latin, Department of Classical Studies at The University of Michigan, for permission to use excerpts from his unpublished translation of the Tabula Siarensis; and Professor Ann Kuttner, Department of History of Art at the University of Pennsylvania, for permission to use insightful statements from her Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Boscoreale Cups.

For helping me to illustrate the story, I offer my thanks to Michael V. Craton, who patiently shot digital photographs of pieces from my coin collection; Andy R. Braeunling and the members of Historische Darstellungsgruppe München e.V., for use of their photographs; Robert Brosch and the members of Chasuari, for use of their photograph; Marie-Lan Nguyen, for her photographs of Roman portrait busts; and last, but not least, Chris Haines MBE, Mike Knowles and members of The Ermine Street Guard, a registered charity in the United Kingdom – and of which I am proud to say I am a veteran member – for use of their photographs, some of which they took specially for this book.

War stories cannot be told without the aid of maps. I sincerely thank Carlos De La Rocha of Satrapa Ediciones, whose work frequently appears in Ancient Warfare magazine, for creating the superb maps of the Roman Empire and of Drusus’ campaigns.

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Acknowledgements vii My thanks also go to William Stavinoha, M.D. in Austin, Texas, who very graciously corroborated the plausibility of my interpretations of medical issues described in the ancient texts. For help with Latin sources I thank Dorian Borbonus, Bob Durrett, Magister Ginny Lindzey and Michael J. Taylor.

I have quoted extracts from several ancient authors’ works whose voices add greatly to the narrative. For the translations, I used: Augustus’ Res Gestae translated

by Thomas Bushnell, BSG, and reproduced with permission, 1998; Julius Caesar’s Commentarii de Bello Gallico translated by Edward Brooks in The First Six Books of the Gallic War, Chicago: The Cenn Publishing Company, 1896; Cassius Dio’s ‘Pωμαϊκὴ Iστορία (Romaikon Istoria) translated by E. Cary based on the version

by H.B. Foster in Dio’s Roman History, London: William Heinemann, 1917; Cicero’s Epistulae in The Letters of Cicero: The Whole Extant Correspondence in Chronological Order translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh, London: George Bell and Sons, 1905; Cicero’s Oratio pro L. Murena, IX-XI, in The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero, Volume 2, translated by C.D. Younge, p. 340, London: Bell, 1891; Florus’ Epitome translated by John Selby in Sallust, Florus and Velleius Paterculus, London: George Bell and Sons, 1889; Hippokrates’ Περί Aγμών (Peri Agmon) translated by Francis Adams in The Genuine Works of Hippocrates, Volume 2, London: Sydenham Society, 1849; Horace’s Carmina translated by John Conington in The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace, Translated into English Verse, London: M.A. Bell and Daldy, 1863; Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia translated by John Bostock and H.T. Riley in The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 3, London: Henry Bohn, 1855; Pliny the Younger’s Epistulae Selectae translated by John Delaware Lewis in The Letters of the Younger Pliny, London: Keegan Paul, 1890; Plutarch’s Oἱ Bίοι Παράλληλοι (Oi Vioi Paralliloi) translated by John Langhrone and William Langhorne in Plutarch’s Lives, London: William Tegg, 1868; Seneca the Younger’s De Consolatio ad Marciam translated by John W. Basore in Moral Essays, Volume 2, London: William Heinemann,1932; Suetonius’ De Vita Caesarum translated by Alexander Thomson in The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, London: George Bell and Sons, 1893; Tacitus’ Ab Excessu Divi Augusti translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Bodribb in The Annals of Tacitus, London: MacMillan and Co., 1906; Tacitus’ De Origine et Situ Germanorum translated by R. B. Townsend in The Agricola and Germania of Tacitus, London: Methuen and Co., 1894; Tacitus’ Historiae, translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Bodribb in The History of Tacitus, London: MacMillan and Co., 1876; Velleius Paterculus’ Historiae Romanae translated by John Selby in Sallust, Florus and Velleius Paterculus, London: George Bell, 1889; and Vergil’s Aeneid translated by John Dryden in 1697 in an improved edition by John Carey of The Works of Virgil Translated into English Verse, Volume 1, London: George Cowie and Co., 1819. The translated extract from Consolatio ad Liviam on page 143 comes from W. Francis H. King’s Classical Quotations: A Polyglot Manual of Historical and Literary Sayings, Noted Passages in Poetry and Prose, Phrases, Proverbs and Bons Mots, London: J. Whitaker and Sons, 1904. The quotation attributed to Pliny the Elder on page 143 comes from Josiah Hotchkiss Gilbert’s Dictionary of Burning Words of Brilliant Writers: A Cyclopaedia of Quotations from the Literature of All Ages, Bew York: Wilbur B. Ketcham, 1895.

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Foreword

by Graham Sumner

Like many readers perhaps, my previous knowledge of Drusus the Elder was based almost entirely on two separate sources. The first was the portrayal of Drusus in the highly acclaimed BBC/PBS Masterpiece Theater television series I, Claudius; whilst the second was the statue of Drusus illustrated, for example, in the classic volume The Armour of Imperial Rome by H. Russell Robinson. Both depictions show Drusus as a handsome young man, an accomplished soldier and, judging from the statue, one not averse to embellishing his armour with elaborate and unnecessary decoration like so many of his contemporaries.

The television character, played by actor Ian Ogilvy, is mourned after his death by his devoted wife Antonia, as Queen Victoria did for her consort Prince Albert, and who, like the British monarch, never re-marries. While this depiction was based on the scholarly work of Robert Graves who translated the biographies of the Caesars by the Roman author Suetonius, I was politely informed by Lindsay that the statue of Drusus was in all probability not a statue of the Drusus after all but more likely one of Drusus the Younger, the son of his brother Tiberius.

This is a timely reminder then that Roman history is not always what at first it appears to be. Further evidence of this was highlighted recently by two archaeological discoveries in Britain. Firstly, for the first time in over a hundred years a spectacular Roman helmet was discovered, which would have been classified

by Russell Robinson as a ‘sports type’. Only two other even remotely comparable helmets had been found in Britain but the latest discovery was of a very unusual design. Found by a man with a metal detector it sold at auction for over £2 million!

Secondly, at Caerleon in South Wales – ironically a stone’s throw away from where Lindsay was born – in the former legionary fortress of Legio II Augusta, the remains of at least two sets of Roman armour were unearthed. While one was the familiar metal strip armour we call today lorica segmentata, the second type at first analysis appears to be a strange variation of scale armour with round rather than arch-shaped scales.

Both the helmet and the armour will probably be talked about for many years to come but they illustrate that even today, after centuries of study, not everything is

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Foreword ix known about the Romans and something new and surprising may await around the corner. Of course not only artifacts can be lost and forgotten awaiting rediscovery but whole personalities can be as well. One such individual is Drusus the Elder, illuminated at last in this the first biography of an important personality from the beginnings of Rome’s empire and for which Lindsay is to be congratulated.

I first met Lindsay over twenty years ago when we served together in the world’s oldest Roman army re-enactment group, The Ermine Street Guard – a society to which, it is fair to say, we both owe a great debt. An abiding memory from those days was when the society took part in a film shoot for a television documentary series filmed in and around a recreated Celtic farmstead. Filming can be extremely tedious, involving many re-shoots or long periods of simply standing around awaiting direction. During one such period a few legionaries, including Lindsay, began throwing large stems of grass at one another like mock javelins. Suddenly, to everyone’s amusement, as Lindsay threw his ‘javelin’ the entire right shoulder section of his armour detached itself and slid unceremoniously to the ground!

It is a sad fact that we lack so many individual anecdotes like this from the Roman world. Nonetheless Lindsay has produced a highly entertaining, thoughtful and readable account of a great Roman, which I am sure will be a treasured work on any Roman enthusiast’s bookshelf.

Chester October 2010

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Preface

Behind many street names there is a story. One such is Drususgasse, which means ‘Drusus Alley’. This otherwise rather ordinary quiet treelined street in Cologne, Germany, between Kolpingplatz and An der Rechtschule, is a short walk from the great Kölner Dom, the city’s gothic cathedral, and the Römisch-Germanisches Museum, which houses an astonishing collection of Roman artifacts recovered from the ground below the modern city. The curious fact is that this side street is named after this particular Roman. Cologne is not unique. His name is also preserved in several other Drususstraßen in towns and cities across modern Germany. So who is this Drusus? The man in question is Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, known to history as Drusus the Elder.

The name Drusus the Elder conjures up the image of a man in his sixties or seventies, with thinning grey hair, an aquiline nose and battle scars borne of years of hard campaigning. He was certainly a military man, and he started young. When he was ordered by his stepfather Augustus to take up arms and command an army he was just 23 years old. Over the next year, aided by his brother (and the future Emperor) Tiberius, he subjugated the people living in the mountain valleys of the central-eastern Alps. He was a builder too and oversaw the largest construction of military infrastructure of the time – and in the process he founded many of the places that are today the great cities along the River Rhine. He was a seafaring explorer who took his fellow countrymen further north than any Roman had gone before. He was also a diplomat and made treaty allies of many of the tribes across the Rhine from the northwestern shore of Europe to the Elbe River – and in so doing shaped the destiny of Europe. He was the husband to one of the most beautiful women of his day, Antonia, the daughter of M. Antonius. He was a family man too and fathered the golden boy Germanicus, the feisty Livia Iulia and the remarkable Claudius who would become emperor – among the better fruit borne of this knotty branch of the Julio-Claudian family tree. Yet when he died he was just 29 years old – not a grey haired old man, but a dashing, popular and handsome twenty-something in the prime years of his life.

For many Romans he was a hero, their equivalent of Alexander the Great.

Monuments and statues were erected to honour him. Augustus wrote a biography of him. The Emperor Claudius idolised him and minted coins with his profile showing him as the eternally youthful ‘conqueror of Germania’. The prolific Pliny

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Preface xxxiii the Elder also wrote an extensive account of Drusus’ military exploits in the lands north of the Rhine. Yet today he is hardly known.

How could a man who was regarded as an important figure to the Romans so completely slip out of the popular memory? How and why did Augustus delegate to an inexperienced man in his mid-twenties a centerpiece of his imperial plan? How did someone so young undertake such a risky mission – and did he succeed? And what remains of his legacy today? As I went in search of answers to these questions, I was astonished to find that there was no single volume account of the life of Nero Claudius Drusus. There are books on his stepfather Augustus, his mother Livia Drusilla, his brother Tiberius, his stepsister Julia and his son Claudius, even his grandchildren Gaius (Caligula) and Agrippina, but no one had described the life of Drusus. He is in the history books but all too often as a bit player in Augustus’ grand imperial ambitions, or worse, a passing figure on the road to the disaster at Teutoburg Forest. Tellers of history can often be myopic focusing on a few individuals when the wider context reveals others to have contributed greatly and whose achievements are just as worthy of being reported. Drusus the Elder has for too long been consigned to obscurity. Eager for Glory restores the name and reputation of the young Roman hero for a new generation. This is the book on Drusus the Elder I had hoped to find.

Like so many personalities from the Ancient World, Drusus is a shadowy figure.

The biography that Augustus wrote is entirely lost to us – more is the pity because it was certainly a memoir and would have uniquely recounted moments the affectionate stepfather shared with his stepson. Pliny the Elder’s history is also wholly lost. He had served three tours of duty in at least two of the regions entered

by Drusus and he may have had access to original documents and sites and even heard tales from sons of old soldiers who served with him. What we have is a jigsaw puzzle of fragments written by mostly later historians. Events in Drusus’ life are described by Cassius Dio, Florus, Horace, Livy, Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, Velleius Paterculus and others borrowing from earlier accounts. Fortunately enough information survives that a reasonably accurate timeline can be reconstructed and a good deal about the nature and personality of the man can be deduced.

This book is a journey in which we follow the footsteps of the young prince as he grows up. As a relative of Augustus he had a privileged life, but it was very far from an idle one. Drusus’ life was shaped by politics and by war. He became part of the apparatus of the state earlier than most thanks to his stepfather, but he scaled the highest heights of the political power structure only after he had demonstrated competence in government and military service. As a soldier, his life was inextricably tied up with wars of conquest – first in and around the Alps, and later in the lands north of the Rhine, which the Romans called Magna Germania (which we today call Germany and The Netherlands) and was largely unknown to them.

Thus, Drusus’ conquest of Germania is also an adventure story. The Romans’ early knowledge of the lands and peoples of Germania was as much uninformed by stereotype and prejudice as it was informed by poor military intelligence and imprecise cartography. Many of the troops heading into what was for them unchartered territory must have been terrified, expecting to encounter men no

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xxxiv Eager for Glory better than brute savages living in dank swamps and dark forests, and fearsome monsters straight out of legends they had heard as boys.

Drusus’ military expedition is remarkable for the fact that he led his men into unexplored territory by sea and on land without the aid of devices any modern army commander would expect to have at his disposal – good maps, radio communications, and air reconnaissance. Like Alexander and Iulius Caesar before him, he relied on ground intelligence from allies and captives, updated by reports from scouts, and a soldier’s instinct for terrain and learning the habits of his enemy.

Communications in Drusus’ time were the best of the day but nevertheless remarkably poor by modern standards. The Romans’ genius was recognising the fact and delegating decision-making authority. A commander could not wait for orders from higher up: he had to make decisions on the spot. In this respect, Drusus was a commander soldiers looked up to and were inspired by. He led his men from the front with astonishing acts of derring-do. Yet this boldness also verged on the reckless and on more than one occasion he put not only himself but his men at unnecessary risk.

Eager for Glory is structured to follow the life of Drusus chronologically and to draw out key themes that shaped it: Chapter 1: Drusus the Youth, covering the years 38–18 BCE, describes the question of his paternity, relationships with his mother, brother and Augustus; the pressures of living up to the formidable reputation of the gens Claudia; his early career in public office; and his marriage to Antonia Minor. His life is set against the background of civil war, the rivalry of Augustus and Marcus Antonius and the rise of the imperial family.

Chapter 2: Drusus the Soldier, covering the years 17–15 BCE, describes Drusus’ first military command during the Raetian and Norican Wars. Augustus’ imperial strategy in the north, the structure and deployment of the Roman army, as well as the arms and equipment of both Roman and Celtic opponents, are explained.

Chapter 3: Drusus the Builder, covering the years 14–13 BCE, describes his life as a young father and how Drusus approached his governorship of Tres Galliae. During this period he oversaw the massive infrastructure build-out along the Rhine – including a canal – as well as use of the Batavi as allies, in preparation for the German Wars.

Chapter 4: Drusus the Explorer, covering the year 12 BCE, describes how Drusus discovered and defused a rebellion in Tres Galliae and launched the German War with an amphibious expedition and land campaign into what was then uncharted territory. The use of a diplomatic strategy executed through treaties with new allies, particularly the Chauci and Frisii, and use of client states, is explained.

Chapter 5: Drusus the Commander, covering the years 11–10 BCE, describes how Drusus’ eagerness for glory drove his men to near catastrophe at the Battle of

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Preface xxxv Arbalo. The Germanic tribes, their warriors and their fighting techniques are described, in particular the Chatti, Cherusci and Sugambri.

Chapter 6: Drusus the Consul, in which he reaches the highest office of the political career ladder in 9 BCE, but returns to the front to continue the war. The march to the Elbe River and events leading to, and immediately following, his death are detailed.

Chapter 7: Drusus the Hero describes the cortège’s journey from Germania to Rome and the funeral in the city. How Augustus and his successors created and exploited the legend of Drusus as a rôle model and as ‘Conqueror of Germania’ for their own ends is examined.

The book ends with an assessment of the man and what remains of his legacy today.

Finally, for the reader who is inspired to retrace the campaigns of Drusus the Elder – it would certainly make for a wonderful series of vacation trips – I have included a gazetteer of places and museums.

In respect of dates, I have used the convention ‘BCE’ (Before the Common Era) instead of BC, and ‘CE’ (Common Era) for AD. The events in Drusus’ life described in this book occur in the BCE epoch.

Romans generally had two names, a personal name (praenomen) and a family or clan name (nomen genticulum), but from the later days of the Republic, it was becoming common to have three by adding a nickname (cognomen). Victorious commanders in battle might also be granted a honorific title (agnomen). Modern historians usually call Romans by their cognomina or agnomina, the last of the three or more names, hence Caesar for G. Iulius Caesar, or Augustus for G. Iulius Caesar Augustus. (I have used Iulius for Julius throughout.) In some cases the Latin name has mutated into an Anglicism, such as Livy for Livius or Pliny for Plinius. For the names of ancient historians, I use the modern form, but for the protagonists in the story I retain the Latin form, hence M. Antonius rather than Mark Antony, and the orginal Greek form Kleopatra for Cleopatra.

This is a good place to point out that the ‘Elder’ in Drusus’ name is actually another way of saying ‘senior’, to distinguish him from the other Drusus (Drusus the Younger), who was his nephew – Tiberius named his son after his illustrious brother in his honour. To distinguish between the two, historians also refer to Drusus the Elder as Drusus I, Drusus Maior, Drusus Senior, Nero Drusus, Claudius Drusus and Drusus Germanicus. To complicate matters, Drusus the Elder’s oldest son bore the same name as his father, but thankfully he is usually referred to as just Germanicus. The reader will be forgiven for thinking that studying the house of Augustus can quickly become very confusing.

Where a place has a Latin name I prefer to use it since the modern name creates a false impression of the scale and feel of the ancient place, hence Oppidum Ubiorum rather than Cologne, which at this time more likely looked like a town of the American Wild West. The exceptions are Athens and Rome, because to use Athenae and Roma would be unnecessarily pedantic; and places for which the

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xxxvi Eager for Glory ancient name is not known, in which case I use the modern name unless there is a well-known Anglicism. I have listed ancient and modern place names on pages 156–158 for convenience.

The names and places used by the indigenous, so-called Germanic, peoples who sided with or fought against the Romans are only known to us through Greek and Latin writings. A few tribal chieftains and kings are known but only by Romanised names. We do not know what Maelo of the Sugambri nation was called in his own language, or Marboduus of the Marcomanni. Few Germanic place names survive, though intriguingly the geographer Ptolemy lists several and even offers map co-ordinates for them. While attempts have been made to identify their precise locations, they are at best tentative.

The Latin version is used for Roman officer ranks, arms, equipment and battle formations throughout the text since there is often no modern equivalent.

Definitions of the terms are listed in the Glossary.

The job of a biographer is to present as accurate and unbiased an account of his subject’s life as possible, but also to make the story compelling reading. Establishing the facts through research is an intellectually fun-filled journey but in the end the writing itself is a lonely endeavour with the inner voice the constant and sternest critic. May you, dear reader, find my telling of his story compelling.

To the shades of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus Imperator I present this book: I hope it meets your expectations. Votum sovit libens merito.

Lindsay Powell Memorial Day May 2010 Austin, Texas