Kuklick, A Political History of the USA

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Contents List of Maps List of Figures Introduction

viii ix x

Part I Religious Longings 1 The Impact of the Europeans, 1494–1676 2 North American Colonies, 1632–1732

1 3 25

Part II The Revolution and the Constitution 3 The Colonies in the Empire, 1651–1774 4 War and Order, 1775–1787 5 The Culture of Politics, 1788–1826

37 39 57 73

Part III Irrepressible Conflict 6 Experiments in Republicanism, 1783–1832 7 Nationalism, Sectionalism, and Slavery, 1820–1861 8 Lincoln and the Civil War, 1858–1865

85 87 103 122

Part IV Republican Ascendency 9 A New Elite, 1865–1896 10 A New Empire, 1890–1917 11 Progressive America, 1900–1920 12 Crises of Progressive Capitalism, 1919–1933

137 139 162 177 196

Part V American Liberalism 13 The Cosmopolitan New Deal, 1933–1945 14 Cold War America, 1945–1963 15 The Long 1960s, 1954–1975

209 211 235 256

Part VI Contemporary America 16 Cultural Division and Cultural Imperialism, 1968–2000 17 An Age of Terror, 1991–2016

277 279 295

Epilogue: America in History Suggestions for Reading and Study Acknowledgments Index

311 312 318 319

vii

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1 The Impact of the Europeans, 1494–1676 Ideas of a New World from the Treaty of Tordesillas to Bacon’s Rebellion and Virginia Slavery

The prehistory of the United States concerns three connected groups. Twenty to forty thousand years before the Christian era (BC), the first migrants – the Indians – came from Asia to the Americas. By the sixteenth century ad, the Europeans arriving from “the Old World” claimed the countryside for themselves.

Indians and Euro-Europeans entangled themselves as ownership of land defined the life of the newcomers. The Europeans soon brought African slaves to labor.

This entanglement became crucial because race is central to the United States.

INDIANS During the Great Ice Age of thousands of years ago the sea level dropped. A land bridge surfaced between Eurasia and the landmass of North and South America.

You could walk over the present-day Bering Sea between Siberia and Alaska. Some geographers and geologists believe that the first people to live in the Americas were wandering Asian hunters who crossed the Bering Sea Bridge. Other investigators think that small boats traversed the inlets along the common coasts between Siberia and Alaska. These “native” Americans spread out through present-day North America and down to the tip of South America.

Estimates vary about the number of human beings in the western hemisphere when they encountered the Europeans at the end of the fifteenth century.

North of the Rio Grande the earliest peoples numbered 4–6 million. Some were hunter-gatherers composed of different competing groups – eventually tribes. ­ Many others lived as farmers. Stronger or weaker ties linked inhabitants over broad areas. Some societies extended widely – for example, groups known as “The Mound Builders” were prominent in what is now the Ohio Valley and along the Gulf Coast.

They developed rural civilizations around 1,000 bc. Over 1,500 years they gave way to even more settled agriculturalists, who built at least one city near today’s St. Louis. The Pueblos of the contemporary southwestern United States farmed in communities and were living in multitiered buildings in the thirteenth century ad.

Centuries before the Europeans arrived in the 1500s, the Iroquois of present-day New York had political and military alliances that made them powerful.

3

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SIBERIA

Arctic O cean

BERINGIA

Pacific Ocean NORTH AMERICA

Atlantic Oce a n

Map 1. Bering Sea Bridge. This reconstruction is really a theory about how the Americas were originally populated.

Present-day Central and South America had a greater population, perhaps even more than 25 million in 1500. Scholars base this estimate on the fact that in the south the natives prospered more. They created remarkable temples that served sizeable numbers of people. The Maya, who flourished in the present-day Yucatan Peninsula between ad 300 and 800, produced jewelry, invented writing and mathematical systems, and developed an astronomy. Their merchants built up trade, although fighting weakened the Maya. Eventually the Aztecs overran them.

Our understanding of these peoples, whom the Europeans quickly named Indians, differs from our knowledge of the Europeans themselves. The Indians left few written records, and studies of anthropologists and archaeologists are the primary bases for our knowledge. When the Indians talk to us, they usually do so through the voice of some European explorer or writer: They are so guileless and so generous with all they possess, that no one would believe it who has not seen it. They never refuse anything which they possess, if it be asked of them; on the contrary, they invite anyone to share it, and display so much love as if they would give their hearts.

Christopher Columbus, 1490s

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We know that the Indians were spread throughout the Americas, and that they had different modes of life and speaking: ’Tis very strange that every nation of the savages of the Northern America should have a peculiar language; for though some of them live not ten leagues from one another, they must use an Interpreter to talk together, there being no universal language amongst them.

Louis Henepin, 1698 Moreover, they fought with one another when competitors came into close contact, and similar groups often could not associate peacefully: Their old soldiers being swept away by the plague which was very rife amongst them … they do not now practice anything in martial feats worth observation, saving that they make themselves forts to fly into if the enemies should unexpectedly assail them … [From there they] deliver their sharp and bloody embassies in the tawny sides of their naked assailants, who … lose their lives by their too near approachments.

William Wood, 1634 The native sense of property differed from the Europeans. The Indians respected use of land more than the idea of being landlords. When Europeans reached what they called the New World, the first thing they did was to demand the ground for a flag, a king, or a country, or for themselves. The Indians had a social organization that centered around land. They had hunting camps, fishing privileges, and harvests that belonged to them and not others. The countryside was at the heart of life, and native culture set in the environment. But Indians doubted deeds and property rights, whereas the Europeans thought them fundamental, a difference with enormous consequences.

Immunity to disease was another difference. Natives and Europeans exchanged viruses and bacteria. Neither group was prepared for the traffic, although the Indians suffered disproportionately. The Europeans unintentionally spread fatal illnesses. The natives could not survive common Old-World maladies such as smallpox and measles, and sicknesses almost wiped them out.

EUROPEANS By the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, independent European countries were slowly emerging out of the battles of local chiefs. Warrior princes assumed power over large areas and over clans with ethnic similarities. These leaders developed religions and governments that legitimated their rule in what are now great European nations.

Spain had two kingdoms in Castile and Aragon. The marriage between their rulers, Isabella and Ferdinand, integrated the kingdoms in 1479. In France, from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries, the writ of a single king spread from the

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north central region to what is now the entire country. The northerners came to dominate the south, and kings from England with claims to France were expelled.

In what is now the island of Great Britain, a long series of contests resulted in united control of England and Wales. But a single ruler only combined Scotland in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and war to subdue the western island of Ireland never ended.

Moreover, different peoples that were becoming nations fought elsewhere.

The growth of France, Spain, and Britain went hand in hand with conflict among these states. They defined themselves against those whom they saw as “nationalities” not subject to their authority or their rituals. The rivals contested for wealth or for marks of who was physically stronger, or battled in areas not governed by any one of them.

The Catholic (Christian) church led by a Pope in Rome was involved with these struggles. The church had endured for 1,000 years and oversaw the spiritual meaning of existence in the mysterious universe of medieval and early modern times. On the one hand, the rival and non-European religion of Islam endangered Catholicism from the outside in what is now called the Middle East. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Roman church had sponsored Crusades to take the holy places of its religion from the Muslim “infidels.” These wars had at least checked a Turkish Empire that was coming into existence with its Islamic religion. But in 1453, the Muslim conquest of Constantinople, the Turkish gateway to Europe, frightened Europeans: Islam again threatened the Catholicism of Europe.

On the other hand, militant reformers harassed Catholicism from within. Not all Christians accepted the authority of Rome, and even some of those who did accused it of corruption and lack of piety.

The building of nations, internal and external; and theological conflict, internal and external, defined much of European history in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These national and religious encounters had repercussions in the New World as Europeans increased their trade.

The Europeans had profitable but dangerous commerce east of the Turkish Empire with the “Spice Islands” or “the Indies.” Even the educated had little accurate sense of global geography, and this formless region spread from India to what is now Indonesia. The trade took merchants from western Europe by ship to Turkey, and then by caravan to Persia, India, and even China; or overland from North Africa to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean. But the Islamic world controlled most of this buying and selling. An effective sea route to the Indies would make business easier and more lucrative. If Europeans broke the Turkish hold on this business, they would also strengthen Christianity.

Sailors thought they might get more quickly to the Indies and avoid Islamic power by going round the coast of Africa. By the middle of the fifteenth century, with advances in navigation, European explorers were sailing into the south Atlantic around Africa to the Indies. Or west to get to the same place; later, for example, the hunt for a “northwest passage” took seamen to Iceland and Greenland and perhaps the interior of present-day Canada to access the Indies by way of the St. Lawrence River or Hudson’s Bay.

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Genoa Venice

PORTUGAL SPAIN

Peking Constantinople

PERSIA

CHINA

Delhi

INDIA

AFRICA SPICE ISLANDS

Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean

EAST INDIES

MADAGASCAR Northern route Middle route Southern route

Map 2. European Trade to the Indies.

Spain and Portugal together first entered the race for trade with the Indies.

Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailing for Spain’s Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, journeyed southwest and hit the islands of San Salvador and Cuba in the Caribbean, near the great American landmass. Satisfied that he had reached the Indies, Columbus designated the natives Indians. Three more trips would not persuade him that he had found a “new world,” although others soon realized that they were not in the East Indies. The term “West Indies” got a permanent use. Another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, sailed to South America soon after and reported on his travels. Misconceiving the report, a German geographer argued that the territory should be called America in honor of its supposed Italian founder. The name stuck.

Europe thought that the Indians had no proper religion and did not own the land. In European eyes, the primitive pagans only squatted. In 1493 and 1494, with a line on a map, the Pope of the Roman church, Alexander VI, divided this non-Christian world between Spain and Portugal. The Treaty of Tordesillas picked out which new lands each country could seize and Christianize. The Pope and the politicians not only wanted to insure Catholicism in new territory, but also to avoid conflict between Portugal and Spain. Eventually, everything east of this line, the eastern coast of South America and Africa, went to Portugal; west of the line went to Spain.

Portugal focused on the west coast of Africa and what would roughly become Brazil. In the Caribbean, in other parts of South and Central America, and in the south and southwest of the present-day United States, from Florida to California, Spain ruled. Explorers called conquistadores made their country a global force.

By the first half of the sixteenth century, the Spanish had fanned out from the

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NORTH AMERICA

EUROPE

AFRICA

Pacific Ocean SOUTH AMERICA

Atlantic Ocean

Papal division (1493) Treaty line (1494)

Map 3. Treaty of Tordesillas and Spanish–Portuguese Line of 1494.

Caribbean. They overran the Aztecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru. Intimidating the locals, Spain took over their gold and silver mines. The conquistadores downplayed trade and forged a different strategy of expansion. America was not the Indies, and the navigators would not make fortunes in commerce as had been expected. But the conquistadores could conquer the Indians and secure prestige and reward for Spain. Not trade but precious metals were paramount. One Aztec said: the Spanish “thirsted mightily for gold; they stuffed themselves with it; they starved for it; they lusted for it like pigs.”

Spain puzzled about how to treat unruly Indians. The conquistadores wanted to lead the pagans to Christianity. Nonetheless, the almost casual way that the Spanish degraded Indian societies ominously signaled how all Europeans would think about the peoples of the New World. The conquistadores planned to convert Indians to Catholicism, and this aim suggested that the Spanish did regard the New World as in the same moral universe they occupied. But sometimes European behavior is most charitably interpreted if we argue that Spain did not see the New World in this way. The sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Europeans may be more acceptable to the twenty-first century if we believe that they did not recognize the Indians as human beings. The Spanish cheated and lied to the Indians whenever they could conveniently do so. When deception did not work, the Spanish resorted to violence, using their military superiority to devastating effect. European diseases also weakened the natives. In one hundred years, from the early sixteenth century when Spain got to Mexico, the population went from roughly 15–25 million to 2 million.

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As important as illness, the European attitude toward land crushed the Indians.

The Spanish saw the New World as real estate that they might take and defend against others. This attitude conflicted with that of the Indians, who had a less acquisitive sense. Spain also excluded the natives from groups who might legitimately own land. The Spanish only acknowledged that other Europeans might have rights to property. England’s Queen Elizabeth spoke for all of Europe when she instructed her sailors to explore and colonize “heathen lands not actually possessed by any Christian prince.”

A famous missionary, Bartolomé de las Casas, denounced Spanish exploration. “Who of those in future centuries,” he wrote, would believe the effects of disease on the natives? It would have been better for the Indians to have fallen into the hands “of the devils of hell than of the Christians of the Indies.” At the same time, the Indians often fought among themselves. The Spanish increased the tensions and destructiveness of conflict but also allied themselves with some natives against others in the search for wealth and real estate. And while the conquistadores wanted gold and silver, Spain set its sights on establishing civilizations that eventually combined the cultures of the Spanish and the Indians. By the end of the sixteenth century, the Spanish had founded about 200 towns. They set up schools in Mexico and Peru, and a system of publication. They built settlements in Saint Augustine, Florida (in 1565, the oldest city in North America), Santa Fe (in present-day New Mexico), and later (in California) San Diego and San Francisco.

Conquistadores explored west from Florida to the Mississippi River. They went inland from Arizona and New Mexico to the present-day state of Kansas, making claims to ownership that would later be used in arguments with other Europeans.

RELIGIOUS DIVISION AND OTHER EUROPEAN CONTENDERS More than Islam threatened Catholicism, Roman Christianity had enemies within who found it sinful. In the early sixteenth century, discontented Christians in northwest Europe challenged the church. The German priest Martin Luther considered Rome a degraded and barely devout bureaucracy. He started a public demand for its purification in 1517, in the long movement called the Reformation. Luther based his call on his reading of the church’s sacred book, the Bible, and wanted a religion that this scripture, and not human rulers, justified.

One result was that the Bible was translated from ancient languages only available to a minute number into “the vernacular,” the languages of current believers.

Literate Christians could read themselves, in the “Old Testament,” how God had created the world in six days; and how he had thrown Adam and Eve, the first human beings he had made, out of the Garden of Eden for disobedience. The reader could find out how their descendants in the Jewish tribes had wandered over the holy lands in the Middle East. In the “New Testament,” Christians could learn about the birth of the son of God to the virgin Mary; about how this son, Jesus the Christ, began his ministry and performed miracles; and how politicians in the Roman Empire had nailed him to a cross to die. Three days later, he rose from the dead and promised his followers eternal life. The Bible then told how the Christian

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church was started as an earthly institution by the disciples of Jesus. This knowledge, and much more, entered the ordinary stock of beliefs of common people – and in England and America through the “King James” translation of 1611.

At first, men like Luther only wanted to reform Rome, but their premier intellectual force, John Calvin, went beyond an in-house critique. Calvin, a French refugee who lived in Geneva, Switzerland, systematically presented Christian doctrine in The Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536). He put all the stories of the Bible into a consistent framework and distilled their permanent message. Calvin censured the Catholic church and electrified his followers with his vision.

We wanted to escape death, and Christianity was the instrument of salvation.

But in its worst error, Rome taught that worthy undertakings, in the way of giving money to the church, would purchase immortality. Yet, in a hopelessly flawed world, said the Bible, victory over death could never come from trying to be virtuous – from “good works” – for people would always act selfishly. According to Calvin, the Bible said that salvation came from the infinite mercy and the undeserved blessing – the “grace” – of an inscrutable and even angry God. He might rescue us, but we could never earn rescue. Works never sufficed and were always tarnished with self-regard; we undertook to live blamelessly only because we thought it would make us look well. We would receive God’s grace only if we recognized our own worthless insignificance and put absolute faith in Him; “Faith alone” was the watchword of the reformers.

How could we accept our own lowliness and find faith, when we could think only of ourselves? Calvin preached total submission, in contrast to the respect for wealth and high position taught by Rome. But if Calvin was right, human beings could not do what was necessary – abase themselves and leave everything to God’s devices. On their own, human beings would think that God had to reward their works; on their own, they would believe that they deserved His approbation. Thus, acquiring grace was mysterious and miraculous. God’s will prevailed, and reminded us of our lack of merit and weakness.

Another way of looking at these “Calvinist” ideas is to examine their development in the “covenant theology.” According to this theology, God had made two contracts with human beings. The first, with Adam and Eve, promised them eternal happy life in the Garden of Eden if they were obedient. They promptly disobeyed by eating a forbidden apple; they were driven from the Garden, and punished by death. This broken contract, which had made eternal life dependent on good behavior, was the Covenant of Works. The second contract was the Covenant of Grace. God now agreed to rescue people from death if they truly acknowledged that they were disobedient and humbled themselves before him. Carrying out this instrument, for God, meant that He then had to send Jesus to earth and have His son sacrificed to atone for the continued disobedience, although the mechanics of the Covenant of Grace still puzzle interpreters. At the same time, many ­mis-behaving people wrongly believed they could hide their sins and please God by hypocritically adhering to the old and repudiated Covenant of Works.

Covenantal theology has a high significance in American history. As it arose in religious life, economic life was also promoting pledged obligations. Actual and symbolic formal promises were appearing in religious and business arrangements.

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The “Protestants” who followed Luther and Calvin said that they must be selfeffacing in the face of God, although they often found pride in securing humility.

Calvinists rejected arrogance, but always measured their faith by what they might achieve as Christians. The Protestants had complicated souls, and thrashed about between meekness and conceit, the humble and the proud. The Reformation also made redemption more individualistic. Church structure among Protestants was less corporate and hierarchical than in Catholicism. The contrast became starker between human beings who were depraved and without faith, and those who were saved with faith – “visible saints.” But at the same time, all of us remained equally small in the eyes of God. As the Protestants attracted supporters, European leaders came to terms with this revitalizing movement. The rulers of northern Europe wanted to consolidate their own areas and to escape the influence of southern Europe, and especially of Catholic Spain. Political fights merged with religious ones in England, France, and the provinces of the Netherlands. Energized Protestants competed with Spain in the New World. The creation of states in Europe went hand in hand with contests in America, and bitter hatred between Catholics and Protestants.

Governed by Spain, the Dutch quarreled fiercely against Catholicism for control of their homeland. In the early seventeenth century they sent explorers to seek a northwest passage that would create their own rights in the New World, far to the north of Spanish influence. The Dutch hired Englishman Henry Hudson. A Dutch presence resulted in New Netherland (later New York). As Dutch sea power increased, and as the Netherlands became Protestant, the Netherlanders also challenged the Spanish in the West Indies, those islands in the Caribbean on which the Europeans had first landed.

The French remained Catholic, but were unique in the New World. Even though France and Spain observed the same religion, they were only marginally allied.

The French sailed in the West Indies, where they might confront Spain – and the Netherlands. Like the Dutch, the French also sought a northwest passage to steer clear of Spanish power. France navigated the area of the St. Lawrence Seaway in present-day eastern Canada in the 1500s. In 1608, Samuel De Champlain fortified a village at Quebec, on the St. Lawrence River, and in 1642 a settlement at Montreal was founded in New France. Throughout the seventeenth century other adventurers widened French gains through much of present-day Canada and North America. The French swept through the upper Mississippi River, and then the lower. Robert de La Salle, the explorer of this region in 1682, named it Louisiana, after the French king, Louis XIV. By the eighteenth century, the French – at odds with Spain – had checked Spanish advance north.

The French did not intend to people North America, and generated few settlers. They aimed for trade, which proved within their reach. Although France tried to convert the Indians to Christianity, it did not want to conquer them, and fought fewer wars. The French preferred commerce: the Indians received metal tools and guns for regional contests, and in exchange the French got food and animal skins. An important luxury item in Europe, the furs generated profit and committed France to the New World. Whether their small numbers prevented their combat with the Indians, or whether their humanity was greater,

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the French had better relations with the Indians than the other Europeans.

France could usually count on the Indians in the battles that the Europeans themselves had in the New World, and French influence on the Mississippi frustrated Spain.

ENGLAND The problems of the Catholic church shattered England. The Tudor line of royalty strengthened its control in the sixteenth century. Henry VIII (Henry Tudor), king between 1509 and 1547, was determined that the family should carry on.

Nonetheless, Catherine of Aragon, his wife and the daughter of Spain’s Ferdinand and Isabella, did not produce a son, and the Pope refused to annul Henry’s marriage. Using the Reformation as an excuse, Henry renounced Rome in 1534, and declared himself head of an English church. The (Protestant) Church of England, or the Anglicans, gave Henry the authority to marry whomever he wished. In time, Henry got a son, and did sire a capable heir in his daughter Elizabeth, queen from 1558 to 1603.

Historians have long argued that two factors, one religious and one economic, influenced Tudor politics. Anglicans linked salvation to worldly success in trading, although they thought that this success was just a sign of salvation, yet did not cause it. The accumulation of private wealth to advance large economic projects – the rise of capitalism – fused with a “Protestant ethic,” a zeal to achieve that somehow indicated one’s favor with God. We certainly can’t make an essential bond between English Protestantism and moneymaking, for Roman Catholics often took up with capitalism, and among Protestants not only Anglicans were associated with capitalism. The same sort of association took place among Dutch Calvinists, for example, and some English Protestants were not interested in accumulating wealth. Nonetheless, trade for profit and Protestantism connected in England and elsewhere.

Capitalism and its ethic led people to demand a greater voice in how they were ruled, and merchants came to have a role with royalty in governing. Englishmen making money through trading came to think of themselves as a “freeborn” people with a role in public life. The Tudors cooperated with those interested in buying and selling, and in an emerging legislature. Composed of a noble House of Lords and a House of Commons of the wealthy and influential, this “Parliament” had some responsibility for the making of laws.

The Spanish clutch on the world waned. Spain fought with a wealthier England that was sure of the evil of Catholicism, and that gave political room to its wellto-do businesspeople. When Henry humiliated the Spanish by breaking his marriage to Catherine, he began a century of hostility between Spain and the English.

In 1588, in the English Channel, the English defeated a huge Spanish fleet, the Invincible Armada, sent to fight them. The victory undermined the Spanish, gave the English a reputation on the sea, and promoted the country’s entrance in the scramble for the New World.

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THE ENGLISH English merchants and explorers with some, although not enough, royal assistance, put outposts of settlers on the east coast of North America in the late sixteenth century. From that period, here is Richard Hakluyt, an influential propagandist who wanted to populate the New World with the English: For to posterity, no greater glory can be handed down than to conquer the barbarian, to recall the savages and the pagan to civility, to draw the ignorant within the orbit of reason, and to fill with reverence for divinity the godless and the ungodly.

There is under our noses … [a] great and ample country; the inland whereof is found of late to be so sweet and wholesome a climate, so rich and abundant in silver mines, a better and richer country than Mexico itself. If it shall please the Almighty to stir up Her Majesty’s heart to continue with transporting one or two thousand of her people, she shall by God’s assistance, in short space, increase her dominions, enrich her coffers, and reduce many pagans to the faith of Christ.

Sir Walter Raleigh sent expeditions in the 1580s, and believed they gave the English authority over a land he called Virginia in honor of the unmarried queen, Elizabeth. Raleigh meant the name to designate the entire coast of North America from present-day Florida to Canada, although it referred in practice to territory north and south of the present state of Virginia. But these early ventures failed.

Profits might blossom in the long run, but the gigantic first costs and the great risks meant that adventurers more likely did not prosper. By the early seventeenth century the monarchy exhibited greater willingness to take a chance on such expeditions. Fear of Spanish expansion north of the Caribbean, the desire for trade and precious metals, and a need to Christianize the Indians motivated the English. Two groups of merchants received “charters” – contractual agreements – to send people to Virginia. Each group formed a company. London merchants controlled one, and aimed to get settlers to southern Virginia. Based in Plymouth (and Bristol), the second company had rights in northern Virginia.

The organizers of the Virginia Company of London acted first. They intended to spread Christianity in the New World and to bring “the Infidels and Savages, living in those parts, to human Civility.” Imitating the Spanish, the group also hoped to extract gold, silver, and copper from southern Virginia. At the end of 1606, the London Company sent off about one hundred settlers, and in 1607 they founded Jamestown, named after Elizabeth’s successor, James I. Even in jokes the English sense of the New World conveyed the high expectations: Gold is more plentiful there than copper is with us … Why, man, all their dripping pans and their chamber pots are pure gold; and all the chains with which they chain up their streets are massy gold; all the prisoners they take are fettered in god; and for rubies and diamonds, they go forth on holidays and gather them by the seashore, to hang on their children’s coats and stick in their caps.

Ben Johnson’s play, Eastward Ho! 1605

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Southern Virginia, or simply Virginia, proved a disaster for its promoters, who lost all the money they had invested. As Old-World diseases killed off the Indians, New-World sicknesses decimated the settlers, who could not carry out even subsistence farming, and battled with the natives. Virginia persisted, however, with yearly supplies of migrants, and the settlers ultimately made a go of it, not because of gold or silver, but because by the 1610s they were exporting tobacco to England. As with the French trappers who could sell animal skins in the Old World, the Virginians produced something Europeans wanted. By the second quarter of the seventeenth century, tobacco dominated Virginia, which thrived even though prices fluctuated. The settlers launched plantations, and equally as often exhausted them. The English did not thickly populate the region, but spread out; wave after wave of farmers looked for arable lands for tobacco and profited from its sale. Commercial interests drove this English settlement, and the churchgoing of the Virginians did not much deviate from the accommodating Protestantism of the Church of England. They pursued not an ardent but a deferential and respectable religion.

In 1624, after many disputes between the crown and the merchants of the Virginia Company, the London Charter was revoked. Just as it began to do well, Virginia was subjected to the rule of royal officials. At the same time, the settlers instituted a rudimentary form of self-government, mimicking the Parliament of England. Composed of delegates selected from various districts of the settlement, the Virginia “House of Burgesses” had regular meetings. Although puny, the institution aspired to deliberate about local affairs and to advise the governor appointed from London.

The story of the second group of speculators, the Virginia Company of Plymouth, differed and involved merchants of less worldly religiosity. The story showed how zealous some Protestants could be in their quest for virtue.

While there was much backsliding and ferocious contests for supremacy, Elizabeth Tudor’s long rule through the second half of the sixteenth century unified England as Protestant. At the same time, the Tudors unleashed religious ideas that they could not regulate. The pragmatic circumstances of the English conversion from Catholicism left the country with many of the flaws of Romanism, or so many English Protestants believed. These dissenters, who wanted to cleanse Anglicanism, genuinely to reform it, were known as Puritans and later as Reformed Protestants. They adopted many of Calvin’s views about holiness, wanting to scour England of imperfection. They often displayed the contradictory Calvinist characteristics of self-abasement in the search for faith and self-regard in the belief that they had found it. Although most Puritans did not insist on separating from the Church of England, some did, and so a split occurred between separatists and non-separatists. Later, people of Puritan heritage disagreed about where primary authority within the community of the faithful should lie. Should authority be with individuals? Or with single congregations (Congregationalists)? Or with a larger body, a presbytery, somewhat duplicating the hierarchy of the Roman or Anglican churches (Presbyterians)? Catholics pointed to this fragmentation as proof that the Reformation sheltered anarchy, shapeless egoism, and human misery. They had a point, especially when individuals claimed primary authority, and threatened all spiritual institutions. Yet Catholics also overlooked something. They missed in

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Reform Protestantism its consensus on hard work in the world as the most enduring tribute one could pay to God, and a self-righteousness that spanned over 500 years.

Elizabeth had no children, and when she died, James Stuart, a distant relative, became king in 1603 – James I. Stuart royalty worried the Puritans. James was married to a Catholic and favored toleration of Catholics. In 1606, English separatists, persecuted in their country and now fearing the worst of James, left England for Holland. A few years later, dissatisfied even with the strict Dutch Protestants, these “Pilgrims” moved once more, to America.

The Pilgrims in the Netherlands had negotiated with the Virginia Company of Plymouth for a grant to settle on the northern boundary of Virginia, presentday New York City. In September of 1620, these Pilgrims set out on a ship, the Mayflower. They led a group only one hundred strong. At the end of the year, they reached the coast of North America, off course, on Cape Cod Bay near the shores of present-day Massachusetts. North of where they were supposed to go, they had indeed sailed outside the lands of the Virginia Company. Worried that they might be free of all authority, the Pilgrims and their long-time governor, William Bradford, drew up “the Mayflower compact”: “Solemnly and mutually in the presence of God and one another … [we] covenant and combine ourselves … into a civil Body Politick … and by Virtue hereof do enact … such just and equal laws … as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general Good of the Colony.”

The separatist outpost of Pilgrims, which they called Plymouth, did not prosper.

Yet, although precarious, Plymouth had a high significance, and typified the settlements at the northern edge of the lands of the Virginia Company – what would become New England, with its center in Massachusetts. Plymouth evidenced unbelievable perseverance in pursuit of its sacred objectives, and the inhabitants were determined to survive and make their point: “It is not with us as with other men, whom small things can discourage.” In his history Of Plymouth Plantation (1630– 1650) Bradford wrote: They had thoughts on … some of those vast and unpopulated countries of America, which are fruitful and fit for habitation, being devoid of all civil inhabitants, where there are only savage and brutish men which range up and down, little otherwise than the wild beasts.

And material accomplishments did not measure what Bradford considered later success: The tyrannous bishops [of Catholicism] are ejected, their courts dissolved … their ceremonies useless and despised, their plots for popery prevented … and all their superstitions discarded and returned to Rome … and the monuments of idolatry rooted out of the land … And are not these great things? Who can deny it?

The Pilgrims joined tenacity and communal self-governance. They defined their “Body Politick” through rules that a document set out. That is, they assumed the

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supremacy of some sort of community but also thought that as individuals they could create that community. Bradford wrote: Thus out of small beginnings greater things have been produced by His hand that made all things of nothing, and gives being to all things that are; and, as one small candle might light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shone unto many, yea in some sort to our whole nation.

In 1620, a further group, the Council for New England, had reorganized the Plymouth Company and disposed of tracts of land north of Cape Cod. One tract went to Puritans from Dorchester, England, who themselves established the Massachusetts Bay Company. Unlike the Pilgrims, the Puritans from Dorchester were non-separatists. But the successor to James, his son Charles I, was more committed to curbing dissent and, some Puritans thought, wanted to take the Anglican church in the direction of Rome. The Puritans of Dorchester felt compelled to migrate to save their Reformed faith. Nonetheless, they did not feel they had to break from English society as had the Pilgrims, and had a better sense of the economics of their venture.

In the summer of 1630 the directors of the Bay Company selected the lawyer John Winthrop to govern their settlement-to-be. He left England on his ship, the Arabella, leading almost 1,000 people. He wrote up his thoughts on their enterprise, “A Modelle/that is, a summary/of Christian Charity.” His words captured the missionary passion that characterized the “experiment” of these Puritans: Thus stands the cause between God and us. We are entered into a covenant with Him for this work. We have taken out a commission ... If we shall neglect the observation of these articles … the Lord will surely break out in wrath against us ... The only way to avoid this shipwreck, and to provide for our posterity, is … to do justly, to love mercy, to walk humbly with our God. For this end, we must be knit together, in this work, as one man … as members of the same body … so … that men shall say of succeeding plantations, “may the Lord make it like that of New England.” For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill.

The eyes of all people are upon us. So that if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, and so cause Him to withdraw His present help from us, we shall be made a story and a by-word through the world. We shall open the mouths of enemies to speak evil of the ways of God, and all professors for God’s sake. We shall shame the faces of many of God’s worthy servants, and cause their prayers to be turned into curses upon us till we be consumed out of the good land whither we are going.

While other strict Protestants established themselves on the coast in the early seventeenth century, we must focus on the English. We cannot understand ­present-day America unless we heed the ideas that flourished with little competition in Massachusetts. By the fall of 1630, Winthrop and his followers had founded Boston and several other towns. The Puritans had a limited self-management, in some ways reproducing what went on in England. Male church members, the

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visible saints, were presumed to have received grace from God. They elected a General Court that served as a legislature. As they did in England, men dominated the Bay Colony. Almost all the rights accorded to women derived from their connection to their fathers or their husbands.

Winthrop and his fellows had a clear and constricted vision and could not stand heretical views. Roger Williams was a separatist who found even the Puritans impure and demanded acceptance of his own idiosyncratic sense of righteousness.

Anne Hutchinson went a step further and asserted that God Himself had spoken truths directly to her. Williams and Hutchinson were notorious as religious dissidents in the 1630s, and their treatment created precedents for how Massachusetts would treat rebels. The Bay Colony forced Williams “to depart from this jurisdiction.” Ministers ordered Hutchinson, a daring woman who challenged the authority of the men, to “be banished out of our liberties and imprisoned until she be sent away.” Inhabitants had to accept the views of a churchly elite that enforced male-dominated communalism.

Winthrop and his General Court exactingly defined cultural limits, and many later researchers would consider “the New England way” essentially intolerant.

An early-twentieth century social critic, H. L. Mencken, once described Puritanism as “the haunting fear that someone, somewhere might be happy.” More accurately, Massachusetts Bay and its Boston center displayed the self-righteousness of immigrants convinced that they had the goodness the homeland lacked.

DESTROYING THE NATIVES The Europeans thought of the Indians as having few rights except those that the explorers and settlers gave them. The Spanish invaded and exterminated natives in South America; the French, smaller in number and further north, had more practical connections. On the North American coast, south of New France, the English settlers associated in yet another way.

In creating towns and farms the English in both Virginia and Massachusetts initially needed the Indians. Cooperation characterized the meeting of the two groups, and a harvest festival in North America sometimes acknowledged the help of the locals, most notably one in 1621 in Plymouth. This “Thanksgiving” was later the origin of a national holiday (consecrated by proclamation from the US Civil War on) and taking place in November. But breaking bread with the Indians, who did not understand the English hunger for property, would not last. The natives were soon weaker than the Europeans in the lands that the colonists wanted to occupy. The Indians put up a better fight than they are often credited with doing, but Old-World diseases took a toll. When the Indians resisted, the Europeans used advances in musketry and English organization to put the natives at a disadvantage. One eighteenth-century spectator wondered about Indian order: how could you “call it government which has neither laws nor power to support it?” Friction often broke out into violence, inherent to English and Indian life. Native warriors might attack a family or isolated settlement. Without government say-so, English farmers might ambush small bands of Indians. The settlers slowly pushed the

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HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY N

E

W

FR

A

N

C

E

Nova Scotia New England

L O UI S I A NA

Virginia Carolinas Florida

N E W

S PA I N

British French Spanish

Map 4. European Claims in America, 1700. Note that the Hudson’s Bay Company, a private English enterprise, was for a long time in control of what is now the north of Canada.

Indians back – as far as the English wanted to move inland. When compromise or pressure would not give the migrants what they wanted, there was always war.

In Virginia, around Jamestown in the early part of the seventeenth century, the English negotiated with natives loosely organized by Powhatan, an important chief. He made concessions to the English, hoping for their assistance in battles to extend his own power. Then, the Virginia Company, in ever more dangerous circumstances, decided on war in 1610. The Company would restructure or eliminate Indian society. How could the pioneers diminish resistance? They could not

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lure the Indians into decisive battles but could get at the source of the problem if they assaulted villages. The English embraced these techniques, which had been effective in the ongoing battle on the other side of the world to conquer Ireland.

In Virginia, in 1614, a peace satisfactory to the English was achieved. But the Powhatan Confederacy tried to turn back the land-hungry whites in further campaigns that ended with native defeats in 1622 and again in 1644. By the third quarter of the century colonists and illnesses had overcome Powhatan’s people, and the failure hinted at the future. The Indians might not survive the Virginians who were extending English farming in the New World and emphasizing ownership of land.

By the late 1630s, to the north, the Puritans fought the Pequot tribe, which also had resisted the push of settlers. The English allied themselves with the enemies of the Pequot. In Massachusetts Bay, the settlers attacked villages and not just warriors, and annihilated their enemy. The Pequot War displayed an early futile attempt to prevent European expansion along the coast.

In 1675 and 1676 a more bloody and sustained series of contests, known as King Philip’s War, occurred in Massachusetts. Again, the Indians could not hold back penetration from the coast. The natives allied under a leader, Metacom, whom the English called King Philip. But Metacom’s own enemies collaborated with the colonists. The Indians had hoped to use the English as pawns in a neighborhood fight for power, and Metacom coordinated attacks against settlements throughout New England. Yet the English and “their” Indians won a costly victory. Captured and beheaded, Metacom had slowed the growth of European-style farming, but the defeat swung the balance of power against the locals, whether or not they befriended the English. The natives could barely delay the settlers.

Down the coast in 1676, inland from Jamestown, Virginia, Nathaniel Bacon, a popular leader, led immigrants demanding property from the Susquehannock Indians. Bacon and his men wanted land and violated agreements with cooperative natives. This disorder, Bacon’s Rebellion, showed that leaders in Virginia hesitated in confronting the Indians, and Bacon challenged both the natives and royal authority. Raising an army that killed Indians and that additionally turned on the Jamestown officials, Bacon for a short time cut a wide path. He drove off the governor, and the English navy had to restore order. Bacon’s attacks on the Indians, which went against English policy, exemplified what would be a common occurrence. A small well-to-do class led the newcomers and wanted to deal cautiously with the Indians and to control the growth of communities. Poorer settlers without land were only interested in getting rid of the Indians, the sooner the better. Leaders learned to pursue a more aggressive policy. They had to help migrants in “the back country,” or to worry about threats from such otherwise unpropertied Englishmen. If the settlers killed off or moved the Indians, the group with property would increase. If governors treated the Indians more fairly, they would jeopardize stability among their own.

For 1,000 years Europeans had murdered one another to command far smaller bits of land than those that confronted the immigrants. In a few generations these settlers came to see that they might govern enormous territories if the Indians were vanquished. Often thought to define social solidity, property ownership was being extended far beyond what was common in Europe. By 1700 a different sort

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of politics was in evidence, for the many novice landlords might have a say in how they were ruled. The Virginia House of Burgesses was turning into a respectable institution for men who had titles to real estate.

No one, however, avoided conflict with the Indians. In Spanish New Mexico in 1680, the Pueblos revolted against greedy Catholic missionaries and killed priests and Spanish settlers. The Spanish could not reassert their authority for almost fifty years. Along the Great Lakes from the 1670s to the turn of the eighteenth century even the French battled with the Iroquois to maintain France’s trade with the other Indian tribes, and to prevent Iroquois takeover of that trade. We can generalize from these unhappy exchanges. Europeans in North America got used to a perpetually dangerous frontier. They had to fight to sustain their presence and their way of life, and they ground the natives down.

AFRICAN AMERICANS African Americans were the third group to leave their mark in the New World.

As with the Indians, we often see the Africans through the eyes of Europeans.

But unlike the Indians, whom the Europeans met in the New World, the African Americans did not come of their own free will.

As Portuguese seamen made their way down the coast of Africa in the middle of the fifteenth century, looking to get to the Indies, they quickly set up trading posts for the purchase of gold – and of slaves. The Europeans followed the practices of Islamic traders and of Africans themselves, who for centuries had bought and sold human beings. The Portuguese increased this trade, as they upped the demand for slaves. The sailors also used strategies that earlier slavers taught. The Portuguese separated persons from the same tribes, mixed together disparate peoples, and moved the Africans as far as possible from their place of origin. The greater the disorientation of the slave, the less resistance and the more submission.

The slaves worked on the great farming islands along the African coast that brought wealth to the Portuguese and then to the Spanish. The profits of these islands, which came from sugar, motivated a demand for more slaves. The sugar industry involved large-scale farming that could exploit slave labor. Sugar plantations used great numbers of workers in hard, dangerous, and unrewarding work.

By the early sixteenth century these plantations along the west coast of Africa were models for Spain in the West Indies. When the Spanish arrived there, they adopted the encomienda system in which the rulers might commend or give Indians to settlers if the settlers agreed to Christianize the natives. The system mixed slavery with religion. Masters saved the souls of savages for Christianity in exchange for their forced labor. The Spanish were forerunners of the other Europeans who later participated in the African slave trade in the New World. Bartolomé de las Casas, the Spanish priest, called encomienda “a moral pestilence invented by Spain.”

For farmers and traders in the Caribbean, the enslavement of Africans came to form the basis of sugar plantations in the New World. From 1500 onwards, from present-day Senegal in northwest Africa to Angola in the south, European sailors

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traded in negroes, the Spanish word for black. The Europeans took this human cargo to Spanish and Portuguese South America, to Central America, to Mexico, and to the West Indies. By 1600, hundreds of thousands of slaves worked on the sugar farms in the Caribbean. By 1800, traders had transported many millions.

The Europeans do not appear to have had a moral distaste for this sort of commerce. They were perhaps not dealing with human beings at all but with a subhuman species.

Said one commentator: those “Negroes, [are] a people of beastly lineage, without a god, law, religion, or common wealth.” Another: African males “have low and flat brows [and] are as libidinous as apes that attempt women.” In a Virginia legal case of 1630, authorities punished a white settler “for abusing himself to the dishonor of God and shame of Christians, by defiling his body in lying with a negro.”

Both the Spanish and Dutch had slaves in West Indian plantations in the sixteenth century. Even after the Spanish outlawed slavery in 1542, they imported Africans as laborers. By the early seventeenth century, the English were following

EUROPE ASIA

NORTH AMERICA

40% of trade

AFRICA

SOUTH AMERICA 40% of trade

Map 5. Slave Trade, 1500–1800.

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the example of the Spanish and Portuguese in procuring Africans. By 1655, when the English got hold of the island of Jamaica, they were profitably producing sugar.

Indeed, through the end of the seventeenth century, the West Indian sugar outposts held greater significance to England than the settlements scattered on the coast. The Africans made the plantations possible, and their descendants dominate these islands in the twenty-first century, although they had resisted abandoning their homelands: The Negroes are so willful and loth to leave their own country, that have often leap’ed out of the canoes, boat and ship, into the sea, and kept under water till they were drowned, to avoid being taken up and saved by our boats, which pursued them; they having a more dreadful apprehension of Barbados [a West Indian plantation colony] than we can have of hell.

The success of the plantations soon turned the islands into single-crop agricultural societies. Their white leaders looked to the southern settlements on the North American coast for foodstuffs and supplies. Some English farmers in the West Indies who did not raise sugar migrated north to Virginia. In 1619, a Dutch ship brought Africans to Jamestown, Virginia. They were purchased as “indentured” servants. Selling their labor for a specified number of years, the black Africans had a status that differed little from that of many English inhabitants of Virginia. By the end of the seventeenth century, traders took slaves from Barbados to settlements in Virginia, south of Jamestown. Still, through much of the 1600s, slavery hardly existed in the mainland of English America. From 1500 to 1700, only about 4.5 percent of the Africans imported to the New World came to the mainland. At the same time, we have only fragmentary knowledge of the place of origin of these peoples from West Africa or the Caribbean. Groups may have had a common culture; others may have shared only their color, as viewed

by Europeans. The condition of the Africans soon determined everything in their lives.

Many landless Europeans migrated to America. The indentured servants among them exchanged their work for a term of years for a free trip and, for some at the end of their indenture, small grants of land. In Virginia a “headright” system encouraged the use of such workers. Prosperous settlers who paid for the trip of servants (and thereby increased the number of colonists) received the right to obtain fifty acres of land. Royal governors in Virginia encouraged large and profitable farming, which cheap labor sustained. In the seventeenth century, indentured servants accounted for three-quarters of Virginia’s immigrants, as masters got hold of both property and labor. In one way or another, however, many of these “white slaves” obtained property themselves after their indenture was over.

The English devised formal regulations in their sugar colonies that defined the status of slaves. Europeans in the Caribbean clearly understood slave property.

In North America, however, the legalities lacked clarity because of indentured servitude. In the middle of the seventeenth century on the mainland some Africans enjoyed freedom; some may have been indentured; others were slaves whose lives were determined by “black codes.”

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Tobacco farms in Virginia encouraged bondage. They often looked like the plantations in the West Indies, which used many slaves. Sugar growing demanded big farms, difficult cultivation of the cane, and complex refining of the product.

Tobacco growers could plant more easily on smaller farms, and in a year could raise a marketable crop that needed little processing. But sugar provided an example for Virginia. Even though prices varied, poorer farmers could make a living – and more – with tobacco, especially when slaves assisted. White owners, moreover, found the imported laborers ideal. The ghastly trip from Africa maximized disorientation and guaranteed a suitable workforce, once it was used to its new surroundings.

In 1672 the Royal African Company formed to make slaves more readily available, and at the end of the century a European war cut off markets for tobacco, depressed prices, and diminished migration. Slavery instead of indenture was solving the problem of Virginia’s need for inexpensive workers. This economy contrasted to that of the Massachusetts Bay. Large farms in Virginia were standard, and tobacco grew in a warm climate, but also rice and indigo, a shrub producing a blue dye. In the north small-scale farming did not require a big labor force. Massachusetts had a society with diversified agriculture on little farms, and trade in small towns. The southern region had limited but stable crops grown on plantations. Both north and south joined in a fear of black slaves that mixed hatred and contempt. But in the Bay Colony and its surroundings fewer people experienced Africans and slavery, which remained a foreign institution.

UNDERSTANDING SLAVERY Many factors in mainland North America other than Virginia’s economics produced slavery. The English borrowed the idea from the Spanish and Portuguese.

They could find slavery in the Bible. They could define it from the variety of labor services available to the powerful in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The concept of human rights did not exist, and not only women but also the ­indentured of both sexes had marginal legal status. The shortage of labor and the expansive land made enslavement attractive.

In American Slavery, American Freedom (1975), Edmund S. Morgan pointed out ­connections between slavery and the beginning of a way of life that empowered ordinary people with rights of property. The institutions that gave many white men in Virginia authority grew up organically connected to slavery. Moreover, white Virginians might only have been able to tolerate the instabilities of a new sort of “free” society by categorizing the whites, no matter who they were, over and above the African Americans. And perhaps granting these liberties to whites ensured that African Americans would become slaves. * * * In 200 years the Europeans had done more than open a beachhead in the New World. They had established settlements all over North and South America.

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They tried to give the Indians European religion, as they extinguished their way of life. Sailors and traders also brought to Virginia the Africans who made a success of agriculture. Complex forces caught up Europeans, Indians, and Africans.

The English were making a propertied society that depended on the takeover of Indian land, and ultimately the annihilation of native civilization. In the south, a form of this propertied society and representative government depended on racial distinctions that cursed America.

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Index 9/11, 295, 299, 306 100 days, 213 abolitionism, 111–12, 119–21 Acheson, Dean, 193, 238–46 Adams, John, 45, 55–6, 59, 65, 68, 73, 75–8, 80, 83 Adams, John Quincy, 80, 98, 100–101, 104, 169 Adams, Samuel, 55–6 Addams, Jane, 179–80 Addison, Joseph, 53–4 administrative Progressivism, 201–03 Afghanistan, 289, 299–303 African Americans in the antebellum period, 88, 96–7, 109–112 brought to New World, 19–23 in the Constitution, 70–1 and Democratic Party, 281–3, 302 during Civil Rights movement, 255–9, 266–70 and Civil War, 121, 133–4 in the colonial period, 27–8, 63 in the north, 208, 242, 255–56, 307 in late nineteenth century, 141–3, 148–51, 160, 164 and Progressivism, 140, 181, 199 during Reconstruction, 141–3, 148–51, 160, 164 Age of Reform, 160 Agnew, Spiro, 276 agrarianism and cities, 144–5, 154 of Jefferson, 87–8 in new empire period, 163–4, 166–7 in the nineteenth century, 156–61, 163 Agricultural Adjustment Act, 229 al-Assad, Bashar, 303, 304 Alamo, 113 Albany Plan of Union, 46–7, 51 Alien and Sedition Acts, 78 alphabet agencies, 213

al-Qaeda, 298–301, 304 amendments to the Constitution, 91 1st, 71 2nd, 71, 306 5th, 275 13th, 135, 142 14th, 142, 151, 152, 283–4 15th, 142, 151 17th, 181 18th, 187 19th, 181, 197 21st, 197 and Bill of Rights, 71–2, 78, 123, 283–4, 311 America, named, 7 American Anti-Slavery Society, 112 American Colonization Society, 112 American Federation of Labor, 155, 219 Americans with Disabilities Act, 284 American Slavery, American Freedom, 23 American System, 105 American Temperance Society, 111 Anaconda Plan, 127, 130 Andros, James, 40 Anglicans. 12, 14, 45, 111 Annapolis convention, 67 Antietam, 127–9, 131 Anti-federalists see Federalist Anti-Imperialist League, 170 Appleseed, Johnny, 88 Appomattox, 131, 133 Arab Spring, 303 Arabella, 16, 53 Armed Neutrality, 62 Arrowsmith, 197 Articles of Confederation, 65, 67, 87, 90, 123 Atlanta, 130, 131, 150, 153, 280 Atlantic Conference, 224, 226 Atlantic world, 31–2 atomic bomb see nuclear weapons Austin, Stephen, 112, 114 Autobiography (Franklin), 43 automobile, 204, 219, 248, 280, 286; see also transportation

319

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Index

Babbit, 200 baby boom, 281 backcountry, 18, 35, 66, 70–1, 103, 162 Bacon’s Rebellion, 3, 18, 35 Baltimore, Lord, 27 Bancroft, George, 57 Baptists, 45, 111, 122 Bartolomé de las Casas, 9, 20 Battle of the Bulge, 231 Battle Hymn of the Republic, 128 Bayard, Thomas, 163 Bay of Pigs, 252–3 Beard, Charles, 68 Benton, Thomas, 115 Bering Sea Bridge, 3–4 Berlin, 237, 250–5, 279, 291 Beveridge, William, 171 Bible, 9–10, 23, 33, 51, 122, 141, 200, 229 bills of rights, 66, 88 and Constitution, 71–2, 78, 123, 283–4, 311 bimetallism, 156, 164 Bin Laden, Osama, 298–300, 303 Birth of a Nation, 199 Bitter Cry of the Children, 178 black codes, 22, 28, 142 Black Power, 266 bloody shirt, 149 Blue and the Gray, 152 Bolsheviks see communism Bonaparte, Napoleon, 73, 91, 93, 94, 164 Bonus Army, 206 Boone, Daniel, 88 Booth, John, 133 Boston, 16–7, 26, 31–5, 43, 55–8, 112 Bourbons, 150, 157 Boutwell, George, 170 Braddock, Edward, 47 Bradford, William, 15–6, 53, 115 Brandeis, Louis, 183 Brooks, Preston, 119 Brown, John, 121 Brown v. Board of Education, 257 Bryan, William Jennings, 158–162, 170, 200, 207, 218 Buchanan, James, 124 buffalo, 146 Bull Run, 127, 131 Bundy, McGeorge, 262–3 Bunyan, John, 185 Burgoyne, John, 62–3

Burr Aaron, 78–9, 81, 212 Bush, George, 291, 295–7, 300, 305 Bush, George W., 193, 297–306 Butler, Andrew, 119 Byrd, William, 34 Byrnes, James, 227 Caesar’s Column, 157 Calhoun, John C., 94, 115–17 Californios, 31, 116, 198 Calvert, George, 27 Calvin, John, 10–11, 14 Canada, 6, 20, 47–8, 56–8, 61, 65, 93–4, 113, 163 Cannibals All, 119 capitalism, 76 and Lenin, 192–3 and modern America, 232–3, 239, 260, 274, 284, 294 and Populism, 155, 160–1 and Progressivism, 182, 203–04 and Protestantism, 12 and South, 108 Captain, My Captain, 133 Caribbean, 7–8, 11, 13, 20–22, 25–31, 36, 62, 140, 252–3, 149, 163 Carlisle Indian Industrial School, 148 Carmichael, Stokely, 266 Carnegie, Andrew, 170 Carpetbaggers, 148 Carranza, Venustiano, 175–6 Carter, Jimmy, 193, 279, 282, 286 Castro, Fidel, 252–3 Cataline, 74, 78 Catholics assimilated in United States, 90–1, 119, 150, 202, 249, 254, 271, 282 in colonial America, 27, 42, 51–2 in Democratic party, 105–06, 150, 153–4, 159, 197, 208, 271, 281, 284 doctrines of, 14–15 in Old World, xi, 11, 25, 40, 42, 46, Cato, 53–5, 59, 61, 71, 74, 77, 81 Catt, Carrie, 181 Cemetery Ridge, 129 Chamberlain, Joshua, 129 charisma, 207, 254 Charles I, 16, 25–7, 50 Charles II, 26–7, 29 Charleston, 28, 126 checks and balances, 69, 205

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Index Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 100, 147 Cherokee Trail of Tears, 100–01 Chiang Kai Shek, 242–3 Chicago, 104, 117, 144, 153–8, 179, 220 China during Cold War, 242–4, 246–7 exclusion act about, 192 in new empire period, 164, 167, 170–6 post Cold War, 296, 300, 310 in World War II, 225–6, 236 Christianity, xi, 6–13, 20, 31, 51–2, 111, 156, 165, 200; see also Catholics; Protestants; JudeoChristianity; Muslims Christian State a Political Vision, 156 Churchill, Winston, 221, 224, 228, 236–8 cities in colonial period, 34, 58, 63 Spanish, 9 in early nineteenth century, 76, 93, 105, 108 in early twentieth century, 192–5, 220, 225, 249, 277 in late nineteenth century, 141, 153, 155–63, 201 decline of, 245, 256, 260, 268–9, 280–1 during New Deal, 202–4, 208, 232 and progressives, 177–82, 198 citizenship, x, 147–54, 164, 169–75, 311 and civil rights, 256, 259, 266 and Founders, 53–5, 66–72, 75, 82, 88, 90 and Jackson, 106–7, 115, 120 and Lincoln, 141–2 and New Deal, 231, 233 and progressives, 177–81, 202 and Reagan, 292 City: The Hope of Democracy, 178 Civil Disobedience, 115 civil-military cooperation, 143–4, 146, 148, 155, 162, 169 Civilian Conservation Corps, 213 civil rights, 132, 142, 256–61, 266–8, 279, 281–2, 305 Civil War, 124–36, 144 coming of, 115–24 Clay, Henry, 94, 97, 100, 105, 116, 122 Cleveland, Grover, 157–8 Clinton, Hillary, 193, 296, 301, 309 Clinton, William, 282, 296, 302, 310 Coercive Acts, 56 Cohan, George, 189

321

Cold War culture of, 248–249 and Eisenhower, 246–51 end of, 290–91, 295 and Johnson, 261–69 and Kennedy, 251–55 and Nixon, 249, 251, 271–3 origins of, 236–8 and Reagan, 285–6, 290–1 and Truman, 238–46 collective security, 221 colleges see university system colonies culture of in America, 32–6, 40–42 and England, 26–31, 39–40 in new empire era, 163–74 and spread of American culture, 292–4 trade in, 31–2 and Vietnam, 261–2 and Wilson, 190–93 Columbus, Christopher, 4, 7 Columbus, New Mexico, 175 Comanche, 112–14 Committees of Correspondence, 55 Common Sense, 59, 61, 119 Commonwealthmen, 41, 53 communism, 235, 251 in 1930s, 219 in Cold War, 235, 237–54, 285–6 as domestic issue, 194, 241–4, 248–9, in Korea, 244–7 and Reagan, 286, 290–91 in Vietnam, 261–5, 268, 271–3 and World War I, 192–4 in World War II, 221–4, 228–31, 236–7 Compromise of 1820, 97, 102, 117 Compromise of 1850, 116–8 Comte de Vergennes, 62 Concord, 57 Concord Hymn, 57 Concerning Metals, 203 Confederate States of America, 124 Confederation of United States, 65–7, 87–8, 90 Congregationalists, 14, 45, 111 Congress of Industrial Organizations, 219 Congressional Government, 185 conquistadores, 7–9 conservatives, 158, 182, 200, 282, 284–5 Constitution ideas of, x, 65, 67–72

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interpreted by Marshall, 80–1 interpreted by Taney, 120 interpreted by Warren, 257 in late nineteenth and early twentieth century, 142, 151–2, 183, 218–9, 257 in late twentieth and early twenty-first century, 283–4, 307–08 Lincoln on, 123; see also Supreme Court consumerism, 167, 183, 204, 249, 280, 287–8, 293–4, 298 Consumers League, 183 containment, 240, 261 Continental Congress, 56, 58–60, 64–5, 71 Cooper, James, 106, 109, 162 Cooper Union, 123 Cornwallis, Charles, 63 cotton, 107–08, 126, 151 Coughlin, Charles, 214–5 counterculture, 267–8, 273–4 court packing, 218–9 Coxey, Jacob, 158 Crazy Horse, 146 Crevecoeur, Michel, 34 Crime Against Kansas, 119 Crisis, 61–2 Critical Period in American History, 67 Crockett, Davy, 88 Croly, Herbert, 182 Cromwell, Oliver, 26, 50 Cronkite, Walter, 268 Cross of Gold speech, 158–9 Cuba, 7, 16, 149, 167–9, 172, 191, 252–3 cultural imperialism, 279, 292 culture war, 269, 273–4, 279, 283–5, 296–7, 305–10 Culture of Narcissism, 281 Custer, George, 146–7 Daley, Richard, 270 Dartmouth College, 81 Darwin, Charles, 140, 165, 200 Dawes Severalty Act, 147–8 Dayton, 200 Debs, Eugene, 186 Declaration of Grievances, 56 Declaration of Independence, 59–60, 65–6, 70, 72, 82, 123, 135 Declaratory Act, 50–1 Defense of the Constitutionality of the Bank, 76 deism, 51

democracy defined by Lincoln, 136 and Jackson, 72, 103, 105–06, 116–17 in late eighteenth century, 54, 66–7, 69, 73–4, 79 and Progressivism, 177, 178, 181–2 universal, 173, 176, 193, 223, 225, 237–8, 255, 263, 279, 288, 291, 303 Democracy in America, 103, 106 Democratic Party and beginning of twenty-first century, 302, 305–310 in Civil War era, 117, 119–24, 141 in early nineteenth century, 76–82 at end of twentieth century, 281–2, 284, 296–7 in late nineteenth century, 141, 148–50, 157–60 in New Deal period, 207–08, 211, 220 in 1920s, 205, 207 in postwar period, 236, 242, 246, 260–1, 268, 270–1, 281–2 in Progressive period, 178, 187, 195, 201, 233–4 under Jackson, 104–07 Democratic-Republicans, 76–82, 105 depression of early twenty-first century, 301 of 1893, 158 Great, 203–05, 212–218 of 2007, 301, 306 within a depression, 204 De Re Metallica, 203 Desert Storm, 295 détente, 255, 262, 271, 285, 291, 295 Diaz, Porfirio, 175 Dickinson, John, 54–6, 65 Diem, Ngo, 261–2 Disquisition on Government, 116 Dixie, 109, 129, 133 Dixiecrats, 242 Dollar Diplomacy, 174 Dominion of New England, 40 Donnelly, Ignatius, 157 Douglas, Stephen, 117, 121–4 Douglass, Frederick, 258 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 120 Drift and Mastery, 182 Dulles, John, 193, 248 Dutch see Netherlands

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Index eagle, as national symbol, 62, 82, 113, 213 Eastern Rate Case, 183 Economic Interpretation of the Constitution, 68 Edwards, John, 308 Edwards, Jonathan, 42–5, 52, 78, 199 Eisenhower, Dwight, 228–9, 246–51, 255, 265, 279 elections 1788, 75 1796, 77 1800, 78–9 1824, 80, 104 1828, 104 1832, 104 1836, 104 1844, 104 1860, 121–4 1864, 132 1876, 150 1892, 157 1896, 155–62, 207 1908, 185 1912, 185–7 1916, 188 1920, 195, 201–2 1924, 190, 201 1928, 201–02, 207 1932, 207, 212, 214 1934, 214 1936, 211, 216–8, 227 1940, 211, 223 1944, 211, 231 1948, 235, 241–2 1952, 246 1960, 251 1964, 260 1968, 267–71 1972, 275 1980, 285 1984, 291 1988, 308 1992, 296 2000, 297 2004, 300, 305, 308 2008, 301–02, 306 2016, 309–10 electoral college, 70, 77–8, 132, 157, 159, 201 Elizabeth I, 9, 12–15, 25 Elkins Railroad Act, 184 Ellsberg, Daniel, 274–5

323

Elmer Gantry, 199–200 Emancipation Proclamation, 128, 135 Embargo Act, 93 Emergency Banking Act, 213 Emergency Quota Act, 198 Emerson, Ralph, 57 encomienda, 19–20 end of history, 291, 295 End Poverty in California, 214 England after Revolutionary War, 73, 90, 93–6 American rapprochement with in late nineteenth century, 173 eighteenth century empire of, 39–42 establishes colonies, 12–16, 25–31, 35–6 fights Revolutionary War, 48–9, 54–67 in World War I, 188–91 in World War II, 222–4, 228–9, 236 Enlightenment, 52–3, 60, 65, 110, 251, 311 Equiano, Olaudah, 27 Evangelicals, 42–3, 45, 110–11, 156, 200, 282, 296, 299 Evans, Hiram, 199 evolution, 140, 165, 200 ExComm, 253–4, 262 expansion across continent, 87–93, 112–3, 146, 148, 162 cultural, 292–4 defined, xii in new empire period, 162–7, 170–71 in the New World, 15–7, 19–20, 35–6, 48–9 exploration, 7–9, 11–15, 17, 45, 90 of Lewis and Clark, 90–1 factions, 40, 68, 74–6 fallout shelters, 248 Farewell Address, 77 farmers see agrarianism Fascism, 221, 223, 234, 292 Federal Emergency Relief Act, 213 Federalists, 71–82, 105 Federal Reserve Act, 187 Federal Securities Act, 213 Federal Trade Commission, 187 Field, James, 157 Finch, Francis, 152 Fireside Chats, 213–6, 218, 220, 222, 225, 228, 230 Fiske, John, 67

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Fitzhugh, George, 119 Flag Act, 60 Fletcher v. Peck, 81 Ford, Gerald, 286 Fort McHenry, 95 Fort Sumter, 125–6 Founding, xi, 51, 67–72, 79, 109, 125, 177 Fourteen Points, 192, 224 France in early America, 5–6, 11–2, 17–8, 32 in early national period, 73, 75, 77, 89–93 in American Revolution, 62, 65 Catholicism of, 26, 41 in French and Indian War, 46–8 and Louisiana Purchase, 89–92 Revolution of, 73, 76 and Statue of Liberty, 154 and Tocqueville, 103, 106 in World War I, 187–9 in World War II, 222, 229 Frank, Trent, 308 Franken, Al, 308 Franklin, Benjamin at Albany Convention, 46–7 as representative figure, 43–4, 82 and Revolutionary period, x, 50–3, 59, 62, 65, 68, 80 Fredericksburg, 129, 131 freedmen, 141–2, 148, 150 Freedom Riders, 258 Freeport Doctrine, 121, 123 free-soil, 119 French and Indian War, 45–8, 56, 90 frontier see pioneers Fugitive Slave Law, 116, 119 Fundamentalists see evangelicals Gaddafi, Muammar, 289, 303–04 Garrison, William, 111–2 gay rights, 284, 307, 309 Gentlemen’s Agreement, 198 George II, 47 George III, 49, 56, 58, 59, 70 Germany in Cold War, 237–40, 245, 249–54 immigrants from, 104, 153, 198 in World War I, 175, 187–92, 198 in World War II, 220–4, 227–31 Gettysburg, 129–31, 135 Glasnost, 290 Glorious Revolution, 26, 40–1, 46, 53

gold standard, 156–9 golden spike, 144 Goldwater, Barry, 260 Gompers, Samuel, 155 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 290–1 Gordon, Thomas, 53 Gore, Al, 297, 305 Graham, Billy, 249, 263 Grangers, 157 Grant, Ulysses, 130–3, 142, 146, 149 Gravier, Charles, 62 Great Britain see England Great Migration, 25, 27, 30 Great Recession, 301, 306 Great Society, 260–2, 271, 274, 285 Greenback-Labor Party, 157 Greenberg, Arnold, 256 Grenville, George, 49–50 Griffith, D. W., 199 G.T.T., 112 Guantanamo, 168 Gulf of Tonkin, 263 Guthrie, Woody, 235 Hakluyt, Richard, 13 Hale, Edward, 81–2 Hale, Nathan, 81 Halls of Montezuma, 113 Hamilton, Alexander, 63, 67–8, 71, 74–81, 83, 106 Hanovers, 40 Harpers Ferry, 121 Hart, Gary, 308 Hawaii, 168–70, 226, 255 Hay, John, 168, 173 Hayes, Rutherford, 150 Haymarket, 155 Hearst, William, 167 Hemings, Sally, 308 Henry, Patrick, 50, 53, 55–6, 71 Henry Street Settlement, 180 Henry VIII, 12 Hepburn Act, 184 Herberg, Will, 249 Heron, George, 156 Hessians, 58, 61 higher education see university system hippies, 267 Hiroshima, 231, 266 Hiss, Alger, 243–4, 248, 274 Hitler, Adolph, 221–30, 263

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Index Hobart, Garret, 183–4 Ho Chi Minh, 261, 264, 268 Hofstadter, Richard, 160–1 Hollywood, 199, 248–9, 285, 293, 298, 302, 304, 309 Homestead Act, 144 Homestead Strike, 157, 155 Hoover, Herbert, 196, 203–07, 211–14 Hoover, Lou Henry, 203 Hopkins, Harry, 215–216 House of Burgesses, 14, 19, 50, 55 House Divided speech, 122, 135 House of Representatives, 70–1, 78 and Un-American Activities Committee, 243 Houston, Sam, 113–4 How Great Thou Art, 263 Howard, Oliver, 142–3, 147 Howe, Frederick, 178 Howe, Julia, 128 Howe, William, 58, 61 Hudson, Henry, 11 Huerta, Victoriano, 175 Hughes, Charles, 183 Hull, Cordell, 193, 222, 225, 238 Hull House, 179–80 Humphrey, Hubert, 257, 270 Hutchinson, Ann, 17 hyper-liberalism, 263 I ain’t marchin’ anymore, 268 Immigrants and Act of 1965, 282 and National Origins Act, 198–9 to New World, 13–17, 19, 22, 25, 35 in first part of nineteenth century, 105, 119, 144, 146 in 1870s–1920s, 153–5, 177–8, 196, 232 subsequent to 1965, xi, 307; see also pioneers impeachment, 275, 296, 308 Imperial Presidency, 275 imperialism see colonies impounding, 274 In God We Trust, 249 In His Steps, 156 Indians arrive in Americas, 3–5 and Cherokees, 98–102 and Commanche, 112–114 and Custer, 146–7 and disease, 14, 32

325

destruction of, 7–9, 17–20, 32, 35, 87–8, 145–7 and early French, 11–12 in French and Indian War, 46–8 named, x, 7 and Penn, 29–30 in Revolution, 63, 67 and Severalty Act, 147–8 and tea party, 55 and War of 1812, 93–6 Indies, 6–8, 11, 20–23, 27, 30–2, 36–7, 47 individualism, xii, 36, 75, 88, 162, 203–05, 223 industrialization in Civil War, 126, 130 early, 20 in early nineteenth century, 104, 108 in early twentieth century, 178, 182, 184, 203–05, 213 and Hamilton, 76 in late nineteenth century, 145, 152–6 in late twentieth century, 296 Influence of Sea Power on History, 165 Institutes of the Christian Religion, 10 Insular Cases, 171 internationalism, 195, 211, 223, 239, 241 Interstate Commerce Act, 184, 214 Interstate Highway Act, 248 intolerable acts, 55, 57 Iran, 286–91, 295, 298–301, 304 Iraq, 286, 289–91, 295–301, 303, 306 Irish, 104–5, 119, 153–4, 178, 269–70 and Scots, 35 ISIS, 304 isolationism, 196, 223 Israel, 286–9, 298–9, 303–4 It Can’t Happen Here, 198 Jackson, Andrew, 95, 99–107, 134, 136, 148, 161, 218, 246, 284 Jackson State University, 273 James I, 13, 15, 25 James II, 26, 40 Jamestown, 13, 18–9, 22, 25, 27–8 Japan, 173–4, 224–7, 231–8, 244, 280, 300 Jay, John, 64, 71 Jefferson, Thomas, 68, 82, 83 in early national period, 74–9 and Missouri Compromise, 87

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and Northwest Ordinances, 88–9 as president, 79–81 purchases Louisiana, 89–93 revolutionary sentiments of, 63, 67 and slavery, 86, 98, 308 and War of 1812, 93 writes Declaration of Independence, 59–60, 65, 70 Jews see Judeo-Christianity Jim Crow, 151, 199, 257–9 Johnson, Andrew, 142, 235 Johnson, Hiram, 182 Johnson, Lyndon, 260–74, 281, 285, 302, 305 Johnson, Tom, 179 Jones, Sam, 179 Judeo-Christianity, 52, 249, 282, 287–88 Jungle, 184, 214 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 117–22 Kavanaugh, Brett, 308 Kelly, Florence, 179 Kennan, George, 240 Kennedy, Edward, 309 Kennedy, John, 83, 207, 251–6, 259–62, 266, 271, 274, 279, 285, 290, 295, 308 Kennedy, Robert, 253–55, 269–70 Kent State University, 273 Keynes, John, 219 Khrushchev, Nikita, 250, 252–4, 261 King, Martin, 258, 267–9 King Philip, 18 Kipling, Rudyard, 172 Kissinger, Henry, 271–5, 285–6 kitchen debate, 249 Knights of Columbus, 249 Knights of Labor, 155 Know-Nothings, 119 Knox, Franklin, 227 Knudsen, William, 227 Korea, 244–7, 299–300, 310 Ku Klux Klan, 149, 196, 199 labor in colonial period, 20–23, 28, 32 in early nineteenth century, 97, 104–5, 108 in late nineteenth century, 142, 151, 155, 158–161 in late twentieth century, 280–1 in New Deal, 204–05, 213–4, 216 1900–1930, 180, 182, 184, 191, 194 La Follette, Robert, 182, 201

La Salle, Robert de, 11 Lasch, Christopher, 281 Lazarus, Emma, 154 League of Nations, 192–4, 199, 236 Lease, Mary, 157 Lee, Richard Henry, 59, 71, 78 Lee, Robert E., 127–33 Lend-Lease, 227 Lenin, Vladimir, 192–3, 221 Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, 54 Lewinsky, Monica, 296 Lewis and Clark, 91 Lewis, Sinclair, 197–200 LGBTQIA, 307, 309 liberalism of Jackson, 104, 106, 208 of Jefferson, 78, 105, 154, 208 of New Deal, 208, 211, 220, 232–4 in 1940s, 236, 241 in 1960s, 260, 263, 270, 274 of personal growth, 285 of Wilson, 178, 187, 208 Liberator, 111–2 Libya, 289, 303 Life is Worth Living, 249 Lincoln, Abraham, 127–8, 141–2 career of, 105, 113, 122–3 conducts Civil War, 124–33 debates Douglas, 122–3 eulogized, 133 significance of, 133–6, 181, 191, 211, 284 Lindbergh, Charles, 223 Lindsay, Vachel, 159 Link, Arthur, 195 Lippmann, Walter, 182 Little Bighorn, 146–7 Little Round Top, 129 Livingston, Robert, 90 Locke, John, 52, 65 Lodge, Henry, 164, 195 Longfellow, Henry, 57 Long, Huey, 214–5 Lost Cause, 133, 149 Louisiana Purchase, 89–92, 96–7, 99, 104, 114, 117 Loyalists, 62–3 Lusitania, 188 Luther, Martin, 9 McArthur, Douglas, 245–6 McCain, John, 302, 306

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Index McCarthy, Eugene, 268–9 McCarthy, Joseph, 218, 244, 246–7 McClellan, George, 127, 129, 132 McCulloch v. Maryland, 81 McKinley, William, 159, 164, 167, 171–2, 183–4 McNamara, Robert, 262 Madero, Francisco, 175 Madison, James, 45, 63, 67–8, 71, 74–80, 93, 95, 106 Mahan, Alfred, 165 Maine, 167 Maine, 26, 97, 129 Manassas Junction, 127, 131 Manifest Destiny, 113 Man Without a Country, 81–2 Mao Tse Tung, 243 Marbury v. Madison, 80–1, 120 March on Washington, 259 Marine Hymn, 113 Marshall, George, 238, 240, 242 Marshall, John, 73, 80, 100–1, 134 Marx, Karl, 155, 192, 265 Mason-Dixon Line, 96–8, 109, 111, 202 Massachusetts, 15–19, 23, 26–30, 33–5, 55–8, 67, 97, 112 massive retaliation, 248 Mayflower, 15, 53, 115 Meade, George, 129 media, growth of in politics, 78, 106, 167, 262, 270, 307–10 Medicare, 260, 285 Melville, Herman, 133 Mencken, Henry, 17 Mensheviks, 192–3 mercantilism, 39, 48–50, 53, 76 Metacom, 18 Methodists, 45, 111 Mexico in early America, 8–9, 18, 20–21, 31, 90 in early twentieth century, 140, 163, 174–6, 189 and immigration, 282, 307, 310 in Mexican War, 112–15 Middle East, 286–90, 295, 298–301, 303–04 Midway Island, 231–2 military against the Indians, 144–7 in cities, 155, 158 in the Civil War, 124–34 in colonial period, 19, 46, 67

327

in Korea, 244–7 in Mexico, 113–4, 175 in the Middle East, 289–90, 295, 299–301, 303–04 and presidents, 149, 246 in the Revolution, 46, 58, 60–65, 80 in the South, 130–33, 142–3, 149–50 in Spanish American War, 168 in Vietnam, 261–4, 268, 271–3, 275–6 in War of 1812, 93–6 in World War I, 189–90 in World War II, 228–32; See also civil-military cooperation; West Point Military Reconstruction Act, 142 Missile Crisis, 252–4 Missouri Compromise, 96–8, 117, 119–21 Mitchell, John, 274 Modelle of Christian Charity, 16 modernist, Protestant, 140, 199–200 monkey trial, 200 Monroe, James, 97, 112, 169, 223, 225 Montcalm, Marquis de, 47 Montreal, 11, 32, 47–8 Morgan, Edmund, 23, 58 Morgan, J. P., 152, 184 Morrill, Justin, 139 Moscow, battle of, 228 movies see Hollywood; media; growth of in politics muckrakers, 185 Muller v. Oregon, 183 Munich Conference, 222 Muslims, 6, 286–7, 298–300, 304, 309–10 Muste, A. J., 265 My Lai, 273 My Story, 179 Nagasaki, 231 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 257–8 National Industrial Recovery Act, 213–5 National Labor Relations Act, 216, 219 National Liberation Front, 261, 268 National Origins Act, 198, 233 National Recovery Administration, 213–5 National Security Council, 68, 245 National Socialism, 221 National Union for Social Justice, 214 Native Americans see Indians Navigation Acts, 39, 50

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Nazis, 221–4, 228, 236, 249 Nelson, Donald, 227 Netherlands, 11, 15, 39, 62 neutrality acts, 62, 188–9, 222–5 New American Revolution, 274 New Colossus, 154, 198 New Deal, 208, 211–20, 227, 236, 241, 243, 248, 260, 270–1, 281, 285 new empire, 166–72 New England, in early America and United States, 15–17, 26, 31–6, 40–45, 58–61, 100, 102 New Freedom, 187, 192 New Jersey plan, 70 New Left, 265–6, 274 New Look, 248 New Nationalism, 187 New Orleans, battle of, 95–6 New Sweden, 29 Newton, Isaac, 43, 51, 52 Nixon, Richard, 218, 243, 248, 249, 251, 270–76, 283 Nolan, Philip, 81–2 Normandy, 229–30, 279 North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 242, 250, 254, 291, 303, 310 North, Frederick, 55, 56, 58 Northwest Old, 104 Ordinances, 87–8, 96–7, 116 Passage, 6, 11, 90 nuclear weapons and Cuba, 252–4 and Eisenhower, 247–8, 249–50 and Germany, 251–2 and Kennedy, 251–4 and Middle East, 297–8, 300–01, 303–04 and North Korea, 300 and Reagan, 286, 290 in World War II, 231–2, 238 Obama, Barack, 301–06, 309 Ochs, Phil, 268 Office of Economic Opportunity, 260 Office of War Mobilization, 227 Oglesby, Carl, 265 oil, 239, 286–8, 295, 298, 300 Oklahoma, 101–02, 148 Olive Branch Petition, 58 Olney, Richard, 169 On Manufactures, 76

On the Public Credit, 76 Onward Christian Soldiers, 185, 224 Open Door, 172–4, 192, 225 Operation Desert Storm, 295 Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson, 203 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, 287–8 Origin of Species, 140 Oswald, Lee, 255, 256, 259, 268 Our Country, 165 Over There, 189 Paine, Thomas, 59, 61, 63, 79 Pakistan, 303 Palestine Liberation Organization, 289 Palmer, Mitchell, 194 Panama Canal, 169 Parks, Rosa, 258 Parliament, 12, 14, 25–6, 40–1, 46, 50, 53–8, 65, 185, 224 party system, 74, 105, 281, base of, 305 Peace of Paris, 65 Peale, Norman, 249 Pearl Harbor, 226–7, 231–2 Pennsylvania, 29–30, 34–43, 46, 54 Penn family, 29–30 penny press, 106 Pentagon Papers, 273–5 people, defined, x, 16, 52, 54, 59–71, 62–3, 135–6, 233 Perestroika, 290 Perkins, Frances, 180 Philippines, 168–74 Pickett, George, 141 Pilgrims, 15–16 Pilgrim’s Progress, 185 pioneers, to the west, 31, 88–9, 91, 100 Pitt, William, 47 Platt Amendment, 169 Pledge of Allegiance, 162, 249 Plessy v. Ferguson, 151, 257, 283 plumbers, 275 Plymouth, 13–17, 26 politics correctness of, 284 culture of established, 73–4, 82–3 defined, x–xi of stalemate, 220, 273–4, 306 Polk, James, 113, 134 Pontiac, Chief, 48–9

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Index popular government, 32, 54, 68, 72–5, 102, 107, 123 popular sovereignty, 116–7, 121–3 Populism, 156–61, 201–2, 309 Portugal, 7–8 postmodern, 296 Potsdam Conference, 237–8 Powhattan, 18–9 Presbyterians, 14, 45, 11, 185, 191 presidency, office of, 69–70, 75–77, 82, 134, 142, 184, 187, 203, 235, 275 primary system, 180, 305 Principles of Mining, 203 Proclamation Line, 49 producers’ coalition, 105, 161, 201 Progressivism in 1920s, 196–205 and cities, 178–81 defined, 141, 156, 177–8, 207 and foreign policy, 174–6, 187–95 and La Follette, 201 and political economy, 181–7 and presidents, 183–7, 203–7 and Supreme Court, 183 and Wallace, 241–2 Prohibition, 196–7 Promise of American Life, 182 Protestant, Catholic, Jew, 249 Protestantism in 1920s, 196–200 in American colonies, 25–7, 29–30, 33–4, 36 and American Protestants in seventeenth century, 14–17 among colonial leaders, 42–5, 51–2 in England, 12–13 of diplomats, 193 at end of twentieth century and start of twenty-first, 282, 299, 309, 311 in early nineteenth century reform, 111–12 ethic of, 12, 14–15 in first awakening, 42–45, 199 as force in American life, xi–xii and Indians, 7–8, 13, 20, 147–8 of Lincoln, 135–6 modernism of, 139–40, 199–200 in new empire era, 156, 164 of modern presidents, 282, 299 of progressives, 185, 191 in Reformation, 9–11

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and Republican Party, 119, 122, 128–9, 135–6, 149 in second awakening, 110–11, 117 and slavery, 23, 110–12 of social gospel, 156 and Whigs, 105 and World War II, 224, 229; see also religion Publius, 71 Pullman Palace Car Company, 158 Puritans, 14–9, 25, 33, 97, 105, 110–1, 248 Quakers, 29–30, 11, 194, 203, 265 Quartering Act, 50, 55 Quebec, 23, 32, 47, 55, 58 radio, 206–7, 213–4, 221; see also Fireside Chats railroads, 104, 117, 144–6, 152, 155, 183–4 Rain-in-the-Face, 146 Raleigh, Walter, 13 Rauschenbusch, Walter, 156 Reagan, Ronald, 219, 285–92 Reconstruction, 141–152, 159, 168, 199 Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 205 Redeemers, 149–50 Red Scare, 193–4, 197, 199, 243–5 Reds see communism Reformation, 9–14, 29, 40, 311 religion, xi, 6, 249; see also Catholics; Christianity; Muslims; Protestantism representation, 50, 54, 71 republicanism, 54, 68–71, 77–8, 87, 103, 105, 136 new, 141, 143, 162, 177, 195 Republican Party in 1850s, 119–24 in 1920s and 1930s, 196, 201–11, 220–27 in 1940s and 1950s, 236–48 character of, 119, 148–50, 256, 271, 274, 305–06 in Civil War and Reconstruction, 124, 134, 141–53 in early twentieth century, 178, 185–6, 194–5 in late nineteenth century, 154–60 in late twentieth and early twenty first century, 274–6, 282–92, 301–02 radicals in, 142–3 resolves of Kentucky and Virginia, 8

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Restoration, 26, 29 Revenue Acts, 50, 191 Revolutionary War, 57–65 Ribicoff, Abraham, 270 Rice, Condoleezza, 193 Richmond, 127, 131–3 Ridgeway, Matthew, 246 rights, x, 88–90, 118–20, 141–51, 231–3, 242, 296, 301, 311 bills of, 66–72, 78–9, 88, 123, 283–4 civil, 132, 142, 256–61, 266–8, 279, 281–2, 305 natural, 41, 52–4, 59, 79 property, 5, 11, 13, 17, 23, 35, 87, states, 74, 97, 105–06, 114–6, 124, 135, 152 Robinson, Jackie, 257 Rockefeller, John, 152, 216 Roe v. Wade, 284 Rolling Thunder, 263 Roman Catholicism see Catholics Roosevelt, Eleanor, 217, 235 Roosevelt, Franklin, 207–8, 211–229, 233–7, 241, 244, 248, 256–7, 265, 285 Roosevelt, Theodore, 164–9, 174, 184–7, 189, 197, 201 Root Elihu, 164 Rough Riders, 168 Royal African Company, 23 Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion, 150 Rusk, Dean, 193, 251–4, 262 Russia, 163, 173–4 in Cold War, 237–9, 249–54, 262, 271, 285–6, 290–1, 299–301, 310 in World War I, 187–93 in World War II, 221–4, 228, 236; see also communism Ruth, Babe, 206 Saddam Hussein, 295, 297–98, 300, 304 Salem, 33, 248 Sanford, Mark, 308 Santa Anna, 112–3 Saratoga, 61–4 scalawags, 148 Schechter Brothers v. United States, 215 Schlesinger, Arthur, 275 Scopes, John, 200 Scots-Irish, 35 Scott, Walter, 108 second front, 228, 230

Second Great Awakening, 110–11, 117 sectional crisis, 115–124 separate but equal, 257, 283 separation of powers, 69 separatists and non-separatists, 14–16 settlement houses, 179–80 settlers see pioneers Seven Years War, 46–8 sexuality, 307–10 Shah Reza Pahlavi, 287 sharecroppers, 151 Sharpsburg, 127 Shays, Daniel, 67 Sheen, Fulton, 249 Sheldon, Charles, 156 Sheridan, Phil, 131, 147, 155 Sherman, William, 130, 146 shootings, 306–07 sick chicken case, 215 Significance of the Frontier in American History, 162 silver, 144, 155–8, 164 Simms, William, 109 Simpson, Jerry, 157 Sinclair, Upton, 184, 214 Sitting Bull, 158 slavery in antebellum period, 88, 91, 104–5, 107–124 and Civil War, 124–39 in colonies, 27–8, 32–6 in Constitution, 70–71 diffusion of, 91 and Dred Scott, 120–23 early history of, 20–23 end of, 150–151 and Missouri Compromise, 96–8, 102 during Revolutionary war, 63, 70, 72, 74–5 Smith, Alfred, 202–3, 207 social contract theory, 52, 65 social Darwinism, 140, 165 Social Gospel, 156, 200 socialism, 155, 219, 236, 242, 257, 284 Social Security Act, 215–6, 233 Society of Friends, 29 sociological jurisprudence, 257 Sociology for the South, 119 Somme River, 188 Song of Myself, 107 Souls of Black Folk, 258 Sources of Soviet Conduct, 240

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Index South antebellum, 96–100, 104–24 and Civil Rights movement, 132, 142, 256–61, 266–8, 279, 281–2, in Civil War, 125–39 in colonial period, 13–4, 22–4, 27–8, 34–6 in late nineteenth century, 141–4, 148–52, 156–60 in late twentieth and early twenty first century, 299, 305–8 and Progressivism, 181 in Revolutionary era, 58, 63–5, 71–4 Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 258 Southwest Ordinances, 96–7, 116 Spaghetti Western, 293 Spain in early America, 5–12, 20, 28, 32, 41, 46–9 in early nineteenth century, 65, 90–92, 98 in southwest, 112, 114 war with, 167–170 Spargo, John, 178 sports, 206, 257, 293–4 Sputnik, 251 Square Deal, 184–5 Stalin, Joseph, 221–4, 228–30, 236–41, 244, 250 Stalingrad, 228, 230 Stamp Act, 50 Star-Spangled Banner, 96 Statue of Liberty, 154, 198 Stettinius, Edward, 227 Stevens, Thaddeus, 142 Stimson, Henry, 164, 207, 227 Stonewall, 284 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 118–9, 135 Strachan, Gordon, 276 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, 271 Strong, Josiah, 165 Stuarts, 25–29, 36 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, 266 Student Peace Union, 265 Students for a Democratic Society, 265 suburbs, 248, 280–1 sugar, 20–3, 30–2, 36, 50, 56, 108 Sumner, Charles, 119–20, 142, 163 Supreme Court, 134, 308 in Constitution, 69–70 and Dred Scott, 120–1

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and insular cases, 171 in late nineteenth century, 151–2, 183 under Marshall, 80–1 and New Deal, 214–5, 218–20, 223 and Progressivism, 183–5 and rights, 256–7, 283–4, 307 Sussex, 188 Syria, 303, 304 Taft, Robert, 243 Taft, William, 172, 174–5, 185–8, 201 Taliban, 299 Talleyrand, 91 Tallmadge Amendment, 97, 114 Taney, Roger, 121–3, 134 tariff, 50, 54–5, 105, 153, 156, 164–5, 187, 192–3, 204 taxes under Constitution, 69 in late twentieth century, 292 in New Deal, 215–6 progressive, 181–2, 191 in revolutionary period, 50–1, 53–5 and tariff, 50 in World War I, 191 in World War II, 227 Tea Act, 55 Tecumseh, 88, 93, 95 television, 247, 254–5, 259, 270, 307–10 Teller Amendment, 168 terrorism, 73, 289, 295, 296–306 Test Ban Treaty, 254–5, 262, 271 Tet Offensive, 268 Texas, 112–5, 127, 130, 260 Thoreau, Henry, 115, 162 Tilden, Samuel, 150 Timrod, Henry, 124 tobacco, 14, 23, 26–8, 31, 107–8, 151 Tocqueville, Alexis, 103, 106, 110 totalitarianism, 221, 238–9, 274, 286 Townsend, Francis, 214 Townshend, Charles, 51, 55 trade in late twentieth century, 292–3 and new empire, 164–7, 168–74 triangular, 31–2 in World War I, 192 in World War II, 224 transgender, 307–8

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Index

transportation automobile, 204, 219, 248, 280, 286 before railroad, 104 railroad, 104, 117, 144–6, 152, 155, 183–4 Treaty of Greenville, 88 Treaty of Tordesillas, 7–8 trench warfare, 188 Trenton, battle of, 61 Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, 180 Truman, Harry, 193, 235–248, 257, 264, 284 Trump, Donald, 309–10 trusts, 152, 184, 187 Tudors, 12–4, 25 Turkish Empire, 6 Turner, Frederick, 162 Turner, Nat, 108 Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 118–9, 135 unions, 155, 184, 191, 213, 216, 219–20, 282 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics see Russia United Nations, 192, 236, 254, 297 university system, 139–41, 177–8 Valley Forge, 61–2, 64, 80 Verdun, 188 Versailles Conference, 194, 221–2, 239 Vespucci, Amerigo, 7 Vicksburg, 130–1 Vietnam War and Bush, 295 domestic consequences of, 265–271, 273–4 history, 261–2 and Johnson, 262–4, 268–9 and Kennedy, 262 and Nixon, 271–5 Villa, Pancho, 175 Vinton, Samuel, 113 Virginia in Civil War, 108, 121, 124–5, 127 founding of, 13–4 and Indians, 118–9, 135 influence and culture of, 23–4, 7–8, 34, 44–5, 73–4, 77, 94, 102 plan, 70 in revolutionary period, 50, 55–6, 59, 63, 68

resolves, 78 slavery in, 21–4 Voltaire, 46 Von Steuben, Friedrich, 61 Wagner Act, 216 Wald, Lillian, 180 Wallace, George, 270 Wallace, Henry, 241–2 War of 1812, 93–6, 98, 299 War Cabinet, 227 War Hawks, 94–5 War on Poverty, 260 Warren, Earl, 257 War Revenue Act, 191 Washington, Booker, 150–51 Washington, George and Constitution, 67–9 and French and Indian War, 46–8 as president, 75–8 as representative figure, 44–5, 52, 53, 78 in Revolutionary War, 56–64 Watergate, 274–6, 279 Wealth Tax Act, 215–6 Weaver, James, 157 Webster, Daniel, 116 Westmoreland, William, 268 West Point, 140–1, 156, 165; see also military; civil-military cooperation Wheeling, 244 When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d, 133 Whigs American, 104–6, 119 English, 26, 41 White Man’s burden, 172 Whitefield, George, 43–4 Whitman, Walt, 107, 133, 162 Whitney, Eli, 108 Wilderness Campaign, 131 Willard, Frances, 196 Willkie, Wendell, 227 Williams, Roger, 17 Wilmot Proviso, 114–5 Wilson, Woodrow, 203, 211–2 foreign policy of, 174–6, 188–96, 221, 270 and liberalism, 208, 211 and Progressivism, 166, 182–7, 199, 201 Winthrop, John, 16, 27, 52 Wisconsin idea, 182–3 witch hunt, 33, 248 Wolfe, James, 47–8

Copyrighted material – 9781352007220

Copyrighted material – 9781352007220

Index Wolfe, Tom, 281 Women and abortion, 284 lack rights of citizens, x, 17, 23, 32, 75, 108, 140, 178, 180, 183, 258 movement of, 140, 179, 180, 233, 267 obtain suffrage, 181 oppose drinking, 196 in progressive period, 140, 179–80 and religion, 45, 110, 140, 156 and sexuality, 307–10 Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 111, 196 Woodstock, 273

333

Worcester v. Georgia, 100 Works Progress Administration, 215–6, 219 World Trade Center, 298–9 World I, 187–95, 222–3, 225, 228 World War II, 195, 222–34, 241, 244, 249–50, 254, 256, 263, 280–1, 286, 300 Yalta Conference, 230, 236–7, 241, 243–4 Yankee Doodle, 61, 133 yeoman farmer, 77, 88, 93, 153 Yippies, 267 Yorktown, 63–4 Zimmerman telegram, 189

Copyrighted material – 9781352007220