Paidéia v26n63 by Paidéia Usp

ISSN 0103-863X

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PSYCHOLOGY FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCES AND LETTERS AT RIBEIRﾃグ PRETO UNIVERSITY OF Sﾃグ PAULO

VOLUME ISSUE JANUARY/APRIL

26 63 2016

Paidéia

ISSN 0103-863X (printed version) ISSN 1982-4327 (online version) Four-monthly Publication of the Graduate Program in Psychology Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto University of São Paulo Editor-in-Chief Manoel Antônio dos Santos, FFCLRP-USP

Focus and Scope Paidéia is affiliated with the Graduate Program in Psychology at the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters. Issued since 1991, Paidéia publishes original research in Psychology and related areas every four months, in the following categories: research report, theoretical study and systematic literature review. The authors are solely responsible for the papers published, whose opinions and judgments do not necessarily reflect those of the Editorial Board.

Editorial Commission Andréia Schmidt, FFCLRP-USP Andrés M. Pérez-Acosta, Universidad del Rosario Antonio dos Santos Andrade, FFCLRP-USP Clarissa Mendonça Corradi-Webster, FFCLRP-USP Edna Maria Marturano, FMRP-USP Eucia Beatriz Lopes Petean, FFCLRP-USP Fabio Scorsolini-Comin, UFTM Lucas de Francisco Carvalho, USF Luciana Carla dos Santos Elias, FFCLRP-USP Mauro Luis Vieira, CFH-UFSC Sônia Regina Loureiro, FMRP-USP Susana Coimbra, FPCE-UP

Editorial Review The submitted manuscripts should strictly comply with the orientations provided in the Publication Guidelines (see Instructions to Authors on SciELO website). At its discretion, the Editorial Commission will accept or decline the manuscripts, based on the recommendations of its members (Associate Editors), supported by ad hoc consultants.

Editorial Committee Anna Carolina Lo Bianco Clementino, UFRJ - Brazil Anne Marie Germaine Victorine Fontaine, Universidade do Porto - Portugal Antonio Gomes Ferreira, Universidade de Coimbra - Portugal Antonio Nóvoa, Universidade de Lisboa - Portugal Alain Giami, Institut National de la Sante et la Recherche Medicale - France Carl Lacharité, Universidade du Québec à Trois Rivières - Canada Elisa Medici Pizão Yoshida, PUC Campinas - Brazil Elvidina Nabuco Adamson-Macedo, University of Wolverhampton United Kingdom Enrique Gracia, Universidad de Valencia - Spain José Aparecido da Silva, USP RP - Brazil José Lino de Oliveira Bueno, USP RP - Brazil Luiza Faria, Universidade do Porto - Portugal Marc Bigras, Université du Québec à Montreal - Canada Maria Aparecida Crepaldi, UFSC - Brazil Maria Auxiliadora Dessen, UnB - Brazil Maria Clotilde Rossetti Ferreira, USP RP - Brazil Maria Lucia Tiellet Nunes, PUC RS - Brazil Marilda E. Novaes Lipp, PUC Campinas - Brazil Mary Jane Paris Spink, PUC SP - Brazil Rubén Ardila, Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Colombia Sebastião de Sousa Almeida, USP RP - Brazil Silvia Helena Koller, UFRGS - Brazil Silvia Regina Ricco Lucato Sigolo, UNESP - Araraquara - Brazil Sylvia Leser de Mello, USP SP - Brazil Terezinha Féres-Carneiro, PUC Rio - Brazil Willian W. Dressler, University of Alabama - USA Editorial Assistant Juliana Silva Lins Technical Support Eduardo Name Risk Isabela Luz

Copyright The manuscript’s approval implies the immediate assignment without onus of the publishing rights to Paidéia. As a legal entity, the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters owns and holds the copyright resulting from the publication. To use the papers, Paidéia adopts the Creative Commons Licence, CC BY-NC non-commercial attribution. This license permits access, download, print, share, reuse and distribution of papers, provided that this is for non-commercial use and that the source is cited, giving due authorship credit to Paidéia. In these cases, neither authors nor editors need any permission. In any other situations, the complete or partial reproduction of papers published in Paidéia in other publications, by any means, for any other commercial ends, is conditioned to the authorization of the Editor. Partial reproductions of papers (resumo, abstract, resumen, excerpts of more than 500 words, tables, figures and other illustrations) need written permission from the copyright owners. Abstracting and Indexing Sources SciELO - Scientific Eletronic Library Online (FAPESP / CNPq / BIREME) Scopus (Elsevier) PsycINFO - Psychological Abstracts (American Psychological Association) LILACS - Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe em Ciências da Saúde CLASE - Citas Latinoamericanas en Ciências Sociales y Humanidades DOAJ - Directory of Open Access Journals Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory IRESIE (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México) Redalyc - Red de Revistas Científicas de América Latina y el Caribe, España y Portugal ProQuest (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts - CSA) EBSCO (CINAHL) Cengage Learning (Academic OneFile) Dialnet (Universidad de La Rioja) Index Copernicus International (IC Journal Master List) HINARI - Access to Research in Health Program PSICODOC (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) Catálogo Latindex OAJI - Open Academic Journals Index Porta de Revistas da USP (Universidade de São Paulo) Index-Psi Periódicos (CFP / PUCCAMP) The preceding issues in the online version (since 1991) are available in full-text in the Scientific Electronic Library Online http://www.scielo.br/paideia The preceding issues in the printed version (since 1991) are available at the Rede Brasileira de Bibliotecas da Área de Psicologia - ReBAP - http://www.bvspsi.org.br/php/index.php

Design Review and Typesetting Traço Leal Comunicação Librarian Maria Cristina Manduca Ferreira Language Consultants Arlete Belluzzo Sofie T. Aversari Martins

Qualis Journal Evaluation CAPES: A1 Affiliations ABEC - Associação Brasileira de Editores Científicos ABESCiPsi - Associação Brasileira de Editores Científicos de Psicologia

Front Cover Murilo Ohswald Máximo

Paidéia / Graduate Program in Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo. – Ribeirão Preto: Imprensa Oficial, 1991 - . v. : il. ; 28 cm. Four-monthly. Continuance of: Paidéia: Cadernos de Psicologia e Educação. ISSN 0103-863X I. Graduate Program in Psychology. Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto. University of São Paulo. CDD 150 CDU 159.9:37

Support University of São Paulo Programa de Apoio às Publicações Científicas Periódicas da USP/SIBi-USP Programa de Apoio a Publicações Científicas - CNPq Impression: 500 copies Graduate Program in Psychology Psychology Department - FFCLRP-USP Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900 - Monte Alegre CEP 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto - SP, Brazil E-mail: paideia@usp.br Collection of full-text articles at http://www.scielo.br/paideia

Paidéia Volume 26, Issue 63, January-April 2016 CONTENTS

Management Report Paidéia: Management Report - 2015 Paidéia: Relatório de Gestão - 2015 Paidéia: Informe de Administración - 2015 Manoel Antônio dos Santos

Articles Adaptation and Factorial Validation of the Attitudes Toward Gender Roles Scale Adaptação e Validação Fatorial da Escala de Atitudes Relativas aos Papéis de Gênero Adaptación y Validación Factorial da Escala de Actitudes Relativas a Roles de Género Claudia Andrade - Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Family Integrity Among Older Caregivers of Relatives With Dementia Integridade Familiar em Pessoas Idosas Cuidadores de Familiares com Demência Integridad Familiar en Cuidadores Ancianos de Familiares con Demencia Sara Guerra, Daniela Figueiredo, Marta Patrão, Liliana Sousa Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Self-Control, Self-Management and Entrepreneurship in Brazilian Creative Industries Autocontrole, Autogerenciamento e Empreendedorismo em Indústrias Criativas Brasileiras Autocontrol, Autorregulación y Emprendedorismo en Industrias Creativas Brasileñas Pedro F. Bendassolli - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal-RN, Brazil Jairo Eduardo Borges-Andrade - Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil Sonia Maria Guedes Gondim - Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador-BA, Brazil

Well-Being at Work Scale: Exploratory and Confirmatory Validation in the USA Escala de Bem-Estar no Trabalho: Validações Exploratória e Confirmatória nos EUA Escala de Bienestar en el Trabajo: Validación Exploratorio y Confirmatorio en los EEUU Gisela Demo, Tatiane Paschoal Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil

Impact of Job-Related Well-Being on the Relationship of Self-Efficacy With Burnout Impacto do Bem-Estar no Trabalho Sobre as Relações da Autoeficácia com Burnout Impacto del Bienestar en el Trabajo Sobre la Relación de la Autoeficacia con Burnout Clarissa Pinto Pizarro Freitas - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil Claudia Sampaio Corrêa da Silva - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil Bruno Figueiredo Damásio - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil Sílvia Helena Koller - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil Marco Antônio Pereira Teixeira - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Form Quality in Rorschach Comprehensive System and R-PAS: Sample of Psychiatric Cases Qualidade Formal do Rorschach Sistema Compreensivo e R-PAS: Amostra de Casos Psiquiátricos Calidad Formal del Sistema Comprehensivo de Rorschach y R-PAS: Muestra de Casos Psiquiátricos Latife Yazigi, Norma Lottenberg Semer, Maria Luiza de Matos Fiore, Roberta Katz Abela, Tatiana Gottlieb Lerman, Thaís Cristina Marques Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Occupational Stress and Quality of Life in Nursing Estresse Ocupacional e Qualidade de Vida em Profissionais de Enfermagem Estres Ocupacional y Calidad de Vida en Profesionales de Enfermería Aline Moraes da Silva, Liliana Andolpho Magalhães Guimarães Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande-MS, Brazil

The Interface Between Quality and Violence in Marital Relationships A Interface Entre a Qualidade e a Violência em Relacionamentos Conjugais Una Interfaz Entre la Calidad y la Violencia en Relaciones Maritales Josiane Razera, Clarisse Pereira Mosmann, Denise Falcke Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

Psychological Indicators and Perceptions of Adolescents in Residential Care Indicadores Psicológicos e Percepção de Acolhimento em Adolescentes Indicadores Psicológicos y Percepciones de Acogimiento en Adolescentes Amanda Oliveira Fernandes, Nancy Ramacciotti de Oliveira-Monteiro Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

School Bonding of Adolescent Offenders Vinculação Escolar de Adolescentes em Conflito com a Lei Vinculación Escolar de Adolescentes Infractores de la Ley Jorge Luiz da Silva, Ana Raquel Lucato Cianflone, Marina Rezende Bazon Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Adoption of Children With Disabilities: A Study With Adoptive Parents Adoção de Crianças com Deficiência: Um Estudo com Pais e Mães Adotantes Adopción de Niños con Discapacidad: Un Estudio de los Padres y Madres Adoptivos Gisele De Mozzi, Adriano Henrique Nuernberg Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brazil

101

Systematic Literature Review Relationship Between Teacher Motivation and Organizational Variables: A Literature Review A Relação Entre a Motivação Docente e Variáveis Organizacionais: Revisão da Literatura La Relación Entre la Motivación Docente y Variables de la Organización: Revisión de la Literatura João Viseu - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal Saul Neves de Jesus - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal Claudia Rus - Universidade de Babes-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, Romania José Manuel Canavarro - Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Joana Pereira - Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

111

Parenting Programs to Prevent Corporal Punishment: A Systematic Review Programas Parentais Para a Prevenção do Castigo Corporal: Uma Revisão Sistemática Programas Parentales Para la Prevención del Castigo Corporal: Una Revisión Sistemática Paolla Magioni Santini, Lucia C. A. Williams Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

121

Publication Guidelines

131

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 1-6. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201601

Management Report

Paidéia: Management Report - 2015 Manoel Antônio dos Santos1 Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil In this Management Report, we present indicators that give visibility to the editorial management of Paidéia for the year 2015. With the publication of this document, we preserve the tradition of presenting to the scientific community a balance of what the journal has produced in the previous year, making explicit the modus operandi of the processing of the manuscripts in the period. The dissemination of scientific production is backed by a rigorous peer review process. To systematize information relative to the editorial process, it is possible to place the contribution of Paidéia in the contemporary scenario of scientific publications in the Humanities field, particularly Psychology. This report is divided into the following sections: Editorial Policy and Arbitration Criteria, Editorial Process - 2015, and Final Considerations. Editorial Policy and Arbitration Criteria Paidéia is a quarterly publication of the Graduate Psychology Program of the Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo - FFCLRP-USP. Its editorial focus and scope is to publish Psychology related studies. The published articles should fall into the categories: research report, theoretical study, or systematic literature review. These categories are reflected in the results published in this report. In 2016, Paidéia completes 25 years of existence. Since its founding in August 1991, 63 issues have been published, from volume 1 to 26, and its collection is fully available through free access provided by the SciELO collection. The issues are conspicuous for their diversity and breadth of topics, as well as for the plurality of methodological designs contained in the articles. The editorial line is generalist, considering the theoreticalmethodological, epistemological and thematic diversity that pervades the Psychology area. In terms of the classification in the Qualis Journals system, in the area of psychology (Qualis Journals

Correspondence address: Manoel Antônio dos Santos. Universidade de São Paulo. Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto. Departamento de Psicologia. Av. Bandeirantes, 3900. CEP 14040-901. Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil. E-mail: masantos@ffclrp.usp.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Commission of Psychology, 2015), Paidéia ascended from the B1 stratum, its status until 2011, to A1, the highest ranking evaluation position, which demonstrates the recognition of the prominent place that the journal occupies within the Brazilian scientific publications. This level of excellence was also verified by another important indicator – in early 2012 the journal was one of the two national publications recognized by the CAPES Support Program for the contribution to the internationalization of scientific journals in the Psychology area. This nomination was sponsored by the Qualis Journals Evaluation Committee and by the Area Evaluation Coordination (Psychology) of CAPES. The Qualis A1 classification and having been chosen by CAPES to be part of the Journal Support Program due to the potential for internationalization are achievements that consecrated Paidéia as one of the leading journals in the current scenario of Psychology in the country. The prestige given to Paidéia within the scientific community is due to its selective policy of disseminating quality knowledge. Rigorous and thorough assessment is sustained with the support of a highly qualified Editorial Board, structured according to the areas and themes addressed in the articles submitted for consideration. This Council consists of significant names of the academic community, in both the national and international contexts. The processing of the manuscripts is the responsibility of an Editorial Commission composed of Associate Editors, the majority of whom are professors linked to the Graduate Psychology Program of FFCLRP-USP. This commission coordinates the rigorous peer review process, by utilizing ad hoc consultants with recognized competence, who have the task of evaluating and improving the manuscripts submitted for consideration. To consolidate its visibility at the national and international level, Paidéia is indexed in a solid set of national and international databases (or full text portals) when compared to the other Brazilian journals in the field of Psychology. Our journal has been indexed in the following databases: SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online (FAPESP/BIREME), Scopus (Elsevier), PsycINFO - Psychological Abstracts (American Psychological Association), LILACS - Literatura LatinoAmericana e do Caribe em Ciências da Saúde (Centro Latino-americano y de Caribe de Informaciones en

Paidéia, 26(63), 1-6

Ciencias de la Salud), CLASE - Citas Latinoamericanas en Ciências Sociales y Humanidades (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México), PSICODOC (Colégio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid / Universidad Complutense de Madrid), DOAJ - Directory of Open Access Journals, Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory, Catálogo Latindex, IRESIE (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México), Index-Psi Periódicos (CFP/PUCCAMP), REDALYC - Red de Revistas Científicas de América Latina y el Caribe, España y Portugal, Portal de Revistas da USP (Universidade de São Paulo), ProQuest (CSA) - Databases, EBooks and Technology for Research, EBSCO - Information Services, Cengage Learning, Dialnet (Universidad de La Rioja), OAJI - Open Academic Journals Index, Index Copernicus International (IC Journal Master Listt), HINARI - Access to Research in Health Programme, ResearchGate, EZB - Electronic Journals Library (Universität Regensburg - Germany), HEAL Link - Hellenic Academic Libraries Link, and Socolar (China Educational Publications Import and Export Corporation - CEPIEC). We are currently under evaluation for coverage by the Thomson Reuters group (Web of Science). The submission of manuscripts is fully computerized, through the Electronic Submission system, provided by SciELO. The journal adopts a blind review evaluation system, which preserves the anonymity of the authors and reviewers. The texts submitted for consideration must primarily fall within the research report category. In each issue approximately 13 original research articles are published. From 2012, the following types of contributions were no longer accepted: reports of professional experience, brief communications, technical notes, and book reviews. As part of the new editorial policy of the journal, the Editorial Board decided to invest heavily in attracting articles that give visibility to research results derived from original empirical studies with quantitative or qualitative designs. The potential to make an impact in the area of knowledge is also a criterion for the selection of the manuscripts for publication. To be selected for publication, the manuscripts must be of international interest, rather than just local. With regard to financing sources, Paidéia has relied on support from financial resources received annually from the Periodical Scientific Publications Support Program of USP and from the Scientific Publications Support Program of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), as well as the support of the Graduate Psychology Program of FFCLRP-USP. The publication standards are included at the end of each issue, which are available online in the languages: Portuguese, English, and Spanish. Those standards (Instructions to the Authors) are available on the SciELO page (http://www.scielo.br/paideia). The final issue of each volume provides the list of ad hoc evaluators, who contributed to the essential task of reviewing the manuscripts during the year. The printed version of Paidéia is distributed free-

of-charge to approximately 160 libraries in Brazilian public universities linked to the Brazilian Network of Psychology Libraries - ReBAP. In this way, the issues are made available for the undergraduate Psychology courses and some Education courses in Brazil, as well as in other countries, such as Portugal, Spain, Mexico, Poland, the UK and the USA. This means that, three times a year, examples are sent to the higher education institutions of many Brazilian states and some abroad, as well as to Graduate Programs in the fields of Psychology and Education. Exchanges are also maintained with Brazilian and international Psychology and Health journals. The final issue of each volume is also sent to all the ad hoc consultants who collaborated with the journal during the year, in recognition of the collaboration provided. In this final issue (printed version) of each volume, we provide a list of ad hoc consultants who worked with the journal during the current year. It is a way of thanking those who contributed with the review of the manuscripts submitted to the journal. Regarding the manuscript arbitration process, Paidéia adopts the mechanism of double-blind review by peers of recognized competence within the scientific community. Thus, the identities of the authors and of the ad hoc consultants are kept in strict confidentiality. The texts submitted for review should be in accordance with the guidelines of the publication standards and may be accepted or rejected by the Editorial Board, based on the recommendations of its members and the ad hoc consultants selected to enhance the evaluation process. In relation to the availability of the content, Paidéia adopts the Creative Commons License, Attribution Noncommercial CC BY-NC. With this license it is permitted to access, download, copy, print, share, reuse, and distribute the articles, provided it is for noncommercial use and includes the citation of the source, giving appropriate credit to the journal. In such cases, no permission is required from the authors or the publishers. The complete collection of the journal, including past issues, is available on the SciELO site, from the conversion of the archives to the standard used by this database, thus increasing the visibility of the articles published, in accordance with the policy of free and universal access to the contents of the journal. Another aspect that distinguishes Paidéia in the scenario of Psychology publications is the systematic and periodic provision of information regarding the management process of the journal. In the first issue of each volume/year we publish a Management Report, in which we seek to provide visibility and transparency to the work consolidated in the previous year. This document contains objective indicators to measure the progress of the journal, such as the processing time of the manuscripts, the origin of the authors who have their articles published, and the institutional origins of the reviewers/ad hoc consultants, among other topics of interest (Santos, 2013, 2014, 2015).

Santos, M. A. (2016). Management Report 2015.

Editorial Process - 2015 When considering the editorial process of Paidéia in 2015, it can be observed that the average processing time of the manuscripts was approximately 6 months. One year earlier (2014), the mean processing time was 8 months, revealing considerable improvement. The journal also improved the mean time between the submission and the first assessment of the manuscript (4 months on average). In this year, the journal received 142 new manuscripts, of which 19 were approved, 66 rejected and 57 were still in the evaluation process in November of 2015, when this report was written (Table 1). Considering the manuscripts for which the editorial process was terminated in 2015 (n = 85), the journal approved 22.4% and rejected 77.6%. Table 1 Editorial Situation of the Manuscripts Submitted to Paidéia in 2015 Final decision

Received (Total)

142

Approved

Rejected

The number of articles submitted in 2015 (142) was higher than that observed in 2014 (127 manuscripts), an increase by approximately 11% over the previous year. This increase suggests that the authors fully assimilated the great modifications Paidéia implemented in 2013 (full implementation of the new publication standards of the 160 journal, which included, in addition to more stringent quality 140 criteria, the system of publication in the English language, with the financial costs 120 of the translation, performed by qualified experts, covered exclusively by the authors). 100 in 2015 were classified in Manuscripts submitted the following categories:80(a) Research report (85%); (b) Theoretical study (4.7%); (c) Systematic literature review 60 (10.3%), as presented in Table 2. x

Table 2 20 Category of the Manuscripts Submitted to Paidéia in 2015 Type of manuscript

Research report

123

86.6

Systematic literature review

8.4

Theoretical study

5.0

142

100.0

Total

Table 3 Category of the Manuscripts Published in Paidéia in 2015 Type of manuscript

Research report

97.5

Systematic literature review

Theoretical study

2.5

Total

100.0

Figure 1 shows the evolution of the number of manuscripts submitted and their fate in the triennium 2013-2015. In 2015, there was an increase in the number of new manuscripts submitted to Paidéia. The refusal rate remained stable. The rate of approved manuscripts also remained stable, which highlights the rigorous analysis of the manuscripts selected for publication. 160

In the editorial process 57 Note. Mean time between submission and publication in 2015 = 8 months.

were classified into the following categories: (a) Research report (92.3%) and (b) Systematic literature review (7.7%), as presented in Table 3.

In 2015, in volume 25 (issues 60, 61 and 62), 38 articles and one theoretical study were published, as well as two editorials and one management report. The publications

140 120 100 80 60

20 0 2013

2014

2015

Submitted Refused Published

x In the editorial process Approved

Figure 1. Number of manuscripts submitted to Paidéia and their editorial outcome in the triennium 2013-2015.

Regarding the institutional affiliation of the authors, Table 4 shows that Paidéia published articles originating from 26 Brazilian universities/colleges/institutes, with a predominance of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. There was a reasonable increase in the amount of articles with authors affiliated with international institutions, mainly from Portugal. It should be noted that the authors of the published articles are linked to a variety of higher education institutions, public, private and confessional, of various states of the Brazilian federation and abroad. In 2015, there was a predominance of federal over state universities.

Paidéia, 26(63), 1-6 Table 4 Institutional Origin of the Authors Who Published in Paidéia in 2015

Table 5 presents data relating to the body of ad hoc consultants of Paidéia, highlighting the country and region of origin.

National institutions

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - RS

17.6

Universidade de São Paulo - SP

12.0

Universidade São Francisco - SP

7.7

Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre - RS

6.6

International Countries

Universidade Salgado de Oliveira - RJ

6.6

Portugal

8.7

Pontifícia Universidade Católica - GO, PR

5.5

Canada

1.1

Table 5 Distribution of the ad hoc Consultants of Paidéia According to Their Geographic Origin (N = 184)

Universidade Federal de São Carlos - SP

5.5

Spain

Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina - SC

4.4

Bogotá

1.1

Universidade Federal de São Paulo - SP

4.4

United Kingdom

0.5

Universidade Estadual de Londrina - PR

3.3

USA

0.5

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte - RN

3.3

France

0.5

Universidade Federal do Pará - PA

3.3

Germany

0.5

Colombia

0.5

Subtotal

14.5

São Paulo

45.5

Minas Gerais

6.4

Rio de Janeiro

6.1

2.3

111

60.3

Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - RS

2.2

Universidade Estadual Paulista - SP

2.2

Universidade Federal da Paraíba - PB

2.2

Universidade Federal de Goiás - GO

2.2

Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil - DF

1.1

Universidade de Brasília - DF

1.1

National States Southeastern Region

Universidade Estadual de Campinas - SP

1.1

Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie - SP

1.1

Espírito Santo

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - RJ

1.1

Subtotal

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE

1.1

Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina - SC

1.1

Rio Grande do Sul

8.1

Universidade Federal do ABC - SP

1.1

Paraná

3.3

1.7

13.1

Federal District

3.3

Southern Region

Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia - BA

1.1

Santa Catarina

Universidade Tuiuti do Paraná - PR

1.1

Subtotal

Total

100

Universidade do Minho, Portugal

28.4

Goiás

0.5

University of North Carolina, USA

19.0

Mato Grosso

0.5

Subtotal

4.3

International institutions

Central-Western Region

Universidade do Algarve, Portugal

9.4

University of Pittsburgh, USA

4.8

Indiana University South Bend, USA

4.8

Bahia

2.3

Centro de Psicologia da Força Aérea, Portugal

4.8

Sergipe

1.7

Instituto Superior de Línguas e Administração, Portugal

4.8

Paraíba

1.1

Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal

4.8

Pernambuco

0.5

Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

4.8

Rio Grande do Norte

0.5

Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal

Subtotal

6.1

4.8

Universidade do Porto, Portugal

4.8

Pará

1.7

Universidade Europeia, Portugal

4.8

Subtotal

1.7

Total

100

Northeastern Region

Northern Region

*Calculation based on the total of 184 advisors who collaborated with the journal until November, 2015.

Santos, M. A. (2016). Management Report 2015.

Regarding the origins of the ad hoc consultants, the predominance should be noted of reviewers from the universities of São Paulo (45.5%) which, added to the evaluators from other institutions within the Southeastern, totaled 60.3% of the body of reviewers. The Southern region contributed 13.1% of the ad hoc evaluators; the Central-Western region contributed 4.3%; while the Northeastern region had a participation of 6.1% and the Northern region 1.7%. These results show that the number of evaluators from

70%

the Southeastern had a slight increase when compared to 2014 (57.8%). Thus, a slight decrease was found for the Southern reviewers (from 17.4% in 2014 to 13.1% in 2015), but a slight increase could also be perceived in the Northeastern region (from 4.8% in 2014 to 6.1% in 2015). Furthermore, the important collaboration of international evaluators can be noted, 14.5% (Table 5). Figure 2 shows the percentile distribution of the ad hoc consultants according to geographic origin.

60.3%

60% 50% 40% 30% 20%

14.5%

13.1%

6.1%

10%

4.3%

1.7%

Re gio ern rth No

ern uth

W est alCe

ntr

ern

rn ste ea rth

ea uth So

Re gio

n Re gio

d roa Ab

ste

Re gio

Figure 2. Distribution of the ad hoc consultants who collaborated with Paidéia in 2015 according to their region of origin.

Final Considerations In recent years, Paidéia has worked hard to consolidate itself as one of the most prestigious Psychology publications in the Brazilian context. With true entrepreneurial spirit, coordinated actions have been implemented to create objective conditions for the internationalization of the journal, which enhanced the visibility of the articles published. This management report systematizes information that permits the mapping of the framework of the editorial processing of the manuscripts submitted to the Paidéia during the year 2015. Comparison of the data accumulated over the last three years shows that the journal has gradually and consistently strengthened its editorial process, establishing itself as a unifying space for the knowledge produced in the field of Psychology. However, some fragilities need to be considered, such as the limited number of international collaborations and the concentration of ad hoc consultants in the Southeastern states. The low percentage of articles from foreign authors is a limitation as well. Overcoming these challenges requires the adoption of specific strategies. One positive aspect to be highlighted in this report is the

adoption of the publication of the full text of the articles in English in 2012, which gives greater international visibility to the articles published in the journal. The journal has ensured its inclusion in new international indexes, which contributes to the internationalization efforts. Another positive point is that the rate of “endogeneity” of the journal (articles from authors of the University of São Paulo) – 12% of the articles published in 2015 – although it had a slight increase, remained stable, when considering the historical series. This rate was 9.5% in 2014 (Santos, 2015) and 9.9% in 2013 (Santos, 2014). In other words, Paidéia proves to be a journal that is truly open to the Brazilian scientific community and, in recent years, increasingly oriented towards the international community, according to the guidelines of our Action Plan agreed upon with CAPEs in 2011-2012, when the journal ran for and won a Call aimed at levering the internationalization of the scientific journals of all knowledge areas. Paidéia won the Call, recognizing its excellent contribution in the editorial context. Since then, the journal has honored all of the commitments assumed in that Action Plan, rapidly turning into an international publication. As a result of the continuing efforts that have been

Paidéia, 26(63), 1-6

systematically undertaken over the last few years, Paidéia today occupies a prominent place among the publications in the field of psychology, among the six national journals in the area classified as A1 (Qualis Journals Commission of Psychology, 2015). The introduction of the online submission represented a substantial gain for the organization and management of the flow of information, helping to decrease the time of publication, however, is still far from ideal and should be continuously improved. Therefore, as from February, 2016, Paidéia will start using a new online editorial management system called ScholarOne. Investments to increase the visibility of the journal in the international context are needed, to attract articles from foreign researchers, to amplify the indexation in international databases, and to enhance the bibliometric indicators. Regarding the communication of science, it must be remembered that the publication may be through various means, with scientific journals highlighted due to quality control, greater credibility, consistency, and visibility of information. Scientific knowledge is mainly derived from original research, submitted to the peer review process and published in an indexed journal, with attention to the use and impact of the information conveyed. Being indexed in specialized or multidisciplinary databases is the seal of quality of a journal. The issue of the native language being privileged in the publication remains a constraint to increasing the visibility of articles published by the national journals. For years Paidéia has been publishing abstracts in Portuguese, English and Spanish, which always constituted a difference compared to other journals in the field of psychology, which traditionally only require the abstract in Portuguese and English. In 2012, we implemented the bilingual publication of articles, i.e., we provided the electronic library (SciELO) with the full versions in Portuguese and English, following the example of journals from other fields of knowledge. From the second issue of 2013, the articles began to be published in English only, in the printed version as well as the online version. These significant advances have required increased efforts from the Editorial Commission to guarantee the technical quality of the English language. All manuscripts are translated – or reviewed – and certified by a Committee of Translators accredited by the journal. This Committee includes professional specialized in scientific publications and renowned international companies that have gained prestige in the scientific publication market. In this way, we are gradually fulfilling the goals established so that Paidéia can contribute to the production of knowledge in Psychology that can achieve the desirable international levels of excellence and be profiled with other more advanced areas of knowledge. Considering the great increase in the national scientific production in recent years, due to a stimulus policy that is unfortunately often confused with the deleterious productivism resulting from the pressure to publish, it is highly desirable for national journals to give greater transparency to their publishing processes. Thus, this Management Report complies with the social mission of returning to society

the result of public investments that have been allocated in recent years to the field of science and technology. Finally, the scientific journals play an important role in evaluating the quality and dissemination of the knowledge produced in the area of Psychology. They are the principle means of publication and also the most prestigious and credible.

References Comissão Qualis Periódico da Psicologia. (2015). Qualis periódico da psicologia: Atualização 2015. Brasília, DF: Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior. Retrieved from https://www.capes.gov. br/images/stories/download/avaliacaotrienal/Docs_ de_area/qualis/relatorio_atualizacao_qualis_2015_ psicologia_23_06_15.pdf Santos, M. A. (2013). Paidéia: Relatório de gestão - 2012. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 23(54), 3-7. doi:10.1590/198243272354201302 Santos, M. A. (2014). Paidéia: Management report - 2013. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 24(57), 5-9. doi:10.1590/198243272457201402 Santos, M. A. (2015). Paidéia: Management report - 2014. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 25(60), 3-8. doi:10.1590/198243272560201502 Manoel Antônio dos Santos is an Associate Professor of the Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto at the Universidade de São Paulo, and Editor-in-Chief of Paidéia.

How to cite this management report: Santos, M. A. (2016). Paidéia: Management report - 2015. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 1-6. doi:10.1590/198243272663201601

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 7-14. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201602

Article

Adaptation and Factorial Validation of the Attitudes Toward Gender Roles Scale1 Claudia Andrade2 Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Abstract: Attitudes toward gender roles result from a social construction process that has implications for the accepted gender role models for men and women. This study aims at the adaptation and factorial validation of a measurement scale for attitudes toward gender roles. The sample consisted of 746 college students and young professionals. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed to check the scale’s structure. A two-factor structure was found for the Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale: the first factor reflects a traditional division of gender roles, and the second factor reflects an egalitarian division of gender roles. A preliminary study using the scale was conducted on 101 families with adult children (each family included a father, a mother, and an adult child with a university degree). The results revealed the importance of the scale in assessing the attitudes of different generations toward gender roles. Keywords: attitudes, gender, factor analysis

Adaptação e Validação Fatorial da Escala de Atitudes Relativas aos Papéis de Gênero Resumo: As atitudes relativas aos papéis de gênero resultam de um processo de construção social com implicações no modo como se definem os papéis sociais considerados adequados para homens e mulheres. O objetivo deste estudo foi realizar a adaptação e a validação fatorial de uma escala que avalia as atitudes em relação aos papéis de gênero. No estudo participaram 746 estudantes universitários e jovens profissionais. Para validar a estrutura fatorial vários modelos foram testados recorrendo a análises fatoriais exploratórias e confirmatórias. A estrutura fatorial obtida é composta por dois fatores correlacionados: o primeiro refere-se à divisão tradicional dos papéis de gênero e o segundo aponta para uma divisão igualitária dos papéis de gênero. Um estudo preliminar com o instrumento foi efetuado junto de 101 tríades familiares (pai, mãe e jovem adulto com diploma universitário), permitindo evidenciar a importância do instrumento para a avaliação dos papéis de gênero em diferentes gerações. Palavras-chave: atitudes, gênero, análise fatorial

Adaptación y Validación Factorial da Escala de Actitudes Relativas a Roles de Género Resumen: Las actitudes hacia los roles de género son resultado de un proceso de construcción social, con implicaciones para la forma en que definen los roles sociales que se consideran adecuados para los hombres y las mujeres. El objetivo de este estudio fue adaptar y validación fatorial de una escala que evalúa las actitudes hacia los roles de género. Para validar la estructura fatorial se efectuo análisis fatorial exploratorio y confirmatório con 746 estudiantes universitarios y jóvenes profesionales. A estructura fatorial de la escala esta compuesta por dos fatores correlacionados: división tradicional de roles de género y reparto equitativo de los roles de género. Un estudio preliminar del instrumento se realizó com 101 tríadas de la familia (padre, madre y adultos jóvenes con título universitario). Los resultados obtenidos demuestran la importancia del instrumento para la evaluación de los roles de género en diferentes generaciones. Palabras clave: actitudes, género, análisis factorial

Attitudes toward gender roles are associated with culturally contextualized images that differentiate feminine and masculine. The construction of gender roles is based on beliefs regarding acceptable roles for men and women, which include not only aspects of each gender’s characterization but also the relationship between the two genders (Halpern, 2012; Wood & Eagly, 2012). In a review of studies and This article is derived from the doctoral dissertation of the author, which was defended in 2007, at the Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação of the Universidade do Porto. Support: The author received financial support in the form of a doctoral scholarship from the Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnolgia - SFRH/BD/5153/2001).

Correspondence address: Claudia Andrade. Escola Superior de Educação, Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra. Rua D. João III, Solum, 3030-329. Coimbra, Portugal. E-mail: mcandrade@esec.pt

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

research on the social construction of gender roles, Amâncio (1994) concluded that the boundaries between gender roles and other social roles frequently demonstrate a differentiating asymmetry of masculine and feminine. The study also concluded that certain subcategories considered feminine, such as the representation of a housewife, result in a broad consensus in descriptions that are constructed for the purpose of comparison with other subcategories, such as that of a working woman (Amâncio, 1994). A previous study by Deaux and Kite (1985) showed that feminine categories that differ from the traditional roles of women, such as those of the businesswoman and the female athlete, contain both masculine and feminine attributes in their descriptions. Despite all of the social and cultural changes that have occurred in the last decades, the ideological determination that establishes this asymmetry between gender roles seems

Paidéia, 26(63), 7-14

to persist (Buchanan, 2014; Matias, Andrade, & Fontaine, 2011). In fact, as several studies have reported, the changes in representations of gender roles are more noticeable in the public domain, for example, in paid employment, than in the private domain, where the division of household chores and childcare still grants the feminine gender role a special emphasis on homemaking (Andrade & Bould, 2012; Andrade & Fontaine, 2007; Carothers & Reis, 2012; Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Matias et al., 2012; Oliveira, Fischer, Teixeira, Sá, & Gomes, 2010). As stated by Amâncio (1994), “the enlargement of gender roles in the social context does not entail that a change in one of the domains, in this case the public domain, necessarily implies a generalized change on the behavioral level or on the subjective level” (p. 72). Therefore, gender role differentiation reflects a separation between the public and private domains within the family and in professional life (Amâncio, 1994; Andrade & Fontaine, 2011; Matias et al., 2012). Socialization Contexts and the Social Construction of Gender Roles The change in family roles and social movements in favor of equality introduced new concepts such as a more just distribution of and access to different social roles. These changes raised the need for reflection on gender roles, especially for members of the younger generations. Therefore, although men still frequently believe that household work and childcare are primarily tasks for which women are responsible, i.e., that correspond to a feminine gender role, the truth is that studies indicate that members of younger generations truly desire and believe that it is important to build a family in which professional and family roles are shared (Andrade, 2010, 2013; Andrade & Fontaine, 2012). These apparently contradictory perspectives could have their origins in socialization processes that are generationally differentiated. Gender socialization theories that refer to the development of masculinity and femininity emphasize not only the influence of family models but also the importance of each individual’s life experience in context. Some aspects should be noted when analyzing the influence of family models. In fact, some researchers state that in any generation, women are always less traditional in relation to gender roles than men are (Scott, Alwin, & Braun, 1996). Remarkable differences emerge when the generations of parents and children are compared; the children, regardless of their gender, are less traditional than the parents (Andrade, 2010; Scott et al., 1996). Some researchers explain this reality using the fact that parents frequently socialize their children with attitudes that differ from their own, which impedes the linear intergenerational transfer of attitudes toward certain roles (Acock & Demo, 1994; Andrade & Fontaine, 2012). In fact, some studies have not found proof of the intergenerational transfer of attitudes to the gender roles of children (of both genders) and of mothers who practice a professional activity and who are housewives, with the housewives considered more traditional in relation to gender roles. In these studies, children of both genders always

exhibited more egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles than mothers did (Andrade, 2012). Therefore, there seems to be an influence from other socialization agents, particularly those that occur in peer, school, and sibling contexts, to cite some examples of contexts that exert socializing influences that are often difficult to evaluate empirically (Acock & Demo, 1994). Additionally, social constraints might make it difficult, in a certain way, to implement behaviors that reflect more egalitarian attitudes toward gender and to justify the differences found between attitudes and behaviors. Therefore, in the family domain and their professional roles, the women who presented egalitarian attitudes toward gender had families that behaved in non-egalitarian manners and in which men participated little in family roles (Deutsch, 1999). In addition, families with double-employment that exhibited egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles tended to practice a traditional division of family and professional roles in their daily lives (Davis & Wills, 2010). Some families with traditional attitudes toward gender roles shared some tasks, particularly those relating to childcare (Deutsch, 1999). Furthermore, in families with high educational levels associated with high economic levels, there was a tendency for household chores to be performed not by either parent but by another person (i.e., a housekeeper). In general, previous studies indicate that there are several sources of socialization and social models that influence the formation of attitudes toward gender roles. Because of the number of aspects of the formation of attitudes toward gender roles, which focus particularly on the domains of attitudes relating to gender roles in family and professional environments, their variations with the context, and the absence of tools adapted to the Portuguese context, it is important to adapt an instrument that is capable of evaluating the attitudes of young adults toward gender roles. In addition, an exploratory study using the instrument was conducted with two groups, one of parents and another of their adult children, to evaluate the extent to which the instrument makes it possible to uniquely examine the attitudes of different generations toward gender roles while taking each subject’s gender into account. The choice of two sample groups from different generations was based on results obtained in other studies, which have frequently found that younger individuals with higher educational levels present egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles (Leaper & Valin, 1996). These results are reinforced when parents and children are compared; the children are less traditional than their parents regardless of their gender (Scott et al., 1996). In addition, some researchers support the fact that younger generations are exposed to progressively more egalitarian social contexts, particularly peer contexts, as well as school and professional contexts, which all exert socializing influences that favor the development of more egalitarian attitudes in younger generations than in their progenitors’ generations (Acock & Demo, 1994). Therefore, we suppose, on an exploratory basis, that children present more egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles due to socialization in more egalitarian contexts and that their parents present more traditional attitudes in this domain.

Andrade, C. (2016). Attitudes Toward Gender Roles.

Method - Study 1 Participants In the present study, two samples were used (a sample for the exploratory factor study and a sample for the confirmatory factor study); both consisted of college students and young professionals with college degrees. The participants in the first group consisted of 385 college students and young professionals (a calibration sample) who were between 18 and 25 years old. The average age was 21.05 years old and the standard deviation was 3.45 years. Of the subjects, 68% were female and 32% were male. The college students lived with their parents more frequently than the young professionals; the rates were 73% and 62%, respectively. The remaining participants lived with either friends or colleagues, 27% of whom were students and 36% of whom were young graduates; only 2% of the young graduates lived with a partner, boyfriend, or girlfriend. Of the students, only 8% claimed to work parttime, and the remaining students were considered full-time workers. Of the young professionals, 55% claimed to work full-time, and the remainder claimed to perform at least one part-time professional activity (34%) or a professional activity concurrently with graduate studies (11%). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the scale (using the calibration sample) was conducted with 361 college students who were between 18 and 35 years old with an average age of 21.47 years old and a standard deviation of 2.59 years. Of the subjects in this sample, 56% were female subjects and 44% were male. In this sample, 25% of the students and 40% of the young professionals lived with a friend, colleague, or spouse, and only 5% of the graduate students lived with a partner, boyfriend or girlfriend. Of the participants living with their parents, 75% were students and 55% were young professionals. Only 2% of the students claimed to work part-time, the remainder were considered full-time workers. Of the young professionals, 60% claimed to work full-time, and the remainder claimed to perform at least one part-time professional activity (35%) or a professional activity concurrently with graduate studies (5%). Regarding parenthood, 2% of the students and 3% of the young professionals were parents, and all of them had only one child who was between 9 months and 6 years old. Instrument Attitudes toward Gender Scale - ATGS (Leaper & Vallin, 1996). In its original version, this is a scale of attitudes toward gender that consists of 28 items. It was constructed based on a review and update of different psychological evaluation instruments aimed at measuring attitudes toward gender and gender roles. The objective of this instrument is to evaluate the attitudes towards equal rights and the roles of men and women in the context of gender roles. The responses are evaluated using a Likert-type scale and scored from 1 to 4; the higher the global score obtained is, the more positive the respondent’s attitude toward gender role equality is. In the scale’s original version, the values representing the internal consistency obtained by the researchers during the studies

conducted using this instrument varied from .74 to .91. Adaptation and validation of the Attitudes toward Gender Scale (ATGS), which is called the Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale (Escala de Atitudes Relativas aos Papéis de Género) in its Portuguese version, was performed in structured stages. The first phase of the instrument’s adaptation consisted of the translation and retroversion of each item from English into Portuguese and from Portuguese into English, respectively, to verify the quality and reliability of the translation of all 23 of the items that constitute the scale. After this phase, the scale was reflected on orally by a group of 20 adults ranging from 18 to 59 years in age of both genders who were single or married, who had or did not have children, and who had reached different levels of education. The objectives of this reflection were to evaluate the general suitability of the items to the Portuguese socio-cultural context and to test its clarity and the suitability of the answer alternatives. The oral reflection stage did not lead to any changes in the Portuguese items’ formulations because they were considered clearly formulated, and no issues relating to understanding or responding using the proposed alternatives were raised. The objective of the second stage was to evaluate the discrimination capacity of the items. For this purpose, the low discriminatory power of a question was considered verified when over 70% of the responses were concentrated on either the positive or the negative options (Completely Agree and Agree or Disagree and Completely Disagree; Marôco, 2010). Because no items meeting these criteria were found, there was no need to eliminate items in this phase of the analysis. Procedure Data collection. The scale was administered to groups in classrooms at institutions of higher education. To administer the questionnaire to individual young professionals, training institutions and companies in the same regions were contacted. Data analysis. The database was constructed using PASW Statistics 10.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). The factorial validation was performed using a CFA Amos (v. 7, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). The parameters were estimated from the correlation matrix using the maximum likelihood method. The normality of the variables was verified using the coefficients of asymmetry (sk) and kurtosis (ku); |Sk| > 3 indicated severe asymmetry, |Ku| > 10 indicated severe kurtosis, and |Ku| > 20 indicated very severe kurtosis (Kline, 2011). The global adjustment of the model was evaluated using the following indexes and reference values to identify an acceptable adjustment (Kline, 2011): χ2/g.l. < 5; Bentler comparative fit index (CFI) > .90, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) < .08, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) < .08 (Kline, 2011). The internal consistency of the factors was determined by calculating Cronbach’s alpha. Ethical Considerations The data collection process was preceded by acknowledgements of free and informed consent. The participants received an explanation of the voluntary

Paidéia, 26(63), 7-14

nature of their participation and the study proposal, and the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses were ensured. After receiving permission from their higher education institutions, the study’s researcher and three research assistants, two of whom were female psychologists and one of whom was a male psychologist, administered the questionnaire together during the available timeframe.

Results The Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale consists of 23 items and is considered multifactorial by its authors. The evaluation of the psychometric qualities of the instrument was initiated by an exploratory factor analysis that, after a varimax rotation, demonstrated a solution in two factors that

were saturated by the following items: Factor 1 (items 2, 3, 23, 1, 21, 17, 7, 6, 4, 18, 19, 15, 25, 13, and 9) and Factor 2 (items 20, 10, 22, 8, 12, 24, 16, and 19). One of these items presented a saturation that was lower than .30, which led to its exclusion from the final version of the instrument. As shown in Table 1, the items that constitute Factor 1 reflect an attitude of appreciation of the traditional division of gender roles, which involves asymmetric participation of men and women in different social roles. The items that constitute Factor 2, in turn, reflect an attitude of appreciation of the egalitarian division of gender roles. These two factors, as a whole, explain 31% of the total variance; Factor 1 explains 16% of the variance, and Factor 2 explains 15% of it. Each factor’s internal consistency was determined by calculating Cronbach’s alpha, which was .80 for Factor 1 and .77 for Factor 2. As a second step, the instrument’s factorial structure was

Table 1 Factor Analysis in Main Components After a Varimax Rotation Items in the P.A.T.G.S. 2. The man should have the main responsibility for the family’s economic support. 3. The use of profane language is worse for a girl than for a boy. 23. Women should worry more about their clothing and appearance than men should. 1. It is more appropriate for a woman to be a babysitter or a child educator than it is for a man to fill these roles. 21. It is harder for a woman to find a job than it is for a man to find a job. 17. Some jobs are not suitable for women. 7. The man should pay the bill when he is on a date with a woman. 6. Only men should be allowed to participate in military combat. 4. Women are very easily offended by certain jokes. 18. Girls should have more boundaries when going out than boys should. 19. In the workforce, women are taking jobs away from men who need them more. 15. It is wrong for boys to play with dolls. 25. When both parents are employed and their child gets sick at school, the mother must be called first, and only later is the father called. 13. It should be equally acceptable for a woman and for a man to stay at home to take care of the children while the other spouse works. 9. It should be equally acceptable for girls and boys to practice rough sports such as roller hockey and soccer. 20. When men are courteous to women (such as when they open a door), it is a sign that men are superior to women. 10. It is acceptable when the woman takes the initiative to start a romantic relationship with a man. 22. Men and women should be able to make choices about their lives without being restricted by their sex. 8. Sexual harassment in the workplace is a serious issue. 12. Discrimination against women in the workforce is no longer an issue. 24. Crying in front of other people is equally acceptable for men and women. 16. The woman needs to be careful to not appear more intelligent than the man when they are dating. 19. In the workforce, women are taking jobs away from men who need them more. % of the total variance Eigenvalue

Factor 1

Factor 2

.64 .64 .63

-.26 -.17 -.10

.49 .44 .42

.62

-.15

.41

.57 .54 .53 .49 .48 .47 .45 .43

-.14 -.37 -.15 -.23 .33 .03 .14 .21

.34 .33 .30 .30 .34 .42 .39 .32

.34

.23

.31

-.32

.01

.21

-.32

.21

.32

-.35

.56

.44

-.09

.45

.28

-.28

.51

.34

-.02 -.19 .22

.50 .31 .31

.25 .13 .33

-.19

-.31

.13

.22

.30

.33

16.0

15.0

3.764

Note. The values in boldface represent the highest factorial weight of the item in each factor.

established on the basis of a sample of Portuguese students (a calibration sample) using a CFA. This method is used when prior information on a factorial structure is available and must be confirmed and to verify whether certain latent

factors (sub-scales) are responsible for the behavior of certain specific manifested variables (items) according to a previously established standard (Marôco, 2010). The confirmatory analysis performed using another sample

Andrade, C. (2016). Attitudes Toward Gender Roles.

confirmed the universal belonging of the items found in the exploratory analysis of each of the factors. Only three of the items did not have saturated values with satisfactory factors; therefore, these items were removed, leaving 20 items in the final version of the scale. The model indicators of adjustment for Factor 1 were as follows: χ2/g.l. = 1.96, p = .000, GFI = .95, AGFI = .93, CFI = .94, and RMSEA = .05, and the indicators for Factor 2 were as follows: χ2/ g.l. = 1.85 p = .023, GFI = .98, AGFI = .96, CFI = .96, and RMSEA = .04. Therefore, the results were satisfactory for both factors. Then, a CFA was performed for the scale as a whole with the assumption that there was a negative relationship between the factors. Figure 1 shows the item saturation values for each factor on the global scale. The values of the model’s global adjustment, considering the scale as a whole, are χ2/g.l. = 2.25, p = .000, GFI = .92, AGFI = .89, CFI = .90, and RMSEA = .03, which are also very satisfactory. The internal consistency of the items, as determined item_2

item_3

item_1

item_18

e18

item_6

item_7

.63

item_19

e19

.54

item_15

e15

item_23

e23

item_17

e17

item_25

e25

item_13

e13

item_9

item_8

.36

item_22

e22

.61

item_24

e24

item_10

e10

item_12

e12

item_16

e16

item_20

e20

.61 .52 ..46 .59 50 .45

Tradicional Division of Gender Roles

.22

.17

.26

.49 .-59 -.65

-.40 -.67

In the present study, 101 families (each comprising a mother, a father, and a young adult child) participated. In 53 of these families, the descendant was a college student, and in 48 of these families, the descendant was a young professional with a college degree. Of the 101 young adults, 62.4% were female (n = 63) and 37.6% were male (n = 38). All of the young adult participants were single and living with their parents (however, some participants claimed that they spent some periods away from home due to work or school). All of the parents (fathers and mothers) performed professional activities. Most of the families had urban origins (73.1%) and claimed to belong to the middle class (68.3%). Regarding the parents’ academic qualifications, the predominant educational level was middle school/high school, which described 54.4% of the mothers and 40.5% of the fathers. The average age of the child was 23.93 years old, the average age of the mother was 51.4 years old, and the average age of the father was 54.6 years old.

.24

.54 .50

Participants

Study 2 involved preliminary studies using the instrument presented in study 1.

-.84

Egalitarian Division of Gender Roles

Method - Study 2

Instrument

.56 .32

by calculating Cronbach’s alpha, is .79 for Factor 1 and .68 for Factor 2. Although the second of these is not very high, it is near .70, which is considered sufficient for the purpose of comparing groups. All of the analyses of the instrument approve its acceptance as a reliable measuring tool for evaluating the attitudes of young adult students and individuals with college degrees toward gender roles.

-.34

Figure 1. Representation of the theoretical model with two correlated factors.

Procedure Data collection. In the context of the administration of the previously cited Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale, the young adult participants were asked to voluntarily provide contact information to enable the researchers to establish contact with their parents. The parents were contacted via telephone to ensure their voluntary participation in the study. The parents had access to the scale through their children or were contacted directly by the researchers at their homes. Although the research team had access to each family’s personal contact information, it was ensured that the data obtained would be used only for the purpose of the study. Data analysis. As a first contact and to verify the relevance of the factorial structure obtained from the young adult participants whose generational characteristics differed from their parents’, a confirmatory analysis of the scale’s structure was performed using the sample of parents. Once the scale’s relevance to this group was verified, to analyze

Paidéia, 26(63), 7-14

the extent to which the means of the four groups (parents, mothers, daughters, and sons) differed on each dimension of the scale, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used, and Scheffé post-hoc tests were used to compare pairs of means. Ethical Considerations The data collection process was preceded by acknowledgments of free and informed consent. The participants received an explanation of the voluntary nature of their participation and the study proposal, and the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses were ensured. After the participants agreed to participate in the study, the questionnaires were administered in the participant’s homes by three research assistants, two of whom were female psychologists and one of whom was a male psychologist.

Results The confirmatory analysis of the structure of the scale using the sample of parents resulted in the following satisfactory adjustment indicators of the model: χ2/g.l. = 2.13, p = .000, GFI = .86, AGFI = .91, CFI = .85, and RMSEA = .06. Once the scale’s relevance to this group had been verified, to analyze the extent to which means of the four groups (parents, mothers, daughters, and sons) differed in to each dimension of the scale, an ANOVA was used, and Scheffé post-hoc tests were used to compare pairs of means. Table 2 shows the mean value and standard deviation of each variable for each group. As shown in Table 3, in general, the differences in the means for the parents and the children are significant for both of these factors.

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations of the Variables for Both Groups (Children and Parents) Based on Sex Children

Parents

Men M (SD)

Women M (SD)

Men M (SD)

Women M (SD)

Traditional Division of Gender Roles

37.86 (4.15)

32.08 (4.23)

33.14 (6.04)

33.67 (6.46)

Egalitarian Division of Gender Roles

16.23 (2.58)

16.73 (2.39)

13.77 (2.36)

13.50 (2.58)

Table 3 Analysis of the Variance of the Scales for the Groups (Mothers, Fathers, Daughters and Sons) g.l.

Scheffé

Traditional Division of Gender Roles

5.678

.000

G3, G4 > G1 > G2

Egalitarian Division of Gender Roles Note. G1 = Sons, G2 = Daughters, G3 = Fathers, G4 = Mothers.

2.645

.000

G2 >, G1 > G3, G4

In the traditional division of gender roles, F(3, 298) = 5.67; p = .000, fathers and mothers do not differ from each other. However, they differ from daughters and sons, who also differ from each other: daughters present lower values than sons and parents (fathers and mothers) for this variable. In addition, in terms of the egalitarian division of gender roles, F(3, 298) = 2.64; p = .000, sons and daughters differ from each other: daughters are more egalitarian than sons, and both daughters and sons differ significantly from parents (fathers and mothers), who do not differ from each other.

Discussion Some aspects of a social and cultural nature persist and justify the presence of attitudes toward gender roles that do not appear as egalitarian as is desirable. However, it seems as if the increasing awareness of this theme and the experience of increasingly more egalitarian social and professional contexts might have contributed to the integration of the concept of gender equality among members of the younger generations. The results obtained in the present study corroborate longitudinal studies that concluded that, in the last 20 years,

members of younger generations, especially those with college degrees, have progressively shared a more egalitarian understanding of gender roles (Loo & Thorpe, 1998). In fact, the results highlight gender differences in attitudes toward gender roles in the children’s generation that do not occur in the parents’ generation; mothers and fathers do not differ from each other but daughters and sons differ significantly (girls are more egalitarian than boys). Therefore, it appears that social changes that focus on, among other factors, the achievement of autonomy by women due to increasing opportunities for training and inclusion in the workforce are not accompanied by corresponding claims of men on the intrafamily level. To some extent, it appears that these changes limit specific achievements and do not represent a change in gender relationships, which have remained very traditional, especially in the intra-family domain. In young adults, the presence of more egalitarian attitudes in daughters than in sons was also observed. These results are aligned with the results of several other researchers: young males present less egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles than young females do (Andrade, 2013; Covin & Brush, 1991). Therefore, it is possible to state that in the context of gender relationships,

Andrade, C. (2016). Attitudes Toward Gender Roles.

role representations and practices on the household level seem to reveal a strong tradition in the parents’ generation. In addition, it is important to note that the social advances that reflect the presence of egalitarian attitudes toward gender roles also present gender specifications for the younger generation. This is most likely because girls feel more penalized by traditional attitudes in this domain. On the whole, these assumptions ensure that the results of this study not only confirm results that have been found in several other studies but also highlight the importance of social contexts that call for egalitarian values in relation to gender roles and that influence younger generations. In the present study, in the context of study 1, the first results concerning the factorial structure, internal consistency, and sensitivity of the Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale were presented. The exploratory factor analysis highlighted the existence of two factors that lead to two theoretical dimensions of role conciliation strategies, the traditional division of gender roles and the egalitarian division of gender roles. This factorial structure was subsequently confirmed by the confirmatory analyses conducted for the young adult group and the parent group. Nevertheless, the present study has some limitations that should be highlighted to assist further studies on this subject. The fact that we have focused exclusively on exploratory and confirmatory analyses involving young adult students or young adult professionals with college degrees raises the issue that these participants could have been exposed to more or less homogeneous contexts due to their educational levels. This restricts the relevance of the instrument in contexts in which the participants’ educational levels might be different. In all circumstances, the present study of adapting and validating the Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale should be understood as a preliminary study. Future studies must contemplate an improvement of this scale by aiming at an analysis of the accuracy of the items and dimensions in other socio-demographic contexts.

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Andrade, C., & Bould, S. (2012). Child-care burden and intentions to have a second child: Effects of perceived justice in the division of child-care. International Review of Sociology, 22(1), 25-37. doi:10.1080/03906701.2012. 657527 Andrade, C., & Fontaine, A. M. (2007). Rôles familiaux et professionnels: Attitudes et stratégies de conciliation. Ce qui se transmet [Family and work roles: Attitudes and reconciliation strategies. What is passed along]. Revue Internationale de l’Éducation Familiale, 22(2), 67-85. doi:10.3917/rief.022.0067 Buchanan, T. (2014). The influence of gender role attitudes on perceptions of women’s work performance and the importance of fair pay. Sociological Spectrum: MidSouth Sociological Association, 34(3), 203-221. doi:10.1 080/02732173.2014.895637 Carothers, B. J., & Reis, H. T. (2012). Men and women are from Earth: Examining the latent structure of gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(2), 385-407. doi:10.1037/a0030437 Cech, E. A., & Blair-Loy, M. (2010). Perceiving glass ceilings? Meritocratic versus structural explanations of gender inequality among women in science and technology. Social Problems, 57(3), 371-397. doi:10.125/ sp.2010.57.3.371 Covin, T. J., & Brush, C. C. (1991). An examination of male and female attitudes towards career and family issues. Sex Roles, 25(7-8), 393-415. doi:10.1007/BF00292530 Davis, S. N., & Wills, J. B. (2010). Adolescent gender ideology socialization: Direct and moderating effects of fathers’ beliefs. Sociological Spectrum, 30(5), 580-604. doi:10.108 0/02732173.2010.496106 Deaux, K., & Kite, M. E. (1985). Gender stereotypes: Some thoughts on the cognitive organization of gender-related information. Academic Psychology Bulletin, 7(2), 123-144. Deutsch, F. M. (1999). Having it all: How equally shared parenting works. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Halpern, D. F. (2012). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford. Leaper, C., & Valin, D. (1996). Predictors of Mexican American mothers’ and fathers’ attitudes toward gender equality. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(3), 343-355. doi:10.1177/07399863960183005 Loo, R., & Thorpe, K. (1998). Attitudes toward women’s roles in society: A replication after 20 years. Sex Roles, 39(11-12), 903-912. Marôco, J. (2010). Análise de equações estruturais: Fundamentos teóricos, software & aplicações [Analysis of structural equations: Theoretical foundations, software & applications]. Pêro Pinheiro, Portugal: Report Number. Matias, M., Andrade, C., & Fontaine, A. M. (2011). Diferenças de género no conflito trabalho-família: Um estudo com famílias portuguesas de duplo-emprego

Paidéia, 26(63), 7-14

com filhos em idade pré-escolar [Gender differences in work-family conflict: A study of Portuguese dual-earner families with young children]. Psicologia: Revista da Associação Portuguesa de Psicologia, 25(1), 9-32. Matias, M., Andrade, C., & Fontaine, A. M. (2012). The interplay of gender, work and family in Portuguese families. Work, Organisation, Labour & Globalisation, 6(1), 11-26. Oliveira, D. C., Fischer, F. M., Teixeira, M. C. T. V., Sá, C. P., & Gomes, A. M. T. (2010). Representações sociais do trabalho: Uma análise comparativa entre jovens trabalhadores e não trabalhadores [Social representations of work: A comparative analysis of young workers and the young unemployed]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 15(3), 763-773. doi:10.1590/S1413-81232010000300019 Scott, J., Alwin, D. F., & Braun, M. (1996). Generational changes in gender-role attitudes: Britain in a crossnational perspective. Sociology, 30(3), 471-492.

doi:10.1177/0038038596030003004 Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In M. Zanna & J. Olson (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55-123). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Claudia Andrade is an Adjunct Professor at Escola Superior de Educação de Coimbra, Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, Portugal. She is also a member of the Centro de Psicologia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal. Received: Nov. 26, 2014 1st Revision: Apr. 10, 2015 2nd Revision: Apr. 24, 2015 Approved: May 12, 2015

How to cite this article: Andrade, C. (2016). Adaptation and factorial validation of the Attitudes toward Gender Roles Scale. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 7-14. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201602

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 15-23. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201603

Article

Family Integrity Among Older Caregivers of Relatives With Dementia1 Sara Guerra Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Daniela Figueiredo Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Marta Patrão Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Liliana Sousa2 Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

Abstract: The construct of family integrity denotes that older persons’ attainment of ego integrity is linked to family relationships. Family integrity is the positive outcome (overall satisfaction with life); disconnection (dissatisfaction) and alienation (estrangement) are the negative outcomes. This study focuses on elderly people who are primary caregivers of relatives with dementia, and examines their experience of events related to that role, which are perceived as being of influence on their sense of family integrity. The sample included 26 participants. Open-ended interviews were conducted. The interview transcripts were submitted to content analysis. The main findings suggest that caregivers who experience family integrity tend to embrace the new life demand associated with the caregiving role, while those tending towards disconnection struggle to maintain their pre-existing goals, and those experiencing alienation tend to feel helpless. Caring for a relative with dementia has an impact on multiple aspects of family life. Keywords: adult development, dementia, caregivers, family relations

Integridade Familiar em Pessoas Idosas Cuidadores de Familiares com Demência Resumo: O construto integridade familiar significa que o processo de construção da integridade do ego em pessoas idosas está associado às relações familiares. A integridade familiar (satisfação com a vida e relações familiares) é o resultado positivo; desconexão (insatisfação) e alienação (afastamento) constituem resultados negativos. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar pessoas idosas, cuidadores primários de familiares com demência, examinando a sua experiência de eventos relacionados com esse papel, percebidos como influenciando o seu sentido de integridade familiar. A amostra compreendeu 26 participantes idosos, cuidadores de familiares com demência. Foram realizadas entrevistas abertas com roteiro semiestruturado. As transcrições das entrevistas foram submetidas a análise de conteúdo. Os principais resultados sugerem que os cuidadores no caminho da integridade familiar reveem os seus projetos de vida anteriores, enquanto aqueles em desconexão lutam para manter os projetos anteriores e aqueles na via de alienação tendem a abandonar os projetos. Cuidar de um familiar com demência apresenta múltiplos impactos na vida familiar. Palavras-chave: desenvolvimento do adulto, demência, cuidadores, relações familiares

Integridad Familiar en Cuidadores Ancianos de Familiares con Demencia Resumen: El constructo de la integridad familiar indica que la construcción de la integridad del yo en ancianos está vinculada a las relaciones familiares. La integridad familiar (satisfacción con la vida y las relaciones familiares) es positivo; desconexión (insatisfacción) y la alienación (sensación de lejanía) son negativos. Este estudio centra ancianos cuidadores primarios de familiares con demencia, y examina su experiencia de acontecimientos relacionados con esa función, percibido como influido la construcción de integridad familiar. La muestra consta de 26 participantes. Entrevistas abiertas con rutero semiestructurado se realizaron. Las transcripciones fueran sometidas a análisis de contenido. Los principales resultados indican que los cuidadores en integridad hacen la revisión de proyectos de vida; aquellos en desconexión luchan para mantener los proyectos anteriores; y aquellos en alienación tienden a abandonar los proyectos de vida. El cuidado de un familiar con demencia es una tarea compleja, con múltiples impactos que necesitan más atención. Palabras clave: desarrollo del adulto, demencia, cuidadores, relaciones familiares

Key themes in gerontological research have been related to older people’s health status (e.g., functional dependency, cognitive decline or impairment), and the role

1 Paper taken from the first author’s doctoral dissertation under the fourth author’ supervision and the second author’ co-supervision, and the collaboration of the third author; the dissertation was defended in 2012, in the Doctoral Program of Gerontology and Geriatrics at the Universidade de Aveiro in collaboration with the Universidade do Porto. Support: Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Scholarship - SFRH/ BD/38109/2007).

Correspondence address: Liliana Sousa. Departamento de Educação, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193. Aveiro, Portugal. E-mail: lilianax@ua.pt 2

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

that families play, particularly in terms of family caregiving of dependent elderly family members (Sousa, 2009). The construct of family integrity (King & Wynne, 2004) offers a framework when examining the lives of older people and their family relationships, from a developmental perspective. This approach posits that the process involved in attaining ego

integrity is inextricably bound up with the broader processes of constructing meaning and relational development at the family level. As such, the process of developing a sense of ego integrity is an individual, subjective experience that takes place within the context of family relationships, which, in turn, affects perceptions of family integrity. Considerable variation exists in the extend to which older people are able to achieve a sense of family integrity (King & Wynne, 2004;

Paidéia, 26(63), 15-23

Marques & Sousa, 2012; Nadeau, 2001). Family integrity refers to a positive outcome of this process, characterized by an overall sense of peace and satisfaction with life and family relations experienced by the older person; in contrast, family disconnection (overall dissatisfaction with life) and alienation (sense of estrangement) constitute negative outcomes. However, family integrity needs to be understood within the context of the growing diversity of family structure and relationships. As such, family should be defined as the group of persons linked by feelings of trust, mutual support, and a common destiny (World Health Organization [WHO], 1994). The literature on family caregiving shows that older people are often caregivers of other dependent older people (Barbosa, Figueiredo, Sousa, & Demain, 2011). In this study, the authors focus on older caregivers of relatives with dementia, which is an increasingly common situation (Barbosa et al., 2011). Until recently, studies that addressed the process of providing care for older persons mostly focused on possible negative consequences of this care. Although recent studies also address positive outcomes, these studies do not include the process of building integrity, which has been identified as a crucial life task in old age (Erikson, 1950; King & Wynne, 2004; Lane, Podgorski, Noronha, & King, 2012). It has been widely recognized that caring for a family member with dementia is one of the most stressful caregiving experiences, due to the patient’s cognitive and behavioral difficulties. Therefore, it is particularly relevant to understand how older caregivers of relatives with dementia deal with the process of building their sense of family integrity versus disconnection and alienation. The Task of Building Family Integrity When Caring for a Relative With Dementia Caring for a person with dementia is considerably different from caring for a dependent person whose cognition is intact and who can co-operate (Boss, 2011; Pinto & Barham, 2014). Family caregivers who reside with relatives with dementia are required to provide around the clock supervision; they also need to adapt to the care recipient’s personality changes and communicational difficulties. Performing this task requires special knowledge, skills and strong motivation. Caregivers of people with dementia face, on average, three to fifteen years of exposure to stressful physical and psychosocial demands, which may lead to psychosocial distress and risky health behaviors on their part (Vitaliano, Zhang, & Scanlan, 2003). Despite these negative aspects, usually described in terms of burden, stress and poor physical and mental health, many caregivers choose to provide this care until the end of the care recipient’s life. Recent studies (Ducharme et al., 2011; Lane et al., 2012) have highlighted positive outcomes or rewards derived from the caregiving experience, which include a sense of satisfaction, achievement and pride in the caregiving role; increased sense of mastery; sense of purpose and meaning in life; improvements in family relationships among those involved in the caregiving process (caregivers, care-receivers and significant others).

Thus, it seems that those who define the caregiving role as a positive experience (finding meaning, despite the stress and burden associated) are able to derive personal growth from this role (Ducharme et al., 2011). The concept of psychological integrity involves reconciling “the good” and “the bad” aspects of each situation. Integrity is of central importance to human wellbeing and results from the emotional integration of contrasting (i.e., positive and negative) aspects of the self. Integrity also involves achieving harmonious interactions with others in social contexts, especially in a multigenerational family context (Williamson, 1991). Achieving a sense of family integrity is a developmental task for older people, influenced by factors within the family system (King & Wynne, 2004). The construction of ego integrity (Erikson, 1950), has been associated with the more general process of relational development, in which older people strive to establish bonds within their multi-generational family context. Erikson (1950) proposed an epigenetic model of human development comprising stages that each requires the resolution of dialectical tensions between two opposing dispositions. Ego integrity, in contrast with despair, stems from coming to terms with the realities of older age, and using this period to conduct a life review to integrate and make sense of past events; this process often involves interaction with family members (Marques & Sousa, 2012). King and Wynne (2004) suggest that an older adult’s efforts to achieve ego integrity are inextricably bound to a larger process that involves meaning construction (Nadeau, 2001) and relational development at the family level. Family integrity is the positive outcome of older adults’ developmental striving to find meaning in their lives, characterized by overall satisfaction with life and with family relationships; these relationships are characterized by union and continuity within the family context (King & Wynne, 2004). However, this process may also take on a negative direction, putting the older person at risk of either: (a) family disconnection, characterized by the overall dissatisfaction with life, infrequent contact, and a lack of meaningful communication between family members, resulting in a prevailing sense of isolation; or (b) alienation, when the level of disconnection is greater and stems from a lack of common values and family identity, such that a sense of isolation may lead to feelings of estrangement. The older person’s ability to achieve family integrity depends on three functions of the family system (King & Wynne, 2004). The first involves the transformation of relationships, as a reflection of ever changing lifecycle needs, and depends on mutuality and filial maturity. Mutuality (Wynne, 1984) is the ability to maintain a long-term commitment to family relationships and to reconstruct these in the face of lifecycle transitions. It is attained when prior basic relational functions (attachment or caregiving, communication, and shared problem-solving) have permitted the development of a positive relational foundation. Filial maturity, which derives from intergenerational mutuality, is attained when adult offspring develop the capacity to offer caring support to their aging parents, and the aging parents, in a

Guerra, S., Figueiredo, D., Patrão, M., & Sousa, L. (2016). Family Integrity and Older Caregivers.

reciprocal manner, become more able and willing to accept input from their children (King & Wynne, 2004). This transformation depends on the family’s ability to renegotiate intergenerational power hierarchies and to develop adult-toadult relationships between the older parents and their mature children (Williamson, 1991). However, this transformation can be difficult when an older family member suffers from dementia. Caring for a relative with dementia has been found to increase the risk of conflictual family relationships (Figueiredo, 2009) as a result of disagreements among family members regarding severity of the disease, diverging opinions about the best way to care for the patient, lack of involvement in the caregiving role, and distancing in the relationship between the caregiver and other family members, as caregiving is a full-time occupation. Depending on how these difficulties are managed, caregiving can also lead to closer, stronger relationships among family members (Ducharme et al., 2011; Lane et al., 2012). The second function of the family system is the resolution or acceptance of past losses, disappointments or conflicts. This resolution becomes urgent when people face death (either their own or that of significant others) and demands that family members address old grievances, past cut-offs or losses that have gone unmourned, so that current family problems or crises (illness, financial difficulties) can be handled. This requires communication and the willingness and strength to confront emotionally charged issues (King & Wynne, 2004; Walsh, 2012). Crucial to the integration of family experiences is the ability to grieve and to eventually let go of those attachments that cannot be restored. This family function conveys the ability of the older and younger family members to confront and ‘‘work through” losses or relational conflicts, whether past or present. This resolution or acceptance of loss may not be possible to achieve with a family member who has dementia. Dementia entails the gradual loss of functioning, along with financial and psychosocial dilemmas for families, which make the process of acceptance more difficult (the “long goodbye” as stated by Walsh, 2012). Dementia has been described as an “ambiguous loss” (Boss, 2011), as the family loses the capacity to work out emotional issues with the person with dementia, despite the fact that he or she is physically present, confusing the caring and mourning processes. The third function is the creation of meaning and legacy, which is a process that benefits both the older family members, by maintaining their sense of purpose in the family, and the younger generations, who inherit a family legacy that in time will provide a model for their own aging process (Sousa, Silva, Santos, & Patrão, 2010). This is accomplished through family storytelling, the passing on of shared interests, of life themes, and of values, through involvement in shared family activities and rituals. The creation of legacy and meaning can probably also be developed through caregiving, which has been described as being motivated by family values, such as repaying past kindness, fulfilling a sense of duty and responsibility, expression of love, maintaining the dignity of the cared-for person, and a family tradition (King & Wynne, 2004; Sousa, Silva, Marques, & Santos, 2009).

Based in these considerations, the objective of this qualitative, exploratory study was to examine the perceptions of family integrity among older people who are primary caregivers of relatives with dementia. It examines their subjective experience of events related to their role of caregiver that are perceived as influencing their construction of family integrity (versus disconnection and alienation). The study is relevant at a theoretical as well as an intervention level, as it advances knowledge regarding the processes associated with the construction of family integrity by focusing on the specific experience of family dementia caregiving.

Method Participants The sample consisted of 26 primary caregivers of relatives with dementia (16 women, 10 men) (Table 1). Although the majority of participants had some years of schooling, seven participants were illiterate. All caregivers cohabited with the care recipients and the majority of the participants were spouses, who cared for their wife or husband, at home. All participants were retired and 13 caregivers had been providing care for more than five years. Table 1 Caregivers of People With Characterization (N = 26)

Dementia:

Characteristic

Socio-Demographic N

Gender Female Mean age in years

16 74.11±7.4

Marital status Married

Divorced

Widowed

Education No schooling

4 to 6 years of schooling

Higher education

Kinship with the person with dementia Spouse

Children

Siblings

Mother-in-law

Length of time as a caregiver 1 to 2 years

3 to 5 years

More than 5 years

Paidéia, 26(63), 15-23

Instrument

Procedure

Socio-demographic data were obtained during the interview (gender, age, marital status, household composition, educational level, kinship with the person with dementia, and length of time as a caregiver). An open-ended interview following a semi-structured script based on King and Wynne (2004) and Sousa et al. (2009) (Table 2) was used. In this study, one question was added at the end of each domain, focusing on the possible influence of the caregiving role on the topics that were addressed.

Data collection. An exploratory, qualitative methodology was adopted. The directors of ten community services for older people were contacted, and informed about the purpose of the study. All the directors agreed to collaborate and appointed a practitioner who would mediate the contact with potential participants; the ten practitioners (female social workers) were contacted and informed about the nature of their collaboration, the objectives of the study, and the inclusion criteria for recruiting potential participants (≥ 65 years old; primary caregiver for a relative with dementia – by answering if the person takes primary responsibility for the person who she/he cares for, during a period of at least two years; living and caring in the community; and able to express opinions). The practitioners contacted people who were eligible to participate in the study to explain the objectives of the study, what would be expected of them, and ask them permission to give the researcher their phone number. For those who agreed, the researcher made initial contact by phone, reiterating information about the study and explaining the recruitment procedures. All participants who were contacted agreed to collaborate and, after they indicate their interest in participating, a date for the interview was scheduled. At their request the interviews took place at the caregivers’ homes. Informed consent agreements were signed before initiating the interviews, which lasted between 22 and 150 minutes. Data collection was concluded when the authors agreed that a saturation point (when information provided during interviews has been heard before, during prior interviews) had been reached (Mason, 2010). This point was determined in the following manner: the first author, who conducted and transcribed the interviews, asked the other three authors to read the interviews transcripts independently, and indicate whether they agreed that no new concepts were appearing in the final interviews. It should be noted that the saturation point depends largely on sample characteristics. The sample in this study was relatively homogenous; with a more heterogeneous sample of participants, the saturation point would probably be reached after conducting a greater number of interviews. Data analysis. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and submitted to content analysis, with family integrity constituting the conceptual framework (King & Wynne, 2004; Sousa et al., 2009). First, two independent coders classified each participant in terms of the trajectory of his or her family relationships (family integrity, disconnection or alienation), starting with an analysis of his or her response to the question, “Do you feel satisfied or at peace with your life and family relationships?” After this initial classification, each coder independently read the interviews to confirm or modify this decision. Next, the researchers met to compare and discuss their proposed classifications, until agreement was reached about how to classify the family relationship trajectory of each participant. It should be emphasized that a person classified as being on one of these trajectories may not present all the features of that route, as this is an ongoing, constructive process in which some issues may already have been solved and others may still be in

Table 2 Family Integrity: Interview Script Domain

Questions

1. Family integrity (general)

Do you feel satisfied or at peace with your overall life and family relationships? What aspects of your family life are most/least satisfying? How do you deal with those aspects (negatives and positives)? What are your goals for the future in terms of your family and personal life? Although you may or may not see family members as much as you would like, do you feel close or connected to members of your family? If possible, tell me about one or two of your closer relationships.

2. Resolution of conflicts/losses

Do you have regrets about any of your family relationships? Do you have a sense of “unfinished business” with any of your family members? If so, have you tried to address this issue? How (if at all)? Are there any issues or problems that you wish to discuss with someone in the family? If so, what do you think could help you to accept or solve those issues?

3. Creation of meaning and legacy

What aspects of family tradition and material inheritances have you passed on to younger family members? What would you still like to share or pass on to others (material and/or symbolic)? Do you feel that you have a meaningful and respected place in your family? How will you be remembered by family members after you are gone? How would you like to be remembered? Are there still things you would like to do or say to influence your family’s memories of you?

4. Transformation of relationships

How have your relationships with family members changed as you’ve gotten older? Do you think that your relationship with family members will change? If so, how? Are there family members whom you can count on for help or support if you need it? Is it hard for you to ask family members for help or support? Are there family members who count on you for help or support? Is it hard for others to ask you for help or support?

Note. At the end of each domain: “Is there any event associated with caregiving that you think has influenced (positively or negatively) any of these aspects? If so, how?”

Guerra, S., Figueiredo, D., Patrão, M., & Sousa, L. (2016). Family Integrity and Older Caregivers.

process (Sousa et al., 2009). Then, the analysis was undertaken to understand the participants’ subjective experiences of specific events related to the caregiving role that they perceived as influencing their sense of family integrity. To this purpose, a categorization system was developed that involved the definition of categories and sub-categories. This process of gradually creating, reviewing and refining the categorization system was performed by two independent coders. Initially, each coder

read the interviews and drew up a list of sub/categories, and then they met to compare ideas until they were able to agree on names and definitions for an integrated list (Table 3). The classification of the participants’ responses into these sub/ categories was carried out by the first author and reviewed by the second author until full agreement was reached.

Table 3 Categories: Events Reported as Influencing the Sense of Family Integrity of Older Caregivers Categories

Definition

Integrity (general) 1. Frequency of contacts

Caregiving affects the frequency of contacts or meetings between caregivers and their extended family.

1.1. Increase

The frequency of contacts with members of the extended family increases, mainly due to caregivers’ need for help in delivering support to the care receiver (e.g., transportation to medical appointments) which is provided mostly by adult children, but also by siblings.

1.2. Decrease

The frequency of contacts (visits) with the multi-generational family (mostly children) decreases because caregivers find it difficult to leave the care receivers by themselves and the extended family finds it difficult to deal with the dementia.

2. Difficulty in pursuing life projects

Caregivers feel that the demands of the caregiving role (full-time occupation) prevent them from achieving personal goals and plans for their later life (spending more time with grandchildren, visiting family members more often, visiting their country of origin or their birthplace, more time for leisure).

Transformation of family relationships 3. Decrease in caregivers’ reciprocity

Caregiving has a double consequence for caregivers: they ask for/need more help from family members (particularly children), and they receive fewer requests for help from family members, who note their lack of availability. Caregivers feel they do not (cannot) maintain reciprocal relationships with family members.

4. Emotional proximity

Caregivers feel that caring influences their emotional proximity to the family.

4.1. Increase

Caregivers’ emotional proximity to the family increases, because the caregiving task improves the family bond (belonging, sharing, understanding, and mutual help).

4.2. Decrease

Caregivers describe a decrease in their emotional proximity to the family (weakened sense of belonging), mainly because they feel that their family is not there for them.

5. Confrontation of loss and death

Providing care confronts the caregivers with the loss (it is no longer the same person) and the impending death of the care receiver (usually, a significant and close relationship); as a consequence the caregiver is confronted with his/her own death.

Resolution of past losses and conflicts 6. Solving family conflicts

Influence of caregiving on conflict or resentment resolution within the family.

6.1. Facilitate

Caregivers feel that the challenges, demands, and meanings of the illness and caregiving tasks facilitate family conflict resolution and generate feelings of cohesion and support, diminishing possible resentments.

6.2. Difficult

Caregivers consider that the illness and associated care needs make it more difficult to resolve family conflicts: the caregiver has fewer opportunities to visit the relatives with whom s/he has a conflict. Conflicts may even be exacerbated and resentments may arise, particularly when the caregiver feels misunderstood: s/he is spending money on care and the family does not understand (often associated with inheritance); the family does not understand the caregiver’s lack of time.

Creation of meaning and legacy 7. Family appreciation of caregiver’s role

The caregiver feels that the family appreciates his/her role and commitment to the relative with dementia. The caregiver feels proud and respected by the family.

8. Dissatisfaction with grandparents’ role

The caregiver experiences feelings of dissatisfaction and self-devaluation because s/he has no time to be with grandchildren and to pass on the symbolic legacy.

Paidéia, 26(63), 15-23

Ethical Considerations This particular kind of research does not require the approval of an ethics committee, in Portugal. Notwithstanding, the procedures used in this study adhered to the ethical guidelines of The Helsinki Declaration.

Results The classification of trajectories showed that almost two-thirds of participants were on the path towards family integrity (n = 17); the other third was evenly divided between disconnection (n = 5) and alienation (n = 4). The main experiences that were perceived as being of influence on caregivers’ construction of family integrity (versus disconnection and alienation) fell into three domains: general integrity (difficulty in achieving life projects; increase/ decrease in the frequency of family contacts); transformation of family relationships (decrease of caregiver’s reciprocity); and resolution of conflicts (difficulty in resolving family conflicts). The domain creation of meaning and legacy was not amongst the most cited, but two categories emerged within that domain: (a) family appreciation of the caregiver’s role, which seemed to imply that caring may be viewed as a legacy in and of itself; (b) dissatisfaction with the role of grandparents, revealing that the lack of contact with the younger generations was felt to restrict the possibilities of leaving a symbolic legacy (in order to guarantee symbolic continuity after death). Difficulty in Pursuing Life Projects Caregivers who experienced family integrity stated that caring for a relative with dementia compromised their ability to accomplish projects they had anticipated for this period of their lives. Yet, they felt that “it had to be”, accepting that caring resulted in less time for other activities, and they changed their plans in order to adapt to the caregiving situation. I would like to spend more time with my children, but that is impossible. So, I use the telephone to communicate with them; and we are very close, that’s what matters. (…) My life project at this time is to take care of my wife! (António, 81, husband) Caregivers who experienced family disconnection described the difficulty of achieving life projects due to factors such as: upheaval (feelings of grief, and injustice), resignation (dealing with demands “as they can” and not knowing where they find the strength to cope with such a challenging illness), giving up (no longer having life projects, a loss which they also attribute to their own older age), and projects focused on the past (e.g., solving family conflicts). Benilde (65, mother-in-law) stated, “I don’t have goals; not any longer!” Caregivers in situations characterized by family alienation related their inability to achieve their life projects to factors associated with their poor health status, which

were amplified by the caregiving demands. Filipe (83, husband) commented, “I see myself dying to live; I don’t have anybody to help me. My legs are always shaking and my wife is very nervous!” Frequency of Family Contacts Participants from the family integrity group described a “decrease in the frequency of family contacts,” mainly because of geographical distance, which did not, however, interfere with emotional proximity. Caregivers would have liked to be with their relatives more often, but they understood that their children did not visit them as often as they may have wished, for reasons such as residing and working abroad. Emotional proximity (in particular, support and companionship) was maintained by telephone contact and the frequent use of family photo albums. Hugo (86, husband) mentioned, “We don’t see our family every day! However, I can see them every day in photos! We must accept this type of situation and try to focus on the good moments!” These caregivers felt that they had someone in their family (children, grandchildren, or siblings) with whom they could share what they thought and felt in relation to caregiving. Carina (65, daughter) stated, “Whenever there is a problem we talk [with my siblings] and make decisions. What comes up is promptly resolved!” Despite a reduction in the frequency of contacts, caregivers stated that they received the support they needed from their family members, and were easily able to identify the relatives who provided help. Lúcia (84, wife) said, “Yes! I have my daughters, my niece . . . if I need help, they help me!” Caregivers from the family disconnection group described an increase in the frequency of contacts with one or two relatives who recognized their greater need for instrumental support, and often came to visit and help. Nonetheless, they expressed dissatisfaction with family relationships, describing feelings of isolation and loneliness. Sometimes they expressed some ambiguity in their perceptions; whereas they acknowledged that having someone who helped out suggested emotional proximity, they emphasized that this help came from only one or two family members. In their view, all family members (especially siblings and children) should fulfill their obligation to offer care. Some caregivers tried to cope with the situation without family support, hiding their feelings and the hardship they experienced. My family is a disgrace . . . ! The daughter who comes here is a pearl and my son-in-law, too; and my son is also good, but he is so far away from here . . . but brothers and so on should really be ashamed! (João, 78, husband) There were also examples, mainly related to financial issues, of family break-ups or of avoidance of contact between family members (usually siblings or in-laws). I stopped to talk to some relatives, especially my sister-in-law. She hurt me a lot; she robbed me and seized some land of mine. I feel very sad and angry . . . I have done everything for her and look what she did to me! (Filipe, 83, husband)

Guerra, S., Figueiredo, D., Patrão, M., & Sousa, L. (2016). Family Integrity and Older Caregivers.

Frequency of family contacts was rarely addressed by participants from the alienation group. Decrease in Caregiver’s Reciprocity In the group on a trajectory towards achieving family integrity, caregivers understood that they could not support other relatives while caring for the person with dementia; they also recognized that their relatives had to deal with other demands (professional and personal). Nonetheless, they still wished to receive support without having to ask for it. Alexandra (66, wife) said, “I wish my family could provide some support without being asked for it; it is horrible to always be asking for help, when they know that I need help!” Caregivers from the family disconnection group stated that they did not ask for support, despite their needs. The main reasons for this were related to family conflicts, especially with in-laws, as a result of which they felt inhibited and tended to withdraw. Manuel (78, husband) stated, “I feel that now I have to ask for help because sometimes it’s hard to cope. However, I can’t help them as before!” Caregivers in the family alienation group described insufficient instrumental and financial support from their family members. They reported experiencing feelings of injustice and anger; they felt pessimistic and blamed their relatives, who they felt should have provided support, but failed to do so. Marta (75, wife) mentioned, “My life is full of sadness. My husband is sick and so am I . . . I have no support from my family. I have no family, nothing!” In a similar vein, these caregivers felt that their family requested less support from them, because they would be unable to provide that additional support. They described that they experienced shame, which inhibited their ability to ask their family members for help. They used to be independent and able to help others, and now they felt embarrassed about revealing their difficulties and need for help to their family members. Solving Family Conflicts References to hindering the resolution of family conflicts were rare for respondents in the family integrity group, while such references were both more frequent and intense for those from the groups characterized by family disconnection and alienation. Caregivers on the disconnection trajectory often described unresolved family conflicts and resentments (especially with siblings and in-laws) related to inheritance or family business (highlighting financial aspects). Respondents described these conflicts as longstanding; they blamed the other party for their continuation and related their own inability to resolve these difficulties to the lack of time they experienced due to their caregiving duties. In a way, caring seemed to exacerbate these problems, as in these situations the caregiver needed to focus their attention on the person with dementia, which made him or her feel powerless with respect to other family problems. I sometimes feel sad and wonder why the family stopped talking to me. This started when I had a

problem with my brothers. But nobody takes any interest! I feel sad because someone should tell them things can’t go on like this! (Rodrigo, 82, husband) The occurrence of family conflicts was associated with a loss of self-value. Rodrigo (82, husband) mentioned, “I don’t put much value on life. I’ve always been a very lively and cheerful person (...) since the problems arose in my family, everything changed!” Caregivers in circumstances of family alienation felt the need to discuss problems with their family members, especially because they felt misunderstood (e.g., in situations where they had to spend a lot of money on the person with dementia, or experienced a lack of time to interact with other relatives). As a result, they felt that caring involvements promoted family conflicts related to financial issues and personal matters. Now I have more conflicts with my husband, because he’s jealous because I spend a lot of time with my brother [person with dementia]. My children are a little jealous, too. However, my brother has always helped me though life; now I must help him! (Sandra, 66, sister)

Discussion The main limitation of these findings stems from the small sample size. In future studies, a larger sample, particularly of those on route to alienation and disconnection, would allow more detailed comparisons among the three trajectories, examining the influence of caregiver variables such as gender, academic status, kinship with the care receiver, and years of caregiving. It would also be of interest to analyze the influence of care receiver variables such as age, gender, and the stage of the illness. To increase our understanding of the feelings experienced by these older people, instruments that measure subjective well-being could also be used. We believe that, together with open-ended questions, a quantitative measure could be adopted to permit data triangulation and improve our understanding of respondents’ comments. Despite these limitations, the study helps us to better understand how elderly people, who are primary caregivers of relatives with dementia, are constructing their sense of family integrity. Most participants in this study seemed to be on a trajectory towards family integrity. As such, we surmise that providing care for a relative with dementia does not necessarily hinder the achievement of this positive outcome. However, for those elderly caregivers on a trajectory towards disconnection, we perceived that they were struggling with this role, and for those experiencing alienation, it seems likely that they did not have strong enough ties to assume or maintain this role. The domain general integrity is related to overall satisfaction with life and family relationships. Caring for a relative with dementia at home is a full-time task and usually a long-term task (half of the participants had been caring for their relative more than five years), thereby affecting

Paidéia, 26(63), 15-23

caregivers’ personal plans for older age. Goals in older age are related to the process of life review, which involves contacts with the members of a multi-generational family and significant others, visiting significant places, and having time to reflect on the meaning of one’s own life (Marx, Solomon, & Miller, 2004). Caring for a relative with dementia at least limits these opportunities. Therefore, caring for a relative with dementia transforms family relationships, which become centered on the care receiver’s needs. Caregivers experience a lack of reciprocity with those who are helping them, as they are often receiving more help from relatives than in the past and are less likely to be asked to provide support to other family members. Yet, the caregiving role is a huge contribution to the family, both in symbolic terms (the value of caring for those in need) and in instrumental terms (performing a highly demanding task). In addition, caregivers also feel that this involvement makes it more difficult to resolve family conflicts. Conflicts from the past are harder to resolve as the caregiver has fewer opportunities to develop ways to deal with them; present conflicts are also harder to resolve, as caregiving can exacerbate latent conflicts because they create a very tense, long-term situation. Caregivers probably need to receive more concrete feedback and recognition regarding their contribution to the family as caregivers (Figueiredo, 2009). In this context, the role of “keeper of the meaning” (Vaillant, 2002) assumes relevance, because providing care places an elderly caregiver in the role of maintaining the family’s values of union and support, which are crucial for future generations’ well-being. These experiences tend to be reported by all caregivers, but some are on a pathway towards family integrity, whereas others are on trajectories that seem to lead to family disconnection and alienation. The current findings, together with those from other studies (King & Wynne, 2004; Marques & Sousa, 2012; Sousa et al., 2009), suggest that a key factor that affects this trajectory is how people subjectively perceive and experience events. Some processes have been identified in the literature as suitable for describing why older people tend to interpret these events differently (Sousa et al., 2009): forgiving (self and others) versus blaming others; accepting (self and others) versus controlling others; valuing (self and others) versus trivializing others. Elderly caregivers of relatives with dementia who are on route to family integrity tend to: (a) embrace this new demand, forgiving other family members (understanding their circumstances), by reducing negative responses (such as resentment) and increasing positive responses (noticing the good things that are happening); (b) accept themselves (maintaining a positive attitude, even if they are experiencing fewer family contacts) and others (understanding that they have their own life challenges); (c) assign meaning, such that they continue to feel that they are living a meaningful life, because they have new projects, focused on caring, and they also acknowledge others’ contributions, respecting their availability. In contrast, older caregivers on a trajectory towards family disconnection: (a) blame others, increasing the negative responses towards them (provoking guilt, making accusations) while feeling powerless, as being powerless, paradoxically, seems to be their source of power; (b) attempt to control others, trying to compel more visits and support,

but without asking, and waiting for others to accept the blame for conflicts, because their own contributions to problems (which are inevitably present) are not recognized; (c) trivialize others, given that their attempts to contribute (for example, with instrumental support) are not recognized. For caregivers on a trajectory towards family alienation, it seems that: (a) they do not forgive (self and others) but they also do not blame others, as they just feel sad and helpless (for instance, concerning life projects); (b) they make some attempt to control others, by blaming them for not helping more, while trying to accept changes in their own life, but feeling compelled to complain about others; (c) they do not seem to trivialize (devalue) others or themselves completely, merely revealing a sense of estrangement or vagueness, almost a “non-existence”. The family integrity framework helps academics and practitioners to view caregiving and old age from a developmental perspective, which can be integrated with the traditional perspective that focuses on health problems and the impacts on caregivers’ health and emotions (Sousa et al., 2009). Our results suggest two main challenges regarding intervention: (a) intervention programs should be offered before old age, because some developmental processes evolve from previous stages; (2) intervention programs for older people need to take in consideration events that have occurred during previous developmental stages. In both cases, family integrity needs to be cultivated during the life course, involving individuals, families, and practitioners.

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Sara Guerra is a Gerontologist at the Portuguese Red Cross in Aveiro. Daniela Figueiredo is an Adjunct Lecturer at the Universidade de Aveiro. Marta Patrão is a Post-Doc Researcher at the Universidade de Aveiro. Liliana Sousa is an Auxiliary Professor at the Universidade de Aveiro. Received: Nov. 24, 2014 1st Revision: May 25, 2015 Approved: Aug. 7, 2015

How to cite this article: Guerra, S., Figueiredo, D., Patrão, M., & Sousa, L. (2016). Family integrity among older caregivers of relatives with dementia. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 15-23. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201603

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Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 25-33. doi: 10.1590/1982-43272663201604

Article

Self-Control, Self-Management and Entrepreneurship in Brazilian Creative Industries Pedro F. Bendassolli1 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal-RN, Brazil

Jairo Eduardo Borges-Andrade Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil

Sonia Maria Guedes Gondim Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador-BA, Brazil

Abstract: Creative entrepreneurship has gained ground in recent years with the advent of creative industries. The capabilities to set targets and individually self-regulate have been indicated as predictors of entrepreneurship. This study aims to identify validity characteristics of a self-regulation scale and to test if score differences are related to whether or not one is an entrepreneur, personal characteristics, or the activity sector. A total of 596 professionals from creative industries in Brazil participated in this study. The self-control and self-management scale (SCMS) has been applied; it has been translated and adapted to Portuguese. Cross-validation analysis has been done. The results support the three-factor structure of the scale. Entrepreneurs tended to indicate higher means in the self-evaluation factor than non-entrepreneurs. Activity sector, gender and schooling demonstrated a significant difference in the self-monitoring factor. Keywords: entrepreneurship, self regulation, job performance

Autocontrole, Autogerenciamento e Empreendedorismo em Indústrias Criativas Brasileiras Resumo: O empreendedorismo criativo ganhou importância nas últimas décadas com o surgimento das indústrias criativas. A definição de metas e a capacidade individual de autorregulação são apontadas como preditores de empreendedorismo. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar características de validade de uma escala de autorregulação e testar a hipótese de haver diferenças de autorregulação em função de a pessoa ser ou não empreendedora, suas características pessoais e setor de atuação. Participaram 596 profissionais das indústrias criativas brasileiras. Eles responderam à Escala de Autocontrole e Autogerenciamento (SCMS), traduzida e adaptada para o português. Os dados foram submetidos a uma validação cruzada. Os resultados apontam para a consistência da estrutura tri-fatorial da escala. Empreendedores tenderam a médias mais altas no fator Autoavaliação do que não empreendedores. Setor de atividade, sexo e escolaridade apresentaram diferenças significativas no fator Automonitoramento. Palavras-chave: empreendedorismo, autorregulação, desempenho no trabalho

Autocontrol, Autorregulación y Emprendedorismo en Industrias Creativas Brasileñas Resumen: El movimiento emprendedor creativo ha ganado importancia en las últimas décadas por el surgimiento de las industrias creativas. La definición de metas asociada a la capacidad individual de autorregulación son apuntadas como predictores de las acciones de emprender. Este estudio tiene por objetivo identificar la validez de una escala de autorregulación y testar la hipótesis de haber diferencias en función de la persona ser o no emprendedora, sus características personales y sectores de actuación. Participaron 596 profesionales de las industrias creativas brasileñas que contestaron a la Escala de Autocontrol y Autorregulación (SCMS) traducida y adaptada al portugués. Los datos fueron sometidos a una validación cruzada. Los resultados señalan hacia la consistencia de la estructura tri-factorial de la escala. Resulta que emprendedores presentaron medias más altas en el factor Autoevaluación que los no emprendedores. El sector de actuación, sexo y nivel educacional presentaron diferencias significativas en el factor Automonitoreo. Palabras clave: emprendedor, autorregulación, rendimiento laboral

The central theme in this article refers to the selfregulation processes in entrepreneurism in creative industries and its relation with some sociodemographic variables. These industries comprise a set of sectors whose activity is to produce goods and services characterized by a symbolic content and economic tangibility. Therefore, their output arises from the Correspondence address: Pedro F. Bendassolli. Rua Vicente Mesquita, 885, apto 501. CEP 59063-650. Natal-RN, Brazil. E-mail: pbendassolli@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

fusion between immaterial (ideas, signs, culture, creativity), “physical” (a book, a theatre play, a sculpture) and economic (property rights, consumption networks) inputs. They are circumscribed by the traditional cultural sectors, such as theatre, literature, plastic arts, heritage (musea, preservation, craftsmanship, folklore) and by hybrid sectors, such as architecture, fashion, tourism, as well as the classical cultural industries, such as cinema, television, journalism (Caves, 2000; Towse, 2010; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2009).

Paidéia, 26(63), 25-33

At the heart of the dynamics of these sectors are the creative professionals – artists and other cultural workers. Like in any other economic sector, these professionals perform actions that can be described as entrepreneurial. Being an entrepreneur in this context involves the action of combining two types of resources: on the one hand the creative resource, and on the other the economic resource (De Bruin, 2005; Towse, 2010, 2011). The first refers to the production of ideas, the conception of works, goods or services of esthetic/cultural values; the second involves processes of adding value to these same works, good and services. In addition, creative professionals act in a sector that, despite its heterogeneity, strongly depends on innovation and on the development of new works/services (Caves, 2000). This same activity context, due to its institutional characteristics, leads the professionals to work arrangements dependent on self-employment (Menger, 2001). In the literature, both of these characteristics, innovation and self-employment, are appointed as characteristics of entrepreneurism (Baron & Shane, 2008; Casson, 2010; Shane, 2003). In the third place, self-employment can also take form in the opening of a business. Although important, however, that is not the only characteristic to define entrepreneurism, especially in creative industries (Davidsson, 2005; Towse, 2010). As Martin (1982) alerts, an artist is not always an entrepreneur. To be so, the artist needs to go beyond the creation of new ideas, something frequently attributed to artists (or professionals from creative industries): there is a need to explore the economic, social and/or cultural value of these ideas. That may materialize or not in the actual opening of a new business (company). Consequently, although economic parameters (opening a business) are frequently used to define entrepreneurism (Baron & Shane, 2008), in this article, we follow the suggestion by Carland, Hoy, Boulton and Carland (1984), with adaptations, according to whom entrepreneurism should be apprehended in a continuum that ranges from the individual who opens a new business to the person who manages an existing business/activity. This classification takes into account the context of the creative industries. Thus, we consider entrepreneurs to be professionals who open a new business, but also professionals who engage in the management routines of third persons’ business. This last possibility marks a differential as, in accordance with Martin (1982), this professional/manager goes beyond the production phase of the creative good/service, incorporating new competences into his/her repertoire, related to the exploration and practical feasibility of the idea, independently of the route chosen for that (beyond the mere opening of a company). Nevertheless, we also consider entrepreneurs to be professionals who, despite not having opened their own business nor managed other people’s business, develop activities that signal the presence of the same competences, that is, they are directly responsible for the entire cycle or value chain of the creative activity in question. We assume that, in the Brazilian context, this takes form in the legal figure of the individual micro-entrepreneur (IME). In addition, this legal characteristic is typical of creative industries (Caves, 2000; Menger, 2001). From the psychological viewpoint, how can one understand entrepreneurism? At least two research lines help

us to answer that question: one is related to the self-regulation of the entrepreneurial action, the main focus in this article; and the other to the profile of the entrepreneur. As regards the first line, Psychology research has appointed that the control of personal actions and targets in relation to the opportunities lies at the origin of entrepreneurism, considered as a phenomenon based on individual actions driven by objectives and motivationally sustained (Chandler, DeTienne, McKelvie, & Mumford, 2011; Vale, Corrêa, & Reis, 2014). Besides setting targets, however, one also needs to control the trajectory that leads to their achievement. Hence, focused attention and efforts made according to the circumstances turn into key elements (Baron & Tang, 2011; Frese & Gielnik, 2014; Karoly, 2010; Mainela, Puhakka, & Servais, 2014; Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). Recently, Bendassolli and Borges-Andrade (2013) proposed a model to understand the entrepreneurial performance in creative industries. Until date, this model has not been tested. In the model, the regulatory processes are particularly relevant. These processes have already been a source of extensive theoretical concern, particularly by Bandura (1991) and Kanfer and Karoly (1972). In view of the importance of these authors in the technical literature, as well as the fact that they are at the base of the measuring tool whose revalidation will be proposed in this article, their ideas will be detailed. From the perspective of Kanfer and Karoly (1972), human behavior is strongly influenced by the environmental conditions. Self-control (self-regulation) is the attempt to use human beings as agents to assume the management of their behavior and break the cycle of environmental control over them (heteroregulation). For these authors, the self-control and self-regulation process serves as a closed feedback system and involves three subsystems: self-monitoring, self-evaluation and self-reinforcement. Self-monitoring is a surveillance system that comes into a state of alertness when the behavior chain is not flowing well. The focus of attention is redirected and the current and expected conditions are evaluated. The result of this evaluation, if favorable or unfavorable, triggers self-reinforcement to get closer to the stimulus or aversion for distancing from the stimulus. The behavior is maintained or altered by the individuals’ effort towards internal agencying. Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1991) presupposes that human behavior is motivated and regulated by the individual cognitive capacity to exert self-influence. Selfregulation is a multifaceted phenomenon that drives individual thoughts, affects and actions. It operates through a set of subsidiary cognitive processes: self-monitoring, selfevaluation and affective self-reaction. The self-monitoring process guarantees self-observation, self-diagnosis and self-motivation. The attention paid to emotions, thoughts and current actions, as well as to the conditions all of this occurs in and its effects, produces information that allows individuals to assess their development towards the target. The self-evaluation process is based on personal standards of judgment about what is favorable or unfavorable, as a fundamental condition to manage activities that continue to exist (Simsek, Heavey, & Veiga, 2010). Affective self-reaction, then, is the main mechanism responsible for regulating the

Bendassolli, P. F., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Gondim, S. M. G. (2016). Entrepreneurship in Creative Industries.

course of action, serving as a feedback system, based on the anticipation of the adaption to activate motivation and behavior, until the cycle ends and reactive feedback can be provided, redirecting the action (Dewall, Baumeister, Schurtz, & Gailliot, 2010). People who fail in the selfregulation process do not persist in the accomplishment of frustrating tasks (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998), a fundamentally relevant fact for entrepreneurial behavior. Despite acknowledging that the target of being an entrepreneur depends on contextual variables, the selfregulation processes contribute to understand how the intrapsychic dynamics, in its interaction with the social midst, permits putting this target in practice (Bryant, 2009; Pihie & Bagheri, 2013). And, to investigate these processes, appropriate measures need to be used. One example is the Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS) (Mezo, 2009), which is revalidated in this article. One justification for its use in Brazil is the fact that there exist few similar measures in the Brazilian literature specifically focused on the selfregulation competences, one of the bases for entrepreneuring and entrepreneurial performance. The SCMS was developed by Mezo (2009) and is based on the contributions by Bandura (1991) and Kanfer and Karoly (1972). Its items were based on cognitive-behavioral theoretical literature and revised based on content experts’ suggestions. The SCMS contains 16 items, assessed on a sixpoint Likert scale (ranging from 1, when the subject considers that the item in question does not describe him/her at all, to 6, when (s)he considers that the item totally describes him/ her). These items are distributed in three factors: (a) SelfMonitoring (SM), assessing how conscious the subject is with regard to the task-related actions, emotions and thoughts; (b) Self-Evaluation (SE), with items that measure the degree of difficulty of the selfaccomplishment standards, as well as the subject’s own assessment of the results achieved; and (c) Self-Reinforcement (SR), whose items measure selfreward and selfpunishment strategies the subject perceives, which can be open (explicit) or closed (implicit) (Mezo, 2009). Validity evidence for the SCMS was obtained in a multiethnic student sample in the USA (N = 302) (Mezo, 2009). Satisfactory levels of consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) were found for the three subscales, which are: .74 (SM), .75 (SE), and .78 (SR). Mezo (2009) also presentes content validity measures of the SCMS (positive significant intercorrelations, ranging from low to moderate); and construct validity measures, both convergent (verifying correlations with other similar constructs, obtaining moderate to high magnitudes), and discriminant (the subscales were not significantly correlated with any of the discriminant constructs used). Besides the self-regulation mechanisms, there exists another research line in the literature that will be mentioned next, in view of its importance in establishing exploratory hypotheses for this study. This line investigated the entrepreneurial profile, particularly regarding sociodemographic aspects. To give an example, there exists a relative consensus in the assertion that entrepreneurs have a higher education level than non-entrepreneurs (Jaramillo Villanueva, Escobedo Garrido, Morales Jimenez, & Ramos Castro, 2012; Vale, Serafim, & Teodosio, 2011), despite

studies that alert to the fact that entrepreneurism is not a phenomenon restricted to the “elite”, with entrepreneurs from poorer classes and homes whose parents have low education levels (Vale, 2014). As regards sex, the results are controversial, suggesting the influence of the entrepreneurial context. A study on rural tourism in Galicia (Spain), for example, concluded that women demonstrate greater capacity towards productive diversification and are more focused on the economic return of investments than men (Dieguez-Castrillon, GueimondCanto, Sinde-Cantorna, & Blanco-Cerradelo, 2012). On the opposite, a study undertaken in Bogota, in which relationships between sex and entrepreneurism were analyzed in the beauty industry, concluded that, although this sector is historically linked to the female, men have invaded this territory and gained greater visibility, especially because they occupy position of higher status, leaving activities with lower salaries, like manicure, for women (Pineda Duque, 2014). In general, men are appointed as having a greater personal trend towards entrepreneurism (Carvalho & Gonzáles, 2006), and one of the explanations is the fact that work is more central in their lives (Brenner, Pringle, & Greenhaus, 1991). Concerning the age when the entrepreneurs start their activities, recent reviews have demonstrated their decline over time, especially as from the 1990’s when activities emerged in the technology sector (Lange, Marram, Murphy, Marquis, & Bygrave, 2014). Hsua, Roberts and Eesley (2007), for example, in an extensive study of alumni from MIT, USA, found that the mean age dropped from 40 years in the 1950’s to 28 years in the 1990’s. Other personal attributes of entrepreneurism are also appointed in the literature, such as obstination, capability to overcome challenges and take limited risks (Jaramillo Villanueva et al., 2012), and the capability to introduce novelties or changes in the enterprise and to construct social networks (Corrêa & Vale, 2014). Until date, however, studies on the entrepreneurial profile in the context of creative industries are scarce. In combination with the need to understand psychological self-regulation mechanisms operating in the professionals who work in these sectors, it justifies the development of this study. Therefore, the objective in this study was to identify validity characteristics of a self-regulation scale and test the hypothesis of differences in self-regulation in function of whether the person is an entrepreneur or not, his/her personal characteristics and activity sector, using professionals from creative industries. The long-term goal of this initiative is to further the use of the scale to better understand these professionals’ entrepreneurial performance. If the measures found by Mezo (2009) are confirmed, the first set of exploratory hypotheses is that these measures are associated with the age, education and sex of our respondents, as reported in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM, 2013) among Brazilian entrepreneurs in general, and also based on an earlier review of studies on the entrepreneurial profile. The second set of preliminary hypotheses is that these measures can differ according to whether the person is an entrepreneur or not, and based on the type of activity developed in the creative industries. These hypotheses derive from the model proposed by Bendassolli and Borges-Andrade (2013).

Paidéia, 26(63), 25-33

Method Participants This study included 596 professionals who work in creative industries all over Brazil. The mean age was 39.16 years (SD = 12.14), and little more than half is male (58.4%). In the sample, 76% of the participants hold a higher education degree (44% undergraduate, 16% specialization and 16% Master’s/Ph.D.). The activity sectors these participants declared, in the creative industries, are mainly distributed as follows (according to the adaptation of the system of creative activities proposed by UNESCO, 2009): heritage (33.6%) (historical, architectonic, museum, craftsmanship and folclore), scenic arts (22.0%), literary arts (11.4%), music (9.9%), audiovisual (7.7%) and visual arts (1.7%). Very specific sectors, which did not fit into this classification system, complete the sample as “others”, not cited here because they were not used in the analyses, in view of the widespread pulverization of activities in this category and the difficulty to circumscribe them. The mean length of the professional activity is 15.17 years (SD = 11.83). In the total sample, 47% are entrepreneurs, according to the previously presented criterion adopted here, and further explained in the procedures. Among these 47% of entrepreneurs, 69% own their own business, as employees; 16.4% are managers of other people’s businesses/activity; and 14.6% are individual micro-entrepreneurs, that is, they hold a National Registry Number of Legal Entity (CNPJ) in their own name. Instruments Self-Control and Self-Management Scale. The SCMS was originally elaborated in English (Mezo, 2009). The back translation procedure was adopted, for which the scale was translated to Portuguese, then again to English, and then submitted to experts (researchers with expertise in tool validation; Pasquali, 2010) for comparison. These were responsible for examining the versions and suggesting the most appropriate tool in semantic terms. A first version in Portuguese of the SCMS was submitted to a pretest, involving 11 people with characteristics similar to the target population. After answering, they were interviewed to check for possible item comprehension problems. The suggestions obtained in this phase were assessed by the experts and incorporated, reaching the final version of the Escala de Autocontrole e Autogerenciamento. The tool still included other questions to obtain information on the respondents and their professional activities in the creative industries, described earlier. Procedure Data collection. The data were collected electronically. Besides sociodemographic questions and the SCMS, three questions were asked to assess whether the participant selfclassified as an entrepreneur. People who self-classified in one of the following conditions were considered as entrepreneurs

(Carland et al., 1984): (a) owner of a business in a sector of the creative industries, with employees or not; or (b) manager of third parties’ business; or (c) individual microentrepreneur (IME), fiscal situation created by the Brazilian government to regulate autonomous professional activities with CNPJ. For this classification, the first question asked to the respondent was whether he owned a business in his activity sector. If he answered yes, questions about sociodemographic characteristics and the scale appeared. If not, finally, a question was asked about whether he was an IME. If yes, then the scale followed. For analysis purposes, only the participants who answered “yes” to one of these three questions were considered entrepreneurs. The participant who answered “no” to all questions was considered a non-entrepreneur. In operational terms, first, a database was elaborated with names of potential participants. Therefore, websites of institutions related to the creative industries were investigated, as well as personal websites of the professionals working there. In addition, the snowball strategy was used, asking people who were part of and exerted some influence in any sector of these industries to pass their contacts or forward the invitation to potential research participants. More than 10 thousand names with e-mails of these professionals were obtained, distributed all over Brazil. The next step was to forward, by e-mail, an invitation to participate in the research. This invitation presented the main objectives of the study and expressed the participation model. In addition, a link was forwarded for the person, if wanted, to access a hotsite specifically created for the research, where information was presented on creative industries, the objectives and phases of the project, and information about the team and the ethical aspects involved. At regular intervals, the response rate to the questionnaire was monitored. Each week, new invitations/reminders were sent, until reaching a saturation point when no new answers were verified. The data were collected at the end of 2012 until mid-2013, approximately. Data analysis. The first step in the analysis was the exploration of the database. In this process, 43 cases were excluded, adding up uni (z ≥ 3.29) and multivariate outliers (Mahalanobis distance, p < .01). The final number of respondents, presented earlier, already considers these exclusions. Most of the items presented absolute asymmetry and kurtosis coefficients between |0-1|. Nevertheless, the Mardia coefficient indicates that the multivariate normality principle was violated, an aspect taken into account in the analyses. The total sample was randomly divided in two parts to proceed with a crossvalidation. Thus, with the first (A1 = 290), exploratory factorial analysis (EFA) was performed; with the second (A2 = 306), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). In the EFA, the process started with the investigation of the factorability of the data matrix (KMO and Bartlett test). Due to the (moderate) non-normality of the distribution, the Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) method was chosen, which is the most indicated under these circumstances (Costello & Osborne, 2005) and permits capturing only the variance the factors have in common. The same (obliquous/Promax)

Bendassolli, P. F., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Gondim, S. M. G. (2016). Entrepreneurship in Creative Industries.

rotation technique was used as in the original study by Mezo (2009). Each factor should have a factorial weight of at least |ʎ = 0.35| to be considered in the model. The choice of the number of factors to be retained was based on Horn’s parallel analysis, undertaken in the statistical software FACTOR 9.2. As for the CFA with the second part of the sample (A2 = 306), and due to the non-normal nature of the data and the ordinal measuring level of the variables, the robust maximum likelihood extraction method was employed with SatorraBentler’s correction. The analyses were developed using a polychoric correlation matrix. To assess the quality of the adjustment, absolute indices were used, such as the difference of the chi-squared according to the degrees of freedom of the model (χ2/gl), whose expected value for good adjustment is lower than 2 (Arbuckle, 2008); and relative indices: the comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI). For the latter, values higher than .90 (Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2011; Marôco, 2010) are expected for the sake of a good adjustment. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were also used. The expected values for the sake of good adjustment are inferior to .08 for the first and .06 for the second (Brown, 2006). The consistency of the factors was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the compound reliability indices (CR > .70). The extracted mean variance (EMV > .50) was used to check the convergent validity between the factors. The discriminant validity corresponds to the square root of the EMV. The resulting value should be higher than the

correlation (r) between each pair of factors (Table 2). The analyses were developed in the software LISREL 8.80. After confirming the appropriateness of the tool, the data from the entire sample of participants (N = 596) were used to check the hypothetic relations between the SCMS factors and the research variables, which are: entrepreneur x nonentrepreneur, activity sector in the creative industries, age, education and sex. Ethical Considerations The research project that originated this article was submitted to and approved by the Research Ethics Committee at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, under protocol CAAE: 12005912.3.0000.5537.

Results The inspection of the correlation matrix produced based on the data for A1 revealed the appropriateness to apply the EFA (KMO = 0.81; Bartlett’s sphericity test χ2[120] = 1588.84, p < .001). Horn’s parallel analysis indicated the retention of three factors (Table 1). Only one item (I13 - “Overcoming uneasy moments. Foreseeing rewards.”) did not obtain a fator loading higher than the established minimum limit (> .35), being excluded from the model. The three-factor structure explains 54.74% of the total variance. The consistency rates (alphas) are satisfactory and the factorial weights vary between |.44| and |.75|.

Table 1 Factorial Structure of Scale of Self-Control and Self-Management, Explained Variance and Consistency Index Keywords in items

I01

Work achievement. Attention.

.50

I02

Task focus.

.66

I03

Awareness. Work achievement.

.71

I04

Checking progress. Work achievement.

.75

I05

Attention on thoughts. Hard work.

.67

I06

Behavior monitoring. Work achievement.

.66

I07

Important objectives. Failure to achieve.

.56

I08

Incapacity to plan. Solving life problems.

.65

I09

Achievement of meaningless objectives.

.64

I10

Useless plans.

.70

I11

Unclear work standards. Task evaluation hardness.

.72

I12

Self-congratulation. Progress achievement.

.72

I14

Silent self-pride.

.78

I15

Making the right thing. Long-term well-being.

.44

I16

Gift self-giving. Progress achievement.

.59

Eigenvalues

4.49

2.55

1.71

Explained variances (%)

28.08

15.95

10.70

Cronbach’s alphas .81 .78 .75 Note. Extraction method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation method: Promax (with Kaizer normalization). SM = Self-Monitoring, SE = Self-Evaluating, SR = Self-Reinforcing.

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The results of the CFA, obtained based on A2, also appoint the sense of the appropriateness of the factorial structure presented in Table 1. The indices were as follows: χ2(87) = 171.29, p < .001, χ2/gl = 1.96; CFI = .98; TLI = .97; RMSEA = .06 (90% confidence interval = .04; .06), P [rmsea ≤ .05] < .19; SRMR = .06. Table 2 presents the factorial weights and standardized errors, as well as the correlation between the latent variables. Like in the case of the EFA factors, the consistency rates (alphas) are satisfactory: .82 (SM), .77 (SE) and .78 (SR), respectively. Similarly, the compound reliability (CR) indicates an excellent level of factorial consistency: .88 (SM), .85 (SE) and .82 (SR). With regard to the convergent validity (the items load in the expected factors), the EMV of the factors ranges around the expected value (> .50): .47 (SM), .53 (SE) and .54 (SR). The factors also presente discriminant validity (are mutually distinct), since the square root of the EMV for each fator is higher than the correlation between each pair of factors (Table 2). Table 2 Structural Model With Respective Standardized Estimates for SelfControl and Self-Management Scale Factor SM

Question

Factor loading

.66

.67

.84

.85

.75

.73

.64

.76

.74

Q10

.75

Q11

.76

Q12

.81

Q14

.81

Q15

.69

Q16 .64 Note. Correction between SM-SE (-.34), SE-SR (-.14) and SM-SR (.37) factors.

The factorial weights varied between |.64| and |.85|, therefore being slightly higher when compared to the structure obtained earlier by the EFA (Table 1). Although LISREL presented some items for modification, the decision was made not to implement them, not even the items with greater potential to improve the adjustment ratios. First because, when developing simulations with some of those suggestions, only subtle improvements were identified in ratios like χ2 and CFI. Second because no theoretical support was found to exclude items for example, or even to permit the correlation of item errors.

Using the SCMS factors as variables, next, the results of its association with the other research variables are presented, to test the preliminary hypotheses presented in the introduction of this article. No association was found between the factor Self-reinforcement (SR) and these variables. As for the difference between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs, an association was only found with the factor Self-evaluation (SE): MEntrepreneurs = 2.32, SE = 0.06; MNon = 2.00, SE = 0.05; ΔM = .31, 95% CI [.14, .48]; entrepreneurs t[594] = 3.64, p < .001. This means that the participants who self-classified as entrepreneurs tended to present higher averages in this dimension. As these are negative items, higher averages indicate that the participants assess this selfregulation component more negatively. Concerning the activity sectors, statistically significant relations were only identified in the factor Self-monitoring (SM). Professionals active in music (ΔM = .37) and heritage (ΔM = .44) tended to present significantly higher averages in the component items of this factor than the participants working in scenic arts (F[6,589] = 5.20, p < .001). As for age, only the factor Self-monitoring (SM) showed a significant relation between averages (r = .26, p < .001). Significant differences exist in terms of sex in Self-evaluation (SE): women (M = 2.00, SE = .06) presented a lower average than men (M = 2.25, SE = .05; ΔM = -.25; 95% CI [-.42, -.07]; t[594] = -2,84, p < .05). Finally, when considering the education differences, significant differences are found in two factors. In the factor Self-monitoring (SM): participants with a graduate degree tended to attribute higher averages than participants with a higher education degree only (ΔM = .35; F[4,585] = 4,63, p < .01). In the Self-evaluation factor (SE), participants holding secondary (ΔM = .57) and higher education (ΔM = .36) degrees tended to attribute higher average scores than participants holding a stricto sensu graduate degree (F[4,585] = 4.29, p < .01).

Discussion Two objectives guided this paper: testing the use of the SCMS in the Brazilian context, with professionals from creative industries; and exploring the differences in the scores of entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs, and the variables sex, education and age of these professionals. As for the first objective, the results of the EFA and CFA supported the decision to extract a three-factor structure – like in the original study. The consistency ratios are satisfactory and similar to that of the North-American research, being slightly lower for the measure as a whole and slightly higher for the measures of the factors SM (Self-monitoring) and SR (Self-reinforcement). In addition, the factorial weights of the Escala de Autocontrole e Autogerenciamento vary similarly to those of the original SCMS. The factor related to Self-monitoring (SM) is the factor that most explains the data variance, as found in the original study. Its six items were maintained. This refers to the extent to which the individuals certify their progress towards an objective, are aware of the relation between this

Bendassolli, P. F., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Gondim, S. M. G. (2016). Entrepreneurship in Creative Industries.

objective and what they do, pay attention to what they think at work, maintain the focus on their tasks, do not deviate their attention and know that they can monitor their action. This factor reached the highest Cronbach’s alpha. Its items suggest that individuals perform self-observation, self-diagnosis and self-motivation, as proposed by Bandura (1991), triggering the elements of the second factor, as Kanfer and Karoly (1972) suggested. The second factor, in terms of explained variance, is related to the Self-evaluation (SE), with items formulated through negative assertions, like in the original version. All five items were maintained. They refer to the individuals’ assertions about the clarities of the work standards they establish and their plans to overcome problems in their life, about the utility of making plans, about the significance of the objectives they achieve and about the extent to which they are capable of achieving them. This factor resulted in the second best Cronbach’s alpha. Its items are related to the part of the self-regulation, which indicates that something may not be flowing (Kanfer & Karoly, 1972), or that the standards of comparison established may not be appropriate (Bandura, 1991), which triggers the third factor. The third factor is related to the Self-reinforcement (SR) strategies, and has the lowest Cronbach’s alpha, although still acceptable. One of the items of the SCMS was lost and only four remained in this factor of the Escala de Autocontrole e Autogerenciamento. Its assertions mention self-pride, even if going against what other people think, praising oneself when progress is made and giving oneself some gift. These are directly related to the positive or negative results of the assessment mentioned by Kanfer and Karoly (1972), who propose to maintain or alter the behavior based on the individual’s internal agencying. They consist of an affective self-reaction, which influences the people’s motivation and the quality of their actions (Bandura, 1991). The second objective in this study was to investigate, exploratorily, the relations between the scale factors and the characteristics associated with Brazilian entrepreneurs, described by GEM (2013) and by some authors of the second research line presented in the introduction, related to the entrepreneurial profile. Higher scores were found for Selfmonitoring (SM) among older people holding a graduate degree. The skills involved in self-monitoring are more likely to learn promoted by life experience or academic experience. Self-monitoring refers to concentration, focus and accompaniment of the course of action. As entrepreneurism involves behaviors focused on the achievement of objectives (Frese & Gielnik, 2014), it is expected that higher levels of this competency positively influence the action of entrepreneuring in creative industries, supporting evidence from the literature in relation to other sectors (Baron & Tang, 2011; Karoly, 2010; Mainela et al., 2014; Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). Higher scores for Self-evaluation (SE) were found among women and people with a secondary education degree. Being an inverted measures, this means that these people assess that they accomplish fewer actions, like reaching objectives, making clear plans and pursuing objectives when compared to people with higher education levels (graduate education).

One possible interpretation is that the complexity deriving from education permits further development of this selfregulation competence. Drawing a bridge to entrepreneurism, this can reaffirm what was raised in the introduction about the positive role of education in entrepreneurism (Jaramillo Villanueva et al., 2012; Vale et al., 2011). As regards the difference between the sexes, in principle, this finding could be considered a potential explanation of the trend Carvalho and Gonzáles (2006) appoint, and which is confirmed in the Brazilian case (GEM, 2013), that entrepreneurism is more prevalent among men (assuming the isolated positive impact of this self-regulation competence on entrepreneurism). Nevertheless, this interpretation needs to be put in perspective. First because, as we saw in the introduction, there does not seem to exist a consensus about a direct relationship between entrepreneurism and sex; therefore, further empirical explorations would be necessary. Second, as the scale scores are based on self-perception, the women’s assessment about themselves may be more about sharpened self-criticism than about the perception of a lesser capability towards self-evaluation and, therefore, selfregulation. Third, because, as shown next, this characteristic was also found among entrepreneurs. As mentioned, higher Self-evaluation (SE) scores were also found among the participants classified as entrepreneurs. That was the sole characteristic that significantly distinguished entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs. That is, the first assess themselves more negatively. It is not clear, however, if it is a more negative assessment that turns them into entrepreneurs, or whether that work condition makes them more critical about what they do in these industries. The self-criticism competence could be associated with other personality characteristics reported as important in entrepreneurism – to give an example, those related to the model of the five personality factors, as the entrepreneurs may be more aware of themselves and their activity than non-entrepreneurs (Frese & Gielnik, 2014). Nevertheless, entrepreneurs might perceive that they accomplish less because, paradoxically, they have a greater need for self-accomplishment, with strategies to achieve higher objectives (Simsek et al., 2010). Finally, in certain sectors of the investigated industries, distinguished SM scores appeared: there are less selfperceived Self-monitoring skills among professionals active in scenic arts when compared to professional working in music and heritage. Would the activities implied in scenic arts require less control of their own behavior from their professionals in terms of surveillance? As there was no distinction in this issue between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs, this result may be related to the characteristics of this activity or to the specific profile of the people in this sample. Further studies could look at the impact of the characteristics of the activity sectors in the creative industries on the self-regulation competences. These findings should be considered against the background of some research limitations, namely the convenience sampling, which may not represent the universe of the professionals from the creative industries, as access to individuals who do not use the Internet. In addition, answers

Paidéia, 26(63), 25-33

to the items on this scale could be influenced by social desirability, even if this had been tested when the SCMS was constructed, as there may be cultural diferences between professionals from the creative industries and students and between Brazilian and North-American respondents. Despite these limitations, however, the findings indicate that the validity of the Escala de Autocontrole e Autogerenciamento is evidenced among entrepreneurs from Brazilian creative industries. At least two of its three factors can be used in the future in a more accurate investigation of the relations between self-regulation and performance of these entrepreneurs.

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York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Towse, R. (2011). A handbook of cultural economics (2nd ed.). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2009). Framework for cultural statistics. Retrieved from http://www.uis.unesco.org/culture/ Documents/framework-cultural-statistics-culture-2009en.pdf Vale, G. M. V. (2014). Empreendedorismo, marginalidade e estratificação social [Entrepreneurship, marginality and social stratification]. Revista de Administração de Empresas, 54(3), 310-321. doi:10.1590/S0034759020140306 Vale, G. M. V., Corrêa, V. S., & Reis, R. F. (2014). Motivações para o empreendedorismo: Necessidade versus oportunidade? [Motivations for entrepreneurship: Necessity versus opportunity?]. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 18(3), 311-327. doi:10.1590/19827849rac20141612 Vale, G. M. V., Serafim, A. C. F., & Teodosio, A. S. S. (2011). Gênero, imersão e empreendedorismo: Sexo frágil, laços fortes? [Gender, embeddedness and entrepreneurship: Gentle sex, strong ties?]. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 15(4), 631-649. doi:10.1590/S141565552011000400005 Pedro F. Bendassolli holds a Ph.D. in Psychology from University of São Paulo and is a faculty member at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte. Jairo Eduardo Borges-Andrade holds a Ph.D. in Instructional Systems from Florida State University and is a faculty member at Universidade de Brasília. Sonia Maria Guedes Gondim holds a Ph.D. in Psychology from Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro and is a faculty member at Universidade Federal da Bahia. Received: Dec. 13, 2014 1st Revision: Apr. 15, 2015 Approved: June 8, 2015

How to cite this article: Bendassolli, P. F., Borges-Andrade, J. E., & Gondim, S. M. G. (2016). Self-control, self-management and entrepreneurship in Brazilian creative industries. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 25-33. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201604

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Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 35-43. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201605

Article

Well-Being at Work Scale: Exploratory and Confirmatory Validation in the USA1 Gisela Demo2 Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil

Tatiane Paschoal Universidade de Brasília, Brasília-DF, Brazil

Abstract: Given the lack of instruments to measure both affective and cognitive elements of well-being at work, the objective of this study is to look for evidence of validity in the US regarding the well-being at work scale, which was first validated in Brazil to measure employee well-being perceptions. Two studies using two different American samples of 809 participants in total were conducted for the exploratory and confirmatory validation of the scale. Construct validity was determined using convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity, which was assessed using a structural equation model to determine a correlation between well-being at work and human resources management practices. This research provides a comprehensive and operationally valid measure of well-being in work settings. The three-factor model can be used as a diagnostic tool for managers who wish to identify and improve the well-being of their work teams. Keywords: emotions, factor analysis, measurement, occupational health, organizational psychology

Escala de Bem-Estar no Trabalho: Validações Exploratória e Confirmatória nos EUA Resumo: Considerando a carência de instrumentos para mensurar os elementos afetivos e cognitivos do bem-estar no trabalho, o objetivo deste estudo foi buscar evidências de validade nos EUA da escala de bem-estar no trabalho, validada primeiramente no Brasil para avaliar as percepções dos empregados relativas ao seu bem-estar. Dois estudos foram conduzidos para as validações exploratória e confirmatória da escala, com duas amostras americanas diferentes, totalizando 809 participantes. A validade de construto foi verificada por meio das validades convergente, divergente e nomológica, esta última obtida pela análise da correlação entre o bem-estar no trabalho e práticas de gestão de pessoas em um modelo de equações estruturais. Esta pesquisa oferece uma medida abrangente e operacionalmente válida para avaliar o bem-estar no ambiente de trabalho. Como contribuição prática, o modelo de três fatores produzido pode ser usado como ferramenta diagnóstica para os gestores organizacionais que desejem identificar e aprimorar o bemestar de suas equipes de trabalho. Palavras-chave: emoções, análise fatorial, medidas, saúde ocupacional, psicologia organizacional

Escala de Bienestar en el Trabajo: Validación Exploratorio y Confirmatorio en los EEUU Resumen: Considerando la carencia de instrumentos para mensurar los elementos afectivos y cognitivos del bien-estar en el trabajo, el objetivo de este estudio fue buscar en los EEUU evidencia de validez de la escala de bienestar en el trabajo validada previamente en Brasil para evaluar las percepciones de los empleados relativas a su bien-estar. Dos estudios fueran conducidos para las evaluaciones exploratoria y confirmatoria de la escala, con dos amuestras americanas diferentes, totalizando 809 participantes. La validad de constructo fue verificada por medio de las validades convergente, divergente y nomológica, esta última obtenida por el análisis de la correlación entre el bien-estar en el trabajo y las prácticas de gestión de personas en un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Esta investigación ofrece una medida amplia, operacionalmente válida para evaluar el bien-estar en el ambiente de trabajo. Como contribución práctica, el modelo de tres factores producido puede ser usado como herramienta diagnóstica para los gestores organizacionales que deseen identificar el bien-estar de sus equipos de trabajo. Palabras clave: emociones, análisis factorial, medidas, salud ocupacional, psicología de las organizaciones

Managers and organizational researchers recognize that the market requires adaptability and flexibility to overcome the competitive challenges that organizations face. (Demo, Neiva, Nunes, & Rozzett, 2012). Rodríguez-Carvajal, Moreno-

Support: National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq - Protocol no. 201124/2011-4, Abroad Postdoctoral Scholarship PDE).

2 Correspondence address: Gisela Demo. Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro. Prédio da Faculdade de Economia, Administração e Contabilidade (FACE), sala AT 111-4, Asa Norte. CEP 70910-900. Brasília-DF, Brazil. E-mail: giselademo@gmail.com

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Jiménez, Rivas-Hermosilla, Álvarez-Bejarano, and Vergel (2010) found that to meet these market challenges and achieve excellence, organizations used two different strategies. The first was focused on solving problems or deficits in the organization and its members, and the second sought to enable and facilitate the development of both organizational and individual potential. Luthans (2002) stated that organizational behavior research has tended to emphasize the recognition of and solutions to problems in the workplace, although more recent studies focused on the positive aspects associated with individuals and organizations have begun to gain momentum. These positively focused studies have emphasized that healthy, effective organizations cannot be achieved solely through

Paidéia, 26(63), 35-43

remedial action (Luthans, 2002), and there has been a general consensus that maintaining individual and organizational wellbeing or happiness is extremely important (Warr, 2007). General well-being refers to both subjective well-being and psychological well-being. Subjective well-being focuses on the well-being derived from pleasurable experiences, while psychological well-being focuses on human potential and fulfillment. Therefore, subjective well-being is primarily the prevalence of positive emotions and moods and an individual's satisfaction with life (Diener, 1984), whereas psychological well-being usually involves self-acceptance, the development of positive social relationships, having a degree of autonomy, environmental controls and possibilities for personal growth (Ryff, 1989). Paschoal, Torres, and Porto (2010) and Taris and Schaufeli (2015) both found that as a result of the increase in general well-being studies, organizational literature has begun to define and operationalize well-being at work in either affective or cognitive terms. Daniels (2000) reported that researchers who adopted a psychological well-being approach to operationalize well-being combined subjective experiences with their possible antecedents. However, a focus on affect (discrete emotions and moods) may be a more effective method. The dichotomy between these two perspectives has been shown to be detrimental to a complete understanding of the complexity of well-being (Fave, Brdar, Freire, Vella-Brodrick, & Wissing, 2011). Paschoal et al. (2010) and Taris and Schaufeli (2015) found that even in studies conducted by psychologists who adopted a multidimensional view, the affective experience, which is characterized by the positive and negative emotions felt at work, has proved to be an essential element in judging well-being at work. At the same time, fulfillment and personal expression have been recently seen as important by leading theorists examining the operationalization of well-being at work (Taris & Schaufeli, 2015; Warr, 2013; Waterman et al., 2010), as both distinct and pleasurable emotions and a perception of fulfillment have been recognized as being fundamental to happiness (Warr, 2007). Well-being at work, therefore, clearly also includes positive experiences. When there is well-being, positive affect at work prevails over any negative affect, and workers experience personal fulfillment through the development of their individual potential (Paschoal & Tamayo, 2008; Warr, 2007). This perspective for well-being at work, which comprises both affective (emotions and moods) and cognitive (perceived fulfillment) aspects, is adopted in this study. To assess the well-being specifically linked to work, many affect measures have been developed (Daniels, 2000; Van Katwyk, Fox, Spector, & Kelloway, 2000). In Brazil, for instance, Siqueira and Padovam (2008) proposed that job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and job involvement instruments could be used to evaluate well-being at work. Because of the research gap for comprehensive measures specifically regarding positive affect and the cognitive aspects of well-being at workplace, and the risk of mixing related variables or antecedents in the construct, Paschoal and Tamayo (2008) developed and validated the Well-Being at Work Scale (WBWS) in Brazil. The basic assumption behind this instrument was that work well-being should include emotion,

humor and perceptions of expressiveness and fulfillment. In operational terms, well-being at work was seen to be organized around three main factors: positive affect, negative affect and personal fulfillment at work. The scale was made up of items for both affect and work fulfillment. The affect items were derived from the subjective well-being scale, which had been validated in Brazil by Albuquerque and Tróccoli (2004) for general well-being, based on the PANAS or Positive Affect/Negative Affect Scale (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Thirty-eight items were proposed for the positive and negative affect, which were submitted to judges who assessed the appropriateness of the items for a work context construct. After this analysis, the final scale was made up of nine items focused on positive emotions and humor and thirteen items focused on negative emotions and humor at work. There were also nine fulfillment items, which focused on the measurement of an individual's perception of their skills development, work potential and the achievement of life goals, were derived from interviews with employees about happiness and fulfillment at work, and previous research, in particular, Waterman’s (1993) study. A three-factor solution was expected. The respondents to the scales were 317 workers from Brazilian public and private organizations. Data were analyzed using factor analyses with oblique rotation, from which three hypothetical factors were found: positive affect–9 items, negative affect–12 items, and fulfillment–9 items. These psychometric indices were found to be reliable, indicating that the instrument had good psychometric parameters, and could be useful for both scientific research and organizational diagnostics. The objective of this study is to use the WBWS validated in Brazil by Paschoal and Tamayo (2008) to look for evidence of validity in a US sample.

Method - Study 1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) Participants Hair, Black, Babi, Anderson, and Tatham (2009) suggested that an adequate sample has between five and ten people for each item on the instrument, and Comrey and Lee (2013) and Tabachnick and Fidell (2012) suggested that 300 was a good sample size. In this paper a sample of 409 subjects was selected, of which 67% were male, 46% were Asian, Asian-American or Pacific Islander, 80% were under the age of 36, 53% had a Bachelor degree, and 55% had been at their respective companies for less than five years. Instrument The instrument used in this study was the WBWS which had been validated in Brazil by Paschoal and Tamayo (2008), in which it was found that a three-factor solution accounted for 57.3% of the construct variance and the reliability coefficients ranged from .88 to .93. To ensure the WBWS was suitable for a US sample, the 30 items in the Brazilian version were translated into English by a specialist translator and retranslated into Portuguese by one of the scale authors. Then, an English Professor from a university in California checked

Demo, G., & Paschoal, T. (2016). Well-Being at Work Scale.

the English translation. Two faculty members and one Ph.D. student from the Management and Organizations department at a Californian university Business School evaluated the content and validity of the items, from which the 30 items were confirmed for the US version. Procedure Data collection. Data were collected online using Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to ensure responses were received from a wide range of industries in the United States. 409 employees from various organizations participated in the study. This diversification ensured sampling variability and representativeness. Data analysis. First, data from study 1 were examined for incorrect values, missing data and outliers and the assumptions for the multivariate analysis were checked, as per the procedures recommended by Hair et al. (2009) and Tabachnick and Fidell (2012). Then, the data were used to select items based on the EFA. To perform the EFA, the correlation matrix, the matrix determinant and the results from the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) sampling adequacy test were analyzed regarding factorability. For factor extraction, Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was used. Once the matrix was deemed factorable, the eigenvalues, percentage of explained variance for each factor, scree plot graphics and the parallel analysis were then examined to determine the quantity of factors to be extracted. After defining the quantity of factors, a Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) analysis was run using Promax rotation, as correlation between the factors was expected. Cronbach’s alpha was then used to check the reliability or internal consistency of each factor.

Method - Study 2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Construct Validity Participants Byrne (2012) and Kline (2011) stated that for a CFA, an adequate sample size would be 10 subjects for each variable, but a minimum of 200 individuals was recommended. The sample size was 400 subjects, of which 58% were male, 45% were Asian, Asian-American or Pacific Islander, 85% were under the age of 40, 55% had a Bachelor degree, and 48% had been at their respective companies for less than five years. Instrument To run the CFA, the three-factor model validated in study 1 was used, and to assess the nomological validity, the WBW scale validated in study 1 and confirmed through the CFA was used as a measure for the perceptions of well-being at work. The six-factor Human Resource Management Policies and Practices Scale (HRMPPS) developed and validated by Demo et al. (2012) was used as the measure to assess employee perceptions regarding HRM policies and practices.

The HRMPPS has been found to have good psychometric parameters and addresses the most widely studied HRM policies and practices. This instrument has 40 items divided into six factors: Recruitment and Selection (RS); Involvement (I); Training, Development & Education (TDE); Work Conditions (WC); Competency-Based Performance Appraisal (CBPA); and Compensation and Rewards (CR). All of Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .81 to .93. Procedure Data collection. Data were collected from the 400 employees from several companies using MTurk to ensure the presence of a wide range of industries located in the United States. Data analysis. In this study, CFA was used to examine the factor structure and to provide construct validity through convergent and discriminant validity and a structural model, which included the variable Human Resource Management Policies and Practice (HRMPP), was used to test for nomological validity. Two measurement models were tested and compared: a onefactor model and the three-factor model. To determine which structure adjusted better to the WBWS, the fit was evaluated using AMOS through the following indices: NC (normatized chi-square or chi-square value divided by the model’s degrees of freedom = CMIN/DF), CFI (Comparative Fit Index) and RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), as recommended by Kline (2011). Internal consistency was measured using composite reliability, also known as DillonGoldstein’s rho or Jöreskog’s rho, as proposed by Chin (2009). Dillon-Goldstein’s rho is a more adequate reliability measure than Cronbach’s alpha for Structural Equation Modeling as it is based on the loadings rather than the correlations observed between the observed variables. Finally, construct validity was examined in this study using convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity. To assess nomological validity, a structural model was conducted to assess the correlation between HRM policies and well-being at work. Ethical Considerations All ethical precautions were taken throughout the study. A consent form and research information sheet were provided on-line for the subjects as data collection for these studies was done on-line using the MTurk platform. Data confidentiality was also secured. This research was approved by the North General IRB Committee at the University of California, Los Angeles. The protocol ID was IRB#12-000410, obtained on March 23, 2012.

Results Study 1: Exploratory Factor Analysis The result analyses confirmed that the matrix had a high enough factorability to perform the exploratory factor analysis. The KMO was found to be .952, which according

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to Kaiser (1974) was marvelous. The matrix determinant was extremely close to zero, indicating that the number of factors was lower than the number of items. Using Principal Components Analysis, it was possible to determine the number of factors to be extracted. All criteria adopted (eigenvalues higher than 1.0, explained variance percentage of each factor above 3%, scree plot graphic visual analysis and parallel analysis) pointed to the existence of three factors. After four iterations, the WBWS resulted in a multifactorial instrument of 29 items distributed across three factors or subscales. These factors were compatible with the theoretical review done, and explained 63% of the construct’s

total variance, thus meeting Hair et al. (2009) criterion which specifies that a scale needs to have enough factors to explain about 60% of the construct variance. To assess the scale validity or quality of the items, the minimum acceptable load of the items was selected as .40 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012), and 100% of these items were classified as excellent, very good, and good (Comrey & Lee, 2013). All three factors showed high reliability, with alpha coefficients higher than .90 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 2006). Table 1 synthesizes the results obtained for the exploratory factor analysis.

Table 1 Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis Item

Factor 1 Positive Affect

WB13: Over the past six months, my work made me feel happy.

.91

WB17: Over the past six months, my work made me feel excited.

.88

WB1: Over the past six months, my work made me feel cheerful.

.79

WB11: Over the past six months, my work made me feel enthusiastic.

.78

WB19: Over the past six months, my work made me feel proud.

.73

WB4: Over the past six months, my work made me feel content.

.67

WB3: Over the past six months, my work made me feel willing.

.66

WB21: Over the past six months, my work made me feel calm.

.64

WB8: Over the past six months, my work made me feel active.

.60

Factor 2 Negative Affect

WB15: Over the past six months, my work made me feel distressed.

.85

WB9: Over the past six months, my work made me feel upset.

.83

WB6: Over the past six months, my work made me feel depressed.

.81

WB16: Over the past six months, my work made me feel jittery.

.81

WB20: Over the past six months, my work made me feel angry.

.81

WB18: Over the past six months, my work made me feel nervous.

.78

WB14: Over the past six months, my work made me feel frustrated.

.78

WB10: Over the past six months, my work made me feel impatient.

.77

WB5: Over the past six months, my work made me feel annoyed.

.72

WB2: Over the past six months, my work made me feel worried.

.70

WB12: Over the past six months, my work made me feel anxious.

.67

WB7: Over the past six months, my work made me feel bored.

.61

Factor Fulfillment

WB23: In my work, I achieve my potential.

.88

WB24: In my work, I develop abilities that I consider important.

.78

WB26: In my work, I engage in activities that express my skills.

.77

WB27: In my work, I overcome challenges.

.73

WB28: In my work, I achieve results that I regard as valuable.

.68

WB30: In my work, I advance in the goals I set for my life.

.67

WB22: In my work, I do what I really like doing.

.58

WB29: In my work, I express what is best in me.

.51

Percentage of variance (%)

37.0

19.9

6.04

Cronbach’s alpha (α)

.92

.94

.92

Demo, G., & Paschoal, T. (2016). Well-Being at Work Scale.

Study 2: Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Construct Validity

method used to estimate both models. The one-factor model had 88 parameters; with χ2(377) = 3101.18, p < .001 or NC = 8.22; CFI = .62; RMSEA = .13 (confidence interval from .13 to .14), according to Kline (2011). Therefore, the one-factor model provided unsatisfactory levels of fit. However, the hypothesized three-factor model was tested and confirmed as providing a good fit for all indices (Figure 1).

For the dimensionality assessment, two measurement models were tested and compared (Byrne, 2012): a one-factor model and a three-factor model structure obtained from the EFA. Two CFAs were run and the maximum likelihood

E2 .49 WB2

E6 .65

.47 WB5

E9 .47

WB6

WB7

.70

E10

.65 WB9

.69

.80

E12

.68

.26

.50 WB10

.81

E15

E14

WB12

.70 .51

.56 WB14

.75

.78

E16

E18

.61

.50

WB15

.70

WB16

.73

.58

WB1

.40

.79

.72 E13

WB13

E17

WB17

.48 WB19

E21

WB21

.40

.79

.47

.70 .60

E27 .57

WB28

.75

E26

WB27

.68

.78

.74

E24

WB26

.53

.85 .55

E19

.85

.71

WB11

.76 .77

.76

.61 E11

-.42

.82

WB8

.62 WB24

-.43

WB4

E23

WB23

WB3

.50 E8

E22 .60

.58 E4

.54 WB20

WB22

.62 E3

.53 WB18

.74

.68 E1

E20

.80

E28 .64

WB29

.75 WB30

E29 .57 E30

.36

Figure 1. Three-factor model for well-being at work. Note. Latent Variables: PA = Positive Affect, NA = Negative Affect, F = Fulfillment. Parameters: χ2(374) = 985.99, p < .001 or NC = 2.63; CFI = .92; RMSEA = .06.

The model had 93 parameters; with χ2(374) = 985.99, p < .001 or NC = 2.63; CFI = .92; RMSEA = .06 (confidence interval from .06 to .07). The factor loadings for the items in this confirmatory validation were between .51 and .85, thus showing good quality according to Comrey and Lee (2013). Therefore, taken together, the three-factor model was found to outperform the one-factor model on all measures. The results of these analyses suggested that well-being at work in United States organizations is a multi-dimensional construct with three dimensions. It is important to emphasize that in the confirmatory analysis, the same multifactorial structure of 29 items distributed across three factors was retained in agreement with the reviewed literature and with the exploratory validation, so the interpretation of the factors is the same as that displayed in Table 1. To assess the reliabilities

of the three Well-Being at Work subscales, Jöreskog’s rho was computed for each factor. Chin (2009) recommended that acceptable scores for the Jöreskog’s rho should be higher than 0.7. The results were very satisfactory, ranging from .91 through .93 for all three factors; positive affect (ϱ = .92), negative affect (ϱ = .93) and fulfillment (ϱ = .91). In this study, the construct validity of the WBW scale was examined through an assessment of the convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity. Convergent validity refers to the degree of agreement between two or more measures in the same construct. Hair et al. (2009) noted that there were several indicators for convergent validity; examination of the factor loadings, the factor reliabilities and the extracted variance. As discussed earlier, the reliability of all three factors was found to be above ϱ = .70, thus

PaidĂŠia, 26(63), 35-43

indicating appropriate convergence (Hair et al., 2009). In addition, all item loadings on the Well-Being at Work measure were significantly positive for their specified factors (Figure 2). Moreover, all 29 items had loadings over .5 (Hair et al., 2009) on the factors to which they were assigned, which indicated the good convergent validity of the scale. Hair et al. (2009) found that extracted variances over .5 (or 50%) suggested appropriate convergence and that all the three factors showed extracted variances higher than .5. Therefore, from our examination, the scales for the three dimensions of well-being at work had good convergent validity.

Discriminant validity indicates the degree to which the conceptually distinct construct measures differ. As outlined in Hair et al. (2009), the pairwise correlations between factors obtained from the three-factor correlated model were analyzed and compared with the variance extracted estimates for the dimensions making up each possible pair. Evidence of discriminant validity occurs when the extracted variance estimates exceed the square of the correlation between the factors making up each pair. The relatively high variance extracted for each factor compared to the square of the correlations between the factors indicated good discriminant validity (Table 2).

Table 2 Discriminant Validity

Factor

Positive Affect

Negative Affect

Positive Affect

.56

Negative Affect

.08

.52a

Fulfillment

.25

.05

Fulfillment

.56a

Note. Variance Extracted. a

Nomological validity is the ability of a scale to behave as expected with respect to the other constructs to which it is related. Nomological validity should be tested by examining whether the correlations between the constructs make sense to a theory of measurement (Hair et al., 2009). There are well-grounded theoretical reasons to expect a strong and positive association between Human Resources Management (HRM) policies and practices, organizational commitment and well-being at work (Guest & Conway, 2011; Nishii, Lepak, & Schneider, 2008; Traldi & Demo, 2012). Adopting

the instrument developed by Siqueira and Padovam (2008), for instance, Horta, Demo, and Roure (2012) found an association between HRM policies and well-being at work. Therefore, in the current context, nomological validity would be demonstrated if the scores for the HRM policies and practices measures were positively and significantly correlated with well-being at work. An assessment of the nomological validity of the WBW scale was conducted using the structural equation modeling analyses depicted in Figure 2.

.18

ERS

.07 1

EWBW

TDE

.18

EWC

.81 .77

.26 1

CBPA

.44

HRMPP

1.00

EPA .54

.87

WBW

-.47

.95

WC .70

ECBPA

-15

.78

.20

ETD&E

.14

.72

ENA -12

1.00

.30

Figure 2. Nomological validity. Note. Latent Variables: HRMPP = Human Resource Management Policies and Practices, WBW = Well-Being at Work. Parameters: Ď&#x2021;2(26) = 87.36, p < .001; NC = 3.36; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .09.

Demo, G., & Paschoal, T. (2016). Well-Being at Work Scale.

As far as the measurement model was concerned, the data in this study showed a satisfactory level of fit: 31 parameters, with χ2(26) = 87.36, p < .001 or NC = 3.36; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .09 (confidence interval from .07 to .11). Moreover, all nine items were significant and loaded as predicted for the respective factors. These results provide further evidence to suggest that the proposed scale validated in this study is a reliable operational measure for well-being at work. Also, through the analysis of our structural model, we verified that our data supported the assertion that there was a positive correlation between HRM policies and well-being at work (r = .87, p < .001). Consequently, there was evidence of nomological validity for the proposed WBW scale.

Discussion This paper reported on two studies on the development and validation of a measure of well-being at work (WBW) for US organizations. The WBWS was found to demonstrate a high degree of reliability and construct validity, which was consistent with the previous findings in Paschoal and Tamayo (2008) in terms of dimensions, explained variance for each factor and the item factor loadings. Nevertheless, even though previous analyses showed a satisfactory performance, it was also necessary to analyze the WBWS theoretical consistency or validity of expression to verify if the scale items were in line with the theoretical concepts used to support it. Our results supported the previous findings for wellbeing at work for the affective (hedonic) and cognitive (fulfillment) components (Paschoal & Tamayo, 2008).There was an observed tendency in previous research to develop more integrated frameworks (Taris & Schaufeli, 2015; Warr, 2007). Fave et al. (2011) noted that while the affective wellbeing component focuses on emotions and the cognitive component examines long-term processes of growth and selfactualization, both must be jointly evaluated. Organizations provide either opportunities for or restrictions on the ability of workers to reach their goals and develop their potential and are therefore environments conducive to both emotive expressions and fulfillment experiences (Paschoal & Tamayo, 2008). In this study, these affect and fulfillment dimensions were found to contribute to an explanation of the variance in well-being at work. For the affective dimension for work well-being, the organization of the items for the two factors was found to be in line with previous studies in terms of the affect structures at work (Daniels, 2000; Van Katwyk et al., 2000). Although it is possible to propose structures for the circumplex phenomenon and different factors for positive and negative emotions such as anxiety, comfort, pleasure, displeasure, enthusiasm and depression (Warr, 2007), research findings indicate that affect at work is consistently structured around two general positive and negative dimensions (Daniels, 2000; Van Katwyk et al., 2000), which were supported in the initial studies on the PANAS (Watson et al., 1988). The items in the WBWS are made up of the central dimensions of affect at work and encompass a wide range of emotions related to anxiety, comfort, pleasure, displeasure, enthusiasm

and depression, such as impatience, calmness, cheerfulness, annoyance, enthusiasm and frustration. One of the criticisms for the inclusion of fulfillment components in the measurement of well-being is the possibility of including variables related to well-being antecedents, such as autonomy and positive social relationships (Daniels, 2000). The WBSW items that measure fulfillment (“I express what is best in me,” for instance) are focused on the subjective experiences of the worker and not on the organizational characteristics that could influence these experiences. This task, therefore, has difficulties, as the construct is complex and wide ranging. According to Waterman et al. (2010), the measurement of the cognitive component of well-being should include self-discovery, perceived development of one’s best potential, a sense of purpose and meaning in life, and intense involvement in activities. The eight items for fulfillment that remained in the WBWS, such as “I express what is best in me,” “I overcome challenges” and “I Achieve my potential,” may only embrace the main elements. Further, the high factor loadings found for this factor gave evidence of its relevance to the operationalization of the phenomenon in question. However, the 29 items on the WBWS were found to have theoretical support as they corresponded to the previous research reviewed throughout this paper. Moreover, the WBWS allows researchers and managers to assess both the affective and cognitive dimensions of well-being at work and emphasize positive experiences, which have been neglected in many previous empirical studies. For the well-being at work predictors, previous research has highlighted that organizational variables can have a positive association with well-being at work. This study has shown this strong association between well-being and HRM practices, confirming previous studies (Horta et al., 2012; Nishii et al., 2008). Considering that the literature on the antecedents of well-being at work has been focused mainly on studies involving the affective well-being dimension only or have tended to mix the antecedents or related variables with well-being at work (Paschoal et al., 2010), the scale proposed here offers an alternative measure to fill the gap in the literature. The present study has both academic and practical contributions. First, we explored the different perspectives in the WBW, provided a clear conceptualization of the construct, and then developed a conceptual model which included the two most mentioned affective and cognitive components. Second, we provided empirical evidence for the testable scales, which proved to be both reliable and valid. This study provides a new theoretical insight into how wellbeing at work can be understood so as to provide increased positive experiences to employees. Third, this is one of the few attempts to approximate these phenomena to a specific work context. Fourth, the model was empirically tested and found to have substantial association with HRM policies and practices. Considering that well-being at work is essential for effective, competitive organizational functioning, our scale could be an important evaluation instrument for managers seeking to improve employee well-being at work. There are some limitations to this work. This study is

Paidéia, 26(63), 35-43

the first attempt to build and test a conceptual framework for well-being at work which includes both affective and cognitive (fulfillment) aspects. However, the first limitation is that the present findings are indicative rather than conclusive. In spite of the scale’s validation in Brazil, it would be useful to further assess the generalizability of the WBWS to other business environments in such places as Europe and Asia. Moreover, with more replicative and creative research, a more comprehensive conceptual framework related to wellbeing at work can be developed in the future. It is also important to consider the cultural bias implied in the definition of happiness or well-being at work. The idea of pleasure and fulfillment, for example, is focused on employees’ concern for themselves. This assumption is relevant to many Western cultures, such as the United Sates, and also appears to have been adequate for research in Brazil. Further studies, however, need to deepen each constituent element of the well-being dimensions for different cultures. Demographic variables such as age, gender, education, and variables related to occupational roles should also be considered to better understand well-being at work and its antecedents. Another limitation was that because of the cross-sectional nature of the data, questions regarding causality remained unanswered. This means that the relationships between HRM practices and well-being at work may not be interpreted as proof of a causal relationship, but rather as lending support for a prior causal scheme. The development of a time-series database and the testing of the HRM practices association with well-being at work in a longitudinal framework would provide more insights into probable causation. Considering the increased research attention paid to the positive direction organizations should adopt to enable and facilitate the development of both organizational and individual potential, this novel study provides a comprehensive operational measure that includes both affective and cognitive aspects for well-being at work.

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Gisela Demo is an Associate Professor of the Universidade de Brasília. Tatiane Paschoal is a Professor of the Universidade de Brasília. Received: Jan. 21, 2015 1st Revision: Apr. 15, 2015 2nd Revision: Apr. 23, 2015 Approved: May 29, 2015

How to cite this article: Demo, G., & Paschoal, T. (2016). Well-Being at Work Scale: Exploratory and confirmatory validation in the USA. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 35-43. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201605

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Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 45-52. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201606

Article

Impact of Job-Related Well-Being on the Relationship of Self-Efficacy With Burnout1 Clarissa Pinto Pizarro de Freitas2 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Claudia Sampaio Corrêa da Silva Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Sílvia Helena Koller Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Bruno Figueiredo Damásio Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil

Marco Antônio Pereira Teixeira Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil

Abstract: The levels of job-related affective well-being and occupational self-efficacy may act as protective factors against the development of burnout. Therefore, this study investigated the role of positive and negative affect as a mediator in the relations between occupational self-efficacy and the dimensions of burnout. The research participants were 584 professionals (87% female), mean age 37.8 (SD = 10.8). The results of the structural equation modeling analysis indicated that the relations of occupational self-efficacy with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization were completely mediated by positive and negative affect. The relation between occupational self-efficacy and personal accomplishment was partially mediated by positive affect. Occupational self-efficacy was positively associated to positive affect and negatively related to negative affect. This study adds by showing the importance of developing interventions that promote the experience of positive affect and reduction of negative affect in occupational settings as a preventive strategy of burnout. Keywords: self-efficacy, stress, well-being, occupational health

Impacto do Bem-Estar no Trabalho Sobre as Relações da Autoeficácia com Burnout Resumo: Os níveis de bem-estar afetivo e autoeficácia ocupacional podem atuar como fatores protetivos ao desenvolvimento de burnout. Em razão disso, este estudo investigou o papel dos afetos positivos e negativos como um mediador das relações entre a autoeficácia ocupacional e as dimensões de burnout. Participaram desta pesquisa 584 profissionais (87% mulheres), idade media 37,8 (DP = 10,8). Os resultados da análise de equações estruturais demonstraram que as relações da autoeficácia ocupacional com a exaustão emocional e despersonalização foram completamente mediadas pelos afetos negativos e positivos. As relações entre a autoeficácia ocupacional e a realização profissional foi parcialmente mediada pelos afetos positivos. A autoeficácia ocupacional esteve positivamente associada aos afetos positivos e negativamente aos afetos negativos. Este estudo acrescenta ao apresentar a importância de desenvolver intervenções que promovam a vivência de afetos positivos e redução dos afetos negativos no ambiente ocupacional como uma estratégia preventiva ao burnout. Palavras-chave: autoeficácia, stress, bem-estar, saúde ocupacional

Impacto del Bienestar en el Trabajo Sobre la Relación de la Autoeficacia con Burnout Resumen: Los niveles del bienestar afectivo y autoeficacia ocupacional pueden actuar como factores de protección para el burnout. Debido a esto, este estudio analizó el papel de los afectos positivos y negativos como un mediador de las relaciones entre la autoeficacia ocupacional y las dimensiones del burnout. Participaron en esta investigación 584 profesionales (87% mujeres), edad media 37,8 (DE = 10,8). Los resultados del análisis de ecuaciones estructurales demostraron que las relaciones de autoeficacia ocupacional con agotamiento emocional y con despersonalización fueron completamente mediadas por afectos negativos y positivos. Las relaciones entre autoeficacia ocupacional y realización profesional fueron parcialmente mediadas por afectos positivos. La autoeficacia ocupacional estuvo positivamente asociada a afectos positivos y negativamente a afectos negativos. El aporte de este estudio es resaltar la importancia de desarrollar intervenciones que promuevan la vivencia de afectos positivos y reducción de afectos negativos en el trabajo como una estrategia preventiva del burnout. Palabras clave: autoeficacia, estrés, bienestar, salud ocupacional

In Brazil, professionals engaged in the child and adolescent welfare network (e.g. psychologists, social Support: Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul / National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (FAPERGS/ CNPq PRONEX - Grant # 10/0019.6).

Correspondence address: Clarissa Pinto Pizarro de Freitas. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Centro de Estudos Psicológicos. Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600, sala 104. CEP 90035-003. Porto Alegre-RS, Brazil. E-mail: freitas.cpp@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

workers, teachers and social educators) are responsible for meeting the multiple demands of populations in vulnerable situations. Interventions developed by these professionals are generally aimed at preventing acts of violence, protecting victims and promoting healthy development (Freitas & Habigzang, 2013). Despite the social relevance of these professionals, they are generally exposed to high levels of demand, conflicting demands, time pressure and poor working conditions (e.g. low levels of autonomy, poor work

Paidéia, 26(63), 45-52

infrastructure). Moreover, they often lack the necessary professional qualifications to develop their work activities properly, nor do they receive the necessary support to address work demands that are emotionally exhausting (Damásio, Habigzang, Freitas, & Koller, 2014). According to the Job Demand and Resources Model (JDR), occupational conditions may impact the health and wellbeing of workers (Schaufeli, Dijkstra, & Vazquez, 2013). The JD-R proposes that occupational conditions can be categorized as demand and resources. The dimension demand refers to organizational aspects that require continuous efforts, such as physical, cognitive and/or emotional exertion. These efforts are associated with physiological and/or emotional costs. In turn, the resources are characterized as aspects that enable the development of the individual and the realization of his/her tasks. These resources can be personal, such as self-esteem and self-efficacy, or organizational, like social support and control over work (Schaufeli et al., 2013). The JD-R proposes that the demands and resources can evoke two independent processes, the health impairment process and the motivational process. The health impairment process is related to high levels of demand and low levels of resources. These working conditions may cause lower levels of well-being at work and the development of burnout. On the other hand, the motivation process is related to the availability of resources at work. This process is associated with higher levels of well-being at work and can promote engagement at work (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006; Schaufeli et al., 2013). The poor working conditions to which most Brazilian Child and Adolescent Welfare Network professionals are usually exposed can originate the health impairment process, reducing their job satisfaction levels (Costa & Ferreira, 2014), and may result in the development of burnout (Carlotto, Dias, Batista, & Diehl, 2015). The emotional and cognitive distancing from work that is characteristic of burnout (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001) may lead affected professionals to be negligent regarding important work-related issues. These professionals can improperly value the difficulties experienced by the assisted populations, which might impair the quality of the service provided and reduce the possibility of effective interventions (Damásio et al., 2014). Burnout constitutes an occupational syndrome in which professionals have high levels of emotional exhaustion, negative attitudes towards their work activities and a tendency to negatively evaluate their ability to perform their occupational tasks. Emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization (Dp) and personal accomplishment (PAc) characterize the dimensions of burnout symptoms (Maslach et al., 2001; Van Beek, Hu, Schaufeli, Taris, & Schreurs, 2012). In the health impairment process, professionals who do not have personal and work-related resources may be more prone to experiencing lower levels of job-related affective well-being and to developing burnout. Among professionals’ personal characteristics, occupational self-efficacy (OSE) has been found negatively related to burnout (Carlotto et al., 2015; Consiglio, Borgogni, Alessandri, & Schaufeli, 2013). OSE can be defined as an individual’s perception of his/her abilities to perform his/her work tasks and effectively manage conflicts at work (Bandura, 2000; Rigotti, Schyns, & Mohr, 2008).

Professionals who have high levels of OSE generally adapt better to the work environment, are able to positively evaluate high levels of work demand (Bandura, 2000; Consiglio et al., 2013), experience positive emotions more often and develop the motivational process (Salanova, Llorens, & Schaufeli, 2011; Schaufeli et al., 2013). As a result, professionals with high levels of OSE may be at lower risk of experiencing the health impairment process (Schaufeli et al., 2013) and developing burnout (Carlotto et al., 2015; Consiglio et al., 2013). The health impairment process also proposes that professionals who face poor work conditions and experience a lack of personal resources show lower levels of job-related affective well-being. In turn, professionals who show higher levels of self-efficacy would be more prone to developing the motivational process and experiencing higher levels of job-related affective well-being (Schaufeli et al., 2013). In the same direction, studies have evidenced that OSE can predict the levels of positive and negative affect experienced by professionals (Salanova et al., 2011; Williams, Wissing, Rothmann, & Temane, 2010). That is, professionals with higher levels of OSE experience higher levels of positive affect and lower levels of negative affect. This result indicates that OSE may protect people from a variety of stressors, including the inability to address work demands, in addition to promoting positive affect, such as feelings of professional accomplishment and competence (Llorens-Gumbau & Salanova-Soria, 2014). Besides the role of OSE in the outcomes of health impairment and motivational process, studies have shown that levels of job-related affective well-being (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006) have an important role as a protective factor against the development of burnout. Job-related affective well-being is characterized by the prevalence of job-related positive affect rather than negative affect. Positive affect (PA) is characterized by pleasant feelings, commitment to and satisfaction in developing work activities. Negative affect (NA) constitutes a state of subjective suffering and the lack of commitment to and pleasure in developing occupational activities (Van Katwyk, Spector, Fox, & Kelloway, 2000). Higher levels of job-related affective well-being are associated with the development of positive relationships with coworkers, development of motivational process, and a lower risk of developing health impairment process and burnout (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006). The presence of positive aspects in the work environment, such as personal resources (e.g. OSE) and PA, may promote the motivational process. In turn, the motivational process is associated with the development of gain spirals at work (Schaufeli et al., 2013). A gain spiral at work can be defined as a set of cyclical relationships in which different positive dimensions are associated (e.g. OSE and PA), and the benefits associated with these positive dimensions are amplified over time (e.g. improved performance, increased levels of OSE, positive relationships with coworkers) (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000; Llorens-Gumbau & Salanova-Soria, 2014). Due to the benefits produced by the gain spirals at work, workers who have significant resources tend to create new resources

Freitas, C. P. P., Silva, C. S. C., Damásio, B. F., Koller, S. H., & Teixeira, M. A. P. (2016). Well-Being, Self-Efficacy and Burnout.

as well as overcome conflicting situations where resource availability may be hindered (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000). In contrast to the motivational process, the health impairment process may promote loss spirals (Schaufeli et al., 2013). The loss spirals occur when professionals do not receive the benefits associated with their investments, e.g., an inability to properly recover from exhaustive work shifts due to job insecurity (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000). Because resources are connected, the loss of one resource negatively impacts the availability of others. Thus, the loss of one significant resource can lead to a set of losses, hindering the ability to maintain resources or to obtain new ones. This scenario of cyclical losses may result in illness, which is observed in the development of burnout (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000). Studies evidenced the role of self-efficacy in the health impairment and motivational process (Schaufeli et al., 2013), especially its effect over levels of job-related affective wellbeing (Williams et al., 2010) and burnout (Carlotto et al., 2015). For this reason, the current study aimed to investigate whether the relationships among levels of occupational selfefficacy and the dimensions of burnout (EE, Dp and PAc) are mediated by job-related affective well-being scores (PA and NA). The study hypotheses were that: (a) OSE predicts PA and NA; (b) PA and NA predicts EE, Dp and PAc; and (c) the relationship between PA and NA with EE, Dp and PAc will be fully mediated by OSE.

Method Participants A total of 584 professionals (87% women) with a mean age of 37.8 years (SD = 11 years) participated in this study. The participants were workers in institutions that assist populations in vulnerable situations (e.g. schools, hospitals, social service centers, foster care institutions) in six regions of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Among the participants, 42% worked in the metropolitan region, 5% Northwest, 40% Central-West and 13% South. The professionals had worked in their institutions for a period of time that ranged from one month to 36 years. Note that 8% of the participants was working in the institution for at most six months, 27% was working for six to 24 months, and 65% for more than 24 months. Among the participants, 15% had completed secondary school, 51% had an undergraduate degree, and 34% had a graduate degree. Men and women presented similar working time (women, 8% was working six months at most, 26% was working for six to 24 months, and 66% for more than 24 moths, men, 5% was working six months at most, 23% was working for six to 24 months, and 45% for more than 24 moths) and educational level (women, 15% had completed secondary school, 50% had an undergraduate degree, and 35% had a graduate degree: men, 23% had completed secondary school, 55% had an undergraduate degree, and 22% had a graduate degree). A total of 21% worked as primary and secondary teachers, 25% worked as guardianship counselors, 2% as nurses, 18% worked as practical nurses, 4% worked as psychologists,

7% worked as social workers, 12% educational supervisors, 9% worked in administrative functions and 2% worked as police officers. In this study, a non-probability sampling technique was applied. Since convenience sampling was used, including all professionals who agreed to collaborate in the research was preferred, not excluding them by the work time or educational level. This procedure strengthened the ecological validity of the study, despite the fact that this enlarged the range of the work time and educational level among participants. Instruments Maslach Burnout Inventory - MBI (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) adapted by Lautert, (1995). This scale assesses burnout levels through the dimensions of EE, Dp and PAc. The original version of the scale exhibited satisfactory Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficients (EEE, α = .90, Dp, α = .77, and PAc, α = .74) (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). In the Brazilian version of the MBI, the α coefficients were similarly satisfactory (EE, α = .86; Dp, α = .69; and PAc, α = .76) (Lautert, 1995). Each item was answered according to a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The Brazilian version of MBI does not have cut-off point for interpreting the results (Lautert, 1995). The higher the scores in the EE and Dp dimensions, and the lower the scores in the PAc dimension, the higher the burnout levels. In the current study, the following fit indices of the instrument were: Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .93; Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) = .92; and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) (90% confidence interval [CI]) = .074 [.069, .079]. The scale exhibited appropriate internal consistency in the research sample (EE, α = .87 and PAc, α = .76), except for Dp (α = .54). The number of items influences the α coefficient, as low levels of the α coefficient in Dp scale may be due to the reduced items numbers of this subscale.

Notwithstanding, the confirmatory fit indices suggest the adequacy of the factor structure of the scale.

Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale - Short Form - OSSSF (Rigotti et al., 2008) adapted by Damásio, Freitas, and Koller (2014). This scale assesses levels of OSE. The original scale has a one-factor structure consisting of six items with satisfactory Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (α = .90) (Rigotti et al., 2008). In the Brazilian validation study (Damásio et al., 2014), a one-factor structure with adequate internal consistency (α = .78) was observed. The items are answered on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). In this sample, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients and fit indices of the instrument were satisfactory, suggesting adequacy of the scale: α = .80; CFI = .97; TLI = .94; and RMSEA (90% CI) = .061 [.036, .089]. Job-Related Affective Well-being Scale - JAWS (Van Katwyk et al., 2000) adapted by Gouveia, Fonsêca, Lins, Lima, and Gouveia (2008). This scale assesses the PA and NA experienced at work. The original version of the scale uses 15 items to assess PA and 15 items to assess NA. This instrument exhibits a two-factor structure and demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency (PA, α = .94, and NA, α = .87). A short version of the JAWS (Gouveia et al., 2008) was

Paidéia, 26(63), 45-52

used that consisted of 12 items, including six items to assess PA and six items to assess NA. The short version maintained a two-factor structure of the instrument, and the internal consistency indices obtained were adequate (PA, α = .78, and NA, α = .80). The questions are answered on a fivepoint scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). In this study, the expected two solution presented excellent internal consistencies and goodness-of-fit indices: PA, α = .86; NA, α = .82; CFI = .98; TLI = .97; RMSEA (90% CI) = .068 [.057, .078]; SRMR = .036. Procedure Data collection. The workers were contacted through the study “Impact Assessment of Professional Training for the Child and Adolescent Welfare Network Workers in the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul.” In this study, professionals in six cities of the state of Rio Grande do Sul were trained on human rights, the definition and consequences of domestic violence, interventions developed for the assistance of populations in vulnerable situations and conflict mediation. In addition to promoting professional qualifications, this study assessed the workers’ characteristics that influenced their decisions to apply the contents learned during training in their professional practices. Nine training courses were developed during the research. The classes of each training course were composed of 50 to 70 professionals. Data collection occurred in the first module. The coordinator of the research and two research assistants collected the data. The questionnaires were collectively applied in auditoriums and classrooms. Participants received the instruments after signing the Informed Consent Form. The mean time for participants to answer the instruments was 30 minutes. Data analysis. The normality of the data for each scale was initially assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The correlations between the dimensions of burnout (EE, Dp and PAc), PA and NA scores at work and OSE levels were investigated. Because the data were non-normally distributed, Spearman’s rho correlations were performed. No multicollinearity was found. The analyses above cited were performed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 21.0 (SPSS 21.0). To further analyze the correlational results, a multiplemediation structural equation modeling was implemented to evaluate a theoretical model in which the relationships between OSE and burnout levels would be fully mediated by levels of PA and NA. The model evaluated the causally defined direct and indirect effects in the mediational model. Effects of gender, work time and educational level were controlled in the model. The structural equation modeling was implemented in Mplus version 7.1, using the Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV) estimation method, which is useful for non-normally distributed ordinal data. To calculate the mediation effects, the bootstrapping technique (5,000 re-samplings) was used to calculate the 95% confidence interval of the mediated effect (Muthén &

Asparouhov, 2015). To assess the global model, the RMSEA, CFI and TLI fit indices were considered. According to the guidelines, RMSEA value should range between .06 and .08 (with the 90% confidence interval not exceeding .10). The CFI and TLI values should be higher than .90 (preferably higher than .95) (Brown, 2006). Ethical Considerations In the first module of the training program, the participants were invited to participate in the study and received a copy of the Informed Consent Form, being informed that their participation was voluntary. Those workers who agreed to participate answered the instruments after signing the Informed Consent Form. This study received approval from the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Ritter dos Reis (UniRitter), in June 11, 2010.

Results Table 1 shows the descriptive data and correlations between variables. EE and Dp showed positive moderate relationships with the level of NA and negative moderate associations with the level of PA and of low-to-moderate magnitude with OSE. PAc, in turn, showed a positive moderate relationship with PA and OSE, and a negative moderate association with NA. The OSE level presented positive and moderated associations with PA and negative moderated associations with levels of NA. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Spearman’s Rho Correlations Between Burnout Dimensions, Occupational Self-Efficacy, Positive and Negative Affect at Work Constructs

M (SD)

1. EE

2.2 (.6)

2. Dp

1.6 (.5)

.43**

3. PAc

4.1 (.5)

-.49** -.32**

4. OSE

24.4 (3.6) -.34** -.15**

.49**

5. PA

4.3 (.6)

-.58** -.27**

.55**

6. NA

2.4 (.9)

.64**

-.37** -.26** -.47**

.34**

.37**

Note. OSE = occupational self-efficacy, EE = emotional exhaustion, Dp = depersonalization, PAc = personal accomplishment, PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect. **p < .001.

To further assess the results, a structural equation modeling was performed to assess whether the PA and NA could mediate the relationships between OSE and burnout levels. The fit indices in the final model were satisfactory

Freitas, C. P. P., Silva, C. S. C., Damásio, B. F., Koller, S. H., & Teixeira, M. A. P. (2016). Well-Being, Self-Efficacy and Burnout.

(c2 = 1969.80, df = 836, c2/df = 2.35, CFI = .94, TLI = .94, RMSEA (90% CI) = .048 [.045, .051]), suggesting the model’s acceptability. The mediation results showed that PA

and NA mediate almost all relationships between OSE and indicators of burnout (Table 2).

Table 2 Mediation Effects of Positive and Negative Affect in the Relationship Between Occupational Self-Efficacy and Burnout Indicators (N = 584) Total effect

p-value

OSE à EE

-.412

.000

OSE à DP

-.286

.000

OSE à PAc

.664

.000

Specific indirect effects

95% CI

p-value

% of mediated specific effect

OSE à EE via PA

-.153

[-.226, -.079]

.000

37.13%

OSE à EE via NA

-.183

[-.261, -.106]

.000

44.41%

OSE à DP via PA

-.062

[-.155, .030]

.098

21.67% (n.s.)

OSE à DP via NA

-.147

[-.230, -.064]

.000

51.39%

OSE à PAc via PA

-.243

[-.162, .325]

.000

36.59%

OSE à PAc via NA

-.018

[-.028, -.063]

.350

2.71% (n.s.)

% of mediated total effect 81.54% 73.06% 39.30%

Note. OSE = occupational self-efficacy; EE = emotional exhaustion; DP = depersonalization; PAc = personal accomplishment; PA = positive affect; NA = negative affect.

As shown in Table 2, both PA and NA significantly mediated the relationship between OSE and indicators of burnout. A percentage analysis of the mediated effect showed that the NA had the greatest influence on the model, especially in the relationship of OSE with EE and DP, explaining up to half of the direct relationship between OSE and these indicators (44.41% and 51.39%, respectively). For PAc, however, the levels of NA did not significantly mediate the direct relationship between OSE and PAc. PA also significantly influenced the direct relationship between OSE with EE (37.13%) and PAc (36.59%). Levels of PA did not significantly mediate the direct relationship

Positive Affect

-.338**

between OSE and Dp. Furthermore, the relationship of OSE to EE and Dp was fully mediated by PA and NA. This was evidenced in the results, showing that the direct effect between these variables became non-significant after the inclusion of the mediators (OSE à EE, b = .076, n.s.; OSE à Dp, b = .076, n.s.) (Figure 1). Gender, educational level and work time did not affect the relation among OSE and PA and NA at work. On the other hand, relations between EE with educational level and work time, as well as Dp with educational level were found (p < .001). However, these relations showed low magnitude, which indicates an absence of relevant effect (Figure 1).

Emotional Exhaustion

Gender

-.051 (n.s.)

-.138 (n.s.)

.071 (n.s.)

.539**

.009 (n.s.)

.451**

.393**

-.496** -.076 (n.s)

.130*

-.326**

Occupational Self-efficacy

Depersonalization

-.076 (n.s)

-.099 (n.s.)

Scholarity

-.111*

.404** -.445** -.359**

.152* .511** -.018 (n.s.)

.411**

NegativeAffect

-.049 (n.s)

Personal Accomplishment

-.020*

Time of Work

Figure 1. Relationship between occupational self-efficacy, job-related affective well-being (positive and negative affect) and burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal accomplishment; N = 584). The figure is a representational graph. The items that compose each dimension are not shown to keep the chart simple and parsimonious. The effects between OSE and burnout dimensions are the direct effects (c’) after controlling for the mediated effects. *p < .05. **p < .001. ***p < .001.

Paidéia, 26(63), 45-52

Discussion Low levels of the EE and Dp burnout dimensions, in addition to high levels of PAc, were observed in the present study. Analysis of the levels of OSE, PA and NA of the participants indicated that the participants exhibited high levels of OSE and PA and low levels of NA. The relationships between OSE and PA experienced at work evidenced that OSE and PA can be established as a resource, contributing to the engagement of professionals with their work (LlorensGumbau & Salanova-Soria, 2014; Salanova et al., 2011) and to the development of the motivational process (Schaufeli et al., 2013). Furthermore, the relationship of OSE with PA and NA indicate that OSE has an impact over professionals’ evaluations of their working conditions and levels of jobrelated affective well-being (Consiglio et al., 2013; Damásio et al., 2014). These results corroborate the first hypothesis of the study, that: (a) self-efficacy explains PA and NA. Thus, professionals with higher levels of OSE tend to have higher levels of job-related PA and lower levels of NA (Salanova et al., 2011; Williams et al., 2010). These findings demonstrate the importance of these professionals working in an environment that enables the development of their potential so that greater environmental mastery can be achieved, which constitutes one of the major facets of psychological wellbeing (Ryff, 2014). The protective role of PA and the contribution of NA to the development of burnout were demonstrated in this study, showing the role of job-related affective well-being on the development of motivational process and health impairment process. The results obtained indicate that job-related affective well-being levels (both PA and PA) fully mediate the relationships between OSE levels and the dimensions of EE and Dp. The association of OSE with the dimension of PAc was partially mediated by the levels of PA. These relationships illustrate that affect plays a crucial role in the development of burnout (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006), as proposed in the second and third study hypotheses: (b) PA and NA explain EE, Dp and PAc; and (c) the relationship between PA and NA with EE, Dp and PAc is fully mediated by OSE. The moderate magnitude of the associations between NA, EE and Dp found in this study clarify the connection between NA and the negative aspects of work such as exhaustion, emotional distance and negative attitudes toward work demands (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006). The association between PA and PAc indicates that PA is associated with positive attitudes toward work (Salanova et al., 2011; Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006). This hypothesis is reinforced by the low magnitude of the relationship between NA and PAc because this dimension of burnout refers to the positive aspects of the relationship of the professional with the work (Schaufeli, Taris, & van Rhenen, 2008). Consistent with these results, empirical evidence (Schaufeli et al., 2008, 2013) has demonstrated that PAc exhibits a stronger relationship with engagement compared with burnout. The relationship between OSE and PAc was partially mediated by PA, whereas NA did not contribute to explain this dimension. These relationships were different from the

relationships observed between OSE and PA with EE and Dp. The differences found may be associated with the fact that the dimension of PAc develops as a consequence of the interaction of the central dimensions of burnout with the personal characteristics of the professional (Salanova et al., 2000). In other words, it is possible that the affect experienced at work has a minimal impact on the development of low levels of PAc because such low levels result from the health impairment process, in which a chronic process of exhaustion occurs and emotional distancing between the professional and his/her work. Another aspect that justifies the contribution of OSE to the development of PAc is the similarity between these dimensions, because both refer to the evaluation of professionals regarding their abilities to manage work demands (Maslach et al., 2001). Evidence observed in previous studies (Carlotto et al., 2015; Consiglio et al., 2013) suggests that OSE could be used as a predictor of the dimensions of EE, Dp and PAc. However, the present study demonstrated that the relationships between this personal characteristic (OSE) and the dimensions of burnout were either fully (EE and Dp) or partially (PAc) mediated by PA and NA. These results evidence the complexity of the motivational process and health impairment process (Schaufeli et al., 2013). For example, professionals with lower levels of self-efficacy may consider their job demands as exhausting, as a consequence of that, they tend to show higher levels of NA. Thus, the prevalence of NA associated to low levels of OSE and poor work conditions increase the likelihood of burnout development (Salanova et al., 2011; Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006). Thus, burnout can be evaluated as a work psychopathology, resulting from exposure to stressful situations and continuous experiences of NA at work (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006). The positive correlations between positive dimensions experienced at work (e.g., PA, OSE and PAc) demonstrated the possibility for professionals to develop the motivational process, which involves the experience gain spirals at work. The gain spirals at work occur when workers exhibit the desire to maintain or increase their work resources (e.g., salary, OSE and positive relationships with the coworkers). To avoid impairment of their available resources and maintain the motivational process, professionals invest their resources at work expecting to strengthen or create new resources (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000; Salanova et al., 2011). The relationship between the central dimensions of burnout and NA, in turn, indicate that negative working conditions can cause health impairment process, which include the loss spirals at work (Salanova et al., 2011). These findings demonstrate how the lack of work resources can reduce the experience of PA at work and increase the presence of NA, thus contributing to the development of the health impairment process, as well as burnout (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2000; Schaufeli et al., 2013). The findings of this and other studies (Salanova et al., 2011; Schaufeli et al., 2013) have indicated that positive aspects of work potentiate the motivational process, which involves positive outcomes and higher levels of well-being among professionals. On the other hand, negative aspects

Freitas, C. P. P., Silva, C. S. C., Damásio, B. F., Koller, S. H., & Teixeira, M. A. P. (2016). Well-Being, Self-Efficacy and Burnout.

potentiate the health impairment process, which includes negative outcomes and lower levels of well-being among professionals. However, more than that, PA apparently exhibits less potential to promote the motivational process and protect against negative aspects, in the same way as NA exhibits greater potential to exacerbate the health impairment process and negative aspects compared with reducing positive aspects. This study shows that professionals who frequently experience low levels of PA and high levels of NA are at risk of developing the health impairment process and burnout. In order to prevent professionals from developing the health impairment process, it is important to enable them to experience PA at work. Thus, it is important to develop interventions that promote the development of the motivational process, involving the experience of PA and reduce NA, as a strategy to prevent burnout because high levels of PA at work can be a protective factor against the development of burnout (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006). Furthermore, professionals who have more positive experiences at work tend to display higher professional engagement (Schaufeli & van Rhenen, 2006) and invest their professional resources (e.g. task commitment and overtime work) in work activities. Such workers demonstrate higher investments because of the motivational process, as they expect their actions to have a positive impact on their personal development and on the development of the institution (Damásio et al., 2014). Despite the contributions presented herein, the current study has some limitations. The exclusive use of self-reported instruments, which were applied due to the characteristics of the evaluated constructs (burnout, OSE and PA and NA) can be considered a limitation of the data collection procedure. Furthermore, another limitation was that most of the participants were female. Nonetheless, it is important to note that the sample included professionals of different ages, education levels and work experience who had worked in the areas of health, education and social assistance. The diversity of the sample evaluated (e.g. different ages, education levels and work experience) may be seen as strengths of the study, since it increases the ecological validity of the results. Other studies that replicate the data presented here should be developed, as well as longitudinal studies to assess the existence of causal relationships between the variables. Another limitation of this study was the low level of internal consistency of the Dp dimension of MBI Brazilian version. Nevertheless, besides the lower than expected levels of the alpha coefficient, the fit indices of the model as a whole were satisfactory, suggesting that the MBI Brazilian version is a reliable measure for burnout. Future studies should investigate the Dp factor of MBI Brazilian version, in order to make it more accurate. The findings of this study showed that PA and NA fully mediate the relationships between the burnout dimensions of EE and Dp and OSE and partially mediate the relationship between the burnout dimension of PAc and OSE. The results suggest that more in-depth analyses of the relationships between OSE and burnout should be performed to confirm the role of PA and NA in the development of this occupational syndrome. Accordingly, further studies are needed to expand our knowledge of burnout predictors.

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[Professional exhaustion: empirical study with nurses who work in hospitals]. Revista Gaúcha de Enfermagem, 18(2), 133-144. Llorens-Gumbau, S., & Salanova-Soria, M. (2014). Loss and gain cycles? A longitudinal study about burnout, engagement and self-efficacy. Burnout Research, 1(1), 3-11. doi:10.1016/j.burn.2014.02.001 Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1986). Maslach Burnout Inventory (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397-422. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397 Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2015). Causal effects in mediation modeling: An introduction with applications to latent variables. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 22(1), 12-23. doi:10.1080/10 705511.2014.935843 Rigotti, T., Schyns, B., & Mohr, G. (2008). A short version of the occupational self-efficacy scale: Structural and construct validity across five countries. Journal of Career Assessment, 16(2), 238-255. doi:10.1177/1069072707305763 Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of Eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83(1), 10-28. doi:10.1159/000353263 Salanova, M., Llorens, S., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). “Yes, I can, I feel good, and I just do it!” On gain cycles and spirals of efficacy beliefs, affect, and engagement. Applied Psychology, 60(2), 255-285. doi:10.1111/j.14640597.2010.00435.x Schaufeli, W. B., Dijkstra, P., & Vazquez, A. C. (2013). Engajamento no trabalho [Engagement at Work]. São Paulo, SP: Casa do Psicólogo. Schaufeli, W. B., Taris, T. W., & van Rhenen, W. (2008). Workaholism, burnout, and work engagement: Three of a kind or three different kinds of employee well-being? Applied Psychology, 57(2), 173-203. doi:10.1111/j.14640597.2007.00285.x Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2006). Over de rol van positieve en negatieve emoties bij het welbevinden van managers: Een studie met de Job-related Affective Wellbeing Scale (JAWS) [On the role of positive and negative emotions in the well-being of managers: A study of the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS)]. Gedrag en Organisatie, 19(4), 323-344. Van Beek, I., Hu, Q., Schaufeli, W. B., Taris, T. W., & Schreurs, B. H. J. (2012). For fun, love, or money: What drives workaholic, engaged, and burned-out employees at work? Applied Psychology, 61(1), 30-55. doi:10.1111/ j.1464-0597.2011.00454.x Van Katwyk, P. T., Fox, S., Spector, P. E., & Kelloway, E. K. (2000). Using the Job-Related Affective Well-Being Scale (JAWS) to investigate affective responses to work stressors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 219-230. doi:10.1037//1076-8998.5.2.219

Williams, S.-A., Wissing, M. P., Rothmann, S., & Temane, Q. M. (2010). Self-efficacy, work, and psychological outcomes in a public service context. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 20(1), 53-60. Clarissa Pinto Pizarro de Freitas is a Ph.D. candidate of the Graduate Program in Psychology at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Claudia Sampaio Corrêa da Silva is a Ph.D. candidate of the Graduate Program in Psychology at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Bruno Figueiredo Damásio is an Assistant Professor of the Instituto de Psicologia at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Sílvia Helena Koller is a Full Professor of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Marco Antônio Pereira Teixeira is a Full Professor of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Received: Jan. 20, 2015 1st Revision: July 9, 2015 Approved: Aug. 13, 2015

How to cite this article: Freitas, C. P. P., Silva, C. S. C., Damásio, B. F., Koller, S. H., & Teixeira, M. A. P. (2016). Impact of job-related well-being on the relationship of self-efficacy with burnout. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 45-52. doi:10.1590/198243272663201606

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 53-61. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201607

Article

Form Quality in Rorschach Comprehensive System and R-PAS: Sample of Psychiatric Cases1 Latife Yazigi2 Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil Roberta Katz Abela Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Norma Lottenberg Semer Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil Tatiana Gottlieb Lerman Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Maria Luiza de Matos Fiore Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil Thaís Cristina Marques Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Abstract: The creation of the Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS) requires research that allows its use in the Brazilian population. The Formal Quality (FQ) category is essential both for clinic and research. The aim of this study was to compare form quality variables in Rorschach protocols from psychiatric patients and ratings coded in the Comprehensive System (CS) and R-PAS. The sample comprised 206 Rorschach protocols from adult patients in psychiatric treatment, who were also assessed by SCID-I and SCID-II. Most protocols were administered in the CS and recoded according to the R-PAS. The kappa coefficient was calculated, and we compared the means of these variables in both systems. The kappa results varied from almost perfect to substantial consistency for all variables, however, the descriptive statistics confirmed that the R-PAS elicits more FQ ordinary coding while the CS elicits more FQ minus coding. Keywords: psychological assessment, Rorschach test, projective techniques, psychiatric patients

Qualidade Formal do Rorschach Sistema Compreensivo e R-PAS: Amostra de Casos Psiquiátricos Resumo: A criação do Sistema de Avaliação de Desempenho do Rorschach (R-PAS) requer estudos que possibilitem o uso na população brasileira. A qualidade formal (FQ) é uma categoria imprescindível na clínica e na pesquisa. O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar variáveis de FQ de protocolos de Rorschach de pacientes psiquiátricos codificados pelo Sistema Compreensivo (SC) e pelo R-PAS. A amostra foi de 206 protocolos de Rorschach de pacientes adultos em tratamento psiquiátrico, que foram avaliados também pela SCID-I e SCID-II. A maioria dos protocolos foi aplicada pelo SC e recodificados de acordo com o R-PAS. O coeficiente kappa foi calculado, e foram comparadas as médias dessas variáveis nos dois sistemas. Os resultados do kappa variaram de concordância quase perfeita até consistência substancial para todas as variáveis, no entanto, as estatísticas descritivas confirmaram que o R-PAS provoca mais codificação de FQ ordinária e, o SC, de FQ menos. Palavras-chave: avaliação psicológica, teste de Rorschach, técnicas projetivas, pacientes psiquiátricos

Calidad Formal del Sistema Comprehensivo de Rorschach y R-PAS: Muestra de Casos Psiquiátricos Resumen: La creación del Sistema de Evaluación del Desempeño de Rorschach (R-PAS) requiere estudios para su uso en la población brasileña. La calidad formal (FQ) es una categoría esencial en la clínica y la investigación. El objetivo del estudio fue comparar variables de FQ de protocolos de Rorschach codificados por el Sistema Comprehensivo y R-PAS. La muestra consistió de 206 protocolos de Rorschach de pacientes adultos en tratamiento psiquiátrico, que también fueron evaluados por la SCID-I y SCIDII. La mayoría de los protocolos fue aplicada en el SC y re-codificados de acuerdo con el R-PAS. Se calculó el coeficiente kappa y se comparó el promedio de estas variables en los dos sistemas. Los resultados de kappa se variaron desde concordancia casi perfecta hasta consistencia considerable para todas las variables, pero las estadísticas descriptivas confirmaron que el R-PAS provoca más codificación de FQ ordinaria y el SC de FQ menos. Palabras clave: evaluación psicológica, test de Rorschach, técnicas proyectivas, pacientes psiquiátricos

Support: São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP - Grant # 2011/02938-0), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq Grant # 303491/12013-2).

Correspondence address: Latife Yazigi. Rua Manoel Guedes, 385, apto. 11. CEP 04536-070. São Paulo-SP, Brazil. E-mail: lyazigi@aclnet.com.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Rorschach (1942/1981), referring to his Psychodiagnostics, conveyed that it was conceived from an experiment “consisting in the interpretation of accidental forms, that is, of non-specific forms” (p. 15), and that the inkblots needed to fulfill some gestalt requirements of the composition to prevent the figure from being rejected because

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it is regarded as “simply an ink-blot” (p. 15). Therefore, the crucial point of his method was “the chance forms” (p. 16) of the unstructured stimuli. He explained that the interpretation of the figure is mainly determined by the form of the blot and that the individual, after looking at the blot, turns to himself to examine his own visual memories in order to find an image, that in its form matches the entire figure or part of it. Therefore, the form perception in the Rorschach test was since its beginning an important issue. We quote: in order to avoid subjective evaluation statistical methods were used. Form answers given by a large number of normal subjects (100) were used as the norm and basis. From this a definite range of normal form visualization could be defined, and a large number of frequently recurring answers were collected. These were called ‘good forms’ (F+) . . . those which are less clear are F-. (Rorschach, 1942/1981, p. 23) He also provided data on the empirical relationships he found in clinical cases, such as that depressed mood increases the acuity of form perception, while excitement reduces it. Thus he noticed that good form answers involved the capacity to maintain attention throughout the test, and when this capacity is present clear perceptions are possible. According to him, good form answers involved four abilities (a) to maintain attention during the test, which involves an ability to concentrate that makes possible clear perceptions, (b) to have sharp engrams, (c) to recall into consciousness clear memory images, (d) to select the most fitting of the various similar images or engrams which result from looking at the stimuli. The last ability involves a complex associative process, which depends upon the attention which must now focus on both the external stimuli and the arising memory images or engrams as well. This functioning must, at the same time, furnish a control of the perceptive processes, and control criticism of the interpretation. However, the incorporated engrams also need both to be sharp, because if the recalled images are not exact, accurate form visualization will be difficult. Thus, “a high percentage of good forms presumes the ability to recall into consciousness, to ‘bring to mind’ clear memory images” (Rorschach, 1942/1981, p. 57). There must also be a capability to select the most fitting among the various similar images that arise. Therefore, attention must focus not only on the external figures, but on the storage memory images too. Consequently, this functioning should provide a control of the perceptive process as well as selfcriticism of the interpretations. The author concluded that when all these capacities are present ‘to the maximum’, the best forms ought to be seen in the protocols, and that the F+% reveals the clearness of certain associative processes, the length of the attention span, and the ability to concentrate. He considered that the optimum of these faculties is expressed from 80 to 95% of F+. He found that the percentage of sharply perceived forms could be influenced by deliberate and conscious effort to do one’s best in the test (Rorschach, 1942/1981). According to Schachtel (1968) “Out of Chaos Form

creates Kosmos” (p. 87), thus it is the most important aspect of the visible world. “From Aristotle and Plato to Thomas Aquinas, Leonardo, and Goethe form have been recognized as the ordering, structuring principle of the universe perceived by man” (p. 87). However, form must be flexible, transformational, and organizing. Pure form perception is a construct which does not usually occur in the perception of our natural environment. It does occur in man’s conceptualization of special relationships in geometry and trigonometry, and it is approximated in the manmade world of signs such as letters and numerals, and in some designs, especially diagrams. (Schachtel, 1968, p. 88) He described that the function of form perception is to ‘take hold’ of features of the environment, and ‘taking hold’ requires an ‘active perceptual attitude’ that demands looking carefully instead of being passively ‘struck’ by something. Thus, it involves an active organization of the visual field in which the eye and the mind have to pursue the dominant lines, form, and structure of the object which are its distinctive features; they have to take hold of these features, thus establishing a firm perceptual grasp of the object, so that it or its like can be found, seen, and recognized again and, to some extent, recalled at will. (Schachtel, 1968, p. 89) According to him, in the Rorschach, “form perception has an adaptive function; it is related to reason, to man’s rationality. And reason, certainly, is the most distinctive feature of man’s – in contrast to the animal’s – adaptation to and orientation in the world” (Schachtel, 1968, p. 90). Exner (1974, 2003) built a Rorschach method, called A Comprehensive System, CS, based on five of the most important approaches: Beck, Hertz, Klopfer, Piotrowski, and Rappaport-Schafer. He sought to incorporate the best of each system into an integrated approach looking for a reliable method because he was deeply concerned with ‘designed flaws or misjudged problems’ in some Rorscharchers. A crucial issue he emphasized was that it was “often evaluated against orthodox psychometric standards even though it was not designed or interpreted in that context” (Exner, 2003, p. 6). To him, a system was needed that “would strengthen the use of the test and make it better prepared to stand the tests of reliability and validation” (p. 16). In Exner (2001) 5th edition of his Rorschach Workbook for the Comprehensive System, the FQ working tables with a listing of responses is the latest revised one. He explained that the ‘reference tables’ reproduce the results gathered over more than 30 years and a substantial number of additions and updates were periodically made. He predicted that even though his system seemed ‘as complete as possible’, it will be very likely that future research will lead to the development of new approaches to coding some type of responses, or the discovery of new variables or strategies that will enhance the interpretative yield of

Yazigi, L., Semer, N. L., Fiore, M. L. M., Abela, R. K., Lerman, T. G., & Marques, T. C. (2016). Form Quality in Rorschach CS and R-PAS.

the test. In other words, it would be foolish to assume that the Comprehensive System has reached the last pinnacle in its development. (Exner, 2001, pp. V-VI) In the CS there are four types of FQ: (1) OrdinaryElaborated (+) an “unusually detailed articulation of form in responses that otherwise would be scored ordinary” (Exner, 2001, p. 47); (2) Ordinary (o) a common response in which form easily identifies an object, and “have been reported by at least 2% of persons in the FQ data pool for whole [W] areas and for detail [D] areas, or by at least 50 persons in the pool for unusual detail [Dd] areas” (p. 47); (3) Unusual (u) a low frequency response in which the basic contours are appropriated for response, answers that are seen quickly and easily by the observer; (4) Minus (-) a distorted, arbitrary, unrealistic answer which is “imposed on the blot structure with total disregard for the contours of the area” (Exner, 2001, p. 47). Finally, responses without any structure or form, such as ashes or blood, do not receive any FQ. As to the compilation of the listing of FQ and of the normative tables, he wrote: Nonpatient records used to create those samples were collected over a period of more than 10 years (1973 to 1986). As a number of records available increased, the tables were revised three times as various attempts to stratify the samples ensued. (Exner, 2003, p. 189) In Brazil, there has been some relevant research on the normative data for the Rorschach in the CS. Nascimento (2007) collected 409 protocols of adult non-patient subjects, both genders, from urban and rural areas from the state of São Paulo, and compiled normative tables for all Rorschach CS variables; the author also built norms for 118 adolescents from the city of São Paulo (Nascimento, in press). Ribeiro, Semer, and Yazigi (2012) assessed 211 children of 7, 8, 9 and 10 years old, both genders, from public and private schools from the city of Cuiaba in order to construct normative data. Resende, Carvalho, and Martins (2012) presented separate norms age groups of 201 children and adolescent non-patients, aged 5-14 years, randomly selected from public and private schools divided into three age groups (5-7, 8-11, 12-14). Villemor-Amaral, Yazigi, Nascimento, Primi, and Semer (2007) examined location areas and their respective FQ of 370 Brazilian non-patient adult subjects with a view to the construction of a Brazilian Atlas of specific Localization Areas with their respective FQ list. The validity studies on FQ in the CS in Brazil were: Marques, Chaves, and Yazigi (2012) who examined psychiatric patients and found that the XA% variable, which combines FQ+, FQo and FQu, was sensitive to discriminate perceptual acuity in patients with psychotic features and non-psychotic patients, using both Exner’s FQ listing (Exner, 1995/1999) and the Brazilian FQ listing (Villemor-Amaral et al., 2007). Pianowski and VillemorAmaral (2010) coded protocols on the FQ using both Exner (1995/1999) and the Brazilian FQ listing (Villemor-Amaral et al., 2007) in a non-patient sample, and found that the Brazilian tables resulted in higher means for FQo, XA% and

X+%, and a lower mean for FQ-. Leonel, Semer, and Yazigi (2012) have also tested the FQ Brazilian list in a non-patient sample and found that FQo% and X+% have higher means, while FQu, FQ-, XA%, Xu% and X-% had lower means when using the Brazilian list. These studies provided evidence of the validity of the Brazilian FQ list. The Rorschach Performance Assessment System R-PAS (Meyer, Viglione, Mihura, Erard, & Erdberg, 2011) was developed from the CS (Exner, 2003). An important issue reviewed on the R-PAS was the development of FQ tables based on two elements, fit and frequency, which are considered as contributing to perceptual accuracy. Previously, Exner (1996) had offered an extensive discussion on the concept of critical stimulus bits in the Rorschach response process, which are visual features of the plates that contribute to the perceptual organization of the responses (Viglione, 2002), that is, why do things appear as they do? Why are certain responses given and why are certain responses not given? Fit data were gathered by having judges rate how well more than 13,000 perceived objects fit the inkblot contours at specific inkblot locations using response objects from various prominent Rorschach specialists such as Beck, Hertz, Exner, Thomas, Small, Beizmann, which together include responses coded by Rorschach, Bohm, Klopfer, Loosli-Usteri, Binder, Bleuler, Oberholzer, and Rickers-Ovsiankina. All these perceived objects were listed and organized by location areas compiled by different sources and converted into a common set of designated areas. As to frequency, the R-PAS data were derived from five sets of adult FQ tables that were created in different countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Italy, Japan, and Spain, and specific frequency data for all Rorschach response objects that were reported by at least 1.5% of the people in each country’s sample, except for Italy which used a 2.0% cut-off. The objects from each sample were translated into English and matching objects were linked to each one across samples and to all the objects that had been rated for fit. A modified list of objects included in the CS FQ tables (Exner, 2003) that had been modified before 2005 by members of Exner’s Rorschach Research Council (RRC) to reduce irregularities, inconsistencies, obvious omissions, and redundancies was also included. This list contained 5,060 response objects with US-based FQ codes for the CS and it formed the basis for the objects to be listed in the current R-PAS FQ tables. Using a logical algorithm refined by initial data from several samples, the authors combined the fit, frequency, and historical FQ coding to determine revised FQ classifications for each object to be considered ordinary (FQo), unusual (FQu), or distorted (FQ-). Ultimately, approximately 40% of the 5,060 objects have a different FQ designation in the R-PAS FQ tables than they did in the CS FQ tables. The R-PAS tables have about 5% fewer minus (FQ-) and about 4% more unusual (FQu) codings (Meyer et al., 2011). In the R-PAS system the responses without any structure or form receive the code ‘none’ (FQn). The R-PAS FQ tables, therefore, seem to be more up to date and better adapted to the current times and more ample in the sense that they can be employed in different countries. Hence, as we can see, the FQ of the response has been

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taken into consideration since the creation of the test by Hermann Rorschach, who emphasized the importance of this variable, and by the subsequent authors who supported and endorsed Rorschach’s ideas; this is why FQ became part of ratios proportions, indexes and composite measures. For instance, the Thought and Perception Composite (TP-Comp) in the R-PAS, which was developed as the dimensional version of the Perceptual-Thinking Index (PTI), uses FQ as one of the main variables to identify the presence of thought disorders and psychotic-like condition. Also, the FQ interferes in such human representational responses, as Good Human and Poor Human Responses (GHR and PHR), that it tells about the interpersonal behaviors and their effectiveness, “patients with severe pathological disturbances give low frequencies of GHR answers” (Exner, 2003, p. 499), indicating the ability, or not, to “envision the self and relationships with others in an adaptive or positive way” (Meyer et al., 2011, p. 346). In the R-PAS, FQ is important in the Thought and Perception Composite (TP-Comp), an equivalent of the PTI, and related both to reality testing and thought disorganization. In the Ego Impairment Index (EII-2, EII-3), “a broad band measure of thinking disturbance and severity of psychopathology” (Meyer et al., 2011, p. 357), the FQ is also a fundamental variable. However, it is in the analysis of the human movement responses that the FQ is relevant, since M- perceptions indicate severe distortions and disregard for the stimulus field (Exner, 2003). Consequently, those Rorschach indexes that include FQ play an important role not only in the clinical setting, in which they can support diagnosis and help to understand the distress of the individual and on the prognosis and better treatment planning, but also in the research context. In fact, several recent studies have tested the psychometric properties of these indexes (Mihura, Meyer, Dumitrascu, & Bombel, 2013; Viglione, Giromini, Gustafson, & Meyer, 2014; Wood, Garb, Nezworski, Lilienfeld, & Duke, 2015), and applied them on several samples from different countries (DzamonjaIgnjatovic, Smith, Djuric Jocic, & Milanovic, 2013; Moore, Viglione, Rosenfarb, Patterson, & Mausbach, 2013; Silva & Costa, 2014). Valkonen, Lindfors, and Knekt (2012) used the Ego Impairment Index, EII, to study anxiety disorders, and found a significant, but weak association between the EII and the interview-based scale Level of Personality Organization, LPO, (Pyykkönen, 2008, apud Valkonen et al., 2012). Conversely, Rosenbaum, Andersen, Knudsen, and Lorentzen (2012), in a follow-up study with admitted patients with firstepisode of schizophrenia, found that the PTI did not show significant changes after two years of treatment, in spite of other instruments that did. Benedik, Cˇoderl, Bon, and Smith (2013) tested the PTI with the purpose of distinguishing psychotic from nonpsychotic psychiatric inpatients, and did not find differences within the groups in their sample. Based on the literature, it seems that the CS and R-PAS tables provide different estimations of FQ for adult samples. Due to the limited research with the R-PAS using psychiatric patients in Brazil, it is not clear whether the CS and R-PAS tables provide different estimates of FQ for this group of subjects. So, the present research arose from the idea of comparing the CS and R-PAS on the FQ assigned to the

Rorschach responses of a Brazilian psychiatric case sample. It is an exploratory and naturalistic study in a clinical setting (Fonagy & Kächele, 2009) that the sample was intentional stratified due to the intentional and categorical selection of the chosen individuals (Patton, 2002). The proposal was to observe if there were differences between the CS and the R-PAS in their process of coding the FQ of each Rorschach response and in each protocol. They employed the CS list of FQ and the R-PAS list, which includes FQ responses from five countries (international reference sample). Therefore, the hypothesis is that the R-PAS FQ table will be closer to the fit condition of the international sample.

Method Participants The participants were patients treated in psychotherapy in an outpatient public service. They were referred by different university hospital clinics and attended the treatment voluntarily. These individuals, after the psychiatric triage, and after being accepted for psychotherapy, were invited to participate in the study on psychotherapy outcome. They were submitted to psychological assessment but were allowed to not accept the evaluation. The sample was comprised of 206 subjects who were psychiatric cases, being 152 (74%) women; the age varied from 18 to 72 years old (mean and median of 39 years old); the schooling varied from 0 to 23 years (mean and median of 11 years). The majority of individuals (64.5%) showed depressive symptoms on Axis-I, while on Axis-II Personality Disorders predominated (67.0%), mainly from Cluster B (borderline, narcissistic, histrionic, and antisocial: 40.3%), followed by Cluster C (avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive: 26.7%). The inclusion and exclusion criteria were established by the team of supervisors as an indication to the psychotherapy. The inclusion criteria were to have at least 18 years of age and interest and availability to come to the therapeutic sessions; the exclusion criteria were the presence of schizophrenic or antisocial troubles, dementia or mental retardation. Instruments The instruments were the DSM Structured Clinical Interviews for Axis-I (SCID-I) and Axis-II (SCID-II) and Rorschach, both CS (Exner, 2003) and R-PAS (Meyer et al., 2011). The Portuguese version for SCID was translated and validated by Del-Ben et al. (2001). The use of structured interviews enhances the diagnosis reliability and standardizes the evaluation process, better than using just clinical diagnosis. Procedure Data collection. The database is from a study on psychotherapy outcome in which the subjects were assessed by the Rorschach CS in annual follow-ups. From this database, Rorschach protocols taken upon admission to

Yazigi, L., Semer, N. L., Fiore, M. L. M., Abela, R. K., Lerman, T. G., & Marques, T. C. (2016). Form Quality in Rorschach CS and R-PAS.

therapy were selected. These are protocols of individuals referred to psychotherapy by different clinics of the school hospital and assessed by the SCID-I and SCID-II to the psychiatric diagnoses, by psychiatrists who were staff members of the Department of Psychiatry with experience using the instruments. Software for the Brazilian validated version of both interviews was created specifically for the psychotherapy outcome research. The Rorschach was administered and coded according to the CS for the majority of subjects. At the present time, previous protocols were re-coded and new 43 protocols were administrated according to the R-PAS. To accommodate the change from CS to R-PAS only the first four responses were used from all cards of all protocols. The FQ List of each system was employed to code each response, thus Exner (1995/1999), and Meyer et al. (2011). Each protocol was then entered in the R-PAS online software as separate cases for each subject coded by each FQ system, CS and R-PAS. The Rorscharchers in charge of coding the protocols for the CS was composed of five skilled psychologists with 5 to 15 years of practice on the CS. Data analysis. A senior Rorscharcher coded the 206 protocols in the R-PAS. Following Meyer’s request (personal communication), 51.0% of them (105 protocols) were divided among three Rorscharchers in order to recode the responses using the R-PAS FQ tables while blind to the original coding in the CS. The FQ+ of the CS was codified as FQo. A reliability study on the R-PAS FQ was completed in which 10 protocols were randomly selected from each recorder to form a pool of 30 records, which were then coded by an external judge with 13 years of training in the CS. The external judge was also blind to all previous codings.

Due to the tendencies of higher FQo% on the R-PAS and higher FQ-% on the CS, a comparison was carried out between R-PAS and CS on FQo%, FQu%, FQ-%, and also on XA% (the sum of FQ coding +, o, or u divided by the number of responses [R]), and WDA% (W + D related concerns the sum of FQ coding +, o, or u divided by W + D) at the protocol level using a paired t-test with Cohen’s d as the effect size statistic computed from the mean and standard deviations of each variable. Ethical Considerations All the participants signed an agreement accepting to take part in this study. The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo (no. 0758/02) on September 23, 2002.

Results As to the reliability study, the results were satisfactory due to kappa = .798. The interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was also calculated for the variables at protocol level. Therefore, there were two levels of data; one considered the response level (4,612 responses) and another considered the protocol level (206 protocols). At the protocol level, the results to average measures were FQo% = .94, FQu% = .87, FQ-% = .91, and FQnone = .95. The kappa coefficient was used to compare the FQ coding of the responses in the CS with those of R-PAS. The results are displayed in Table 1. At the response level, out of 4,612 responses, the kappa coefficient between the CS and R-PAS as to the FQ variables FQo, FQu, FQ-, and FQn was of substantial consistency of classification (.759).

Table 1 Comparison of FQ Coding Using CS and R-PAS Guidelines at the Response Level Across All Ten Cards (κ = .759) Comprehensive System

R-PAS

Total CS

Total R-PAS

FQn

FQ-

FQu

FQo

FQn

129

2.8

FQ-

1072

1153

25.0

FQu

179

761

140

1080

23.4

FQo

101

226

1923

2250

48.8

129

1352

1057

2074

4612

2.8

29.3

22.9

45.0

100.0

Note. FQn = FQnone. The values in boldface show when the FQ remains the same on both systems.

As to the comparison carried out between R-PAS and CS on FQo%, FQu%, FQ-%, XA%, and WDA%, the results are displayed in Table 2. These results corroborate the trend pointed out above which shows significant differences between both systems as to the FQo% and

FQ-%, with the R-PAS showing a higher mean on FQo% (d = .29), XA% (d = .34), WDA% (d = .28), and the CS higher mean on FQ-% (d = .35) which confirms the results obtained at response level. These differences produced medium effect sizes.

Paidéia, 26(63), 53-61 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics, Paired t-Tests, and Cohen’s d Values Comparing the Means of the FQ Variables According to R-PAS and CS Coding at the Protocol Level

FQo%

FQu%

FQ-%

XA%

WDA%

Mdn

Paired t-test

Cohen’s d

R-PAS

49.7

50.0

13.43

7.500

205

< .001

.29

45.8

45.0

13.32

R-PAS

23.3

24.0

10.24

.765

205

.445

.04

22.9

22.0

10.89

R-PAS

24.1

23.5

12.10

-9.344

205

< .001

-.35

28.4

28.0

12.80

R-PAS

.73

.75

.13

9.379

205

< .001

.34

.69

.13

R-PAS

.65

.14

8.668

205

< .001

.28

.61

.14

Note. Cohen’s d was computed directly from the observed Ms and SDs and thus the effect size was not increased as a function of the correlation between paired observations.

An examination of relative “card difficulty” (expression from Herman Rorschach) by R-PAS coding is given in Table 3, where each card is listed in descending order on FQo% and in ascending order on FQ-%. On the one hand, looking at the table, we can see that Cards V, I and III are those with higher values of FQo% and the lowest scores on FQ-%, which means that these cards elicit more accurate perceptions and less distorted perceptions. On the other hand, Cards VI, X and IX are those with higher values on FQ-% and lowest scores on FQo%, meaning that these cards elicit more inaccurate and less precise perceptions. Table 3 Relative Card Difficulty Indicated by the Rank Ordering of Cards According to R-PAS Values With FQo% Listed in Descending Order and FQ-% Listed in Ascending Order Order

Card

FQo%

Card

FQ-%

1st

73.6

10.7

2nd

59.4

17.1

3rd

III

57.0

III

19.7

4th

VII

54.0

21.8

5th

53.5

VII

23.1

6th

53.3

24.1

7th

VIII

50.1

VIII

24.4

8th

34.5

26.0

9th

34.5

10th

20.8

45.8

Discussion The FQ is one of the most important variables in the Rorschach due to its relation with perception accuracy and therefore to reality testing and ego functioning. Rorschach (1942/1981) emphasized this importance when he stressed that the interpretation of the form belonged to the field of perception rather than imagination, in which the effort to integrate the image is realized consciously as an effort, and he concludes that the experiment could be called “a test of the perceptive power of the subject” (p. 18). In a metaanalysis review on the Rorschach CS variables, Mihura et al. (2013) found that the variables that provided the strongest empirical support were those related to perceptual processes. The importance of the FQ in the Rorschach can be measured by the fact that each response has to be checked as to its FQ accuracy, taking as reference the general population perceptions listed in the tables. The FQ of the responses is part of some R-PAS indexes such as GHR and PHR, EII-3, TP-Comp, SC-Comp, Complexity, FQo%, FQu%, FQ-%, M-, and WD-%. For this reason, in the task of assessing psychotherapy outcome, FQ is an important issue to be analyzed, mainly in a group with severe psychiatric symptoms since the adequacy of the form perception is an indicator of the integrity of ego functioning. Korchin and Larson (1977) considered the final Rorschach response not just a “defined perceptual act”, but an outcome of a “coordinated series of cognitive activities in a total process of forming, testing, critically evaluating, and communicating perceptual hypotheses” (p. 160). The purpose of employing the new R-PAS system led us to take into consideration the changes in FQ coding as a crucial concern. This was the main reason for this study. In the chapter “Comparing the R-PAS and the Rorschach

Yazigi, L., Semer, N. L., Fiore, M. L. M., Abela, R. K., Lerman, T. G., & Marques, T. C. (2016). Form Quality in Rorschach CS and R-PAS.

CS FQ tables” of the R-PAS Manual (Meyer et al., 2011), the authors asserted that there are considerable differences between the R-PAS and RRC-modified CS classification (made by the Rorschach Research Council) of objects. Out of 5,060 entries, 39.9% showed different FQ designations while 60.1% were the same, therefore they found a low level of agreement between the entries contained in the two tables (κ = .375), with the R-PAS FQ tables having about 5% fewer FQ- designations and about 4% more FQu designations (p. 425). According to the authors, when the same normative protocols were scored using both sets of tables and the results compared, the greatest difference was found on FQ-% with higher values on the CS, though differences were also observed on FQo% and FQu%, both of which were higher according to the R-PAS coding. In a previous study, the authors (Meyer, Erdberg, & Shaffer, 2007), when discussing the International CS References Samples, remarked that the frequency of the FQ- were higher than in the US in almost all the 16 countries, with 20% of the responses coded as FQwhen the SC criteria was employed. Cardoso (2012), in Brazil, compared the Rorschach performance of 30 psychiatric patients, psychotic, and 28 non-patients, adults, and both genders. The Rorschach was administrated according to the CS (Exner, 2003) and the responses were coded according to the CS listing of FQ (Exner, 1995/1999), to the R-PAS FQ tables (Meyer et al., 2011), and to the Brazilian location and FQ list (VillemorAmaral et al., 2007). The comparison among coding models pointed to significant differences, besides others, in FQo, FQu, Xu%, X-% and XA% variables. The psychotic group showed an increased FQ- and X-% and reduced FQo, FQu, Xu% and XA% as expected. The author concluded that the results indicated that the three models were sensitive enough to differentiate the two compared groups. Cardoso (2012) results coincide with those of the present study that showed substantial agreement between the CS and R-PAS on FQn, FQ-, FQu, and FQo when the comparison was at the response level (κ = .759), however, at the protocol level, the results confirm a difference between both systems on FQo and on FQ-, with R-PAS showing higher values on FQo while the CS showing higher values on FQ-. These findings from a sample of outpatients in Brazil replicate the non-patient U.S. findings reported in the R-PAS manual on FQ-% and FQo%, though not on FQu%; thus we can say that the R-PAS captures better than the CS the population’s tendency in recognizing the most common or realistic perceptions. Another interesting piece of data was that the R-PAS highest scores of FQo% were found on cards V, I and III while the highest FQ-% scores were found on cards VI, X and IX. It is fascinating to correlate these data with Rorschach (1942/1981) descriptions of these cards. Thus, as to the FQo cards, he writes, Plate V: “Black. The easiest form to interpret. Almost always interpreted as a ‘bat’, or ‘a ‘moth’”; Plate I: “Black. Failure is almost never encountered. . . . Easy to interpret as a Whole and in Details”; Plate III: “Black and Red. Kinesthesia’s easiest to see”. As to the FQ- cards, Plate VI: “Black. Generally called the most difficult of the figures”;

Plate X: “Multicolored. Disparate blots. Whole answers almost impossible”; Plate IX: “Multicolored. Discordant color and form” (Rorschach, 1942/1981, p. 52). How current the Rorschach’s comments on the cards’ gestalt are. Summarizing, it was found that the R-PAS elicits more FQ ordinary coding while the CS elicits more FQ minus coding. Therefore, whilst we can get more ordinary FQ using the R-PAS, there is no difference using one or other system. Nevertheless, the CS tends to code more FQ- than the R-PAS, and in the present study we noticed that some FQ- responses in the CS were scored FQu in the R-PAS. On the R-PAS, FQ is based in two elements: Fit and frequency. Meyer et al. (2011) also compared responses coded according to the CS and to the R-PAS FQ tables, and found that 60.1% of the responses have the same FQ code in the two systems, and the FQ tables of R-PAS have 5% fewer FQ- scorings. However, the authors concluded that both systems produce valid results. Hence, it is imperative to continue researching the FQ of the Rorschach responses as well as testing whether different coding systems can produce different results in a same sample. However, examining this way Exner (2003, pp. 377-378) stated that: All minus answers do not reflect the same level of disregard for reality. The vast majority of minus responses include some features that are congruent with elements of the stimulus field. The location is reasonably precise and, even though the response is coded minus, some components of it can be identified rather easily . . . A more serious type of minus is the answer that, for the most part, has a good form fit but is coded minus because it has been spoiled by the addition of a significant component that is clearly inappropriate. For example, a card III response of ‘two men (D9’s) beating on the head of a woman (D7)’. The identification of D9 as a human figure is appropriate and popular, but the D7 area as a human head is clearly minus. In a conversation with G. Meyer (by e-mail, who kindly agreed with the transcription of his comments), it was possible to observe the difference in FQ coding. For instance, a patient’s answer to card II: “\/ this looks like a person as if I was looking at him from behind and as if he was crawling. Inq: Look the feet here (D2), then, looking from behind (DS5), the bottom (on D6), as if the legs are bent and he is crawling. Here the head (D3), disheveled, and the hands are here touching the floor (red blots in D1). You can see until the knee, but not the part of the thigh until the hip. Here the feet, ankle, shin, and here the knee, this hidden little red spot”. We and the external judge have coded this answer as FQ- in both CS and R-PAS. We quote G. Meyer that considered this answer on the edge of FQu and FQ-. He wrote: The tables do not provide good reference points to guide extrapolation from the listed objects to this object. There is nothing relevant in the W area. In D2, we see “Sock” is FQo and this could be used to

Paidéia, 26(63), 53-61

extrapolate to the “foot” in this response. In D3 we see “Head (Devil or Monster)” as FQu which has a relevant link to the ‘disheveled head’ in this percept, if I am correct in understanding that the term ‘disheveled’ is used to account for the projections in the Dd25 area that otherwise do not fit an image of a head. So we have some guidance from the tables that suggest parts of the percept are likely coded FQo or FQu. But we still need to consider the composite image and to what extent the two reference points from the tables form ‘critical bits’ for this percept. It thus becomes an “examiner judgment” decision, though with a leaning away from FQ- given the two tables entries. With a response requiring examiner judgment, the critical decision comes down to making a judgment using the Form Accuracy rating scale given on p. 179 of the manual [Meyer et al., 2011] while looking at the inkblot. For FQu versus FQ- the critical decision is whether you judge the response to be more like “Not really. I don’t really see that. Overall, it does not match the blot area.” or “A little. If I work at it, I can sort of see that.” If the former, code FQ-; if the latter, code FQu. For this response, I would come down on the side of FQu. (G. Meyer, personal communication, 2014 May 15). As we could see, the CS and the R-PAS have different ways based on different strategies on coding the FQ- and FQu. This study had some limitations because it only examined the relative impact of the different tables on the coded responses. Other possible analysis from this clinical material could be to compare the protocols from subjects with different psychopathological diagnosis viewing the FQ and the reality test, the perception distortion, and their importance in the differential diagnosis. In addition, we scored protocols previously administrated using the CS. Nevertheless, it confirmed that we can consult the CS or the R-PAS tables interchangeably, however, the better it would be to use the R-PAS tables because of its tendency to identify more FQo and less FQ- perceptions than the CS, and because it encompasses the Form Quality lists of five countries including Brazil.

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the Level of Personality Organization Interview assessment in depressive and anxiety disorder patients. Psychiatry Research, 200(2-3), 849-856. doi:10.1016/j. psychres.2012.05.012 Viglione, D. J. (2002). Rorschach coding solutions. San Diego, CA: Trading Printing Services. Viglione, D. J., Giromini, L., Gustafson, M. L., & Meyer, G. J. (2014). Developing continuous variable composites for Rorschach measures of thought problems, vigilance, and suicide risk. Assessment, 21(1), 42-49. doi:10.1177/1073191112446963 Villemor-Amaral, A. E., Yazigi, L., Nascimento, R. S. G. F., Primi, R., & Semer, N. L. (2007). Localização, qualidade formal e respostas populares do Rorschach no CS em uma amostra brasileira [Location, form quality and popular responses of Rorschach CS in a Brazilian sample, Abstract]. Work presented at the Terceiro Congresso Brasileiro de Avaliação Psicológica, João Pessoa, PB. Wood, J. M., Garb, H. N., Nezworski, M. T., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Duke, M. C. (2015). A second look at the validity of widely used Rorschach indices: Comment on Mihura, Meyer, Dumitrascu, and Bombel (2013). Psychological Bulletin, 141(1), 236-249. doi:10.1037/a0036005 Latife Yazigi is an Affiliated Professor of the São Paulo School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Norma Lottenberg Semer is an Affiliated Professor of the São Paulo School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Maria Luiza de Matos Fiore is a Psychiatrist of the São Paulo School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Roberta Katz Abela is a Psychologist of the São Paulo School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Tatiana Gottlieb Lerman is a Psychologist of the São Paulo School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Thaís Cristina Marques is a Professor of the Universidade Anhembi Morumbi. Received: Feb. 12, 2015 1st Revision: July 17, 2015 Approved: Aug. 28, 2015

How to cite this article: Yazigi, L., Semer, N. L., Fiore, M. L. M., Abela, R. K., Lerman, T. G., & Marques, T. C. (2016). Form quality in Rorschach Comprehensive System and R-PAS: Sample of psychiatric cases. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 53-61. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201607

PaidĂŠia, 26(63), 53-61

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 63-70. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201608

Article

Occupational Stress and Quality of Life in Nursing1 Aline Moraes da Silva2 Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande-MS, Brazil

Liliana Andolpho Magalhães Guimarães Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande-MS, Brazil

Abstract: To reduce the work related to stress and the psychosocial risk is not only an imperative question, but also moral. This epistemological study aims to verify the presence of the occupational stress and quality of life related to health in nursing professionals. We used three questionnaires: (a) Socio Demographic Questionnaire, (b) Job Strain Scale, and (c) Item Short Form Health Survey. Statistical analysis was performed between the questionnaires, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and simple and multiple linear regression. It was found that 60.8% of the participants see the high demand of work, 71.8% high control on the developed activity and 85.5% low social support. Related to eight dominant of quality of life, the most damaged are: pain (µ = 61.87) and vitality (µ = 62.25). It was concluded that although in most sample experiences an intermediary risk situation to stress, the quality of life showed a damaged. Keywords: occupational stress, quality of life, nursing

Estresse Ocupacional e Qualidade de Vida em Profissionais de Enfermagem Resumo: Reduzir o estresse relacionado ao trabalho e os riscos psicossociais não é apenas uma questão imperativa, mas também moral. O objetivo deste estudo epidemiológico foi verificar a presença de estresse ocupacional e avaliar a qualidade de vida relacionada à saúde entre profissionais de enfermagem. Foram utilizados três questionários: (a) Questionário sociodemográfico, (b) Job Strain Scale e (c) Item Short Form Health Survey. Realizou-se análise estatística por associações entre os questionários, análise de variância (ANOVA) e regressão linear simples e múltipla. Verificou-se que 60,8% dos participantes vivenciam uma alta demanda no trabalho, 71,8% um alto controle sobre a atividade desempenhada e 85,5% baixo apoio social. Dos oito domínios da qualidade de vida relacionada à saúde, os mais afetados foram: dor (µ = 61,87) e vitalidade (µ = 62,25). Concluiu-se que, embora a maioria da amostra vivencie um risco intermediário de estresse, a qualidade de vida relacionada à saúde mostrou-se comprometida. Palavras-chave: stress ocupacional, qualidade de vida, enfermagem

Estres Ocupacional y Calidad de Vida en Profesionales de Enfermería Resumen: Reducir el estres ocupacional y riesgos psicosociales no es sólo una cuestión imperativa, sino también moral. El objetivo deste estudio epidemiológico es verificar la presencia de estrés laboral y la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud en profesionales de enfermería. Se utilizaron tres cuestionarios: (a) Cuestionario sociodemografico, (b) Job Strain Scale y (c) Item Short Form Health Survey. Análisis estadístico se realizó mediante asociaciones entre los cuestionarios, análisis de varianza (ANOVA) y de regresión lineal simple y múltiple. Se encontró que 60,8% de los participantes experimentan una alta demanda en el trabajo, 71,8% un alto control sobre la actividad realizada, y 85,5% bajo apoyo social. De los ocho dominios de la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud, los más afectados fueron: dolor (μ = 61,87) y la vitalidad (μ = 62,25). Se concluyó que, además que la presente muestra tenga riesgo intermedio de estrés, la calidad ser comprometida. Palabras clave: estres ocupacional, calidad de vida, enfermería

Occupational stress, according to Kakunje (2011), has long been a concern of the healthcare industry. Stressors vary between different occupations of healthcare, and indeed within an occupation, depending on the task carried out. Nursing, according to Cacciari, Haddad, Vannuchi, and Dalmas (2013), is one of the occupations most exposed

Article derived from the master’s thesis of the first author under the supervision of the second author, presented in 2014 in the Graduate Program in Health Psychology at Universidade Católica Dom Bosco.

Correspondence address: Aline Moraes da Silva. Rua Rita Vieira de Andrade, nº 700, casa 11, Rita Vieira. CEP 79052420. Campo Grande-MS, Brazil. E-mail: lili_moore@hotmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

to a high risk of tension and becoming ill. According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, 2008), studies have found that the following are occupational risk factors for nursing: work overload, time pressure, lack of social support at work (especially from supervisors, nurses and higher management), exposure to infectious diseases, accidents with needles or perforating or cutting material, exposure to work-related violence or threats, ambiguity and conflict of roles, sleep deprivation, lack of staff, issues related to career development, and dealing with difficult or severely ill patients. For evaluation of the psychosocial risk of development of stress, this study is based on the theoretical-methodological

Paidéia, 26(63), 63-70

stress model known as Demands/Control (D/C) model, proposed by Karasek (1979, as cited by Karasek et al., 1998). Karasek et al. (1998) say that Demands are psychological requirements that are necessary for accomplishing the tasks, meeting the deadlines imposed, dealing with personal conflicts, the fear of loss of employment or of not being up to date, and the lack of mental stimulus necessary for carrying out the task; while Controls refers to the margin afforded to the worker for taking of decisions about his or her task and the development of his or her individual abilities. In accordance with this theoretical model, development of stress is due to situations of high psychological demand and low latitude for decision. Johnson and Hall (1988) added a third dimension to the D/C Model, which until then had not been considered: social support in the work. They found that this variable relieves the stressors and pressures in the work location and reduces the impacts of cardiovascular diseases. Another subject area studied in this survey is HealthRelated Quality of Life (HRQOL). Ware (1987), one of the creators of the generic 36 Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) questionnaire, used in this study, defines HRQOL as the general perception of health of an individual arising from her/his state of health or treatment. The human and organizational losses are added to the social ones. According to Steck (2012), in Brazil in 2012 the costs to society of work illnesses and accidents totaled 4% of GDP, that is to say, R$ 165 million, which shows the need for measures to confront this problem. This study jointly evaluates work stress by the D/C Model and the HRQOL Model. In Brazil and worldwide there are various studies that investigate stress in nursing, but few using the D/C Model which evaluates specific stressors of the work environment, or on the HRQOL of people working with nursing. Thus, a contribution is made to the diagnosis of the situations that can adversely affect the productivity, and physical and mental wellbeing, of this population. This survey is important since nursing professionals are the largest contingent of workers in hospital units. Also, they provide nursing assistance uninterruptedly over 24 hours. The presence of stress and the absence of quality of life related to health can adversely affect the care made available to the population, and lead to serious, and often irreparable, errors. The aim of this survey was to evaluate occupational stress and HRQOL, in a sample of nursing professionals in the University Hospital of Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.

Method This study was carried out on a sample of nursing professionals of a university hospital in the city of Campo Grande, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The epidemiological, cross-sectional model was employees, according to the guidelines of the psycho-sociological approach in workers’ psychic health (Borges, Guimarães, & Silva, 2013).

Participants Of a population of 273 nursing professionals a sample was taken, by convenience, of 227 (n = 227). Of these, 126 were nursing assistants, 75 nursing technicians and 26 were nurses, who agreed to participate voluntarily. The criteria for inclusion were: working in the profession of nurse, nursing technician or nursing assistant, in units that provide 24-hour nursing care; having a statutory link with the institution, accepting participation in the survey, and signing the Informed Consent (TCLE) Form. The criteria for exclusion were: not actively working; exercising the professional activity in a general or pediatric outpatient unit, in a day hospital, in pulse therapy or a Material and Sterilization Center (‘CME’), and not meeting the other criteria for inclusion. Instruments Job Content Questionnaire - JCQ. This was chosen to give a theoretical and methodological basis for the evaluation of work stress in this survey, to measure the psycho-social characteristics of the work for ascertainment of Control (the worker’s authority to take decisions about her/his task, and control over the development of individual abilities); of the psychological Demands (psychological requirements necessary for carrying out the tasks, deadlines imposed, personal conflicts, fear of loss of job, among others) and Social Support (investigate tranquility of the working environment, cooperativeness and relationship between colleagues of the professional and supervisors). The JCQ has no scale for evaluating stress outside the work environment (Karasek et al., 1998). In this study the reduced version of the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) was used – the Job Stress Scale (JSS), which comprises 17 questions, created in Sweden by Theörell et al. (1988) and adapted to Portuguese by Alves, Chor, Faerstein, Lopes and Werneck (2004). The version in Portuguese has a Cronbach’s alpha of .72 for Demand, .63 for Control, and .86 for Social Support. As for the internal consistency of the instrument, the three factors have results above .81. The scale comprises five questions on Demand and six on Control, with responses on a Likert scale of four points, varying between frequently and never or almost never; and six questions on Social Support, with responses on a Likert scale of four points, ranging from I totally agree to I totally disagree. For the establishment of the quadrants proposed by Karasek et al. (1998), it is necessary first to attribute scores to the dimensions: psychological demand, control over the work, and social support. The scores are obtained by the sum of the points given to each one of the questions of each dimension. In the dimension of psychological Demand, each response receives a mark from 1 to 4, a range of frequency (from never, worth 1 point, to always, worth 4), and one is scaled inversely (question 4 – always being worth 1 point, and never being worth 4), and the sum of the scores of the five answers thus varies from 5 to 20. In the dimension Control over the work, each response varies from 1 to 4 points, from the lower to higher frequency, and one answer (question 9)

Silva, A. M., & Guimarães, L. A. M. (2016). Stress and Quality of Life in Nurses.

has inverse direction – the sum of the scores varying from 6 to 24. The score for social Support is obtained from the sums of the answers to the six questions, marked from 1 to 4, from lowest to highest degree of agreement, varying from 6 to 24. For the definition of the quadrants of exposure to work stress and the definition of the high and low values for each segment, the median of the scores found in each one of the dimensions was attributed as the cutoff point. For the evaluation of HRQOL, it was decided to use the SF36 questionnaire which, according to Habiba et al. (2010), has been one of the instruments for evaluation of HRQOL most used currently, since it measures the health status of the population in a generic form and is self-administered. This instrument has been adapted culturally for the Brazilian population by Ciconelli (1997, as cited by Ciconelli, Ferraz, Santos, Meinão, & Quaresma, 1999) – who consider that the reproducibility of the questionnaire in the eight domains is satisfactory and significant. This questionnaire, comprising eight domains divided into two components, the physical and the mental, comprises 11 questions which evaluate: functional capacity, physical aspects, pain, general state of health, vitality, social aspects, emotional aspects and mental health. The evaluation of the results takes place through scores obtained for each one of the eight domains, in which zero corresponds to the worst state of health, and 100 to the best state of health. Socio-demographic Occupational Questionnaire (Questionário Sociodemográfico-Ocupacional – QSDO). This instrument, created exclusively to serve the objects of this survey, comprises 17 questions, of which 6 are on the personal characteristics of the participants, 2 about their habits of life and 8 about variables related to the work carried out by the nurses. Procedure Data collection. Initially, authorization was sought to carry out the study in the University Hospital of Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul. Then, visits were made to all the sectors that work uninterruptedly in providing nurse assistance, and all the workers or all the periods were invited to take part in the survey. Envelopes were delivered with the instruments and the Informed Consent Form to the nursing workers who agreed to take part in the survey, and these were collected at the end of the working day. Data analysis. After termination of collection of data, the data were organized on spreadsheets. Statistical analysis was carried out using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, 17th version. Simple descriptive analyses were carried out in an initial stage, and at the second stage, the variants (ANOVA) and Simple Linear Regression were analyzed, to find possible statistically significant associations between the variables of the HRQOL, the D/C Model and the SF-36. Then, all the significant associations (p ≤ .05) were used to assemble a Multiple Linear Regression, with a view to determining which factors contribute to the occurrence of stress and the reduction of perception of HRQOL. Considering that various variables were worked on,

and that this can interfere with or at least adversely affect the explanation of the variance, after obtaining the result of the R² of each item of occupational stress and quality of life investigated, the option was taken to work with the adjusted R², to reduce the value found if the additional variable had a low power of explanation. Ethical Considerations This project was submitted to evaluation by the Research Ethics Committee of Universidade Católica Dom Bosco (UCDB) and approved under Opinion No. 385.857 and CAAE: 21071213.0.0000.5162.

Results Characterization of the Sample The age group with the highest concentration of participants (68.5%) is the over 41 group. Of these, the majority (72.1%) are female, and 43.1% have two children. As to schooling, participants were found to be seeking higher qualification: the staff included people studying in higher education, specialization, master’s degrees and doctorates, as well as specialists, and people with master’s degrees and doctorates. Only 10.1% of the participants have another employment. Characterization of the Sample as to Work Stress and Social Support It was found that 60.8% of the participants perceive a high psychological demand, and that the majority (71.8%) believe that they have a high degree of control over their work, while 85% consider the social support received to be low, with difficulties in interpersonal work relationships. The majority of the participants experience active work (44.5%), characterized by high demand and control. In relation to demand, the nurses perceive it as being higher than that for the nursing technicians and nursing assistants (p = .007). Longer time of service in the institution to date is significantly associated with the perception of degree of control over the activity carried out (p = .001). Social support was perceived as lower by the nursing assistants (p = .001), by workers over the age of 60 (p = .015), by females (p = .031), by those who carry out extra duty hours both in the evening and at night (p = .046) and by those who exercise the function of nursing technician in their second formal employment (p = .047). After verification of the existence of statistically significant associations between HRQOL, demand, control and social support from the descriptive analysis of the data and from the ANOVA, a Multiple Linear Regression was carried out to identify how much each factor with significant association interferes in the components of the JSS (Job Stress Scale) (Table 1).

Paidéia, 26(63), 63-70

The function exercised accounted for 4.3% of participants’ perception in relation to demand. Number of years working in the institution accounted for 6.4% of the perception of control over the activity carried out. Gender accounted for 12.6% of the social support; females perceived the support as lower. The function carried out corresponded to 9% of the social support; the nursing technicians and nursing assistants presented worse results. The function exercised in the other job reduces the perception of social support by 8.7%, and the lower scores for social support are perceived by the workers who carry out the function of nursing technicians in their second formal employment. Age influences social support for 1.5% of the workers over 60 years of age, who perceive lower social support in the working environment. The period of duty reduces the workers’ social support by 0.3%, and those who carry out duty periods during the day and during the night are the most affected. Table 1 Multiple Linear Regression of the Factors With Significant Association for the Components of the JSS Components

(ŋ²)

R²

R² adjusted

.043

.035

.064

.061

Gender

.126

.492

.425

Function

.090

Duty period

.003

Function in other job

.087

Age

.015

Demand Function Control Time with Institution Social support

Characterization of the Sample as to HRQOL The results found for each one of the eight dimensions are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Result of the Eight Domains of the SF-36 SF-36 domains

Min

Max

M (SD)

100

77.62 (19.51)

LPA

100

77.53 (36.62)

Pain

100

61.87 (22.10)

GSH

100

72.37 (18.65)

VITALITY

100

62.25 (19.92)

100

71.26 (25.24)

LEF

100

76.36 (35.53)

100

84.02 (16.51)

Note. FC = functional capacity, LPA = limitations due to physical aspects, GSH = general state of health, SA = social aspects, LEF = limitations due to emotional factors, MH = mental health.

The domain that presented the best score was mental health, with a value of 84.02 (SD = 16.51), and the domains that presented the lowest scores were vitality, with 62.25 (SD = 62.25), and pain, with 61.87 (SD = 22.10). For better comprehension of the factors that influence the results of the eight domains of the SF-36, they were associated with the data of the HRQOL. In relation to age, the eight domains of the SF-36 showed reduction of average scores as age increased, the factor which most altered over time being functional capacity, presenting an average of 90 (SD = 10) in the 20-30 age group, and reducing to 69.09 (SD = 19.08) in workers with age above 60 (p = .007). Women presented lower scores than men in all the domains, except in limitations due to physical aspects. The most prejudiced domains are functional capacity (p = .002), vitality (p = .028) and mental health (p = .090). The workers with the worst quality of life indices are the nurses, who present lower scores than those of the nursing technicians and nursing assistants in all the domains, except in functional capacity. The most compromised domains, in diminishing order, are vitality (p = .044), social aspects (p = .005) and limitations due to emotional aspects (p = .004). Nursing professionals that have two formal employments show worse scores in all the domains of the SF-36, except for limitations due to physical aspects. The domains most prejudiced are pain, vitality and social aspects (p = .048). The workers that exercise the function of nursing technician in their second formal employment present a state of health with scores above 90 in all the domains, thus presenting an excellent state of health. However, the professionals that exercise other functions present much lower scores. In all the situations, the domains most prejudiced are pain (p = .039), vitality and social aspects (p = .047). Having children influences all the domains of the SF36, and the domain most affected is functional capacity, with a statistically significant association (p = .015). After it was found that there are significant associations between the HRQOL and the SF-36, a Multiple Linear Regression was carried out (Table 3) to identify how much each factor influences in the domains of the SF-36 with statistically significant association. As presented in Table 3, five domains of the SF-36 are most reduced in the sample as a whole: functional capacity, pain, vitality, social aspects and limitations due to emotional aspects. In relation to functional capacity, the factors associated are: (a) presence of the person’s children (p = .001): workers with children presented 5% loss of functional capacity; (b) being female (p = .024): women presented a reduction of 2.4% in their functional capacity; and (c) age over 60 (p = .008): professionals aged over 60 presented a reduction of 0.8% in the functional capacity. Together, these factors accounted for a loss of 9.3% of functional capacity. The domain with the highest score was pain (p = .039), in workers carrying out the function of nurse and other functions, with the exception of nursing technician working in her/his second formal employment. The domain vitality was prejudiced by the function exercised in the institution

Silva, A. M., & Guimarães, L. A. M. (2016). Stress and Quality of Life in Nurses. Table 3 Multiple Linear Regression of the Factors With Significant Association for the Domains of the SF-36 Questionnaire Domains

(ŋ²)

R²

R² adjusted

Children

.050

.093

.081

Gender

.024

Age

.008 .277

.277

.205

Function

.026

.057

.040

Gender

.024

Other job

.009 .288

.210

.030

.028

Functional capacity

Pain Function in other job Vitality

Social aspects Function

.044

Function in other job

.015

Other job

.242

LEF Function

.030

(p = .054), gender (p = .021) and the fact of having another employment (p = .048). The function carried out in the institution diminished vitality by 2.6% – nurses presenting lower vitality than nursing technicians and nursing assistants. Women presented 2.4% less vitality than men, and having another formal employment resulted in vitality 0.9% lower. Together, the function exercised, gender, and a double employment were responsible for reducing vitality by 5.7%. The domain social aspects is influenced by having another employment (p = .048), by the function exercised (p = .005) and by the function exercised in the second employment (p = .047). As demonstrated above, nurses are the professionals that present the greatest reduction in the social aspects domain. Having another job is responsible for a decrease of 24.4% in the social aspects; the function exercised, for 4.4%; and exercising another function other than nursing technician, 1.5%. Together, these factors account for 28.8% of the decrease in the social aspects. The limitations of 3% in emotional aspects (p = .004) are attributed to the function exercised in the institution – the nurses present lower scores than the nursing technicians and nursing assistants.

Discussion It was found that the age group with the highest concentration in the sample was the over-41 group. This differs from the majority of studies found in the literature researched, in which the majority of the nursing professionals comprises young adults, aged up to 40 (Magnago, Lisboa, Griep, Zeitoune, & Tavares, 2010; Mauro, Paz, Mauro, Pinheiro, & Silva, 2010; Schmidt, Dantas, Marziale, & Laus,

2009). The predominantly female sample is in accordance with the study carried out in the University Hospital of Cuiabá by Oliveira, Marcon, Conciani, and Oliveira (2014), which reported that 86.5% of nursing professionals in the institution investigated were female. The majority of participants being married or in a stable union is in harmony with the data presented in the studies of Magnago et al. (2010) and Mauro et al. (2010), according to which the majority of the nursing professionals have a personal partner. In relation to the number of children, the findings are in accordance with the data of the survey by Tavares et al. (2014), which indicated that 50% of the professionals have at most two children. The data also corroborate the findings on the general population published in the last Brazilian census (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [IBGE], 2012), which indicated that in 2010 the national fertility rate was 1.90, and in the Center-West Region of Brazil, 1.92 children per woman. Participants having another employment were in a minority, which is probably due to the fact that the large number of extra duty periods available provides a sufficient family income, there being no need to seek other employments. In Brazil, the reality of double employment for the nursing population is real, and frequent. A study carried out by Griep, Rotenberg, Landsberg and Silva (2011) in Rio de Janeiro found that 36% of the nursing professionals carried out a double working day. In the authors’ opinion, the perception of high psychological demand is inherent to nursing, because it deals 24 hours a day with human beings who are ill and who need care for maintenance of life and satisfaction of their basic human needs: hence there is an absence of slow, monotonous work that is not committed to results. A study held by the Health Department of the city of Campo Grande, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, by Theme Filha, Costa, and Guilam (2013), found that 42.5% of nursing professionals perceived the psychological demand as high. Probably much of the data on demand derives from the context and from the organization of work of the various institutions, as well as the type of work carried out. The perception of high control may be the result of the work unit studied being a school hospital that offers internships for all the courses of the area of health, enabling the workers in nursing and other professionals to accompany and also give opinions on cases and illnesses, acquire new scientific and technological knowledge, and be a source of academic and professional reference for the students, also carrying out work of teaching and supervision, although not official. A study by Schmidt et al. (2009) with nursing professionals of 11 Brazilian institutions detected a high control only in the employees of the public and philanthropic institutions, corroborating the data found in this survey. In relation to the low percentage of social support, this result may be attributed to nursing being stratified, that is to say, comprising four professional categories (nurse, nursing technician, nursing assistant and attendants), generating conflicts and divisions. A factor that can also generate low social support is the quantitative and qualitative overload of

Paidéia, 26(63), 63-70

work due to the working day, in which the worker often, to deal with all the work, works alone, with reduced social interaction, and often one professional does not have knowledge of the problems and difficulties faced by the other. Andrade, Hoch, Vieira and Rodrigues (2012), in a study with nursing workers in public and private institutions, found lower social support in work in the case of public employees. Studies on nursing suggests and give value to social support in the work, which would improve professional performance, reducing the perception of stress and increasing the positive perception of health (Ferreira, Griep, Fonseca, & Rotenberg, 2012). The study by Araújo, Graça, and Araújo (2003) found a majority of its participants to be in active work, characterized by high demand and high control, being exposed to an intermediate risk of stress. This result can be attributed to the fact that those workers had been working in their functions for a long time in the institution, and thus had a higher control over the activity carried out. Also, that hospital works with a weekly workload of 30 hours, which softens the effect of the long working hours arising from overtime, causing, for the worker, a feeling of greater control over the work. These authors advised caution in analysis of situations of active work, since experimental laboratory analyses have shown that a high level of demand can block the sources of strength provided by high control, and generate situations of stress due to the effort made to obtain necessary results. In relation to demand, the nurses report a higher psychological demand than the nursing technicians and the nursing assistants, probably due to the small number of professionals in the institution, which leads to accumulation of functions, overwork and excess responsibilities. The study by Schmidt et al. (2009) corroborates the finding of higher values of psychological demand for nurses. It is found that in the institutions studied, the control increases (p = .001) in accordance with the amount of time the person has worked at the institution. A study of municipal public workers in nursing in Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul by Theme Filha et al. (2013) also confirms a statistically significant association between the number of years worked so far and control over the activity carried out. As to the lower perception of social support after the age of 60, no corresponding data were found in the literature to enable comparisons. Social support is perceived as lower by women than by men. Even so, the possibility of communication between work colleagues and the establishment of relationships of affection at work seems to be more significant for women than for men. Social support is perceived as lower by workers that do overtime during the day and during the night (two periods) than by those that do overtime only in one period, probably due to tiredness, sleep, and conflict between the interests of home and work arising from the excessive working hours, which can also prejudice interpersonal relationships at work. A study on nurses in Australia by Dorrian et al. (2006) indicated that those that did overtime and did not have regular periods for pauses were more likely to present sleepiness, fatigue, stress, physical tiredness and mental exhaustion during the period of work. It is added that, for workers that carry out the function of

nursing technician in their second job, the average values are lower than for nurses and other jobs. It was not possible to compare the results of this study with the literature, because corresponding data were not found. In relation to HRQOL, there was a reduction of the scores for practically all of the eight domains of the SF-36 as participants got older. This information is a source of concern, since employees are admitted to the institution by public competition, and thus remain in the function of nursing assistant, nursing technician, or nurse for a long period, and the workers carry out a function of care that requires energy, vigor and disposition to be effective. The fact that females present a lower result in various domains of the SF-36 could be due to the fact that women, as well as the excessive burden of work, are responsible for domestic duties, education of the children and care of the spouse, creating a double working day, or even a triple one. The Applied Economic Research Institute (Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada [IPEA], 2010) estimates that women dedicate approximately 24 hours a week to domestic work, and men 9.7 hrs. Nurses show a greater reduction in the scores of the SF36 than nursing technicians and nursing assistants. This may be due to their low number in the institution studied, which might cause an accumulation of management and support functions, reducing HRQOL. This differs from the result of a study in São Paulo by Pelliciotti and Kimura (2010), which reported no difference in average values on the SF-36 between nurses and nursing technicians. Nursing professionals that have two formally registered jobs showed worse scores in all the domains of the SF-36, except limitations due to physical aspects. The study by Oliveira et al. (2014) corroborates this result – it found that nursing professionals with work overload and little time for relaxation attributed various problems in their personal lives, interpersonal relations and performance of their professional activities to these factors. Having children adversely affects all the domains of the SF-36. However, the domain most affected is functional capacity. The study by Mauro et al. (2010) concluded that the complex function of women being mothers as well as nursing professionals is not simple, and causes tiredness, stress, work overload and, as a result, health problems. That study found an intermediate level of risk for stress, with adverse effect on HRQOL, resulting in physical and mental wear and risk of illness. Thus, recognition of the potential factors for risk in this professional sector is important as a support to action aiming to reduce or combat possible adverse effects on professionals’ physical and mental health. The study carried out has implications for the field of occupational health psychology, using the approaches of epidemiology, diagnostics and work stress, in which stress is not regarded as an illness, but as an attempt by the worker to adapt to the process of work. Because it is a cross-sectional study, and thus shows only a momentary portrait of the reality experienced by nursing workers in a university hospital, the results of this study can be considered to be limited. It is hoped that the results of this survey can contribute

Silva, A. M., & Guimarães, L. A. M. (2016). Stress and Quality of Life in Nurses.

to the promotion of nursing professionals’ health and quality of life, with repercussions in the quest for a pleasurable professional activity, with less suffering, and closer to the needs of the clientele that are served, reflecting in excellence of the services provided.

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Silva, P. R. (2011). Combined use of job stressmodels and self-rated health in nursing. Revista de Saúde Pública, 45(1), 145-152. doi:10.1590/S0034-89102011000100017 Habiba, M., Julian, S., Taub, N., Clark, N., Rachid, A., Baker, R., & Szczepura, A. (2010). Limited role of multiattribute utility scale and SF-36 in predicting management outcome of heavy menstrual bleeding. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 148(1), 81-85. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2009.09.021 Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. (2012). Censo demográfico 2010: Nupcialidade, fecundidade e migração resultados da amostra [2010 population census: nuptialiy, fertility, and migration: results of the sample]. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: IBGE. Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada. (2010). Mulher e trabalho: Avanços e continuidades [Women and work: advances and continuities]. Brasília, DF: IPEA. Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, workplace social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross sectional study of random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78(10), 1336-1342. Kakunje, A. (2011). Stress among health care professionals: The need for resiliency. Online Journal of Health and Allied Sciences, 10(1), 1-2. Retrieved from http:// cogprints.org/7952/8/2011-1-1.pdf Karasek, R., Brisson, C., Kawakami, C., Houtman, I., Bongers, P., & Amick, B. (1998). The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3(4), 322-355. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.322 Magnago, T. S. B. S., Lisboa, M. T. L., Griep, R. H., Zeitoune, R. C. G., & Tavares, J. P. (2010). Working conditions of nurses: Evaluation based on the demand-control model. Acta Paulista de Enfermagem, 23(6), 811-817. doi:10.1590/S0103-21002010000600015 Mauro, M. Y. C., Paz, A. F., Mauro, C. C. C., Pinheiro, M. A. S., & Silva, V. G. (2010). Condições de trabalho da enfermagem nas enfermarias de um hospital universitário [Working conditions of the nursing team in the patient wards of an university hospital]. Escola Anna Nery, 14(2), 244-252. doi:10.1590/S1414-81452010000200006 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2008). Exposure to stress? Occupational hazards in hospitals. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH. Oliveira, A. G. B., Marcon, S. R., Conciani, M. E., & Oliveira, J. R. T. (2014). Qualidade de vida entre trabalhadores de enfermagem de um hospital universitário [Quality of life among nursing workers of a university hospital]. Espaço para Saúde, 15(1), 6-13. Pelliciotti, J. S. S., & Kimura, M. (2010). Medications errors and health-related quality of life of nursing professionals in intensive care units. Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 18(6), 1062-1069. doi:10.1590/S010411692010000600004 Schmidt, D. R. C., Dantas, R. A. S., Marziale, M. H. P., & Laus,

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A. M. (2009). Estresse ocupacional entre profissionais de enfermagem do bloco cirúrgico [Occupational stress among nursing staff in surgical settings]. Texto & Contexto - Enfermagem, 18(2), 330-337. doi:10.1590/ S0104-07072009000200017 Steck, J. M. (2012, 24 de abril). Brasil gasta até 4% do PIB com acidentes e doenças do trabalho [Brazil spends up to 4% of GDP on accidents and occupational diseases]. Jornal do Senado Federal. Retrieved from http://www12. senado.gov.br/jornal/edicoes/2012/04/24/brasil-gastaate-4-do-pib-ao-ano-com-acidentes-e-doencas-dotrabalho Tavares, J. P., Magnago, T. S. B. S., Beck, C. L. C., Silva, R. M., Prestes, F. C., & Lautert, L. (2014). Prevalence of minor psychiatric disorders in nursing professor. Escola Anna Nery, 18(3), 407-414. doi:10.5935/14148145.20140058 Theme Filha, M. M., Costa, M. A. S., & Guilam, M. C. R. (2013). Occupational stress and self-rated health among nurses. Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 21(2), 475-483. doi:10.1590/S0104-11692013000200002 Theörell, T., Perski, A., Akersdedt, T., Sigala, F., AhlbergHultén, G., Svensson, J., & Eneroth, P. (1988). Changes in job strain in relation to changes in physiological state. A longitudinal study. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 14(3), 189-196. doi:10.5271/ sjweh.1932 Ware, J. E., Jr. (1987). Standards for validating health measures: Definition and content. Journal Chronic Diseases, 40(6), 473-480. Aline Moraes da Silva holds a M.S. in Health Psychology from Universidade Católica Dom Bosco. Liliana Andolpho Magalhães Guimarães is a Professor at Universidade Católica Dom Bosco. Received: Mar. 27, 2015 1st Revision: July 8, 2015 Approved: July 28, 2015

How to cite this article: Silva, A. M., & Guimarães, L. A. M. (2016). Occupational stress and quality of life in nursing. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 63-70. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201608

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 71-79. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201609

Article

The Interface Between Quality and Violence in Marital Relationships1 Josiane Razera2 Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

Clarisse Pereira Mosmann Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

Denise Falcke Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo-RS, Brazil

Abstract: Domestic violence has been considered accountable for a reduction in the level of marital quality, although no relationship has been identified between these variables. This study aimed to measure the levels of marital quality and domestic violence, as well as their relationship with sociodemographic characteristics and the predictive power of the different types of violence on martial quality. This quantitative study included 186 heterosexual couples (N = 372), who answered a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Golombok Rust Inventory of Marital State (GRIMS), and the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2). The respondents assessed their marital quality as being average or very good (66.5%), and poor or with very severe problems (33.5%). Although good levels of marital quality prevailed, the rates of psychological violence reached 86.6%. A negative correlation was found between violence and marital quality. A possible naturalization of violence was found, especially psychological, which was the dimension with the highest predictive power for marital problems. Keywords: family violence, marital relations, quality indicator

A Interface Entre a Qualidade e a Violência em Relacionamentos Conjugais Resumo: A violência conjugal tem sido apontada como responsável pela redução dos níveis de qualidade conjugal, porém outros estudos identificam independência entre essas variáveis. O objetivo deste estudo foi mensurar os níveis de qualidade e violência conjugal, bem como a relação com características sociodemográficas e o poder preditivo dos diferentes tipos de violência na qualidade conjugal. Participaram deste estudo quantitativo, 186 casais heterossexuais (N = 372) que responderam um questionário sociodemográfico, o Golombok Rust Inventory of Marital State (GRIMS) e o Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2). Dos participantes, 66,5% avaliaram a qualidade conjugal entre média e muito boa e 33,5% entre pobre a problemas muito severos. Ainda que tenham preponderado bons níveis de qualidade conjugal, os índices de violência psicológica chegaram a 86,6%. Houve correlação negativa entre violência e qualidade conjugal. Verifica-se uma possível naturalização da violência nos relacionamentos, especialmente a psicológica, que foi a dimensão com maior poder preditivo de problemas na conjugalidade. Palavras-chave: violência na família, relações conjugais, indicadores de qualidade

Una Interfaz Entre la Calidad y la Violencia en Relaciones Maritales Resumen: La violencia marital ha sido asociada a la reducción de niveles de calidad marital, pero otros estudios identifican independencia entre esas variables. Se objetivó mensurar niveles de calidad y violencia marital, la relación con características sociodemográficas y el poder predictivo de diferentes tipos de violencia en la calidad marital. En este estudio cuantitativo participaron 186 parejas heterosexuales (N = 372). Los instrumentos fueron: cuestionario sociodemográfico, GRIMS (Golombok Rust Inventory of Marital State) y CTS2 (Revised Conflict Tactics Scales). De los participantes, 66,5 % valoró la calidad marital entre media y muy buena y el 33,5% desde pobre a problemas muy graves. Aunque han preponderado buenos niveles de calidad marital, las tasas de violencia psicológica han alcanzado el 86,6 %. Fue encontrada correlación negativa entre violencia y calidad marital. Hay una posible naturalización de la violencia en las relaciones, especialmente la psicológica, que ha tenido un mayor poder predictivo de problemas matrimoniales. Palabras clave: violencia doméstica, relaciones conyugales, indicadores de calidad

Intimate relationships are associated with key aspects in peoples’ lives, therefore they can be healthy for those

Article derived from the first author’s master’s thesis, under supervision of the third author, defended in 2014 in the Graduate Program in Psychology at Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS. Support: National Council for Scientific and Technological Development and Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CNPq/CAPES, Edital Human Sciences, Protocol No. 401663/2011-6).

Correspondence address: Josiane Razera. Rua Jacinto Villa Nova, nº 179, apto 1103, Centro. CEP 99010-290. Passo Fundo-RS, Brazil. E-mail: josianerazera@yahoo.com.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

involved, or they can cause emotional, psychological and even physical damage, in the case of a dysfunctional relationship. Beginning with the second half of the twentieth century, studies on marriage intensified, given the need to understand the dynamics of marital functioning, evaluating aspects related to relationships that provide satisfaction to couples to relationships that generate violence and health hazards (Carvalho-Barreto, Bucher-Maluschke, Almeida, & DeSouza, 2009; D’Oliveira, Schraiber, Hanada, & Durand, 2009). Because marital satisfaction comprises difficult and subjective analyses, confusion is noted regarding the use

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of terms observed in the literature (De Andrade & Garcia, 2012; Graham, Diebels, & Barnow, 2011), with quality and marital satisfaction often used interchangeably. Because there are different concepts, the concept proposed by Mosmann, Wagner and Féres-Sheep (2006) was used in the present study, with marital quality understood as being multidimensional, with marital satisfaction or happiness being considered one of its dimensions. The authors found that the perception of marital quality is associated with three dimensions: (a) spouses’ personal resources, i.e., educational levels, personality aspects, family experiences and others; (b) the context of the spouses, i.e., stressors, which can be related to illness, financial difficulties, and others; (c) adaptive processes, i.e., the capacity of confronting difficulties encountered by the spouses and adapting to them. Marital quality can manifest in different intensities, from very high levels of marital quality to very severe problems in the relationship (Rust, Bennun, Crowe, & Golombok, 1986). Although the term marital quality was chosen, throughout the text the terms are used interchangeably, thereby respecting the different authors’ concept choices. In this context, marital quality can be understood as a comprehensive construct, since the relationships can be evaluated by couples as good in terms of quality of the relationship, although the person is not satisfied, because there are other dimensions that make up marital quality. Satisfaction can be understood as a subjective evaluation of the relationship, a result obtained after comparison of their wedded life with marriage expectations, arising from early experiences and social and cultural issues (Rizzon, Mosmann, & Wagner, 2013). From this perspective, one can consider that satisfaction is associated with conscious and unconscious aspects, as well as environment aspects and aspects from the context in which the spouses are integrated (Mosmann et al., 2006). It is possible to think that some factors, such as emotional closeness, communication, conflict resolution strategies, shared values, and religious beliefs can be associated with the increase or decrease in satisfaction in the relationship (Rebello, Junior, & Brito, 2014). The marital satisfaction of 106 participants was assessed by Scorsolini-Comin and Santos (2010), who found no association with the age of the spouses, length of the relationship, income, or educational level. Making statements and evaluations of the marital quality levels is complex, especially when the spouse is understood systemically because, as mentioned by Féres-Sheep and Diniz Neto (2010), spouses are integrated in varying levels of other relationships and psychosocial contexts that will be present in the constitution of the relationship. Each partner brings characteristics of his/her individuality to the marriage, and it is through the sum of these characteristics that the marital identity of the new couple is created. Couples with higher levels of functionality have theoretically demonstrated stable characteristics, similar tastes, common interests and projects, and their differences enrich the relationship (Scorsolini-Comin & Santos, 2010). However, when flaws are observed, such as in companionship, communication or joint planning, conflicts arise that need

to be negotiated. Marital disagreements, whether emotional, sexual or economic, can result in high levels of marital conflict (Carvalho-Barreto et al., 2009). However, it is important to highlight that marital functionality is not associated with the existence or nonexistence of conflicts, but with the way couples manage them. Aggression and attacks are inadequate conflict resolution strategies that are often used by dysfunctional couples (Falcke, Wagner, & Mosmann, 2013). Currently, the literature indicates that among interpersonal violence, intimate partner violence is considered one of the major global health problems (Carvalho-Barreto et al., 2009; D’Oliveira et al., 2009; Moreira, Galvão, Melo, & Azevedo, 2008). A relationship with violence tends to be detrimental, not only to spouses, but also to other people in their family and social circles (Carvalho-Barreto et al., 2009). Anacleto, Njaine, Long, Boing and Peres (2009) defined domestic violence as an interactive phenomenon that involves both men and women as perpetrators or victims. Every couple has different characteristics, and domestic violence cannot be evaluated without considering the situational and demographic aspects. Vieira, Perdona, and Santos (2011), in a study with 504 women, presented some variables that are risk factors for the occurrence of physical violence in the marital relationship, namely: low educational level, marital status (being separated or cohabiting), having experienced or witnessed violence in childhood, and alcohol use. In contrast, violence was not associated with age, race or religion. Regarding the studies on marital violence, the view that there is a gender asymmetry is predominant. This can be considered a reflection of the feminist movement that has denounced the abuses and mistreatment to women by their intimate partners. It is common to find authors who advocate in favor of women, in a one-sided view which places women in a victim role. On the other hand, psychologists and family sociologists study couple violence or violence as an interactional process (Falcke & Féres-Carneiro, 2011). From this perspective, violence is characterized as a dynamic action constructed by spouses, who are co-authors of marital functioning (Falcke & Féres-Carneiro, 2011; Falcke, Oliveira, Rosa, & Bentancur, 2009). In Williams and Frieze’s studies (2005), conducted in the state of Michigan, more women reported committing violence than men, which led the authors to point out that individuals are mutually violent and that they sometimes use violence as a form of protection. A study by Mosmann and Falcke (2011) with 149 couples found significant levels of misunderstanding and aggression. The accumulation of conflicts which had not be solved by the couple became a cyclical process, favoring disagreements which returned later in a stronger manner. In addition, many couples did not recognize that the strategies used in an attempt to resolve marital conflicts included forms of physical and, especially, psychological violence. All these data indicate the importance of relational evaluation of the violent couple (Cortez, Souza, & Queiroz, 2010) for planning interventions to be performed with these couples, assuming that violence occurs due to the dynamic established between them. Relationships based on some form of violence can compromise the levels of quality in the marital relationship.

Razera, J., Mosmann, C. P., & Falcke, D. (2016). Quality and Violence in Marital Relationships.

Lawrence and Bradbury (2007) conducted a longitudinal study with 172 American couples, and pointed out that initial levels of aggression can cause changes in marital satisfaction, whereas initial levels of satisfaction do not predict changes in aggression. They further suggested that there is a vicious cycle wherein aggression leads to the decline of marital satisfaction, which in turn leads to increased aggression, and so on. It is also necessary to point out that although some authors state that satisfaction with the relationship is impacted by domestic violence (Hellmuth & McNulty, 2008; Lawrence & Bradbury, 2007; Testa & Leonard, 2001), the possibility of violence occurring as a consequence of dissatisfaction with the relationship is not ruled out (DeMaris, 2000; Williams & Frieze, 2005). On the other hand, studies have shown that intimate partner violence will not necessarily result in decreased marital quality. Follingstad, Rogers, and Duvall (2012) investigated a sample of 361 North American women, and found that those who utilized psychological violence tactics to solve conflicts showed higher levels of marital satisfaction. In addition, women who also used some form of aggression in the relationship tended to report less marital dissatisfaction than those who saw aggression as one-sided. Williams and Frieze (2005) reported that some people were considered relatively satisfied with their relationship, even though it was a violent relationship, while others in the same study reported less satisfaction and that violence was a form of self-protection. Again, it was evident that satisfaction levels can exist in a violent relationship, which included the fact that the aggression is not always taken seriously. The existence of a difference in satisfaction levels between men and women in a violent relationship was analyzed by Ackerman (2012), from a gender perspective. Men reported less dissatisfaction, whereas women felt more affected by violent relationships and reported lower levels of marital quality. The authors explained these findings by adopting the perspective that, for men, it would be easier to maintain a loving relationship with aggressive women, whereas the opposite would be more difficult. It is socially acceptable that women assume the weak, victim position, a role that is not understood if performed by males. Similar data had been highlighted by DeMaris (2000) in a sample of 3,508 American couples, which found that the perpetration of domestic violence by men increased the risk of divorce, whereas the perpetration of violence by women did not have the same effect. In this context, there are differences in the results of international studies on marital quality in couples with violent functioning. In terms of the Brazilian literature, using the descriptors of domestic violence and marital quality, no studies were found correlating these variables (Scielo, BVS, LILACS). Due to these reasons, the aim of this study is to investigate the association between marital quality and domestic violence. The specific objectives were to measure the levels of violence and marital quality in domestic violence, to relate the levels of quality and violence with sociodemographic characteristics of the couples, and to identify the predictive power of the different types of violence in marital quality.

Method A quantitative, descriptive, correlational and explanatory study was performed (Hernández Sampieri, Fernández Collado, & Baptista Lucio, 1998/2013). This study is part of a larger project entitled, “Predictive variables of domestic violence: family experiences, personal and relational characteristics”, which aimed to investigate the predictive power of family experiences, the couple’s personality, and the couple’s characteristics on the occurrence of violence in the marital relationship. Participants One hundred eighty-six individuals and their spouses participated in this study, totaling 372. It was a convenience sample, based on nomination by acquaintances, and based on the suggestion of the participants themselves, thus constituting a snowball sample. The participants in the data collection period (August 2013 to August 2014) were residing in the metropolitan area of Porto Alegre, RS. The inclusion criteria were: in a heterosexual marriage relationship, and married for a minimum period of six months. There were no exclusion criteria. As sample characteristics, it was observed that the age of the participants ranged from 19 to 81 years (M = 39.92, SD = 12.62) and the duration of relationships ranged from one to 56 years (M = 14.81; SD = 11.69). Education was distributed as follows: no education (0.6%), elementary education (8.6%), secondary education (41.4%), and higher education in progress or completed (49.4%). The monthly personal income was zero to 45,000 reais per month (M = 3541.98, SD = 4218.23). Of the total, 56.7% were officially married and 43.3% were living together. In addition, 79.6% had been previously married. Instruments Socio-Demographic Data Questionnaire. Composed of 19 questions to collect data such as: gender, age group, education, whether they have children and how many, marital status, time since engagement, personal income, whether they lived with their biological parents during their childhood, and the marital situation of their parents. Other information, such as religiosity of the participants and whether they had been through some type of psychotherapy, was also collected. Golombok Rust Inventory of Marital State - GRIMS (Rust et al., 1986). An inventory that measures the quality of the marital relationship through aspects that are considered important to a good marriage, namely: satisfaction, communication, shared interests, trust and respect. It is a self-administered instrument, consisting of 28 items on a four-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, agree and strongly agree). In the scale, the higher the scores, the more severe the problems in the marital relationship. In this study, the alpha was .889, which is considered very good (Hernández Sampieri et al., 1998/2013). Revised Conflict Tactics Scales - CTS2. It was conceived by Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, and Sugarman (1996),

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and adapted to Portuguese by Moraes, Hasselmann, and Reichenheim (2002). The scale contains 78 items that describe possible actions of the respondent and, conversely, of his/her spouse. It consists of five scales that address the following dimensions: (a) physical violence, (b) psychological abuse, (c) sexual coercion, (d) bodily injury, and (e) negotiation. Physical violence is defined by the authors as minor (pushing, grabbing, slapping, throwing objects, twisting the arm, pulling the hair) and severe (punching, hitting, kicking, throwing against the wall, burning or scalding, using a knife or a firearm). Minor psychological aggression is defined as insults, curses, screaming, calling names, threats and turning one’s back during a fight, whereas severe psychological aggression corresponds to calling names (calling the partner ugly, fat, bad in bed or something similar, destroying the spouse’s personal belongings). Minor sexual coercion refers to an insistence on having sex without using physical force, or forcing the partner to have sex without a condom, while severe sexual coercion corresponds to threatened actions or use of force and weapons to coerce partners to have sex. Minor bodily injury corresponds to the occurrence of a twist, contusion, bruise or body ache that lasts until the next day due to a fight, while severe bodily injury refers to the need to seek medical aid due to a fight, fainting, or breaking a bone. In this study, the alpha of the total CTS2 scale was .872, and the alpha for each subscale was: severe - performed sexual coercion (.796); severe - suffered sexual coercion (.825); minor - performed sexual coercion (.321); minor - suffered sexual coercion (.344); severe - performed physical violence (.858); severe - suffered physical violence (.769); minor - performed physical violence (.772); minor suffered physical violence (.826); severe - performed bodily injury (.522); severe - suffered bodily injury (.819); minor - performed bodily injury (.596); minor - suffered bodily injury (.586); severe - performed psychological aggression (.330); severe - suffered psychological aggression (.444); minor - performed psychological aggression (.698); minor suffered psychological aggression (.684). The alphas ranged from reasonable to very good (Hernández Sampieri et al., 1998/2013). Procedure Data collection. The questionnaires were administered by research assistants (undergraduate research fellows, and master’s and doctoral students) at the homes of the couples or in a place indicated by them; they were scheduled in advance by telephone. During data collection, the study objectives were explained and the Informed Consent (IC) was signed, which also aimed to ensure the confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents. Then, the questionnaire was administered to the couple concurrently, without either having access to the responses of the other, thereby avoiding contamination of individual responses. Data analysis. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software - SPSS (version 20.0). Descriptive analyses were performed to identify the participants’ profile, the percentage of domestic violence,

and marital quality. After confirmation of the data distribution parameters of normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test), Pearson’s correlation analysis, t test, ANOVA and stepwise regression analysis were used, according to the aims of the study. Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos under protocol no. 11/129, on September 27, 2011, and abided by all the guidelines and regulatory standards for research involving human beings.

Results Marital Quality By using GRIMS, it was possible to measure how couples perceived the quality of their marital relationship. Most participants referred to the marriage as being between average to very good (66.54%), whereas 33.47% evaluated the relationship as being between poor to very severe problems. Considering the sociodemographic variables, marital quality was not found to be significantly different according to gender (t = -0.518; p = .605) or marital status (t = 1.328, p = .185). Marital quality was also not associated with age (r = .013; p = .828), length of relationship (r = .054; p = .354), or the couples’ income (r = -.018; p = .772). To evaluate the behavior of the education variable, ANOVA was performed considering three groups (elementary, secondary and higher education). There was no statistically significant difference (F = 2.790; p = .063) in the marital quality of couples with elementary education (M = 29.70, SD = 10.13) compared to couples with secondary education (M = 28.29, SD = 11.00) or higher education (M = 25.52, SD = 10.38). It should be noted that in the GRIMS, a higher score refers to more marital problems. Domestic Violence The rates of different types of performed violence (when the respondent evaluates his/her own actions) and suffered violence (when the respondent evaluates the actions of his/her partner) were evaluated. The levels of violence in this sample range from 1.0% with severe sexual coercion to 86.6% with minor psychological aggression; 25.9% of women and 16.1% of men reported having performed severe psychological aggression. On the other hand, 25.8% of men and 21.8% of women reported performing minor physical violence. A significant difference in the response of wives and husbands was observed using the Student’s t-test in the dimensions of minor sexual coercion and severe psychological aggression. In the dimension of minor sexual coercion, there was a statistically significant difference (t = 4.604, p < .001), indicating that men (M = 3.75) reported committing minor sexual coercion more frequently when compared to women (M = 3.22). A significant difference (t = 2.081, p = .039) was

Razera, J., Mosmann, C. P., & Falcke, D. (2016). Quality and Violence in Marital Relationships.

also found in the severe psychological aggression dimension, with women (M = 3.44) reporting that they committed more severe psychological aggression than their spouses (M = 3.26). There was no significant difference in minor psychological aggression (t = 1.856, p = .064) comparing women (M = 8.63) to men (M = 8.09). There were no statistically significant differences in the dimensions of severe or minor physical violence, and severe or minor bodily injury (p > .05). By evaluating the violence that the participants perceived they suffered in the marital relationship, high levels were also found: 85.7% of women reported having suffered minor psychological aggression from their partners and 83.4% of men reported the same; 23.0% of men reported having suffered severe psychological violence from their partners, whereas 21.1% of women reported the same. Regarding severe sexual coercion, 2.7% of women and 1.6% of men reported having suffered this in their relationships. No significant differences in any of the dimensions of suffered violence were found, considering the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; gender (p > .05). Considering the remaining sociodemographic variables and their associations with the dimensions of violence performed and suffered by the participants, the t-test was used to investigate whether rates differed according to the marital status of the participants. It was possible to observe statistically significant differences (t = 2.209, p = .025) in terms of a greater perception of suffering minor sexual coercion in couples living together or in a common-law marriage (M = 3.54) compared to those officially married (M = 3.30). Age was negatively correlated with the variables,

performed minor physical violence (r = -.166; p = .002), suffered minor physical violence (r = -.138; p = .009), committed severe psychological aggression (r = -.148; p = .005), suffered severe psychological aggression (r = -.134; p = .011), and performed minor psychological aggression (r = -.148; p = .006). These data are indicative that the younger the age of the spouses, the higher the levels of violence performed and suffered. In addition, there was no significant correlation between age and suffering minor psychological aggression (r = -.102; p = .054). The length of relationship also showed no significant association with suffering severe physical violence (r = -.102; p = .058) and performing minor physical violence (r = -.101; p = .060). There were no significant differences in levels of violence considering the education of the participants. Regarding the association between income and dimensions of violence, there was a negative correlation with performing severe psychological aggression (r = -.148; p = .005). Suffering severe psychological aggression (r = -.108; p = .058) and suffering minor sexual coercion (r = -.108; p = .059) were not associated. Correlations Between Marital Quality and Domestic Violence Correlations were made between the scales of domestic violence (CTS2) and marital quality (GRIMS); statistically significant but weak to moderate correlations were identified. Table 1 shows these data.

Table 1 Correlations Between the CTS2 and GRIMS Dimensions Dimensions of Performed Violence (CTS2)

GRIMS

Dimensions of Suffered Violence (CTS2)

GRIMS

Severe Sexual Coercion

.099

Severe Sexual Coercion

.110

Minor Sexual Coercion

.139*

Minor Sexual Coercion

.255**

Severe Physical Violence

.138*

Severe Physical Violence

.186**

Minor Physical Violence

.243**

Minor Physical Violence

.257**

Severe Bodily injury

.121*

Severe Bodily injury

.115*

Minor Bodily injury

.244**

Minor Bodily injury

.139*

Severe Psychological Aggression

.267**

Severe Psychological Aggression

.293**

Minor Psychological Aggression

.346**

Minor Psychological Aggression

.403**

Note. Significant correlation at the **.01 and *.05 levels.

There was an association among most of the analyzed dimensions. The correlations were positive with GRIMS, because the highest score in GRIMS refers to the existence of more severe marital problems and lower marital quality. The more violence there is in the marital relationship, the lower the quality perceived by the participants in their relationships.

Predictive Power of Violence on Marital Quality From the data correlation, it was found that the occurrence of violence in the marital relationship was related to the decline in marital quality levels. Then a stepwise regression analysis was performed, which identified which

Paidéia, 26(63), 71-79

forms of violence were predictive of marital problems. We opted for the evaluation of models separated by gender, considering that there was a significant difference in sexual coercion and psychological aggression between the genders. When women were evaluated, they perceived minor psychological aggression from their spouse (β = 1.752; p < .001), which explains 16.5% (R2 = .165) of the variance in the occurrence of marital problems in relationships. That is, for women, suffering psychological aggression from their spouse favors their perception of a less satisfactory relationship. From the husbands’ perspective, two variables were in the model. Minor psychological aggression (β = 1.752; p < .001) and severe psychological aggression (β = 1.752; p = .023) performed by them had a predictive power of 17.4% (R2 = .174) of the variance in the occurrence of marital problems. This shows that men see the levels of quality of the marital relationship decrease when they perceive themselves as performing psychological aggression (minor and/or severe) against their partners. Psychological aggression was the dimension with the greatest impact on marital quality for both men and women.

Discussion Minor psychological aggression, namely insults, curses, screaming, calling names, threats and/or turning one’s back during a fight, has been a tactic used by couples trying to resolve conflicts, albeit dysfunctional, reaching levels that exceed 80% in this sample. These data confirm the national research presented by Bolze, Schmidt, Crepaldi and Vieira (2013), in which, although most couples considered their relationship to be harmonious, yet they also use minor psychological aggression as the main way to attempt to resolve conflicts. This shows that although couples report resolving their conflicts through dialogue, they also end up using behaviors such as swearing, shouting and threatening in situations of conflict. Actions involving violence were identified, indicating that men and women are performing and suffering different manifestations of domestic violence. No statistically significant differences in the rates of physical violence and bodily injury were identified when comparing the genders. This indicates that husbands and wives admitted performing physical aggressions at the same frequency and intensity. Therefore, it was found that violent behaviors can arise from both spouses, providing opportunities for a more balanced look at the marital relationship. These findings corroborate national and international studies that indicate that the man is not always the aggressor with the woman as the victim, but an interactional bias prevails (Colossi & Falcke, 2013; Diniz, Lopes, Gesteira, Alves, & Gomes, 2003; Follingstad & Edmundson, 2010; Lamoglia & Minayo, 2009). However, with regard to sexual coercion, men are likely to perform it significantly more often than women, whereas psychological aggression was performed significantly more often by the women in this study. Gender bias seems to be evident in this differentiation, marking the focus on sexuality a male characteristic and the focus on the

emotional/psychological aspects a female characteristic. Therefore, the data highlight the importance of considering the gender variable in the analysis of violence, understanding that this is a complex phenomenon with multiple forms of expression, and it is culturally influenced. This understanding corroborates national data that emphasize the importance of marital dynamics, but also the social rules that still express themselves in marriage and in the construction of domestic violence (Diniz, 2013). Minor sexual coercion was significantly more frequent in cohabiting couples than in those who were officially married. This datum refers to other national studies already showing the importance of official marriage. Vieira et al. (2011) found that women who cohabited, or were separated or divorced, were twice as likely to experience partner violence compared to women who were officially married. Thus, it can hypothesized that the wedding ritual is extremely important so that spouses are also emotionally able to formalize the relationship. Minor sexual coercion and severe suffered psychological aggression were not associated with a lower income in the household. Previous international studies have found an association between socioeconomic issues and domestic marital violence (Koenig, Stephenson, Ahmed, Jejeebhoy, & Campbell, 2006). In this study, this was not confirmed, however it should be noted that income was fairly homogenous in this sample, which was characterized as socioeconomic classes A, according to the CCBE - Brazilian Socio-Economic Classification Criterion. It is known that violence, whether physical, psychological or sexual, can be present in any social and economic context, but it is pertinent to consider that in less favorable economic levels there is a higher level of discussion about the lack of money and a larger context of vulnerability, which has a great power to trigger stress and violence (Diniz et al., 2003). In this study, the couple’s income was not associated with marital quality levels, which allows us to conclude that the money variable can lead to marital arguments and fights, however one wonders about its impact on the promotion of quality in the relationship. Marital conflicts and violence are often associated with a lower educational level of the spouses, especially in common sense, but in this study it was not an influential variable on the levels of domestic violence. In this sample, most had higher education, and about 85% of couples reported suffering or having suffered some kind of violence. These data corroborate Koenig et al.’s study (2006) with the Indian population, in which education did not intervene in domestic violence. In the present study, education was not significantly different in higher levels of marital quality, which leads to the thinking that, although education promotes the exercise of dialogue and participation of both partners in the couple’s decisions, providing better levels of communication and satisfaction, other variables are probably significant in this interaction (Rizzon et al., 2013). The perception of the spouses about the levels of marital quality can be changed when they are exposed to domestic violence, which will inevitably result in suffering. Spouses perceived the violent actions of their partners as predictors of reduced marital quality. In this study, women

Razera, J., Mosmann, C. P., & Falcke, D. (2016). Quality and Violence in Marital Relationships.

felt that aggression by their partners led to the decline in the quality of the relationship and the opposite occurred with men, who perceived a lower marital quality when they reported performing some form of violence against their partners. One can ask whether the way men are raised, traditionally focused on not showing suffering, and the difficulty in recognizing the victim role impacts on this scenario, where suffered violence is less reflected in the relationship, in terms of marital quality. On the other hand, one should take into consideration how much being in the role of those who perform violence affects the well-being and quality of the marital relationship, possibly because of feelings of guilt. Women are generally accepted as victims and their suffering is socially legitimated both in the national and international contexts, thereby attributing the violence performed by their partners as factors that lower the levels of marital quality (Ackerman, 2012). In this sample, it is noteworthy that the results of the dimensions of violence correlated with marital quality showed that the violence practices reduced the couples’ perceived marital quality. Regardless of the victim or aggressor position, psychological aggression was the variable with the greatest power to predict lower marital quality in men and women. The relevance of these findings needs to be highlighted, because psychological aggression is not always legitimized by the spouses or even by professionals, due to the difficulty with its measurement, reiterating that such aggression can bring suffering and damage to the health of those involved (Colossi & Falcke, 2013). When the quality and violence variables are examined separately, most couples (66.54%) evaluated their relationship as average to very good. Of these same couples, 85% reported having suffered or suffering some form of domestic violence. This information brings out the need to assess whether the method to evaluate psychological violence used was too sensitive to be present in the majority of the sample. Whereas psychological violence refers to actions such as insults, curses, screaming, among others, it is believed that even if these actions are being used by the majority of the sample, they should be considered as an occurrence of violence, so that there is no risk of naturalizing them in relationships. Because most couples somehow perceived themselves as satisfied with their relationship, it can be inferred that the naturalization of violence is already taking place. Used to this relational model, the couples end up not realizing the existence of violence in the marital relationship (Williams & Frieze, 2005). Evaluating the couples’ perception about their relationships, particularly sensitive issues such as violence and its impact on the quality of the relationship, must cover several variables of the phenomenon. Violent practices are commonly used as an attempt, albeit inadequate, at conflict resolution. Whether practiced by men or women, it can not only have the impact of reducing marital quality, but also on the health of individuals. The results of the present study call attention to the high levels of violence and its impact on marital quality, pointing to the fact that in many relationships, the occurrence of violence seems to be naturalized, thereby becoming a common and vicious practice.

In this study, the limitations were the income and educational characteristics of the sample, which were higher than in the general population. However, this study aims to contribute to health professionals seeking intervention strategies for couples in situations of violence, because it expands the view and allows for relativizing the cases, thereby not generalizing the phenomenon but considering the individual characteristics of each couple, by showing that sometimes violence can occur more symmetrically in the relationships. Other studies with different samples and different methods, including the phenomenon of violence, can complement the evaluation, more specifically about the perception that spouses have about their relationships, as well as the interface between marital quality and domestic violence.

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How to cite this article: Razera, J., Mosmann, C. P., & Falcke, D. (2016). The interface between quality and violence in marital relationships. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 71-79. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201609

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Article

Psychological Indicators and Perceptions of Adolescents in Residential Care1 Amanda Oliveira Fernandes Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Nancy Ramacciotti de Oliveira-Monteiro2 Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil

Abstract: The institutionalization of adolescents has been mentioned in the literature with positive and negative aspects. This study investigated 61 adolescents in residential care aiming to evaluate psychological problems and perceptions related to the care, using interviews and the YSR. Data was evaluated using quantitative and qualitative analysis, using gender, age and length of institutionalization as variables. Results indicated clinical scores for psychological problems, except for externalizing problems, in younger girls recently taken into care and older boys institutionalized for longer periods. The perceptions about the care were negative or indifferent; elements of positivity were expressed by adolescents institutionalized for longer periods. Instability in the permanence in the care service and the reasons for having been taken into care were manifested with psychological distress. There were few contacts with the family of origin; the adolescents mentioned the importance of their families and the desire to leave the institution. Members of the institutional teams were indicated as sources of care and protection. This study reflects the challenges for the positive development of this population. Keywords: adolescence, institution, human development

Indicadores Psicológicos e Percepção de Acolhimento em Adolescentes Resumo: A institucionalização de adolescentes é referida na literatura em seus aspectos negativos e positivos. Com objetivo de avaliar indicadores psicológicos e percepções do acolhimento, este estudo investigou 61 adolescentes acolhidos, através do YSR e entrevistas. Foram realizadas análises quantitativas e qualitativas, considerando variáveis: sexo, idade e tempo de institucionalização. Resultados indicaram faixas clínicas para problemas psicológicos, exceto problemas externalizantes, em meninas mais novas (há menos tempo acolhidas) e em meninos mais velhos (maior tempo de acolhimento). Percepções sobre o acolhimento tenderam à negatividade e indiferença; percepções positivas apareceram naqueles com mais tempo de acolhimento. Instabilidades nas permanências institucionais e motivos para o acolhimento foram expressos com indicadores de sofrimento psíquico. Contatos familiares eram esparsos; os adolescentes referiram importância da família e desejos de saída da instituição. Membros das equipes institucionais foram citados como fontes de cuidado e proteção. O estudo reflete desafios para o desenvolvimento positivo dessa população. Palavras-chave: adolescência, instituições, desenvolvimento humano

Indicadores Psicológicos y Percepciones de Acogimiento en Adolescentes Resumen: La institucionalización de los adolescentes se reporta en la literatura en sus aspectos negativos y positivos. Con objetivo de evaluar indicadores psicológicos y percepciones del acogimiento, este estudio investigó 61 adolescentes, utilizando entrevistas e YSR. Fueron realizadas analisis cuantitativas y cualitativas, considerando las variables: sexo, edad y tiempo de institucionalización. Resultados indicaron rangos clínicos para problemas psicológicos, con excepción de problemas externalizantes en niñas más pequenas (menos tiempo de acogida) y con niños mayores (mayor tiempo de acogida). Percepciones sobre el acogimiento tendieron a negatividad e indiferencia; percepciones positivas aparecen en lós que tienen más tiempo de acogimiento. Instabilidades en la permanencia institucional y motivos para el acogimiento se expresaron con sufrimiento psíquico. Contactos con la família eram raros; los adolescentes referian la importância de la família y deseos de salir de la institucción. Miembros de los equipos institucionales fueron referidos como fuentes de cuidado y protección. El estudio refleja desafios para el desarrollo positivo de esa población. Palabras clave: adolescencia, instituciones, desarrollo humano

Adolescence is marked in the human life cycle by the period between 10 and 20 years of age (Organización Mundial Article derived from the master’s thesis of Amanda Oliveira Fernandes under the guidance of Dr. Nancy Ramacciotti de Oliveira-Monteiro, defended in 2013 at the Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Health Sciences of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Support: São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP - Process no. 2011/04610-2).

Correspondence address: Nancy Ramacciotti de Oliveira-Monteiro. Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Laboratório de Psicologia Ambiental e Desenvolvimento Humano. Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 3º andar, sala 327, Vila Mathias. CEP 11015-020. Santos-SP, Brazil. E-mail: nancy.unifesp@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

de la Salud [WHO], 1999), configuring a transitional stage between childhood and adulthood. In this phase, intense changes and important developmental acquisitions take place in the biological, psychological and social domains, with the establishment of new habits of behavior, processes and products of the development fundamental for the construction of identity. As in all human development, adolescent development emerges from the interactions with the different environments in which the adolescent is inserted. As adolescents come into contact with new contexts and social interactions, throughout the course of life, they require new skills and competencies, and their improvement, in the developmental transitions,

Paidéia, 26(63), 81-89

which lead to changes in self-perception and the perception of others and generate opportunities for other new personcontext interactions. The concept of human development, according to the ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner (2002), is related to the connections between the particularities of the individual and the environmental contexts in which they interact. According to this theory, interactions take place in ecological systems that are interconnected, both in a more proximal way (which involves face to face contact), in the so-called microsystem (such as in the family), and also in the interrelation between two or more of these microsystems, in environments in which the individual participates actively, in the mesosystem (such as in the school and groups of friends). There are also interactions with environments in which the subjects are not actively present, called exosystem (the work of the parents) and interactions in more distant levels, in a macrosystem, which includes cultural content, beliefs or ideologies. All these systems form a context that interacts with individuals and their particularities, producing changes and also promoting constancies in the characteristics of the person in the course of life. Adolescents who have life contexts outside of the family, experiences in institutions, and go through situations of violence and abandonment, will have their development affected by the particularities and vulnerabilities in several of these interaction environments. Despite the Statute of Children and Adolescents (ECA) (Law No. 8.069, 1990) defining that the institutionalization of children and adolescents is intended as a provisional and exceptional action faced with the violation of rights, the national indicators of 2013 from the National Survey of Children and Adolescents in Care Services (LNCA) (Assis & Farias, 2013) indicates that there were approximately 37,000 children and adolescents living in 2,624 residential care services. The Save the Children international report (2009) presented data for the existence of more than eight million children and adolescents living in similar conditions worldwide. Recent public policies have reinforced that institutional care should be temporary, until better conditions are offered in the families of origin, extended families or in cases of adoption (Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome, 2009), and have established that the permanence the child or adolescent in an institutional care program should not last for more than two years (Law No. 12.010, 2009). Despite what is envisaged by the law, studies show that many children and adolescents in Brazil experience long periods of institutionalization, sometimes for more than a decade (Álvares & Lobato, 2013; Gonzalez, Wathier-Abaid, & Dell’Aglio, 2011; Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome, 2011; Siqueira & Dell’Aglio, 2010). Life in institutional services can be associated with positive factors or with those considered to be risk factors for the development of children and adolescents, depending on the interactions constructed in the care context and living conditions that the institution provides to the individuals. Positive aspects of institutional living are related to the protection faced with experiences of mistreatment in the

family of origin, the attention to basic needs, the emotional connections with employees and colleagues, as well as the structure and organization of the institution itself, which can provide opportunities and leisure and education activities (Carlos, Ferriani, Silva, Roque, & Vendruscolo, 2013; Dell’Aglio & Siqueira, 2010; Siqueira, Zoltowski, Giordani, Otero, & Dell’Aglio, 2010; Yunes, Miranda, & Cuello, 2004). However, the experiences of risks are related to limitations found in the institutions for the care and protection of this population (Dell’Aglio & Siqueira, 2010; Marinkovic & Backovic, 2007). In general, the care institutions have difficulties in dealing with the large number of individuals, tending toward the collectivization and institutionalization of the lives of these young people, exposing them to situations of social segregation and ruptures in the family bonds (Carlos et al., 2013). Disruptions in consistent interactions in the family microsystem, particularly important for the development, are considered risk factors for the development of the adolescent. According to the Save the Children report (2009), the majority of adolescents who live in institutional care services have one or both parents alive, however, they tend to have little contact with their families. Tevendale, Comulada, and Lightfoot (2011), in a study performed with adolescents living in the care service of the state of New York (USA), identified numerous areas of present and previous difficulties in the lives of adolescents, which included: problematic family relationships, physical, sexual and emotional abuse and neglect, depression and/or suicidal ideation, alcohol and/or drug use and difficulties in the school area. Recent national surveys have found elevated indicators of emotional and behavioral problems, and high occurrences of stressors, and depressive events in institutionalized children and adolescents (Álvares & Lobato, 2013; Fernandes, Nascimento, Montesano, Spadari-Bratfisch, & Oliveira-Monteiro, no prelo; OliveiraMonteiro, Nascimento, Montesano, & Aznar-Farias, 2013; Silva, Lemos, & Nunes, 2013; Wathier-Abaid, Dell’Aglio, & Koller, 2010). Álvares and Lobato (2013) suggest that the development of depressive symptoms in children and young people in care would be related to periods of longer than two years in the institution, history of institutional experience and not having siblings in the institution. Rescorla et al. (2007) classified the psychological problems into two broad categories: internalizing and externalizing. The first category, internalizing problems, is focused on the emotions and the more inner psychological environment, such as anxiety and depression, while the externalizing problems category includes negative behavioral characteristics, such as hyperactivity, aggressive and antisocial behaviors, related to the external world (Liu, 2004). Both sets of behaviors can cause difficulties of interaction of the child and/or adolescent with those with whom they live (Bolsoni-Silva, Paiva, & Barbosa, 2009). Gender and age differences have been verified in relation to internalizing problems and externalizing problems of adolescents. Younger adolescents tend to present externalizing problems, such as physical aggression, with this behavior decreasing with advancing age (Bongers, Koot, Van der Ende, & Verhulst, 2004). Published data indicate that aggressive behavior

Fernandes, A. O., & Oliveira-Monteiro, N. R. (2016). Psychological Conditions of Adolescents in Care.

and rule-breaking is related more to adolescent boys, while internalizing problems such as depression and anxiety disorders have a higher prevalence and high levels among adolescent girls (Bongers et al., 2004; Guo & Slesnick, 2011; Ojha, Ma, Chapagain, & Tulachan, 2013). Various factors make adolescents more vulnerable to suffer psychological problems, among which are individual (psychological characteristics, gender and age), family (history of mental disorders, use/abuse of alcohol and drugs, violence, loss and separation) and sociocultural aspects (poverty, violence in the context, social support) (Avanci, Assis, Oliveira, Ferreira, & Pesce, 2007). An international review study on the prevalence of mental disorders in children living away from their homes showed that this population presents between a 24% to 40% greater chance of having problems related to mental health when compared to children living with their families (Bassuk, Richard, & Tsertsvadze, 2015). Although the theme of development of institutionalized children and adolescents has recently been explored by many researchers, the subject still requires further depth and expansion to guide a better quality of (re)formulation of interventional projects aimed at prevention and health promotion strategies for this population that lives in vulnerable conditions. The continuation of the investigation in this regard, especially studies in which these children and young people can be heard and their views taken into account, can enable the generation of new subsidies for service and care resources, and for specific interventions aimed at possible dysfunctions that are identified. Furthermore, the choice of evaluation instruments used in international studies, with due care in relation to adaptation and validation processes, can facilitate comparisons of the aspects of development and psychological health conditions of institutionalized adolescents in different realities. In this context, this study evaluated adolescents in residential care, considering age, gender and length of institutionalization, in terms of indicators of psychological problems (internalizing and externalizing) and their perceptions about the institutional experience.

Method Participants The participants were 61 adolescents, aged 11 to 18 years (56% girls and 56% adolescents aged over 15 years), residents of 10 residential care services (governmental and non-governmental) in four municipalities of Baixada Santista (SP). The adolescents investigated presented varied lengths of institutionalization, from one week to more than eight years (49% had been in care for more than two years). The sample was constituted by convenience and accessibility, considering the authorization of the institutions for the performance of the study, the time dedicated to the collection of data in the field (six months) and the acceptance/availability of

the adolescents for participation. All the adolescents who accepted the research invitation participated in the study. Instruments The study had qualitative and quantitative characteristics. To study indicators of psychological problems (internalizing and externalizing) and perceptions of the residential care situation of the adolescents investigated, the following instruments were used: Youth Self-Report - YSR (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2010). A screening instrument that, through selfreports, provides indicators regarding the psychosocial functioning of the adolescent in two scales related to Competence and Psychological Problems (emotional and behavioral). The Psychological Problems scale of the YSR, used in this study, includes the subscales of internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and somatic complaints) and externalizing problems (such as rule-breaking and aggressive behavior). Results of the psychological problems scale of the YSR are considered in ranges denominated clinical (above 63 scores), borderline (scores between 60 and 63) and non-clinical (scores below 60) indicating, respectively, sufficient problems for clinical concerns, probable need for intervention, and strong points that should be considered in the planning of interventions. The YSR contains Brazilian validation evidence, with indications of adequacy of the factorial model of the instrument for the Brazilian population, good internal consistency indices and discriminating capacity of the scales and items for psychological problems (Rocha & Silvares, 2012). Semistructured interview regarding the perception of the residential care situation. This instrument was derivative from a previous study conducted with adolescents in residential care situations, the interview contained open and closed questions on aspects of the perception of the adolescent regarding the residential care situation, subdivided into four thematic axes, which encompassed: (a) institutional history in care (experiences of entering, residing and leaving); (b) contacts with family members; (c) references regarding health, protection and risk; and (d) hopes and dreams for their lives. The instrument also contained a proposal for the adolescents to talk about their lives, freely, with the request: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Tell me what you think is important about your life, anything will interest meâ&#x20AC;?. Procedure Data collection. The instruments were applied individually, in a private place in the institutions, at days and times arranged with the technical teams and adolescents. The sessions were initiated with application of the YSR instrument, followed by the interview, and lasted approximately 45 minutes. With the exception of four cases in which consent to record was not given, all the other interviews were recorded

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for later transcription. In the four cases mentioned, the report was compiled with data from the memory. Data analysis. The YSR data were transcribed into the inventory correction software (Assessment Data Manager Program - ADM) and submitted to descriptive analysis. The reports collected in the interviews were approached according to quantitative and qualitative parameters, associated with references of thematic axes indicated in a previous study. The establishment of frequency of responses to closed questions was carried out and systematized in the four thematic axes proposed for analysis (institutional history in care; contacts with family members; references regarding health, protection and risk, and hopes and dreams for their lives). A qualitative analysis of the collected material in the open questions of the interview was carried out by reading and listening to the interviews, systematizing the emerging content (Bardin, 2011), analyzing the most frequent and common themes, and integrating the content into the thematic axes. The quantitative results of the two instruments were analyzed according to the subgroups: a) age group (11 to 14 years / 15 to 18 years), b) gender, and c) length of institutionalization (up to two years / more than two years).

Ethical Considerations The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de SĂŁo Paulo (CEP/ UNIFESP No. 0313/11), having obtained the informed consent of the legal representatives (directors of institutions) and the participating adolescents.

Results Results of the YSR: Indicators of Internalizing and Externalizing Psychological Problems Internalizing Problems and Externalizing Problems were indicated by the responses given by adolescents to the questions of the YSR. Table 1 presents descriptive measures of the Internalizing Problem and Externalizing Problem variables of the YSR, according to gender, age group and length of institutionalization. According to Table 1, in the Internalizing Problems variable, both the girls and boys presented means in the

Table 1 Descriptive Measures of the Internalizing Problem and Externalizing Problem Variables of the YSR, According to Gender, Age Group and Length of Institutionalization Gender

Age

11 to 14

Female

15 to 18

Total

11 to 14

Male

15 to 18

Total

Length of Institutionalization

Intern. Problems M (SD)

Extern. Problems M (SD)

Up to 2 years

66.6 (10.6)

54.8 (12.4)

More than 2 years

67.9 (7.5)

66.9 (9.7)

Total

67.3 (8.9)

60.8 (12.4)

Up to 2 years

69.8 (8.5)

63.2 (7.6)

More than 2 years

66.2 (11.5)

68.6 (11.8)

Total

68.0 (10.0)

65.9 (10.0)

Up to 2 years

68.3 (9.4)

59.2 (10.7)

More than 2 years

67.0 (9.6)

67.8 (10.5)

Total

67.6 (9.3)

63.5 (11.3)

Up to 2 years

65.0 (1.2)

62.2 (3.6)

More than 2 years

62.4 (12.4)

65.9 (11.6)

Total

63.5 (9.3)

64.3 (9.0)

Up to 2 years

63.5 (7.4)

69.6 (8.2)

More than 2 years

63.0 (8.7)

56.7 (11.2)

Total

63.3 (7.7)

63.6 (11.5)

Up to 2 years

64.1 (5.7)

66.8 (7.6)

More than 2 years

62.7 (10.3)

61.3 (11.9)

63.4 (8.3)

63.9 (10.3)

Total Note. The values in boldface indicate means in the clinical range of the YSR.

clinical range, with the older girls scoring higher means for these problems. Only the boys with more than two years in care had scores in the borderline range. In the Externalizing Problems variable, the boys and the older girls presented

scores in the clinical range. Scores considered non-clinical/ normal and borderline were found in the younger adolescents, with up to two years in care and, in the older boys with more than two years in this specific condition.

Fernandes, A. O., & Oliveira-Monteiro, N. R. (2016). Psychological Conditions of Adolescents in Care.

Results of the Semistructured Interview Regarding the Perception of the Residential Care Situation The results of the responses to the closed questions are presented according to the thematic axes of the study. Institutional history in care. The majority of the investigated adolescents (41) said that it was the first time in the care service in which they lived at the time of the data collection of the study. Regarding the causes for having been taken into care, 11 adolescents (majority boys) did not know or declined to answer the question. Among the reports on this theme, the most common references for the causes of the institutionalization were: family abandonment, domestic violence, family problems (including fights, rejections, running away from home), drugs in the family, legal problems (cause most reported by boys with up to two years in care) and adoption that “did not work”. Of the studied adolescents, 38 had a history of unstable living situations, due to changes of the care institution, attempts to return to families and/or situations of living on the streets. The majority investigated (21 adolescents) expressed negative perceptions of these unstable situations, reporting moments of stress and nervousness, and feelings of abandonment and confusion. The investigated adolescents presented a general tendency toward a negative perception of the care institution. The girls expressed more negativity in their perceptions, while the boys were more indifference regarding the residential care situation. In terms of age, the younger adolescents (11 to 14 years) showed a tendency toward a negative perception of the care institution, while the older adolescents (15 to 18 years) reported indifference. The adolescents with up to two years in care reported more negative perceptions of the institutionalization condition, while those with more than two years in care expressed a positive tendency regarding the residential care situation. Contacts with family members. Nearly half of the studied adolescents (29) reported having siblings in the institution where they resided at the time of data collection of the study. There were 16 adolescents (majority girls) who reported not having contact with any family member. Among those adolescents who reported contact with family members, 21 had contact only with one member (mother, stepmother, father, sibling, grandmother, aunt or godmother) and 24 had contact with more than one family member (mother, stepmother, father, stepfather, siblings, grandmother, uncles/ aunts and/or cousins). The majority of these reported that the contacts were occasional (on weekends, weekly or biweekly visits, vacations, phone calls and contacts over the internet). References regarding health, safety and risk conditions. More than half of adolescents (32) reported having been sick in the care service, more frequently reported by the girls. Among the symptoms and diseases reported there were: pain (head, stomach, intestines, throat), fever, nausea, colds and flu, virus, anemia, bronchitis, dengue fever and accidents. The majority of the adolescents reported having visited the doctor and, in cases of disease, all indicated staff of the institution, such as the nurses and monitors, as people that helped. When asked about reports of protection and risk, the

majority of the adolescents indicated feelings of protection within the service, with few reports of risk perception. The younger adolescents with more time in care presented more reports of protection with respect to their insertion in the residential care services. Also regarding the conditions of protection, almost all the adolescents reported receiving help within the service, from the staff (most frequent report) and from colleagues. Hopes and dreams for their lives. The most common answers to the questions about hopes and dreams for their lives were: to study, work, have their own home, raise a family, leave the care institution (majority girls), and to return to the family of origin. Dreams were also reported that referred to future careers. The girls reported dreams of being doctors, artists, athletes, veterinarians, psychologists, lawyers, teachers, judges, secretaries, saleswomen and police officers. The boys talked about dreams of being athletes (in the majority of cases, football players), firefighters, designers, dance teachers, truck drivers and police officers. Only three adolescents, all boys with longer periods in care, said they did not have dreams and life expectancies. Responses to the request that adolescents talked about what they considered important in their lives included references to family members, friends, their own lives, health and helping other people. Wishes to leave the institution, to have a family or return to their own family, to work and study were also expressed, as well as data from the family history and the history of being in care (the arrival in the institution and the reason for the institutionalization), valorization of the institution in which they were, fear of losing family members and living on the streets, the importance of pregnancy and having children, regret for having lost opportunities, and their own qualities and defects. Thirteen adolescents did not want to give any comment about their lives and one talked about the desire to commit suicide.

Discussion The sample of this study included a higher number of older adolescents (aged 15 to 18 years) and females in the care services investigated. A study of institutionalized adolescents in Porto Alegre (RS) also presented, as the majority of the sample, young females with a mean age of 15 years (Gonzalez et al., 2011). Similarly, in India, more girls are found in institutional care services than boys (Save the Children, 2009). A wide variation in the length of institutionalization (between one week and eight years) was also one of the characteristics of the adolescents investigated, similar to LNCA data (Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome, 2011) which showed 17.6 years as the maximum institutionalization time in the Southeast region. Despite the long period of institutionalization reported by some of the adolescents investigated, the number of them with less two years in care was similar throughout the entire sample. This quantitative balance of adolescents in the subgroups with more than two years and up to two years of institutionalization could be an indicator of progress in

Paidéia, 26(63), 81-89

the execution of legislation regarding the length of stay in residential care service (up to two years). The adolescents studied presented high scores for both internalizing and externalizing psychological problems investigated by the YSR, indicating possible problems of clinical concerns, data consistent with studies in similar populations of European countries (Marinkovic & Backovic, 2007; Silva et al., 2013), of the USA (Bassuk et al., 2015) and of Brazil (OliveiraMonteiro et al., 2013). Considering studies with adolescents in different contexts, evaluated through the YSR, it can be perceived that adolescent students from public schools and young people placed in social assistance programs with vulnerability experiences, presented normal and/or borderline results for the psychological problems investigated by the YSR (Oliveira -Monteiro et al., 2013). Conversely, in a literature review of studies with homeless American adolescents, Bassuk et al. (2015) found results of the YSR in the clinical range, similar to those presented in this study. It can therefore be observed that the context in which these young people live, especially in the interactions performed in their most proximal ecological environments, in the microsystems (family, institutions) and mesosystems (school, social programs, street), appears to influence, positively or negatively, their developments. Within this worrying condition, older adolescent girls had higher mean scores for internalizing problems. This finding is consistent with the literature, which highlights girls as having a higher risk for psychiatric disorders and internalizing problems, such as depression and anxiety disorders (Avanci et al., 2007; Guo & Slesnick, 2011; Ojha et al., 2013; Siqueira & Dell’Aglio, 2010). Poletto, Koller and Dell’Aglio (2009) found that girls were more likely to react emotionally in a diffuse way to the accumulation of adverse events, and to invest more in interpersonal relationships, involving themselves more in the difficulties of others. In the reports from the semi-structured interviews of this study, the girls also reported more health and disease problems and increased negativity in the perception of the care. Older boys with more time in care had fewer indications of Externalizing Problems, the only group of the adolescents investigated in the non-clinical range of psychological problems. This data can be reflected both in terms of age group and length of institutionalization. Younger adolescents tend toward externalizing problems, especially boys (Bongers et al., 2004; Guo & Slesnick, 2011). In addition, a possible adaptation to the institutional environment was indicated by demonstrations of positivity regarding the care situation made by the adolescents in the sample who had been in care for more than two years. Despite institutionalization and family estrangement being, in the majority of cases, considered harmful to the development of adolescents, more consistent residential care, with affective and positive interactions, without situations of instability (changing institutions, and/or failed attempts to return to the family) may favor the construction of bonds within the services, as well as protection from adverse events outside the institution, the fulfillment of basic needs, and the acceptance of the situation (Carlos et al., 2013; Dell’Aglio & Siqueira, 2010; Tevendale et al., 2011).

When asked about their ideas for the reasons for being taken into care, some of the adolescents studied refused to respond or claimed ignorance. This theme seemed to mobilize greater psychological distress, bringing memories and anxieties, so that the adolescents indicated not knowing or not wanting to deal with the reasons, probably related to neglect and family abandonment, or drug addiction of family members, seen as the main causes for the entry of the children and adolescents into care services (Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome, 2011). Family relationships can be significantly worse for institutionalized groups, containing uncertainties, conflicts, idealizations and anxieties (Fave & Massimini, 2000). In this study, some adolescents reported some contacts with more than one family member, although the frequency was occasional. Other studies highlight reports of the maintenance of contact and bonds with family members, in most situations involving young people in care, regardless of the quality of this interaction (Gonzalez et al., 2011; Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome, 2011). Consistent with the results of several studies (Marinkovic & Backovic, 2007; Save The Children, 2009; Siqueira et al., 2010; Tevendale et al., 2011; Yunes et al., 2004), there were strong indications in this study that changes of institution or housing and the perception of the residential care situation, in general, were negative in the adolescents studied. References to feelings of abandonment, stress, nervousness and the desire to establish a home were found in their reports. The younger adolescents (aged 11 to 14 years) and the girls in general tended toward a more negative perception of the care, while the older adolescents investigated (15 to 18 years) and the boys reported perceptions marked by indifference. Some positivity in this perception appeared in the adolescents who had been in the service for longer, probably due to being more adapted to the environmental context of the institution, and having the possibility of creating positive bonds. Many adolescents refer to protection within the care service, with positive references regarding the staff (Dell’Aglio & Siqueira, 2010; Fave & Massimini, 2000), fundamental figures of interaction in the institutional context, as well as substitutes for some parental duties, such as care, help, protection and elements of limits and discipline. Although the institutions generally have few caregivers for many individuals, the staff can represent parental figures, in cases of environments of stable interaction, providing safe and reliable relationships (Carlos et al., 2013; Marinkovic & Backovic, 2007). In both the closed questions regarding dreams and hopes and the open questions of the interviews the adolescents gave answers with content relevant to: the importance of family members and friends, future desires to leave the institution and build a family, and themes regarding studies, school and work. With regard to this last element, related to the career, in general they seemed to have dreams of a professional life with elements permeated by values of our culture, potentially inaccessible in their life trajectories marked by impairments in family and school life. The present study do not have generalization pretensions for the population of Brazilian adolescents living in the

Fernandes, A. O., & Oliveira-Monteiro, N. R. (2016). Psychological Conditions of Adolescents in Care.

residential care situation, and also present a limit due to not exploring the institutional dynamics present in the different care services (public or private sector). The work, however, reflects worrying data regarding the psychological conditions of this population, consistent with other recent studies on the subject of development of institutionalized children and adolescents. Internalizing and externalizing psychological problems were indicated in the evaluation of the adolescents investigated, who generally expressed a negative perception regarding the residential care. However, the older adolescents, in the second stage of adolescence, especially the boys, expressed indifference to their life situations in the institution. This indifference can be an important sign of the emotional problems of these adolescents, as a possible indicator of hopelessness or discontinuance of the use of psychic resources for coping with the situation and having hope for life. It should be noted that one of the adolescents expressed suicidal intentions (Tevendale et al., 2011), the greatest of the risks present in this population of vulnerable young people. All these negative conditions are also associated with the impotency the families face with the situation of great vulnerability, the main reason/cause of child and adolescent institutionalization. Instabilities upon entering the institutions, and memories about the reasons for having been taken into care were the elements expressed with a greater burden of psychological distress for those investigated. However, the adolescents reported dreams for life, such as studying, having a family and a job – dreams with few links to plans and projects, appearing as reports of a potential positivity for life and happiness, emerging culture, ideology, and values of the times in which they live. The results of this study reaffirm, as found in other studies, a situation in which children and adolescents in residential care configure staff members of the institutional services as substitutes for the family roles, providing part of the fundamental microsystems of development. It follows that the staff members of the care services need specific training to develop the skills and competencies necessary to confront the operational and symbolic roles required of them in the daily care and attention for these children and adolescents. Also aligned with the results of the study is the fact that social workers and school and health agents that interact with this institutionalized population must be better informed about their particular needs. In turn, and most important, it should be noted that systematic work with the families of origin (microsystems to be restored) must be given priority and restructuring in order to empower and strengthen them to face the expected processes of positive family reintegration of their children. Furthermore, the importance can also be noted of public debates related to the questions of children and adolescents in care, including other social institutions and the media, so as to mobilize indispensable macrosystem elements for social conscientization of the problem. Finally, further studies on institutionalized population are suggested, continuing the works being presented, with greater diversification of the samples in order to give greater consistency to the knowledge of the residential care situation in Brazil. This is necessary to promote the growth

and improvement of Public Policies aimed at the important challenge and social duty to establish integral and positive development conditions for children and adolescents living in residential care services.

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(2009). Orientações técnicas: Serviços de acolhimento para crianças e adolescentes [Technical guidance: Hosting services for children and adolescents] (2nd ed.). Brasília, DF: CONANDA/CNAS. Ministério do Desenvolvimento Social e Combate à Fome. Secretaria Nacional de Assistência Social. Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. (2011). Levantamento nacional das crianças e adolescentes em serviços de acolhimento [National survey of children and adolescents in foster services]. Retrieved from http://www.mds. gov.br/saladeimprensa/eventos/assistencia-social/ encontro-nacional-de-monitoramento-do-suas-2011/ arquivos/mesa-6/Levantamento%20Nacional%20 das%20Criancas%20e%20Adolescentes%20em%20 Servicos%20de%20Acolhimento.pdf Ojha, S. P., Ma, J., Chapagain, M., & Tulachan, P. (2013). Emotional and behavioural problems among sheltered homeless children. Journal of the Nepal Medical Association, 52(191), 457-461. Oliveira-Monteiro, N. R., Nascimento, J. O. G., Montesano, F. T., & Aznar-Farias, M. (2013). Competência, problemas internalizantes e problemas externalizantes em quatro grupos de adolescentes [Competence, internalizing problems and externalizing problems in four groups of adolescents]. Psico-USF, 18(3), 427-436. doi:10.1590/ S1413-82712013000300009. Organización Mundial de la Salud. (1999). Programación para la salud y el desarrollo de los adolescentes: Informe de un Grupo d’Estudio OMS/FNUAP/UNICEF [Programming for adolescent health and development: Report of a WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF study group]. (OMS: TRS/886). Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Poletto, M., Koller, S. H., & Dell’Aglio, D. D. (2009). Eventos estressores em crianças e adolescentes em situação de vulnerabilidade social de Porto Alegre [Stressing events in socially vulnerable children and adolescents in Porto Alegre]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 14(2), 455-466. doi:10.1590/S1413-81232009000200014 Rocha, M. M. & Silvares, E. F. M. (2012). Validity evidences for the youth self-report in Brazil. Neuropsychiatrie de l’enfance et de l’adolescence, 60(5), S143-S144. Rescorla, L., Achenbach, T., Ivanova, M. Y., Dumenci, L., Almqvist, F., Bilenberg, N., . . . Verhulst, F. (2007). Behavioral and emotional problems reported by parents of children ages 6 to 16 in 31 Societies. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Fall, 15(3), 130142. doi:10.1177/10634266070150030101 Save the Children. (2009). Keeping children out of harmful institutions: Why we should be investing in family-based care. London, United Kingdom: Save de Children. Silva, C., Lemos, I., & Nunes, C. (2013). Acontecimentos de vida estressantes, psicopatologia e resiliência em adolescentes institucionalizados e não institucionalizados [Stressful life events, psychopathology and resilience in institutionalized and non-institutionalized adolescentes]. Psicologia, Saúde e Doenças, 14(2), 348-355. Siqueira, A. C., & Dell’Aglio, D. D. (2010). Crianças e

Fernandes, A. O., & Oliveira-Monteiro, N. R. (2016). Psychological Conditions of Adolescents in Care.

adolescentes institucionalizados: Desempenho escolar, satisfação de vida e rede de apoio social [Institutionalized children and adolescents: Academic achievement, life satisfaction and social support network]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 26(3), 407-415. doi:10.1590/S010237722010000300003 Siqueira, A. C., Zoltowski, A. P., Giordani, J. P., Otero, T. M., & Dell’Aglio, D. D. (2010). Processo de reinserção familiar: Estudo de casos de adolescentes que viveram em instituição de abrigo [Family reunification process: Case studies of adolescents who lived in shelters]. Estudos de Psicologia (Natal), 15(1), 7-15. doi:10.1590/S1413294X2010000100002 Tevendale, H. D., Comulada, W. S., & Lightfoot, M. A. (2011). Finding shelter: Two-year housing trajectories among homeless youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49(6), 615-620. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.04.021 Wathier-Abaid, J. L., Dell’Aglio, D. D., & Koller, S. H. (2010). Preditores de sintomas depressivos em crianças e adolescentes institucionalizados [Predictors of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents institutionalized]. Universitas Psychologica, 9(1), 199-212. Yunes, M. A. M., Miranda, A. T., & Cuello, S. E. S. (2004). Um olhar ecológico para os riscos e as oportunidades de desenvolvimento de crianças e adolescentes [An ecological view at the risks and opportunities for development of children and adolescents]. In S. H. Koller (Org.), Ecologia do desenvolvimento humano: Pesquisa e intervenção no Brasil [Ecology of human development: Research and intervention in Brazil]. (pp. 197-218). São Paulo, SP: Casa do Psicólogo. Amanda Oliveira Fernandes holds a M.S. in Health Sciences from Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Nancy Ramacciotti de Oliveira-Monteiro is an Associate Professor of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Received: Dec. 13, 2014 1st Revision: Apr. 14, 2015 2nd Revision: May 27, 2015 Approved: May 29, 2015

How to cite this article: Fernandes, A. O., & Oliveira-Monteiro, N. R. (2016). Psychological indicators and perceptions of adolescents in residential care. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 8189. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201610

PaidĂŠia, 26(63), 81-89

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 91-100. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201611

Article

School Bonding of Adolescent Offenders1 Jorge Luiz da Silva Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Ana Raquel Lucato Cianflone Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Marina Rezende Bazon2 Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

Abstract: Students strongly bonded to the educational institution are more motivated to study and less likely to present behavioral problems and/or juvenile delinquency. This study’s objective was to verify the existence of variations in school bonding among different groups of adolescents and identify the most problematic aspects among adolescents in conflict with the law from the perspective of Marc LeBlanc’s Social and Personal Control Theory of Deviant Behavior. The 60 adolescents participating in the study responded to the Portuguese version of the School Scale, part of the Measuring Adolescent Social and Personal Adaptation Scale. The results reveal that the level of school bonding differentiated the groups, showing that offenders who dropped out of school obtained the worst indicators of school bonding when considering investment and commitment levels, as well as attachment to teachers. Keywords: adolescent in conflict with the law, schools, school adjustment

Vinculação Escolar de Adolescentes em Conflito com a Lei Resumo: Alunos fortemente vinculados à instituição escolar apresentam maior motivação para os estudos e menor probabilidade de manifestação de problemas comportamentais e/ou infracionais. Este estudo objetivou verificar a existência de variações na vinculação escolar em grupos distintos de adolescentes, de modo a localizar os aspectos mais problemáticos àqueles em situação de conflito com a lei, na perspectiva da Teoria da Regulação Social e Pessoal da Conduta Divergente na Adolescência, de Marc LeBlanc. Os 60 adolescentes participantes da pesquisa responderam à versão em português da Escala Escola pertencente ao Measuring Adolescent Social and Personal Adaptation. Os resultados mostram que o nível de vinculação escolar distingue os grupos estudados, denotando-se que os infratores evadidos da escola são os que possuem os piores indicadores de vinculação escolar, considerando-se os níveis de investimento, de empenho escolar e de apego aos professores. Palavras-chave: adolescente em conflito com a lei, escolas, ajustamento escolar

Vinculación Escolar de Adolescentes Infractores de la Ley Resumen: Los estudiantes fuertemente vinculados a la institución educativa tienen más motivación para los estudios y presentan menos probabilidad problemas comportamentales y delictivos. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo verificar la existencia de variaciones en la vinculación con la escuela en diferentes grupos de adolescentes con el fin de localizar los aspectos más problemáticos para aquellos en conflicto con la ley, en vista de la Teoría de la Regulación Social y Personal de Conducta Deviante en la Adolescencia, de Marc LeBlanc. Los 60 participantes respondieron a la versión en portugués de la Escala Escuela perteneciente al Measuring Adolescent Social and Personal Adaptation. Los resultados muestran que el nivel de vinculación escolar diferencia a los grupos: los infractores de la ley en deserción escolar son los que presentan los peores indicadores de participación en las actividades académicas, en compromiso con la escuela y en apego a los maestros. Palabras clave: adolescente en conflicto con la ley, escuelas, adaptación escolar

In our society, school is one of the most important environments influencing development during adolescence since experience at school at this stage of life becomes a This paper was derived from the master’s thesis of the primary author under the supervision of the third author, defended in 2013 within the Graduate Program in Psychology at Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo (FFCLRP/USP). Support: São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP - Process No. 2013/04634-9).

Correspondence address: Marina Rezende Bazon. Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisa em Desenvolvimento e Intervenção Psicossocial (GEPDIP), Departamento de Psicologia da Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto - USP. Av. Bandeirantes, 3900. Monte Alegre. CEP 14040-901. Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil. E-mail: mbazon@ffclrp.usp.br

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

variable that leads to turning points in terms of individual trajectory (Moshman, 2005). From this perspective, there has been an intensification of discussions concerning the structural aspects of education, especially concerning high school and its social function since Constitutional Amendment No. 59/2009 was enacted. It changed sections I and VII of Article 208 of the Federal Constitution ensuring “free and mandatory basic education to children from four to 17 years of age […]”. The increased rate of failure in the last year of middle school and corresponding drop in the number of students (Lima, 2011) can lead to premature termination of adolescents’ school trajectory (Lima & Gomes, 2013). The analysis performed by Castro (2008) shows that all problems regarding the quality of elementary and middle schools

Paidéia, 26(63), 91-100

accumulate and have repercussions for high school, the model of which has no precedent in the world. There are no alternative paths at this level of schooling in Brazil; that is, there are no schools with different profiles (European model) nor is there the possibility to choose different alternatives within the same school (American model). The only exceptions are the technical schools, which strictly speaking, consist of the conventional curriculum with the addition of a technical curriculum (Castro, 2008). In this context, the risk of dropping out during high school reaches alarming proportions (Neri, 2009). In addition to the classical form of dropping out, there are currently new forms of exclusion, that is, there is a range of students who remain in the system but experience a decline, a “delayed elimination” (Freitas, 2007), gradually and progressively detaching from school despite being formally enrolled. A fragile bond with the school is generally associated with difficult adjustment to the school environment, a problem of modern society, which in the individual sphere, leads to a significant increase of deviant behavior, such as the consumption of illegal substances, violence, and school dropout (Bryan et al., 2012; Estevam, Coutinho, & Araújo, 2009; Ford & Schroeder, 2011). The concept of bonding in the human and social sciences refers to the idea of a mutual effort among the members of a group to reciprocally move toward a common goal or objective. In psychology, its use in research and theorizing is related to attempts to overcome the classical consideration of its object in terms of individual phenomena, and enforce the assertion that humans are inherently social beings and are constituted as individuals in the context of social exchanges and experiences (Carvalho, Bastos, Rabinovich, & Sampaio, 2006). In this sense, school bonding is conceived as a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses behavioral, affective and cognitive factors activated in interactions and in the school environment, depending on how bonding of students to education in general, to rules, and to the values defended by the school, as well as to those who compose the school team and peers, is manifested. In summary, school bonding and adjustment develop together and feed each other based on the interaction of students with and within the school context in response to environmental variables, a requirement for good performance and the prevention of deviant behavior within the school and outside it (Bryan et al., 2012). Weak bonding, in turn, favors deviant behavior within the school, which in turn, requires institutional disciplinary actions leading to even greater student disengagement and poorer student performance. These conditions may lead to dropping out, consequently harming adolescents who are then unable to enjoy the benefits education can offer (Feijó & Assis, 2004). It is known that adolescents in conflict with the law have a number of school problems, among which is poor bonding. These individuals are characterized by having weak attachment to their teachers and the school staff, low educational aspirations, and low investment in school activities when compared to adolescents from public schools who are not in conflict with the law (Oliveira, 2002; Zappe & Ramos, 2010). Adolescent offenders in general present poor academic performance marked by failure and an important lag between age and school year, while dropout rates among this group are considerably higher (Toledo & Bazon, 2005). Despite these difficulties,

psychosocial support provided to adolescents in conflict with the law should necessarily involve school (re)integration and/ or career and technical education and training (Law No. 12.594, 2012). Hence, the study of variables and mechanisms involved in the school bonding process conducted with adolescents can help in understanding the problem and the implementation of more specific interventions designed to improve the experience of this segment of the population at school (Maddox & Prinz, 2003). For that, this study utilizes the theoretical model pertaining to the Theory of Social and Personal Control of Deviant Behavior during Adolescence developed by Le Blanc (1997) and Le Blanc, Ouimet and Szabo (2003). In this framework, school bonding is seen as a multidimensional concept and involves the following variables: Investment, Commitment and Attachment to Teachers. Investment corresponds to time that is dedicated to studies together with a feeling of being competent or not, coupled with the conception of doing one’s best at school and motivation to participate in extracurricular activities. The time spent with school-related activities – attendance and homework – in this model is directly related to students’ performance (grades) and also to the level of Attachment to teachers (Le Blanc, 1997). Commitment, understood as one being engaged in education, refers to an obligation, more or less internalized by adolescents, to attend school and study. In the studies conducted by Le Blanc et al. (2003), Commitment is negatively related to school dropout and depends on the perception of having the competence to face school demands. Perceiving oneself as being competent prompts a positive attitude toward school and education, essential to determining expectations regarding the duration of studies. Commitment is linked to the level of importance that is attributed to school success and educational aspirations. Attachment, in turn, refers to a positive affection that may or may not pervade the relationship between student and professor. It is based on communication with teachers regarding school experience, in the affective identification with teachers and assurance in regard to having support for school subjects whenever necessary. Communication is key in this theoretical scheme because it is the route through which a perception that help is available is built upon, while it also supports affective identification of the student with the teacher (Le Blanc et al., 2003). Additionally, when attachment to teachers is strong, it reinforces Commitment, which in turn, favors one’s perception of school rules and standards as being legitimate (Le Blanc, 1997). Problems in the components of school bonding encourage gradual disengagement from school on the part of students, which in combination with other personal, social and contextual variables, supports the emergence of deviant behavior. Such behavior is in fact a way to respond to difficulties and failures (Janosz & Le Blanc, 1999). Note that the theoretical model proposed by Le Blanc et al. (2003) is integrative and has a systemic nature, assuming a dynamic interaction with a feedback effect among variables of a personal, familial and social/community nature. Variables relating to systems other than the school system permeate and influence school bonding, as well as the relationship between this variable and delinquent behavior. In this study, however, we focus on behavior control promoted by the school and within school. Given the previous discussion, this study’s objective was to verify the existence of variations in school bonding

Silva, J. L., Cianflone, A. R. L., & Bazon, M. R. (2015). Delinquent Behavior and School Bonding.

in distinct groups of adolescents in order to identify the most problematic aspects among those in situations of conflict with the law from the perspective of the Theory of Social and Personal Control of Deviant Behavior during Adolescence considering the variables proposed in the model and its indicators: School Investment - (a) time spent with school activities and (b) extracurricular activities; School Commitment - (c) an adolescent’s perception concerning his/her academic competence, (d) attitude toward school/ education, (e) importance attributed to school success, and (f) educational aspirations; Attachment to Teachers - (g) affective identification with teachers, and (h) perception that help is available.

Method Participants A total of 60 adolescents aged between 14 and 18 years old (M = 16.6 years) were divided into four groups composed of 15 participants: adolescent offenders who dropped out of school (O-Drop); adolescent offender students (O-S); adolescent non-offenders who dropped out of school (NODrop); adolescent non-offender students (NO-S). The average time since adolescents had dropped out of school was 2.07 years for those in conflict with the law (O-Drop) and 1.93 years for those with no offender behavior (NO-Drop). An age/ school year gap was observed in the four groups, while the averages were significantly different: adolescent offenders who dropped out of school - 4.93; offender students - 2.87; non-offenders who dropped out of school - 3.93; and nonoffender students - 2.00. The study was conducted in the city of Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil and all the adolescent offenders (O-Drop and O-S) were recruited in the city programs that implement socio-educational measures outside prisons, while non-offender students (NOS) were recruited from public schools. To compose the group of non-offender adolescents who dropped out of school (NODrop), we asked the city’s guardian council for a list of names and addresses of dropout students. This study was consisted of an unintentional, non-probabilistic convenience sample. All the adolescents reported being single and having no children. Most (80.0%) of the individuals in the four groups belonged to families classified by the Brazil Socioeconomic Classification Criteria as Class C, which corresponds to families with incomes ranging between U$ 345,00 and U$ 1490,00; 54.2% of Brazilian families belong to class C (Associação Brasileira de Empresas de Pesquisa [ABEP], 2010). Eleven adolescents reported having a job: seven offenders (five in the O-Drop group and two in the O-S) and four non-offenders (one in the NO-Drop group and three in the NO-S group). The occupations reported by those in conflict with the law included: car wash assistant; LAN house attendant; mason apprentice and security guard; the remaining adolescents reported: grocery store packer; mason apprentice, and mechanic’s helper. The comparative analysis showed no significant differences among the four groups in this aspect (p ≥ .58). In regard to infractions committed by adolescent

offenders (O-Drop and O-S), most report drug trafficking (65.1%), followed by theft (23.4%), robbery (6.8%), threatening (3.4%) and aggression (1.7%). These findings differ slightly from the pattern observed in the state of São Paulo (SEDH, 2011), where 43.1% of the apprehended adolescents report theft and 39.6% report drug-trafficking, while the remaining 17.3% is distributed among other types of infractions (robbery, armed robbery, receiving stolen goods, and especially threatening). Instrument The Portuguese version of the School Scale from the Measuring Adolescent Social and Personal Adaptation MASPAQ (Le Blanc et al., 2003) was used. It is based on the Theory of Social and Personal Control of Behavior; the internal consistency alphas for its subscales range from .64 and .91. The scale is composed of 68 questions, which require answers to be checked on a Likert scale (always, often, sometimes, never) in most instances. The instrument was semantically adapted to Portuguese with the author’s consent using procedures indicated in the literature (Pasquali, 1998). It assesses the individuals’ perceptions of what conditions encourage or discourage school bonding – Investment, Commitment and Attachment to Teachers – through questions developed around indicators of these conditions. The following are examples of questions related to the constructs: Investment – “How many hours do (did) you usually take to do your homework, tasks and research at school and at home?”; Commitment – “To what extent is (was) it important to you to obtain good grades?”; Attachment – “To what extent is (was) it easy at your school to get help from professors when students have (had) difficulty with subjects?”. Hence, the instrument seeks to obtain information from adolescents concerning their relationship with the school, assuming that the most important information to understand how these individuals interact with the school are their perceptions concerning the school. Even though this source of information is likely to distort reality, be subject to memory failures, personal interpretations and confabulations, it is the most basic and relevant material available when adolescents are taken into account (Le Blanc, 2001a). Procedure Data collection. The School Scale was applied as a structured interview, as this is the modality indicated when the objective is to homogenize the quality of data collected, that is, to reduce differences given varied reading skill levels within the group. For this reason, the researcher read the questions and alternatives for answers when that was the case, and took note of the adolescents’ responses. Each interview took 30 minutes on average. Data was collected in the institutions where the adolescents were recruited and in the adolescents’ homes in the case of the NO-Drop group. Data analysis. The responses provided to the Scale were included in the MASPAQ’s computer program – Version 2.0 for Windows (Le Blanc, 2001b), which provided the raw scores for each participant. Afterwards, data were entered into a spreadsheet in the Excel program for statistical treatment.

Paidéia, 26(63), 91-100

An analysis was initially performed basically to synthesize a series of values of the same nature, organizing and describing them through tables presenting descriptive measures. Next, the groups were compared using the Kruskall-Wallis test and the Dunn posttest. The analyses were performed using R 2.14 (R Development Core Team, 2011) and a significance level of .05 was used in all the tests.

Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo (FFCLRP-USP), according to Process CEP No. 579/2011 2011.1.1321.59.8. The parents or legal guardians voluntarily signed free and informed consents so they received all information necessary for decision-making concerning the study.

Ethical Considerations

The results concerning the eight dimensions of school bonding are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, which present descriptive measures and statistical differences found in the comparison of the four groups.

The study project was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the Faculdade de Filosofia,

Results

Table 1 Results of Comparisons Between Groups Relating to Investment and Commitment M Investment Shool activities O-Drop O-S NO-Drop NO-S Extracurricular activities O-Drop O-S NO-Drop NO-S Commitment to education Attitude toward school O-Drop

Mdn

Difference between groups* O-Drop

O-S

NO-Drop

T F T

F F

T F T

F F

.001 0.64 4.27 2.47 4.44

1.34 1.67 2.23 1.97

0.00 4.00 3.00 4.00

0.86 2.73 1.40 2.44

1.75 1.53 1.40 1.15

0.00 2.00 2.00 2.00

0.57

1.22

0.00

O-S

3.47

1.51

4.00

NO-Drop

2.27

1.98

4.00

3.13

1.54

4.00

NO-S Perception concerning academic competence O-Drop O-S NO-Drop NO-S Importance of achieving school success O-Drop

.001

.001 0.64

1.50

0.00

2.60

0.99

3.00

1.53

1.36

2.00

3.06

1.12

3.00

.001 0.50

1.09

0.00

O-S

3.20

1.08

3.00

NO-Drop

2.13

1.85

3.00

NO-S

3.13

1.02

3.00

Educational aspirations

.001

O-Drop

0.36

0.84

0.00

O-S

3.00

1.13

3.00

NO-Drop

2.13

1.85

3.00

NO-S 3.25 1.06 3.50 T F F Note. O-Drop = adolescent offenders who dropped out of school, O-S = adolescent offender students, NO-Drop = adolescent non-offenders who dropped out of school, NO-S = adolescent non-offender students, F = false, T = true. *p ≤ .05.

Silva, J. L., Cianflone, A. R. L., & Bazon, M. R. (2015). Delinquent Behavior and School Bonding.

O-Drop and O-S groups and between O-Drop and NO-S. The two groups of students were more committed to school in comparison to the adolescents who dropped out of school. The O-S group scored higher in Importance of Achieving School Success and in Attitude Toward School, showing they recognize the importance of education. In regard to the third and last component of school bonding, Attachment to Teachers (Table 2), the results are similar to the previous components. Significant differences were found between the O-Drop and O-S groups and between O-Drop and NO-S. Offender students (NO-S) presented greater Affective Identification with Teachers in comparison to the other groups. On the other hand, the perceptions of offender students (O-S) regarding the Availability of Help was more positive. Conversely, the lowest levels of Attachment to Teachers were observed in the group composed of offenders who dropped out of school (O-Drop). The average level of attachment of the non-offender adolescents who dropped out of school (NO-Drop) was below that of the groups composed of students, though almost four times higher the average presented by the offender students who dropped out of school (O-Drop).

With regard to Investment (Table 1), the offenders who dropped out of school (O-Drop) significantly differed from their counterparts (NO-S) in regard to time spent with School Tasks and School Support Activities. In summary, offender students spent more time in activities having school content than did those who dropped out of school at the time they used to attend school. Therefore, offender students made their best effort to meet the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expectations. They also more frequently participated in extracurricular activities (cultural activities and sports) as opposed to the offenders who dropped out of school, during the time they attended school. A significant difference was also found between the offenders who dropped out of school (O-Drop) and non-offender students (NO-S). The offenders presented much lower levels of Investment for both types of activities, school and extracurricular activities. Note that among the four groups, the non-offender students (NO-S) presented the highest level of investment in school activities, while offender students (O-S) stood out from the remaining groups for getting more involved in extracurricular activities, most of which athletic activities. Significant differences were found specifically in regard to Commitment (Table 1) in the comparison between

Table 2 Results of Comparisons Between Groups Relating to Attachment to Teachers Attachment to teachers

Mdn

Affective identification with teachers

Difference between groups* O-Drop

O-S

O-Drop

0.29

0.61

0.00

O-S

2.20

1.01

2.00

NO-Drop

1.67

1.54

2.00

NO-S

2.56

0.96

3.00

Perception that help is available O-Drop

NO-Drop

.001

.001 0.43

1.09

0.00

O-S

3.13

1.30

4.00

NO-Drop

1.80

1.61

2.00

NO-S 2.69 1.14 3.00 T F F Note. O-Drop = adolescent offenders who dropped out of school, O-S = adolescent offender students, NO-Drop = adolescent non-offenders who dropped out of school, NO-S = adolescent non-offender students, F = false, T = true. *p â&#x2030;¤ .05.

Discussion First, we discuss the results obtained in the Investment component regarding the groups that presented the highest scores concerning time spent with School Activities were the groups of students (O-S and NO-S). Considering the systemic nature of the theoretical model used, which implies circular causal reasoning: the fact they continue studying encourages them to invest in school activities and is also a result of such investment, which seems essential to develop a commitment to studies. This information is especially relevant for the offenders because such investment works as a protective factor against continued involvement with crime,

possibly preventing dropout and recurrence of violations (Bazon, Silva, & Ferrari, 2013; Chui & Chan, 2012). In turn, dropping out of school among certain adolescents may intensify contact with other individuals in the same situation and participation in routine activities that take place without the supervision of adults. When these adolescents are exposed to other specific risk variables, associated with delinquency engaging, dropout may become an important milestone for either starting criminal behavior or aggravating it (Bazon et al., 2013; Hirschfield, 2009). Offenders who dropped out of school exhibited the lowest levels of investment in school content in comparison to the other groups, which seems to indicate they were

Paidéia, 26(63), 91-100

already quite disengaged from school at the time they still attended it. These individuals represent, to a great extent, many adolescents in conflict with the law. According to a national survey performed by the National Council of Justice (2012), 57% of the adolescents in detention institutions had dropped out of school before being apprehended (Toledo & Bazon, 2005). The theoretical framework used shows that low investment drastically reduces school bonding and often stems from poor academic performance but, at the same time, leads to poor performance for not working on school tasks (Ford & Schroeder, 2011; Le Blanc et al., 2003; Zappe & Ramos, 2010). This aspect represents an important point to receive focus in the work of school reintegration of adolescent offenders who dropped out of school in regard to monitoring these students and implementing socio-educational measures, as recommended by law (Law No. 12.594, 2012). As stated by Janosz and Le Blanc (1999), ensuring a slot at school is not enough for adolescents experiencing processes of disengagement and dropout associated with criminal conduct, it is also necessary to create conditions for their level of investment and commitment with school activities to be comparable to that of other students in order to contribute to the development of a sense of belonging to a specific cultural group, according to the propositions of Bruner (2001). It is worth noting that the adolescents in conflict with the law who were attending school (O-S) presented average levels of investment in school activities, almost equivalent to the levels exhibited by non-offender students (NOS), presenting even greater investment in extracurricular activities than the other groups. According to the information provided, these activities were essentially athletic activities with a pro-social nature. Participation in this type of activity in pro-social contexts, especially on the school premises may be an additional protection and encourage school bonding among these individuals (Kobayashi & Zane, 2010). Contrary to common sense, however, investment in athletic activities may also, depending on the circumstances, be a route to involvement in deviant activities. Miller, Melnick, Barnes, Sabo and Farrell (2007) state that involvement in this type of activity with peers who exhibit anti-social behavior, without intense supervision of pro-social adults, imposes the risk of adolescents adopting similar behavior, as they have a need to belong to the group; i.e., they may assume a deviant identity. Additionally, the characteristic violent nature of some sports may also model behavior expandable to other situations or social contexts. Hence, the context in which extra-school activities are performed and the quality of social interactions they promote are more important than the content of the activity itself and how intense the involvement of students is. These considerations may explain the results found for the group of offenders who dropped out of school (O-Drop) indicating significant investment in extra school activities of an athletic nature at the time they still attended school in comparison to their investment on academic activities. Therefore, the investment of this group on extra school activities (perhaps at the expense of investment on academic activities) even if of athletic nature, apparently does not protect them from disengagement from school and becoming

involved with activities that violate the law. Perhaps, because of the context in which these activities took place, they contributed to drive these adolescents away from the school environment leading to a criminal behavior. In regard to Commitment, it should be recalled that it represents a positive attitude toward school and is based on the student’s perception concerning his/her abilities to meet academic demands and take studies further (Le Blanc et al., 2003), we highlight the fact that both groups of students obtained higher general averages. It is interesting to note that offender students showed a high rate of having a positive attitude toward school and acknowledged the importance of education. Education is very important for young individuals to advance in their careers and social lives (Feijó & Assis, 2004), but if school and professional success is uncertain, educational aspirations are reduced and adolescents may have little motivation to postpone immediate gratification to obtain benefits in the future, which in turn paves the way to school disengagement and withdrawal from studies (Zappe & Ramos, 2010). At this point, many adolescents glimpse the possibility of entering the job market but, for some, this may not become a concrete alternative due to poor educational level (Sartório & Rosa, 2010). In this sense, note that few adolescents from the studied sample reported having a job (n = 11); no statistical significance was found among the groups in regard to this aspect. In any case, data provided from these few adolescents show that when adolescents are able to enter the job market, the positions they occupy do not require a high level of qualification and seem not to be very suitable for promoting the integral development of young people, if not absolutely inappropriate to this age range (such as the “security guard” for instance). In this scenario, the involvement of these individuals in deviant and criminal activities is favored by exposure to other risk factors. Hence, the perception that one may succeed academically is a significant protective factor against school dropout and may contribute to one’s commitment to overcome the pursuit of instant gratification, whatever it may be. The Theory of Control states that adolescents who are more committed to school are less likely to present disciplinary or criminal behavior to the extent they try to meet the demands and expectations inherent to the educational context (Le Blanc et al., 2003). Therefore, within this theoretical framework, lower Commitment levels, in addition to affecting Investment, are also related to the intensity of disciplinary problems that manifest within the school context and, consequently, the amount of control, which often consists of punitive measures, implemented by the school authorities, which in turn, aggravate disengagement and make dropping out more likely. This study’s results corroborate this relationship to the extent that lower levels of Commitment were presented by both groups of adolescents who dropped out of schools. In regard to Attachment to Teachers, the group of offenders who dropped out of school presented the lowest average among the four groups. At the same time, the group of offender students presented the highest levels concerning Perception of Help Available, while non-offender students

Silva, J. L., Cianflone, A. R. L., & Bazon, M. R. (2015). Delinquent Behavior and School Bonding.

stood out in regard to Affective Identification to Teachers. Because quality interpersonal relationships between students and professors are strongly associated with school performance and the absence of disciplinary and ruleviolating behaviors (Liljeberg, Eklund, Fritz, & Klinteberg, 2011), this result indicates that this aspect certainly represents a protection for both groups of students. In the School Control model, according to the Theory of Social and Personal Control, Attachment to Teachers is important because it represents a feeling that help, within the academic plan, is available whenever necessary (Le Blanc et al., 2003). Students see support received from teachers in times of difficulty as an indicator of interest, respect and appreciation. Such a perception, in turn, reinforces communication characterized by dialogue between teachers and students, not only in regard to school content, but also in regard to advice, compliments and encouragement on the part of teachers. This relational proximity based on reciprocal respect, enables school bonding by increasing Investment and Commitment and reducing the need to apply disciplinary measures, because adherence to school rules transmitted by the teachers takes a natural course (Le Blanc, 1997). Therefore, the quality of the relationships between teachers and students requires special attention in any program of school reintegration, especially if the recipients are adolescents in conflict with the law, since these individuals, according to the literature, often present a history of problematic relationships with teachers, while at the same time they lack significant authority figures with whom they can identify and establish stable relationships (Bazon et al., 2013; Costa & Assis, 2006). Because learning is a relational process that implies human beings and affection, it is the role of schools to strive for the quality of human contact they enable for students, with adults and among peers (Jost, 2010; Le Blanc, 1994). These results and the literature indicate that stronger school bonding supported by attachment to teachers has the potential to reduce the risk of adolescents becoming involved in deviant behavior, including violations of rules and laws, not only because of the negative impact this behavior may have on their academic aspirations, but also due to the fear of jeopardizing significant social relationships (Ford & Schroeder, 2011). From a prospective point of view, solid and quality interpersonal relationships increase the chances of school success, which in turn leads to higher educational goals. Therefore, in addition to focusing on content-learning, schools need to create conditions conducive to healthy social relationships (Costa & Assis, 2006), especially those involving students and the teacher figure to the extent these relationships enable communication, a perception that help is available, and affective identification, all of which favor human development and reinforce learning, academic performance and school bonding. According to the Control Theory, poor communication between teacher and student works against these positive processes, favoring poor or no attachment coupled with educational failure and encourages less commitment to education and gradual disengagement from school. As a

consequence, motivation to pursue immediate gratification, through taking part in risk activities, possibly involving legal violations, increases (Le Blanc, 1994; Le Blanc et al., 2003). Thus, we highlight the point that the poor Attachment to Teachers experienced by the adolescents from the O-Drop group indicate they face significant difficulties in social interactions with authority figures within the school, figures who otherwise could be an attachment figure and model of pro-social behavior. This lack of attachment to these authority figures certainly makes these adolescents more vulnerable to processes of identification with other models from within their communities, some of which are anti-social models. The decision to drop out of school, fostered by relationship difficulties in this sphere, also increases the likelihood that adolescents will occupy their idle time – outside school – with deviant activities, away from supervision from conventional adults. Because the adolescents from the O-Drop group presented more negative indices concerning school bonding, the assessment of these individuals shows that, in addition to objective negative indicators related to a long period out of school and great age-school year gap, they are in situations that require resources to motivate them to resume their studies. In the absence of programs specifically designed for this purpose and that take into account the various aspects of a psychosocial nature that underlie the process of school bonding. Due to the impossibility of proper inclusion in the job market as an alternative and all the difficulties already mentioned, these adolescents are left to fend for themselves because of the conditions in which they live and which will affect the course of their development. In summary, the results indicate that the non-offender students (NO-S) are those with the best levels of school bonding, in contrast with the offenders who dropped out of school with the worst levels of school bonding, which shows the importance of this variable to the continuity of studies during adolescence and its potential protective factor against the involvement of these individuals with deviant behavior and legal violations. Even though offender students (O-S) present a history of violations, they present good levels of school bonding, indicating that school attendance, when there is Investment, Commitment and Attachment, enables stronger school bonding, and, at the same time, results in it. Even though assessing the school bonding of adolescents who passed through the Justice System is a complex task, it shows an important dimension of the work that has to be done over the course of the socio-educational monitoring of these individuals. This assessment enables the identification of psychosocial aspects that need to be addressed in order to create conditions conducive to effective school reintegration, with the objective to positively influence these adolescents’ development. The inappropriate implementation of school integration for these adolescents in conflict with the law may lead to further failure, compounding their vulnerability, since new negative experiences generate stress, discouragement, and lead to a feeling of exclusion. In this sense, the establishment of a school team intended to deal with the main factors that affect school bonding is an additional element that needs to be considered. In regard to this study’s limitations, it is important to

Paidéia, 26(63), 91-100

note the reduced number of participants. We should also note that only “official violations” were taken into account; that is, some of the participants had already passed through the criminal justice system, while others had not. This constitutes bias because it is known that there are adolescents who passed through the justice system but their violations may be occasional and can even be seen as part of a process that is considered normal from a statistical perspective, while others may not have officially passed through the system but still present concealed but intensive deviant activity. Despite the challenge that exists in recruiting participants in this field, future studies with similar objectives should make an effort to address larger and more diversified samples based on more sophisticated sampling methods. Another limitation to be noted is that the results obtained in this study were exclusively based on data collected through the application of a self-report scale, the weaknesses of which were already mentioned in the method section (instrument). Other studies can improve on this aspect by performing investigations based on other methodologies, perhaps observational studies, with students at risk of dropping out or who have recently dropped out. Nonetheless, it is important to stress that the results obtained with this instrument are valid and consistent with the hypotheses of the theory on which it is based. Additionally, it is worth noting that these results were produced with answers provided to questions related to the indicators of the constructs Investment, Commitment, and Attachment and did not directly or explicitly address or question the participants, a condition that avoids potential biases, such as socially expected answers, or stereotypical and/or conventional answers. Finally, it is important to mention that aspects related to school characteristics, such as climate, curriculum, teaching strategies, etc., are outside the scope of the assessment intended for the instrument used. Similarly, certain contextual factors such as disorganization in the school environment and especially the presence of violence among peers, are aspects that cannot be disregarded in the assessment of inclusion processes and school reintegration, since these situations significantly harm all those in the institution. Hence, other studies can address a range of relevant variables implicated in the process of school bonding and disengagement from school during adolescence.

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How to cite this article: Silva, J. L., Cianflone, A. R. L., & Bazon, M. R. (2015). School bonding of adolescents offenders. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 91-100. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201611

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Article

Adoption of Children With Disabilities: A Study With Adoptive Parents1 Gisele De Mozzi2 Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brazil

Adriano Henrique Nuernberg Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brazil

Abstract: Taking into consideration the supremacy of a child’s profile often chosen by adoptive parents, this study aimed to understand the adoption of children with disabilities from the perspective of adoptive parents who have experienced this practice. The participants were eleven adoptive families of disabled children, all of whom had knowledge about the health conditions of the adoptive children at the time of adoption. The instruments used were a semi-structured interview and a sociodemographic questionnaire. A content analysis of the results enabled an understanding of the influence of conceptions about disabilities on the formal adoption process, the construction of parenting through the practices of care, and the influence of care specificities for a disabled child on adoption processes. Finally, it can be concluded that the children’s disabled condition is a constituent element in the adoption of these children, affecting both the legal processes and the experience of the adoptive families. Keywords: adoption (child), adopted children, caregivers, family relations

Adoção de Crianças com Deficiência: Um Estudo com Pais e Mães Adotantes Resumo: Dada a supremacia de um perfil de criança adotiva frequentemente escolhido pelos pretendentes, objetivou-se compreender a adoção de crianças com deficiência na perspectiva dos pais adotivos que vivenciaram esta prática. Fizeram parte da pesquisa onze famílias adotantes de crianças com deficiência, que tinham conhecimento sobre a condição física e de saúde da criança no momento da adoção. Os instrumentos utilizados foram: entrevista semiestruturada e questionário sociodemográfico. A análise de conteúdo dos resultados permite problematizar a influência das concepções de deficiência sobre o processo formal de adoção, a construção da parentalidade por meio das práticas de cuidado e as influências das especificidades do cuidado de crianças com deficiência sobre os processos de adoção. Concluiu-se que a condição de deficiência é um elemento constituinte da experiência de adoção dessas crianças, operando tanto no processo judicial quanto na vivência das famílias adotantes. Palavras-chave: adoção (criança), crianças adotivas, cuidadores, relações familiares

Adopción de Niños con Discapacidad: Un Estudio de los Padres y Madres Adoptivos Resumen: Dada la supremacía de un perfil de niño adoptivo frecuentemente escogido por los pretendientes, se tuvo como objetivo comprender la adopción de niños con deficiencia en la perspectiva de los padres adoptivos que vivieron esta práctica. Once familias adoptantes de niños con deficiencia, que tenían conocimiento sobre la condición física y salud del niño en el momento de la adopción, participaron de una entrevista semiestructurada y cuestionario sociodemográfico. El análisis de contenido permite problematizar la influencia de las concepciones de deficiencia en el proceso de adopción formal, la construcción de la parentalidad a través de las prácticas de cuidado y las influencias de las especificidades del cuidado de niños con deficiencia sobre los procesos de adopción. Se concluyó que la condición de deficiencia es un elemento constituyente de la experiencia de adopción de estos niños, operando tanto en el proceso judicial cuanto en la vivencia de las familias adoptantes. Palabras clave: adopción (niño), niños adoptivos, cuidadores, relaciones familiares

One of the leading contemporary findings with respect to Brazilian adoption is the paradox between the number of applicants for adoption and the number of children registered: for each child, about five applicants are waiting in line, according to information released by the National Register of Adoption (CNA). This disparity appears to be

Article derived from the master’s thesis of the first author under the supervision of the second, defended in 2015, in the Graduate Psychology Program at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.

Correspondence address: Gisele De Mozzi. Rua Santos Saraiva, 469, apto 101A, Estreito. CEP 8807010. Florianópoli-SC, Brazil. E-mail: gisele.dmozzi@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

justified, primarily, by the profile of the child required by the applicants: white, newborn and healthy (Amin & Menandro, 2007; Fonsêca, Santos & Dias, 2009; Silveira, 2005). Not all adoptions in the Brazilian context may have been accounted for by the CNA, given the occurrence of “ready adoptions”, when there is a legal form of adoption that has been previously defined (Mariano & Rossetti-Ferreira, 2008; RossettiFerreira et al., 2012). In the Brazilian legislation, with the establishment of Law No. 12,010 (2009) (New National Adoption Law), greater incentive was provided to promote policies and programs to stimulate inter-racial adoption, the adoption of older children, adoption of sibling groups, and even the adoption of children with special health care

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needs or disabilities, characteristics known internationally as special needs (Glidden, 1991; Rosenthal, 1993). Based on the report released for public consultation by the National Adoption Register (2015), it has been verified that approximately 24.73% of these children have some disability or illness, classified as: treatable disease, untreatable illness, physical disability, mental disability or HIV. Information regarding the acceptance of applicants with these characteristics is not released. However, this percentage indicates the need to expand research on the adoption of children with bodily and/ or health conditions that do not seem to correspond with the profile often chosen by applicants for adoption. With regard to scientific production, a variety of possibilities for research and contemporary questioning about adoption can be found, such as: adoptive homosexual parenting (Amazonas, Veríssimo, & Lourenço, 2013; Cecílio, ScorsoliniComin, & Santos, 2013; Pereira, Torres, Falcão, & Pereira, 2013), the new National Adoption Law (Oliveira & Schwartz, 2013; Silva & Arpini, 2013), the institutionalization of children awaiting adoption (Cavalcante, Costa, & Magalhães, 2012), among others. Regarding the investigation on the condition of disability, there is currently tension between the different theoretical approaches, namely: the biomedical, social and biopsychosocial. These three principle perspectives related to the field of Disability Studies reflect disagreements and tensions experienced by persons with disabilities and their families, and have consequences for public policy, rehabilitation practices, actions and conducted research. The traditional medical focus considers that the limitation on body function or structure causes disability or disadvantage relative to normal patterns (Barnes, 2009; Diniz, 2007). Based on this perspective, the disabled body is transformed into the subject of medical interventions and rehabilitation practices intended to cure, normalize or eradicate the body’s limitation, adapting to the “damaged body” (Diniz, 2003; Martins, Fontes, Hespanha, & Berg, 2012), which carries an emotional and economic burden both for the family and the state and creates barriers for people with disabilities and their families (Barnes, 2009). The biopsychosocial model attempts to integrate the medical and social perspectives by means of a more systemic approach, in which both the dimension of the body as well as the environmental barriers are contemplated (Farias & Buchalla, 2005). The biopsychosocial perspective provides the potential for including the family of disabled people in the care, assessments and interventions, going beyond the medical care to include a set of services, measures and support activities and care for people with disabilities and their families (Barnes, 2009). The social model is the theoretical choice that conducts the analysis of the adoption phenomenon of children with disabilities in this study. Its emergence was guided by the fight against the invisibility, inequality and oppression of disability experiences and, in this sense, represents a change in the paradigm from the hegemonic medical model. Without neglecting the importance of biomedical knowledge for the well-being of individuals with disabilities, the social model understands disability as the product of a body’s

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interaction with impairments of a physical, sensory or intellectual nature, in an environment that does not accept the body’s variation (Diniz, 2003, 2007). It is the result of social arrangements that are insensitive to human diversity (Barnes, 2009; Diniz, 2007), the result of a society that does not recognize individuals with biological impediments, which are considered unacceptable because of normalized and exclusionary social standards (Barnes, 2009). With the emergence of the social model, it is possible to include new discussions to the field of Disability Studies, such as the experiences of women with bodily impairments and female caregivers of disabled people and the transversality of oppression by the disability with other categories such as race / ethnicity, gender, generation, among others (Diniz, 2003). From the perspective of the feminist ethic of disability and caring, comprehension is promoted that, in addition to the disability, the care and interdependence are also constituents and are inherent to the human condition (Diniz, 2003; Kittay, Jennings, & Wasunna, 2005; Mello & Nuernberg, 2012). From the proposal of the social model, the experience of having a disabled child is an important element of the parents’ identity (Solomon, 2012), who also live an experience of disability, because, when they exercise the care and the education of their children, they confront barriers derived from environments which are insensitive to human physical and functional variation. Recognizing the diversity of family organizations, showing the experiences of each family as positive and valuing their narratives, without ignoring the possible impact of disabilities, are trends in contemporary research about family and disability (Ferguson, 2000). The methodological choice for the research with adoptive fathers and mothers is guided by the need to integrate people with disability experience into policy discussions, programs and studies about this theme (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011; Martins et al., 2012), which is recommended by the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Legislative Decree No. 186, 2008). The inclusion of male and female caregivers in proposals on disability studies finds support also in authors such as Ferguson (2000), and in feminist contributions to the social model (Diniz, 2007). Despite the diversity of publications found that dealt with adoption and disability, only the article by Fonsêca et al. (2009) specifically talked about the adoption of children with disabilities within the Brazilian context. The authors developed a thematic analysis based on interviews with adoptive fathers and mothers. As the main results of their work, Fonsêca et al. highlighted the parents’ commitment to their children, the prejudice experienced, and the demand for social support for adoptive parents. They concluded that, despite the difficulties found, the adoption of children with disabilities has occurred satisfactorily and can provide satisfaction to the adopters. The relevance and diversity of possibilities on research about adoption and disabilities, the recent government initiatives, and the prevalence of the child’s profile most often chosen by applicants reaffirm the need for further studies at the center of these issues. Thus, research about the adoption of children with disabilities can contribute to reflections on

De Mozzi, G., & Nuernberg, A. H. (2016). Adoption of Children With Disabilities.

adoption, as a form of exercising parenthood, expanding the concept of family and the recognition of different forms of family organization, still favoring the understanding of disability as a possibility of expression of human diversity. This study intends to present the results of research conducted with adoptive families of children with disabilities, which aimed to identify characteristics of the adoption process of these children, from the perception of parents who lived this experience. We attempted to understand the stories and experiences of adoptive parenting of these families, identify sociodemographic variables that characterized them, and identify possible barriers and facilitating factors for adoptions. In other words, given the supremacy of a foster childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s profile often chosen by applicants, this study aimed to understand the adoption of children with disabilities from the perspective of adoptive parents who have experienced this practice.

Method Participants The research was conducted with eleven families in southern Brazil, which had one adopted child within their family, with any physical, sensory or intellectual disability. The definitions of disability established by the United Nations Convention about the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Legislative Decree No. 186, 2008) were adopted. As a requirement for participation in the study, adoptive parents

were included if they had completed the adoption process and knew about the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disability at the time they decided to adopt, which means less risk of frustration due to the diagnosis and less probability of return of the adopted child, as noted by Glidden (1991) and Rosenthal (1993). The time of adoption, ranging from one to 16 years, was not considered as an inclusion criterion for the research. Four fathers and 12 mothers were interviewed, considering the diverse possibilities of contemporary family organization: eight nuclear families consisting of a father and mother; two single parent families composed of single mothers, and one homosexual family, consisting of two women. In four of the eight families composed of a father and mother, the interview was conducted only with the mothers; in two of them this was the option of the family; for the other two families, it was due to scheduled times for interview that were characterized as a limitation of the study. The interviews with fathers and mothers of the same family were performed together. Table 1 presents information that characterizes the families participating in the survey. Regarding occupation, participants described different activities, especially in the area of education: there were four teachers and one pedagogue. The educational level of most respondents was graduate school. The family monthly average salary was R$ 9,545, and all the families lived in their own houses. In two of the three families who adopted two children, both of them are disabled children.

Table 1 Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Families Participating in the Research Participants

Age

Marital status

Mother 1

Father 1

Mother 2

Father 2

Mother 3

Mother 4

Father 4

Mother 5a

Mother 5b

Mother 6

Married

Mother 7

Mother 8

Mother 9

Father 9

Mother 10

Single

Mother 11

Single

Married Married

Biological children No No No

2 2

Body condition

Age when adopted

Blindness

16 months

Autism

16 months 13 months

Cerebral palsy

5 months

Autism

2 years & 6 months

Physical disability

1 year & 10 months

Cerebral palsy

10 months

Cerebral palsy

2 years & 8 months

Yes

Physical disability

14 months

Domestic partner

Intellectual disability

3 months

Married

Yes

Physical disability

3 years

Down Syndrome

15 days

Down Syndrome

5 months

Deafness

21 months

Married Married Domestic partner

Married

Adoptive children

Yes Yes Yes No No

Yes Yes

1 2

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Instruments Sociodemographic questionnaire. The intention was to gather information about the fathers and mothers participating in the research and their biological or adoptive children. Given the importance of including disability as a category of analysis in psychology studies (Gesser, Nuernberg, & Toneli, 2012; Mello & Nuernberg, 2012), and the proposal for mainstreaming disability with other analytical categories (Diniz, 2007), it was fundamental to know the sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewed families and include information on age, education, profession, salary, and physical condition of the adopted children. Semi-structured interview. Instigated from guiding principles (Minayo, 2009), this interview format favors the intersubjective relationship between the researcher and the respondent, and allows an understanding of the meanings, motivations and opinions of fathers and mothers about the experience of adopting children with disabilities. A semistructured interview meets exploratory purposes, allows the detailing of more complex and sensitive issues and the understanding of a particular reality in its complexity (Fraser & Gondim, 2004). The guiding principles were: the reasons why these parents exercised parenting through adoption, the adoption process, the establishment of a bond between the adoptive parents and the child, possible barriers or prejudice experienced due to adoption and/or by the disability. Procedure Data collection. The participating families in the survey were accessed through the activation of the contact network of the authors of this text, using the snowball sampling technique (Heckathorn, 2011). The interviews were conducted at the home or workplace of the participants. All interviews were recorded and transcribed with the consent of the participants. A copy of the transcripted interviews was sent to each participant by email, so that possible changes could be made. Data analysis. The analysis of the material produced was conducted using thematic content analysis (Bardin, 1977/2010). The recurrence of issues that crossed the interviews was used as a criteria for separating the text into thematic indicators. These indicators were related to the research objectives and guiding principles of the interview, and allowed for the construction of meaning units that, although organized into different categories, were interconnected. They were: previous family experiences and motivations for adoption, disability concepts and their influences on the adoption process, construction of family bonds and care practices in adoptive families of children with disabilities. Ethical Considerations This study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Research with Human Beings (CEPSH) of the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Protocol no. 746552, on August 11, 2014 (CAEE: 32931714.1.0000.0121). In order to ensure

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the ethical principles recommended by Resolution 466/12 of the National Health Council, the Free and Informed Consent Form was signed by all participants. The families were sequentially coded by number one to eleven, to prevent identification, and each member of the family received the same number, preceded by parentage (father or mother).

Results and Discussion Preliminary Family Experiences and Motivations for Adoption The bonding process with adopted children and the recognition of adoption as one of the possibilities foe exercisind parenthood seemed to be a characteristic of the principle motivations for the effectiveness of adoptions experienced by the fathers and mothers interviewed. Seven families knew the children before any registration occurred for the adoption process, and from this experience decided to exercise adoptive parenting. The reasons why applicants adopt children with disabilities do not differ from the other adoptive families, such as: always having thought about adopting, the desire for companionship in their old age, the desire to be a mother, and the choice to be a single mother (Otuka, Scorsolini-Comin, & Santos, 2009). However, insufficient information, financial resources (Rosenthal, 1993) and psychological preparation to assume special care can influence applicants to avoid adopting children with disabilities (Fonsêca et al., 2009). Another aspect that favored the adoption of a disabled child was prior family experiences with the condition of disability. It is noteworthy that, of the 16 participants, six mothers reported having worked or currently working in the education field, which seemed to evidence their knowledge about national policy on inclusive education. The professional career of these mothers and their experiences with disability, as the case of a mother whose biological son was disabled, were characterized as factors that contributed to a nuanced understanding about the child’s physical condition and the recognition of disability as one the components of the child’s identity, transversal to other characteristics such as gender, age, race/ethnicity, among others. As also noted by Glidden (1991), previous experiences with the condition of disability were therefore determining factors in the process of adopting children with disabilities. Conceptions of Disability and Their Influences on the Formal Adoption Process Narratives are common from adoptive parents, applicants for adoption and professionals working in the area, about the waiting time required for adoption to occur, which usually takes two to five years from the time the applicants register (Amin & Menandro, 2007). The experiences described by the participants of this study showed, however, the agility they experienced in the completion of adoptions, as well as less time waiting: three months to 18 months or so: “In four, four months for the children to be at home with us” (Mother 1);

De Mozzi, G., & Nuernberg, A. H. (2016). Adoption of Children With Disabilities.

“Six to nine months because it was not, it did not take more than nine months to finalize his adoption” (Mother 5b). For families who knew the children prior to registration for the adoption, there was no waiting time for the arrival of the child, only the time elapsed to formalize the adoption, showing agility in the processes. However, even for those families that started the adoption process through registration, the waiting period was not more than a year and a half; lower than that reported in other studies (Amin & Menandro, 2007). Knowing the child and previous contact with her appeared to be fundamental to both the decision to adopt and the agility of adoptions experienced by families interviewed. Despite the shorter time to complete the adoption, this agility did not seem to exclude the component steps of the formal process of adoption, since the participants reported having the legal proceedings to qualify for adoption, the psychosocial interviews, and adoption support group participation. The fathers and mothers interviewed also reported the refusal of other potential adopters who occupied the top positions on the waiting list to accept the available children, which also seems to have contributed to the fact that the research participants were contacted and had their requests for adoption streamlined. The statement of Mother 10 is representative of this situation: Five families were called before me, who had said they wanted, could have a disabled child, one was traveling to Europe, the others did not want the child . . . and finally! The five families before me . . . did not want. The experiences reported by respondents allow an understanding of the double role that the disability category seems to occupy in the adoption processes: on the one hand, it complicates the adoption of children whose bodily conditions do not meet the characteristics chosen and accepted by most applicants. This refusal appears linked to the medical model of understanding the disability, which perceives it as an illness, a personal tragedy, as an injured body (Barnes, 2009; Diniz, 2003; Martins et al., 2012), therefore, he cannot be the ideal of child sought by the adoptive parents. On the other hand, when there is an active search for potential parents, the disability seems to speed up adoption processes involving children in this condition, reducing the waiting time to become adoptive fathers and mothers. The recognition of the exclusion of some characteristics of the preference list of applicants for adoption (Amin & Menandro, 2007; Fonsêca et al., 2009; Silveira, 2005), led to the recent formulation of Law No. 12,955 (2014), which gives priority for the proceedings of adoption processes for children with disabilities or chronic illness, and part of the understanding that greater agility in the adoption process may favor the development of these children. Thus, although for some adopters, disability and specificities of care and differentiated service resulting from the physical and child health conditions imply a refusal in their acceptance of a child, for adoptive fathers and mothers in this research, this condition was precisely what seemed to speed up and facilitate the adoption process, in addition to the frequency and urgency with which the treatments needed to be performed.

The different ways of understanding the disability reflect, therefore, the different approaches and practices directed at the families with experiences of disability (Barnes, 2009; Ferguson, 2000), being able to influence judicial decisions and legislative strategy which streamline the adoption process for these children. Similarly, families also reproduce understanding and discourse on disability, sometimes understanding it as a disease that needs to be cured and treated (medical model), or considering the body condition of the child as one of the constituent features of his identity and as a variation of human diversity that needs to be cultivated and respected (social model; Ortega, 2009). Regarding the age of the children at the time they were adopted, the adoption of older children was observed with the least frequency: all children adopted were younger than three years old, of which 11 were less than or equal to one year old, corresponding to 78.57% of children adopted. This percentage is similar to that evidenced by Mariano and Rossetti-Ferreira (2008), whose research showed that 70% of children adopted were under one year of age. Based on the concepts of interdependence and care defended by the social model (Diniz, 2003; Kittay et al., 2005; Mello & Nuernberg, 2012), it is possible to understand how a greater dependence on special care required by the child with disabilities can contribute to speeding up the adoption of these children. Construction of the Family Bond in the Adoption Process and the Care Practices Based on the results of this research, the adoption of children with disabilities may not necessarily have been a specific choice delineated prior to it happening, but the product of a bonding process between the adoptive fathers and mothers and the adopted child. This bonding process, in turn, was influenced by the child’s active role and the care practices exercised by the interviewed fathers and mothers. Some fathers and mothers reported the practice known as affective sponsorship (Sousa & Paravidini, 2011), conducted among volunteers who bring the institutionalized children to their home for a short period of time, especially on weekends and in the end of year for holiday season, a practice reported by four families. These fathers and mothers seem to have developed the foster parenting from the care exercised with the children on the weekends, which was essential, even for the decision to adopt them. Regarding the moment they began to feel they are parents of their adopted children, Family 1 said that it was during the holiday season, highlighting the care practices performed in this period, characterized by “changing diapers” (Father 1) and “total dedication with them” (Mother 1). From the interactions established with the child in the first contacts with her, in addition to the care practices, the adoptive parents also described looks, touches, caresses, smiles and other experiences, marked by reciprocity and the active role of the child: “Then I got so I passed my hand on her little head and down her little body and when I ran my hand on her back, she smiled. ‘She is mine!’, I said” (Mother 7). The contemporary perspectives on attachment allow the

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statement that both the individual characteristics of caregivers and their sensitivity to meet the needs of the child, for the child’s identity characteristics and their ability to signal to caregivers about their needs and desires, are decisive in the construction process of the bond between caregivers and children (Brum & Schermann, 2004; Pontes, Silva, Garotti, & Magalhães, 2007). The fathers and mothers interviewed also reported statements of people to whom they were close and/or who they know that, faced with the possibility of adoption, recognized, valued and legitimized their roles as fathers and mothers. This social recognition of motherhood/fatherhood is expressed in the statement of Mother 3, when she said that, visiting her daughter at the host institution, the local professionals named her as the mother: “So then, I took her there in the shelter and everyone said ‘look who is here, [name of the adoptive daughter]!’ Mom has come!” (Mother 3). Some experiences described by the adopters made explicit the need for special care that some of these children with disabilities may require. The participants mentioned financial resources, time availability, assistive technologies, monitoring with different professionals such as physicians, physiotherapists, speech therapists, among others, as also observed by Nunes and Dupas (2011), with regard to Down syndrome. However, the additional needs of care are not applicable and generalizable to all adoptive families of children with disabilities, since our survey participants showed that the bodily condition of the children does not always imply a differentiation of care. They do not think that this is a child, that sometimes people say, ‘Oh, I do not have time to care’ or ‘I will not have money’. Sometimes you have to evaluate the disability. . . Sometimes it is not a financial issue that will involve the disability, right. It is your love, your dedication there. . . I do not have to stop my life, to be with her in a hospital, because that’s what people think of disability. (Mother 6) Although the reflections raised by the narrative of this mother are fundamental to understanding the naturalization of care and additional resources required by children with disabilities, some bodily conditions imply higher financial expenses and a greater investment of time and care by the family (Glidden, 1991). Some bodily conditions described by other participants were associated with health conditions that required recurrent hospitalizations, as described by Mother 10: “Then, well, it was 20 days in the hospital and ten days at home”. The financial resources, in turn, are referred to on a recurring basis in the statements of the interviewed fathers and mothers, indicating additional expenses for the guarantee of care and treatment and for the promotion of health conditions linked to the body and/or functioning of the child, which was also observed by Glidden (1991) and Rosenthal (1993). This encourages some parents to question the possibility of such additional financial expenses are characterized as one of the reasons why other applicants do not accept to adopt children with disabilities: “A special child triples this financial problem. So, perhaps, this is one of the reasons that people do not want to take them!” (Mother 4).

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The fathers and mothers interviewed showed, in their narratives, the activation of a public and private support network, which is favorable to ensuring care for foster families (Fonsêca et al., 2009; Rosenthal, 1993). In contrast, some fathers and mothers revealed the complexity involved in the search for a truly inclusive school and the difficulties in finding people who could help them with the care of children, whether they are members of the social network or professionals hired for this purpose. When the family is eligible as the only healthy development space (Rossetti-Ferreira et al., 2012), the accountability for overcoming the barriers imposed on the children with disabilities rests solely on their fathers and mothers. Through a moral and guilt-inducing approach, the family is sometimes responsible for the disability that the child experiences, for the public spending, for dependency on care, for the rehabilitation and social inclusion (Barnes, 2009) and their knowledge and forms of care are delegitimized. Seen as harmful to professional intervention, the family also becomes a passive object of intervention, with the intention of regaining a state of equilibrium, as it is perceived as dysfunctional due to the disability (Ferguson, 2000). The understanding of bonding as a construct, embedded in a dynamic network of relationships, allows for the consideration that the formation of emotional bonds is also influenced by contextual elements and cultural particularities regarding care practices (Pontes et al., 2007; Rossetti-Ferreira et al., 2012). Described by respondents as key elements of routine care, the school and social support network can be characterized as privileged places to promote interdependence and care (Diniz, 2003; Guimarães, 2010; Kittay et al., 2005). This sharing of care practices with the social network of support and the school can enhance the guarantee of appropriate care that meets the specific bodily condition of the child, and at the same time guarantees the rights, on an equal basis and without discrimination, as recommended by the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Legislative Decree No. 186, 2008). It is understood that adoptive parenting, for the fathers and mothers participating in the research, is constituted by: the lived experience of care, the social recognition of fatherhood/motherhood, and the active role of the child in the process of building of emotional bonds. It is also possible to imagine the greater need for care required by a child with disabilities could contribute to the establishment of a more intense, rapid and definitive connection. The understanding of disability, on the part of the medical model, for which any bodily change is perceived as a disease that needs to be cured and treated (Barnes, 2009; Diniz, 2007), and the generalization of additional care needs and resources for each and every bodily change, seem to be reflected in the choices of applicants for adoption. In addition, the bias of valuing homogeneity (Silveira, 2005; Solomon, 2012), in the child adoption processes, and the rejection of bodily variation, restrict the possibility of living with the differences and the exercise of otherness (Silveira, 2005). Incorporating the precepts of the social model of disability

De Mozzi, G., & Nuernberg, A. H. (2016). Adoption of Children With Disabilities.

is configured as a challenge, which allows us to understand the need for interdependence and care to be shared, as inherent to the human condition and understood as a matter of justice and human rights (Guimarães, 2010; Kittay et al., 2005; Mello & Nuernberg, 2012). This perspective can contribute to the recognition of care practices that go beyond the private sphere and perfomance of caring, charitable, segregationist, and exclusionary, which historically delineate the care addressed to people with disabilities (Diniz, 2007). Moreover, it can legitimize the different strategies adopted by families with experience in disability to provide care for its members. As limitations and difficulties of this research, the small sample size and the homogenization of the sociodemographic characteristics of research participants are indiated, along with bias inherent in the snowball sampling technique, which prevent generalization of the results. The participation of a smaller number of men/fathers is also characterized as a limitation of the study, and deserves higher investments in future work. Achieving factors of a subjective nature, as evidenced in religious issues, in turn, was one of the difficulties experienced in the interviews. Despite the difficulties and limitations, the research conducted brings contributions from an exploratory perspective. With this study, we can conclude that the condition of disability is characterized as a constituent element of the adoption experience, which acts both on the legal proceedings and on the experience of adoptive families. The adoption process described by fathers and mothers interviewed showed the construction of adoptive parenting through a mosaic of experiences and motivations, the social recognition of fatherhood/motherhood, and the child’s active role in the bonding process. The adoption of children with disabilities is not characterized, therefore, only by charitable or religious relationships, or motivated by infertility of the adoptive fathers and mothers, perspectives linked to the medical model which understands disability as a personal tragedy. Based on the social model and the results of this research, it is possible to understand that the adoption of children with disabilities was constructed from concrete experiences of emotional formation of bonds and recognition of disability as a constituent characteristic of the child’s identity. The condition of disability operates and intensifies the construction of emotional bonds between adopters and children adopted, due to increased demand for care, depending on the physical and attitudinal barriers that these children experience. Recent legislative proposals, social and media visibility on the adoption of children with disabilities, associated with the results found in this study, represent an investigative potential that needs scientific deepening in the country. It is expected, therefore, that the reflections raised by the text might suggest new dialogues, research, discussions, performances and interventions directed toward families with disability experiences, especially adoptive fathers and mothers of children with disabilities. As consequences of this research, the specificities of the different forms of family organization in adopting children with disabilities and also the peculiarities of the bodily

condition of children can be investigated. Investigation of possible links between parental beliefs and values and motivations for adopting children with disabilities, and the analysis of the implications of the implementation of Law No. 12,955 (2014), are suggested. Regarding the specificities of care and resources required by persons with disabilities, efforts could be devoted to investigate the biological families who offer their children with disabilities for adoption, as well as about the aging of caregivers. Proposal for future research are characterized by the need for further studies on the care and the development of attachment in adoption.

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De Mozzi, G., & Nuernberg, A. H. (2016). Adoption of Children With Disabilities.

bvsalud.org/pdf/rbcdh/v19n3/13.pdf Pereira, C. R., Torres, A. R. R., Falcão, L., & Pereira, A. S. (2013). O papel de representações sociais sobre a natureza da homossexualidade na oposição ao casamento civil e à adoção por famílias homoafetivas [The role of social representations about the nature of homosexuality: Opposition to civil marriage and adoption by homoaffective families]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 29(1), 79-89. doi:10.1590/S0102-37722013000100010 Pontes, F. A. R., Silva, S. S. C., Garotti, M., & Magalhães, C. M. C. (2007). Teoria do apego: Elementos para uma concepção sistêmica da vinculação humana [Attachment theory: Elements for a systematic conception of human bonding]. Aletheia, 26, 67-79. Retrieved from http:// pepsic.bvsalud.org/pdf/aletheia/n26/n26a07.pdf Rosenthal, J. A. (1993). Outcomes of adoption of children with special needs. The Future of Children, 3(1), 77-88. Retrieved from http://futureofchildren.org/ futureofchildren/publications/docs/03_01_05.PDF Rossetti-Ferreira, M. C., Almeida, I. G., Costa, N. R. A., Guimarães, L. A., Mariano, F. N., Teixeira, S. C. P., & Serrano, S. A. (2012). Acolhimento de crianças e adolescentes em situações de abandono, violência e rupturas [Fostering children and adolescents in situations of abandonment, violence and separation]. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 25(2), 390-399. doi:10.1590/S010279722012000200021 Silva, M. L., & Arpini, D. M. (2013). A nova lei nacional de adoção: Desafios para a reinserção familiar [New national adoption law: Challenges regarding family reinsertion]. Psicologia em Estudo, 18(1), 125-135. doi:10.1590/ S1413-73722013000100013 Silveira, A. M. (2005). Adoção de crianças negras: Inclusão ou exclusão? [Adoption of black children: Inclusion or exclusion?]. São Paulo, SP: Veras Editora. Solomon, A. (2012). Far from the tree: Parents, children and the search for identity. New York, NY: Scribner. Sousa, K. K., & Paravidini, J. L. L. (2011). Vínculos entre crianças em situação de acolhimento institucional e visitantes da instituição [Bonds between sheltered children and visitors of host institutions]. Psicologia: Ciência e Profissão, 31(3), 536-553. doi:10.1590/S141498932011000300008 Gisele De Mozzi has a M.S. in Psychology from the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Adriano Henrique Nuernberg is an Associate Professor at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Received: Feb. 12, 2015 1st Revision: June 4, 2015 2nd Revision: Sep. 4, 2015 Approved: Sep. 9, 2015

How to cite this article: De Mozzi, G., & Nuernberg, A. H. (2016). Adoption of children with disabilities: A study with adoptive parents. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 101-109. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201612

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Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 111-120. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201613

Systematic Literature Review

Relationship Between Teacher Motivation and Organizational Variables: A Literature Review1 João Viseu2 Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Saul Neves de Jesus Claudia Rus Universidade do Algarve, Universidade de Babes¸-Bolyai, Faro, Portugal Cluj-Napoca, Romania José Manuel Canavarro Joana Pereira Universidade de Coimbra, Universidade do Algarve, Coimbra, Portugal Faro, Portugal

Abstract: Teacher motivation plays a central role in education because of its impact on student motivation. Previous reviews of teacher motivation have focused on individual variables and psychopathology indicators. However, it is also important to understand the effect of organizational variables on teacher motivation because these highlight the context that the teacher is a part of (i.e., the school). The literature review in this paper analysed studies related to teacher motivation and a pre-defined group of organizational variables that were published between 1990 and 2014 in several electronic databases. The study found that organizational culture was the most studied variable associated with teacher motivation and most studies in this area were published between 2010 and 2014. Further, there was a prevalence of quantitative studies. This paper concludes with the theoretical and practical implications of the results, as well as suggestions for future research directions. Keywords: school environment, employee motivation, literature review, organizational behavior, teaching work

A Relação Entre a Motivação Docente e Variáveis Organizacionais: Revisão da Literatura Resumo: A motivação docente ocupa um papel central na área da educação, especialmente pelo seu impacto na motivação dos alunos. Revisões anteriores sobre este tema focaram-se, maioritariamente, em variáveis individuais e indicadores de psicopatologia. Todavia, é importante analisar as variáveis organizacionais associadas à motivação docente, uma vez que estas salientam a importância do contexto onde o docente está inserido (i.e., a escola). Desta forma, a presente revisão da literatura procurou efetuar um levantamento dos estudos, publicados entre 1990-2014 e disponíveis em várias bases de dados eletrónicas, que relacionam a motivação docente e um conjunto pré-definido de variáveis organizacionais. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a cultura organizacional foi a variável mais estudada em conjunto com a motivação docente, a maioria dos estudos foi publicado entre 2010-2014 e que existiu um domínio de metodologias quantitativas. São apresentadas as implicações teórico-práticas dos resultados obtidos, bem como se indicam sugestões para futuras investigações. Palavras-chave: ambiente escolar, motivação do empregado, revisão de literatura, comportamento organizacional, trabalho docente

La Relación Entre la Motivación Docente y Variables de la Organización: Revisión de la Literatura Resumen: La motivación docente ocupa un papel central en el área de la educación, sobre todo por su impacto en la motivación de los alumnos. La mayoría de las revisiones anteriores sobre este tema se han centrado en variables individuales e indicadores de psicopatología. Es importante analizar las variables de la organización asociadas a la motivación docente, ya que estas subrayan la importancia del contexto donde está el docente. Esta revisión de la literatura ha procurado recoger los estudios, publicados entre 1990-2014 y disponibles en varias bases de datos, que relacionan la motivación docente y una serie predefinida de variables de la organización. Los resultados muestran que la cultura de la organización ha sido la variable más estudiada, que la mayoría de los estudios se publicó entre 2010-2014 y que los métodos cuantitativos fueron predominantes. Se presentan las implicaciones teóricoprácticas de los hallazgos y se realizan sugerencias para investigaciones futuras. Palabras clave: ambiente escolar, motivación del empleados, revisión de la literatura, conducta organizacional, trabajo docente

This paper was derived from the doctoral dissertation of the first author under the supervision of the second author and was included in the Doctoral Program in Psychology at the University of Algarve - Faculty of Human and Social Sciences. Support: Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT, doctoral scholarship - SFRH/BD/89588/2012).

Correspondence address: João Viseu. Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Building 9, 8005139. Faro, Portugal. E-mail: joaonrviseu@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Work motivation is one of the most influential constructs in organizational psychology, and it has been analysed in many work contexts (Gomes & Borba, 2011). In education, teacher motivation is considered to be a key construct due to its impact on student motivation and effective school functioning (Rufini, Bzuneck, & Oliveira, 2012; Zenorini, Santos, & Monteiro, 2011). According to Jesus (2003), studies in this area increased significantly during the 1980s, but they focused solely on the impact of salary incentives.

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In the opinion of Müller and Hanfstingl (2010), additional research on teacher motivation is needed to develop a consistent field of study, clarify contradictory findings, and develop new research guidelines. However, teacher motivation should be considered extremely important. Teachers are fundamental to student motivation through their teaching quality and the development of the teacher–student relationship (Santisi, Magnano, Hichy, & Ramaci, 2014). Since the foundation of the European Higher Education Area, numerous studies (e.g., Ariza, Quevedo-Blasco, & Buela-Casal, 2014) have addressed the professional motivation of university teachers and the impact of performance appraisals. Jesus (1996) remarked that in addition to the importance of the role of teachers in the classroom, they are very important in the implementation of educational policies. In short, teacher motivation is important due to its impact on the classroom and the school because it influences both the organization and individuals (Bentea & Anghelache, 2012; Müller & Hanfstingl, 2010). Therefore, it is imperative to understand which aspects influence this construct. Aloe, Shisler, Norris, Nickerson, and Rinker (2014) and Jesus (2010) observed that teachers had higher levels of distress and burnout compared with individuals in other human service professions. Several studies (e.g., Aloe et al., 2014; Bascia & Rottmann, 2011; Guglielmi, Panari, Simbula, & Mazzetti, 2014; Roness & Smith, 2010) concluded that workrelated variables such as (a) monetary incentives; (b) large class sizes; (c) poor working conditions; (d) few promotion opportunities; (e) student misbehaviour; and (f) high workloads contributed significantly to teacher demotivation and could induce teacher turnover. A study realized in Portugal (Jesus, 1996) demonstrated that in a sample of 576 teachers, over 50% wanted to leave teaching. Another study that examined Portuguese and Brazilian teachers showed similar results (Jesus et al., 2011). In conclusion, teachers are exposed to difficult working conditions that influence their motivation and may result in negative psychological outcomes, leading to teacher turnover. Given the above-mentioned aspects, it is important to synthesize teacher motivation studies to fully understand the present state of the art. Müller and Hanfstingl (2010) noted that teacher motivation studies have tended to focus on variables related to the teachers themselves (Jesus, 2003), and few studies have addressed teacher motivation from an organizational perspective. As a result, this study seeks to examine teacher motivation studies that have focused on organizational variables because they are crucial to gaining an understanding of these influences (Bentea & Anghelache, 2012; Müller & Hanfstingl, 2010). To achieve this goal, a set of organizational variables was selected: (a) organizational climate; (b) organizational culture; (c) organizational health; (d) organizational justice; and (e) performance appraisal. Organizational climate is an organizational attribute that refers to working experiences (Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, 2013). According to Kohl, Recchia, and Steffgen (2013) and Schneider et al. (2013), an organization is heterogeneous because it tends to have several climates. Despite this, Bocchi,

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Dozza, Chianese, and Cavrini (2014) felt that interpersonal relationships and social interactions were the most important dimensions of a school’s organizational climate. Organizational culture refers to the set of shared values and assumptions that determine a teacher’s behaviour (Ipek, 2010; Schneider et al., 2013). Negis-Isik and Gursel (2013) found that organizational culture was fundamental to a school’s success and that it significantly affected teacher satisfaction and motivation. Organizational health refers to the need to respond to constant changes and the ability to give an effective response to external demands (Bennis, 2002). An organization is healthy when it can effectively adapt to external demands while promoting the integration of its members (Fernandes, Gomide Júnior, & Oliveira, 2011). The stability betweeen these parameters and when stability between these parameters (i.e., response to external demands and employee integration) contributes to teacher motivation (Roness & Smith, 2010). Organizational justice has a central role in educational establishments because perceptions of injustice affect teachers’ work motivation, well-being, and performance, which may lead to negative work attitudes (e.g., absenteeism and turnover; Elma, 2013). Aguinis, Joo, and Gottfredson (2011) found that while performance appraisal was utilized in the majority of organizations, 70% of employees felt that these appraisals did not contribute to their professional development. Darling-Hammond, Newton, and Wei (2013) and Firestone (2014) believed that though modest progress has been made in this field, teacher performance appraisal is essential in estimating the quality of teaching and students’ learning (Tuytens & Devos, 2012; Wang, Tseng, Yen, & Huang, 2011). Due to the inconsistencies in many current teacher appraisal processes, teachers tend to view them negatively (O’Pry & Schumacher, 2012). The literature review in this paper aimed to analyse the organizational variables associated with teacher motivation. To this end, an assessment of the studies about teacher motivation and the above-mentioned variables was conducted. We believe this work is valuable for future research developments in this area because it integrates different organizational variables related to teacher motivation rather than focusing on the more commonly used individual variables.

Method A systematic review of studies published between January 1990 and September 2014 was performed. An electronic search was conducted using the Web of Science (Web of Knowledge), PsychInfo (EBSCOhost), Psychology and Behavioral Sciences (EBSCOhost), Education Resources Information Center (ERIC; EBSCOhost), ProQuest, ScienceDirect, and the Wiley Online Library. The keywords used were teacher motivation, organizational climate or school climate, organizational culture or school culture, organizational health or school health, organizational justice or school justice, and performance appraisal. The

Viseu, J., Jesus, S. N., Rus, C., Canavarro, J. M., & Pereira, J. (2016). Teacher Motivation: Literature Review.

search period occurred between June 2014 and September 2014. In the selected databases, the month and year of the time limit (i.e., January 1990-September 2014) were entered when possible (ERIC; Psychology and Behavioral Sciences; and ProQuest). When this was not possible (Web of Science, PsychInfo, ScienceDirect and Wiley Online Library), only the defined years (i.e., 1990-2014) were entered in the respective search fields. The keyword teacher motivation was used in all searches and was combined individually with the keywords related to each of the chosen organizational variables (e.g., teacher motivation and organizational climate or school climate; teacher motivation and organizational culture or school culture). The following inclusion criteria were defined: (a) empirical paper; (b) publication in a peer-reviewed journal between 1990 and 2014; (c) teacher motivation related with the specified organizational variables; (d) inclusion of the above-mentioned keywords; and (e) Portuguese, English, and Spanish as languages of publication. If the studies failed to meet these criteria, they were excluded from the review. Two researchers were responsible for the selection process, which was divided into four stages. First, the articles were analysed concerning the inclusion criteria. In the second stage, papers were assessed in terms of title and abstract. Subsequently, the

full text was examined. Finally, a search for identical papers was performed. For excluded papers, explanations for the decisions were documented. An agreement level of 96% was registered between the researchers regarding the selected studies. In case of doubt, two independent researchers were consulted. A database was created with Microsoft Excel to document the main characteristics of each study: (a) allocation of the study to the respective organizational concept; (b) year of publication (i.e., 1990-2014); (c) author(s); (d) sample composition (i.e., total participants, gender, and type of education provided); (e) methodology employed (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, or mixed); (f) type of instruments administered; and (g) synthesis of the main results.

Results In all, 94 articles were included in the literature review. After evaluation, 43 were excluded, of which 39 did not meet the inclusion criteria and four referred to repeated documents. Therefore, 51 documents composed the final sample in this review. In Table 1, a summary of the global results for the sample of studies is presented. With regard to the research related to teacher motivation and defined organizational variables, it was found that

Table 1 Summary of the Global Results for the Sample of Studies (N = 51) Analyzed characteristics

Obtained results

Publication flow (per year) Highest number of studies

2012 (n = 11; 21.57%)

Fewest number of studies

1990-1998, 2001-2002, and 2005 (n = 0; 0%)

Methodological approach Quantitative

41 (80.39%)

Qualitative

5 (9.80%)

Mixed

5 (9.80%)

Type of samples Sample composition (gender) Education level provided

Male and female teachers (n = 51; 100%) Different education levels (n = 28; 54.9%) and same education level (n = 23; 45.1%)

Type of instruments used

Self-report questionnaire Interview

46 (76.67%) 9 (15%)

Document analysis

4 (6.67%)

Critical incident analysis

1 (1.67%)

Number of participants Mean Median

â&#x2030;&#x2C6; 1840 (M = 1839.76; SD = 5195.47) 391

Maximum

26257

Minimum

Note. aThe number of instruments used exceeded the total number of studies (N = 51) because some studies employed more than one type of instrument.

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organizational culture was the construct most frequently studied along with teacher motivation (n = 16; 31.37%), followed by organizational climate (n = 11; 21.57%), organizational justice (n = 11; 21.57%), performance appraisal (n = 11; 21.57%), and organizational health (n = 2; 3.92%).

A synthesis of the main findings of each study and data related to the methodological aspects, namely the methodological approach used (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, or mixed), the number of participants, the names of the authors, and the year of publication, are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2 Synthesis of the Key Findings of the Sample of Studies (N = 51) Author (year)

Methodology

Main results

Organizational climate Jaafari, Karami, & Soleimani (2012)

117

Quantitative

Thomas (2008)

957

Quantitative

Meristo & Eisenschmidt (2014)

112

Quantitative

Bentea (2013)

201

Quantitative

Hart, Wearing, Conn, Carter, & Dingle (2000)

1520

Quantitative

Klusmann, Kunter, Ludtke, & Baumert (2008)

1939

Quantitative

Collie, Shapka, & Perry (2011, 2012)

664

Quantitative

Klassen et al. (2008)

526

Mixed

Liu (2012)

510

Quantitative

Buka & Bilgic (2010)

429

Quantitative

Organizational climate and teacher motivation established a negative and statistically significant correlation. Organizational climate and teacher motivation had a positive and statistically significant correlation. Different perceptions of organizational climate led to a distinct impact on teacher motivation. School leadership and interpersonal relationships were significant predictors of teacher motivation. Teacher motivation was higher in private institutions, due to differences at the organizational climate level.

Organizational culture Aelterman, Engels, Petegem, & Verhaeghe (2007)

2000

Quantitative

Marcone, Trigo, & Martín del Buey (2003)

436

Quantitative

Karadag, Baloglu, & Çakir (2011)

228

Quantitative

Dumay & Galand (2012)

660

Quantitative

Troman (2008)

Qualitative

Changes in organizational culture influenced teacher motivation.

Organizational culture was a significant predictor of teacher motivation. Organizational culture and teacher motivation were positively correlated; however, this correlation was not statistically significant.

Shaw & Reyes (1992)

104

Quantitative

Perceptions of organizational culture were different between distinct schools levels (elementary and high school), as a result teacher motivation also varied.

Abd Razak, Darmawan, & Keeves (2010)

1154

Quantitative

Organizational culture differed in schools from different countries, leading to divergent results in teacher motivation.

Ware & Kitsantas (2007, 2011)

26257

Quantitative

School culture management was crucial to maintaining the teachers’ motivation.

Zhu, Devos, & Li (2011)

181

Quantitative

A goal-oriented culture was a significant predictor of teacher motivation.

Devos, Dupriez, & Paquay (2012)

295

Quantitative

Lam, Cheng, & Choy (2010)

182

Quantitative

Sezgin (2010)

270

Quantitative

Weiss (1999)

5088

Quantitative

Ha & Sung (2011)

Qualitative

Rots, Kelchtermans, & Aelterman (2012)

Qualitative

A supportive culture contributed to an increase in teacher motivation.

A competition-based culture had a detrimental impact on teacher motivation. continued...

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Viseu, J., Jesus, S. N., Rus, C., Canavarro, J. M., & Pereira, J. (2016). Teacher Motivation: Literature Review. ...continuation Author (year)

Methodology

Main results

Organizational health Mehta, Atkins, & Frazier (2013)

Pas, Bradshaw, & Hershfeldt (2012)

203

600

Quantitative

Positive learning environment and material resources established a positive and statistically significant correlation with teacher motivation.

Quantitative

School leadership, teacher affiliation, and academic emphasis significantly predicted teacher motivation. However, student mobility contributed negatively to this aspect.

Organizational justice Boudrias et al. (2011)

391

Quantitative

Cheng (2014)

2180

Quantitative

Cohen & Keren (2008)

539

Quantitative

Sousa & Mendonça (2009)

233

Quantitative

Babaoglan & Erturk (2013)

1463

Quantitative

Mohammadtaheri (2011)

2800

Quantitative

Ozgan (2011)

212

Quantitative

Oztug & Bastas (2012)

225

Quantitative

Yavuz (2010)

445

Quantitative

Shapira & Lishchinsky (2007)

1016

Quantitative

The relationship between organizational justice and teacher motivation differed in terms of gender.

Ugurlu & Ustuner (2011)

9004

Quantitative

Justice behaviours, adopted by schools’ administrators, had a positive impact on teacher motivation.

The relationship between organizational justice and teacher motivation could either be direct or indirect.

A positive and statistically significant correlation between organizational justice and teacher motivation was obtained.

Performance appraisal Collins (2004)

Qualitative

Rahman (2006)

232

Quantitative

Ortner (2012)

103

Quantitative

Harris & Sass (2014)

Mixed

Kowai-Bell, Guadagno, Little, & Ballew (2012)

Mixed

Rasheed, Aslam, Yousaf, & Noor (2011)

100

Mixed

Delvaux et al. (2013)

1983

Quantitative

Blaskova & Blasko (2014)

655

Quantitative

Kelly, Ang, Chong, & Hu (2008)

Quantitative

Runhaar, Sanders, & Konermann (2013)

365

Mixed

Lundstrom (2012)

Qualitative

Performance appraisal processes focused solely on results had a detrimental influence on teacher motivation. High workloads, that cause teacher demotivation, led to poor work performance, one of the aspects measured on teachers’ performance appraisal. Feedback, supervisors’ training, and evaluation criteria were key features in performance appraisal and influenced teacher motivation. On the one hand, negative feedback, poor supervisor training, and vague criteria caused teacher demotivation. On the other hand, the existence of: (a) a constructive relationship between supervisor and teacher; (b) positive feedback; and (c) clear criteria, increased teacher motivation.

Note. For each study we presented the author(s), year of publication, and methodology employed. However, because some studies had similar results, the main results were aggregated in those situations.

Discussion The present review examined studies published between 1990 and 2014 that addressed the relationship between teacher motivation and organizational variables. A majority

of the studies (58.82%) was published in 2010-2014. Also, most of the studies employed a quantitative methodology likely because quantitative methods allow the collection of larger samples and the inference of causal relationships (Gelo, Braakmann, & Benetka, 2008). According to Spector

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(1994), the use of self-report questionnaires facilitates the analysis of several variables and provides an accurate picture of an individuals’ work environment. Organizational culture has a critical relationship with teacher motivation because it determines the way in which teachers behave and perform (Ipek, 2010). However, the analysis of the relationship between school organizational culture and teacher motivation must be addressed meticulously, because different cultures have distinct effects on teacher motivation. These assumptions may explain why different cultures (i.e., goal-oriented, supportive, and competitionbased) had different effects on teacher motivation in the analysed studies. Educational leaders must be aware of the effects of each type of organizational culture not only for the motivation of teachers but also for the functioning of the school as a whole. Moreover, these results emphasized the need to conduct more studies, which could clarify the type of culture that best elevates teacher motivation. The divergent results in some of the studies that evaluated the relationship between teacher motivation and organizational climate might have occurred because of this concepts’ heterogeneity. Therefore, it could be concluded that different organizational climate perceptions can have a distinct effect on motivation. Bocchi et al. (2014) felt that school leadership and interpersonal relations, which are organizational climate dimensions, were the most important predictors for teacher motivation, which was supported by the results of the analysed studies. However, differences in teacher motivation levels due to organizational climate may occur not only because of the different leadership styles employed by school directors and relationships with other teachers, but also due to interactions with the school staff and student parents, which were not addressed in the sample of studies. Further, class climate may also be affected by poor student discipline, subsequently causing teacher demotivation. O’Brien-Pallas, Murphy, Shamian, Li, and Hayes (2010) stressed that leadership styles, adequate working conditions (e.g., access to recent materials), and cooperation between different organizational actors were crucial to professional motivation. These organizational health dimensions were congruent with those presented in the examined studies. Nevertheless, despite the relevance of organizational health, few studies have been conducted on the relationship between this concept and teacher motivation. This situation needs to be examined in future works because of the increase, in the last few years, of a focus on the psychosocial risk factors. In a systematic review, Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, and Ng (2001) found that different types of organizational justice were positively and significantly associated with motivation, and Cohen-Charash and Spector (2001) reported that demographic variables had little effect on justice perceptions. School leaders and other organizational members. must employ fair, clear justice criteria to increase teacher motivation and, consequently, student motivation and to reduce teacher turnover rates, which are a preoccupying factor in the teaching profession. Performance appraisal was found to be significantly influenced by the type of feedback and the supervisors’ role (O’Pry & Schumacher, 2012). Firestone (2014) noted that

116

feedback has been undervalued but is fundamental because it relates to teachers’ intrinsic motivation. Supervisors are responsible for feedback that may help teachers’ career development; thus, when supervisors promote support, they generate satisfaction and motivation (Pichler, 2012). Nevertheless, supervisors’ control attitudes were also found to prejudice teacher motivation (O’Pry & Schumacher, 2012). Goal clarification also potentiates satisfaction and motivation (Wang et al., 2011). Another aspect worth mentioning is the scope of the performance appraisal, because it was found that this process should not only focus on outcomes but also on processes and employee behaviours (Firestone, 2014). Schools must create appraisal systems that teachers consider fair, and teachers should be included in the development of these systems because they are active actors in the education process and they know which work characteristics prejudice or improve teaching. This situation would make teachers feel that they are a part of the educational process and not only instruments to achieve educational goals. In addition to these concerns, supervisors must also receive adequate training to deliver useful feedback and promote a supportive environment for the teachers, which would help them develop their professional skills. In general, the analysed studies were congruent with the premises mentioned above. Therefore, we can conclude that teacher motivation is affected not only by variables related to the teacher, as reported in past literature reviews (Jesus, 2003), but also by organizational variables, which refer to the relationship established between the teacher and the school. This approach emphasizes the importance of the context in which the teacher works and the relationships established within this context. The present literature review possesses some limitations. The time period analysed could have been extended because teacher motivation has been a serious problem in schools for several decades. In addition, other organizational (e.g., organizational citizenship behaviours) and individual (e.g., positive psychological capital) variables could have been assessed along with job satisfaction, the most studied work attitude in the literature. This would have allowed a comparison between the studies that related teacher motivation to organizational and individual variables, and to work attitudes to determine which of these variables was the most studied within the above-mentioned construct. Future reviews could focus on work attitudes and the individual variables related to teacher motivation to update past works. In addition, researchers could develop theoretical models that address the effect of organizational and individual variables, and work attitudes on teacher motivation, which could lead to the development of an integrative model for the study of teacher motivation, as in Jesus and Lens (2005), but would consider several more aspects. Further, intervention programs should understand the influence of the school environment to consider its effects on teacher motivation because it is important to not only ensure high levels of motivation and well-being, but also ensure that the environment in which the teachers are working is healthy and has good working conditions so they can perform their duties.

Viseu, J., Jesus, S. N., Rus, C., Canavarro, J. M., & Pereira, J. (2016). Teacher Motivation: Literature Review.

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Sousa, I. F., & Mendonça, H. (2009). Burnout em professores universitários: Impacto de percepções de justiça e comprometimento afetivo [Burnout among university professors: Impact of justice perceptions and affective commitment]. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 25(4), 499508. doi:10.1590/S0102-37722009000400005 Spector, P. E. (1994). Using self-report questionnaires in OB research: A comment on the use of a controversial method. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(5), 385392. doi:10.1002/job.4030150503 Thomas, J. C. (2008). Administrative, faculty, and staff perceptions of organizational climate and commitment in Christian Higher Education. Christian Higher Education, 7(3), 226-252. doi:10.1080/15363750701818428 Troman, G. (2008). Primary teacher identity, commitment and career in performative school cultures. British Educational Research Journal, 34(5), 619-633. doi:10.1080/01411920802223925 Tuytens, M., & Devos, G. (2012). Importance of system and leadership in performance appraisal. Personnel Review, 41(6), 756-776. doi:10.1108/00483481211263692 Ugurlu, C. T., & Ustuner, M. (2011). Effects of administrators’ ethical leadership and organizational justice behavior on teachers’ organizational commitment level. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, (41), 434-448. Wang, H.-K., Tseng, J.-F., Yen, Y.-F., & Huang, I.-C. (2011). University staff performance evaluation systems, organizational learning, and organizational identification in Taiwan. Social Behavior and Personality, 39(1), 43-54. doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.1.43 Ware, H. W., & Kitsantas, A. (2007). Teacher and collective efficacy beliefs as predictors of professional commitment. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(5), 303-310. doi:10.3200/JOER.100.5.303-310 Ware, H. W., & Kitsantas, A. (2011). Predicting teacher commitment using principal and teacher efficacy variables: An HLM approach. The Journal of Educational Research, 104(3), 183-193. doi:10.1080/00220671003638543 Weiss, E. M. (1999). Perceived workplace conditions and first-year teachers’ morale, career choice commitment, and planned retention: A secondary analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(8), 861-879. doi:10.1016/ S0742-051X(99)00040-2 Yavuz, M. (2010). The effects of teachers’ perception of organizational justice and culture on organizational commitment. African Journal of Business Management, 4(5), 695-701. Zenorini, R. P. C., Santos, A. A. A., & Monteiro, R. M. (2011). Motivação para aprender: Relação com o desempenho de estudantes [Motivation for learning: The relation with students performance]. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 21(49), 157-164. doi:10.1590/S0103-863X2011000200003 Zhu, C., Devos, G., & Li, Y. (2011). Teacher perceptions of school culture and their organizational commitment and well-being in a Chinese school. Asia Pacific Education Review, 12(2), 319-328. doi:10.1007/s12564-011-9146-0

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João Viseu is a Ph.D. researcher at the Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO) of the Universidade do Algarve. Saul Neves de Jesus is a Full Professor at the Universidade do Algarve. Claudia Rus is a Lecturer at the Babes¸-Bolyai University. José Manuel Canavarro is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences at the Universidade de Coimbra. Joana Pereira is a Researcher at the Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO) of the Universidade do Algarve. Received: Dec. 11, 2014 1st Revision: May 12, 2015 Approved: May 20, 2015

How to cite this article: Viseu, J., Jesus, S. N., Rus, C., Canavarro, J. M., & Pereira, J. (2016). Relationship between teacher motivation and organizational variables: A literature review. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 111-120. doi:10.1590/198243272663201613

Paidéia jan-apr. 2016, Vol. 26, No. 63, 121-129. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201614

Systematic Literature Review

Parenting Programs to Prevent Corporal Punishment: A Systematic Review1 Paolla Magioni Santini2 Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

Lucia C. A. Williams Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

Abstract: Studies have shown that corporal punishment against children is a common family practice, causing damage to child development. Considering that parents are the main perpetrators of this type of aggression, parenting programs are needed to raise children without violence. This study aimed at performing a systematic review of parenting programs evaluations to reduce corporal punishment. Intervention procedures, as well as design, results and limitations were identified for each study. The PRISMA protocol (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) was used for reporting the results. A literature survey was conducted in Brazilian databases, as well as English ones from 1994-2014. One Brazilian study and eight international studies were selected as relevant, and only four used randomized controlled trials (RCT). All studies reported satisfactory results in decreasing aggression by parents against their children. Further research in the area with solid methodology is recommended. Keywords: parent training, psychological intervention, punishment, child abuse, family violence

Programas Parentais Para a Prevenção do Castigo Corporal: Uma Revisão Sistemática Resumo: Estudos evidenciam que o castigo corporal contra crianças é uma prática familiar frequente e causa prejuízos ao desenvolvimento infantil. Dado que os principais autores das agressões são pais/mães, torna-se necessário o desenvolvimento de programas parentais para orientá-los a educar os filhos sem violência. O presente estudo realizou uma revisão sistemática sobre avaliações de programas parentais com conteúdo específico para redução da prática do castigo corporal. Foram identificados procedimentos de intervenção, delineamentos, resultados e limitações. Utilizou-se o protocolo PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) para relatar os resultados. A revisão compreendeu bases de dados nacionais e internacionais no período de 1994-2014. Um estudo brasileiro e oito internacionais foram selecionados como relevantes, sendo que apenas quatro utilizaram ensaio clínico randomizado (RCT). Todos os estudos relataram resultado satisfatório na diminuição das agressões dos pais aos filhos. Salienta-se a necessidade da promoção de estudos na área com o devido rigor metodológico. Palavras-chave: treinamento de pais, intervenção psicológica, punição, abuso da criança, violência na família

Programas Parentales Para la Prevención del Castigo Corporal: Una Revisión Sistemática Resumen: Estudios demuestran que el castigo corporal contra los niños es una práctica común y causa daños a su desarrollo. Dado que los principales perpetradores de las agresiones son padres/madres, es necesario promover programas parentales para guiarlos a criar a sus hijos sin violencia. Este estudio condujo una revisión sistemática de evaluaciones de programas parentales con contenido específico sobre la práctica de los castigos corporales. Se identificaron los procedimientos de intervención utilizados, diseños, resultados y limitaciones. Se utilizó el protocolo PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) para informar de los resultados. El estudio de la literatura fue conducido en bases de datos brasileñas y e internacionales entre 1994-2014, con sólo cuatro ensayos clínicos aleatorios (ECA). Todos los estudios informaron resultados satisfactorios en la disminución de la agresión de los padres contra sus hijos. La promoción de estudios con el debido rigor metodológico en el área se hace necesaria. Palabras clave: entrenamiento de padres, intervención psicológica, castigo, abuso de niños, violencia doméstica

This paper is part of the first author’s doctoral dissertation under supervision of the second author, presented at the Graduate Program in Psychology of the Universidade Federal de São Carlos, in 2015. Support: São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP - Grant # 2011/02431-3) and National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq - Grant # 400943/2011-5).

Correspondence address: Paolla M. Santini. Laprev - Laboratório de Análise e Prevenção da Violência. Departamento de Psicologia. Universidade Federal de São Carlos. Rod. Washington Luis, km 235. CEP 13565-905. São Carlos-SP, Brazil. E-mail: paollams@gmail.com

Available in www.scielo.br/paideia

Child abuse is a risk factor for healthy development, predicting many emotional, psychological, behavioral and interpersonal problems in adolescence and adulthood (Crouch, Milner, & Thomsen, 2001; Felitti et al., 1998; Holden, 2010; Milner et al., 2010; Santini & Williams, 2011; Straus, 2000). The use of corporal punishment aims at applying physical pain to discipline or correct a behavior considered inappropriate, and in approximately two decades was regarded as an acceptable discipline method not representative of abuse (Durrant & Ensom,

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2012). However, recent research has found an association between a history of corporal punishment in childhood and greater risk for the occurrence of aggressive behavior, learning problems, delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood (Durrant & Ensom, 2012; Gershoff, 2013). As a result, using corporal punishment against children is a risk factor for physical abuse and considered by experts a modality of abuse (Durrant & Ensom, 2012; Straus, 2000). Since several studies have shown that corporal punishment against children is a common practice in homes – usually above 50% prevalence in national and international samples (Lansford & Deater-Deckard, 2012; Runyan et al., 2010; Straus, 2010; Zanoti-Jeronymo et al., 2009); that parents are the primary authors of aggressions (Bérgamo & Bazon, 2011; Pinheiro & Williams, 2009; Zanoti-Jeronymo et al., 2009); and it is considered a severe public health problem (Minayo, 2001; World Health Organization [WHO], 2014); there is a clear need for parents who use such practice to receive guidance on positive parenting to improve parental competence and cease violent disciplinary practices. In addition, one must promote access to strategies that effectively help parents to set limits and rules for consistent discipline, enabling them to manage and prevent inappropriate behavior without restoring to violence, and contributing, thus, to a healthy relationship and development of their children (Mercy, Butchart, Rosenberg, Dahlberg, & Harvey, 2008; Santini & Williams, 2011). One way to promote such guidelines is through parenting programs, which are interventions designed to maximize or change parental practices through training and support with the main objective of contributing to the well-being of their children (Smith, Perou, & Lesesne, 2002). Parenting programs are, therefore, relevant strategies for violence prevention, particularly by reducing maltreatment, and preventing the development of violent and antisocial behavior in children (Sanders & Pidgeon, 2011). Considering the importance of developing parenting programs that are effective for the target audience, this study aimed at conducting a systematic review of Brazilian and international literature regarding parenting programs with the specific content of reducing corporal punishment practice.

Method The procedure to report the data from this systematic review was based on the PRISMA protocol (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses, Liberati et al., 2009), which proposes a minimum set of evidence-based items which must be considered in studies of systematic review and meta-analysis. The following criteria were considered to select the publications: (a) Type: Articles or book chapters; (b) Theme: Parenting programs for parents (fathers and mothers) who use corporal punishment as a method to discipline their children; (c) Period: 1994-2014; (d) Language: Portuguese or English. Databases selected from Brazil were Bireme; Google Acadêmico (Scholar); IndexPsi; Pepsic and Scielo; English ones were: Google Scholar; PsycNET (including PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES); PubMed and Web of Science. The following keywords were searched in Brazilian databases: (pais OU

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cuidadores OU família) and (programa OU intervenção OU capacitação) and (castigo corporal OU punição corporal OU abuso físico). The respective translations of those keywords were used in English databases: (parents OR caregivers OR family) and (program OR intervention OR training) and (corporal chastisement OR corporal punishment OR physical abuse). All articles found in the literature search were screened by reading their titles and abstracts. The following studies were excluded: (a) with repeated occurrence; (b) other types of programs: universal prevention programs, because they are not intended to parents who use corporal punishment; tertiary prevention programs in general (children victims of abuse, unspecified) or specific ones not involving physical abuse (e.g.: sexual abuse); corporal punishment programs, but targeted to other populations (e.g.: only children, the elderly, health professionals); and (c) corporal punishment studies without description of parenting programs (e.g.: reviews, theoretical or prevalence studies, surveys, etc.). The selected studies were read and categorized regarding their intervention procedures, design, results and limitations identified by the authors. Additionally, the effect size of the intervention (Cohen d) was analyzed considering children behavior measures used in each parental program. For studies in which the value of the effect size was not reported, the calculation was made by the authors of the present review.

Results The resulting literature survey identified 2.555 studies (469 in Brazilian and 2.086 in English databases), as detailed in Table 1. The Google Scholar search identified more than 15.000 articles, and, thus, we selected the first 521 articles of the list, as this was the average found in the other English databases. On PsycNet, PubMed and Web of Science, as well as Google Scholar (both in Brazilian and English databases), there were no repeated studies because it is possible to insert all keywords at once in the search. After exclusions, 18 studies initially remained: one Brazilian and 17 publications in English. Among the latter, nine were repeated in other databases, so eight studies remained in this category. Table 2 summarizes the selected intervention programs for this review. A detailed description of the instruments used in each study to evaluate program effects is beyond the scope of this revision, but, in general, the number of measures used in each program ranged from four (Santos & Williams, 2008) to eight (Chaffin et al., 2004). The most commonly used instruments were the following: (1) The Child Behavior Checklist-CBCL (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1991) used in six of nine studies reviewed; (2) The Child Potential InventoryCAP (Milner, 1994), used in four studies; and (3) The Beck Depression Inventory-BDI (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996); The Conflict Tactics Scale-CTS (Straus, Hamby, Finkelhor, Moore, & Runyan, 1998); and The Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children-TSCC (Briere, 1996), used in three studies each. As the CBCL was the most used measure, Table 2 includes the identified values of the effect size of the intervention (Cohen d) from this instrument´s scores. For studies that did not employ the CBCL, an equivalent instrument evaluating children’s behavior was used for calculation. The programs

Santini, P. M., & Williams, L. C. A. (2016). Parenting Programs to Prevent Corporal Punishment. Table 1 Brazilian and English Database Search of Articles Preliminary results

Repeated

Other types of programs

Not defined as parenting program

Relevant

Bireme

IndexPsi

Pepsic

Brazilian

Scielo

381

236

144

PsycNET

346

211

132

PubMed

468

309

156

Web of Science

751

578

168

Google Acadêmico English

Google Scholar Total

521

197

318

2,555

1,557

953

Table 2 Characteristics of Parenting Programs for Corporal Punishment Prevention Author (s)

Kolko (1996)

Kolko, Iselin, & Gully (2011)

Borrego, Urquiza, Rasmussen, & Zebell (1999)

Chaffin et al. (2004)

55 families

52 families

1 motherchild dyad

110 parentchild dyads

Program

Intervention procedures

Design

Result

RCT Pre-test/Post-test Individual Follow-up: psychotherapy 1 year

Improvement in: child to parent aggression, children’s externalizing behavior, parental stress, abuse risk and family conflict

Alternatives for Families: Individual CognitivePre-test/Post-test Behavioral psychotherapy Therapy (AF-CBT)

Improvements in parental and children performance in the instruments used

Pre-test/Post-test Follow-up I: 5 months Follow-up II: 16 months

Reduction of: child behavior problems, maternal and child’s stress and increased frequency of positive mother-child interactions

RCT Pre-test/Post-test Follow-up: 28 months

Declined frequency of parent to child aggressions and reduction of physical abuse reports

Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)

Coaching

Group orientation and Coaching

Effect size (d)

Limitations

0.77b (Medium)

Restrictions in the application with participants with low intellectual level, psychiatric problems and very young children

0.54b (Medium)

Lack of evidencebased methodology (RCT) and independent measures (observation)

Sessions held in an experimental environment (no guarantee of generalization); information with siblings not collected

2.17b (Large)

Could not control the therapist variable; inclusion in pre-test of older children who did not have behavior problems continued...

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Author (s)

Nicholson, Anderson, Fox, & Brenner (2002)

Santos & Williams (2008)

Runyon, Deblinger, & Schroeder (2009)

Kjellgren, Svedin, & Nilsson (2013)

Swenson et al. (2010)

Effect size (d)

Limitations

Significant decreased levels of: verbal and corporal punishment against children, anger, stress and reports of child behavior problems

0.83b (Large)

Reduced sample; difficulties in scheduling sessions; low-return of instruments answered by teachers

Pre-test/Post-test Follow-up: 6 months

Elimination of parent to child aggression; maintenance at 24 week follow-up

Not reported by authors

12 caregivers and 21 children

Combined Parent-Child Group CognitivePre-test/Post-test Behavioral psychotherapy Therapy (CPC-CBT)

General improvement in emotional and behavioral functioning of both parents and their children; decreased occurrence of corporal punishment reports

1.46a (Large)

Reduced sample and lack of solid methodology (RCT, comparison group, follow-up)

18 families

Combined Parent-Child Group CognitivePre-test/Post-test Behavioral psychotherapy Therapy (CPC-CBT)

0.71a (Medium)

Reduced sample; lack of solid methodology; difficulties in transferring an American program to Sweden

0.85 (Large)

Restrictions for statistical analysis and generalization of the results due to supervision

26 parents

1 family

86 families

Program

STAR

Intervention procedures

Design

Result

RCT Pre-test/Post-test Group Follow-up: psychotherapy 1 month

Group psychotherapy

Reduction of parent and children’s depression symptoms; reduction of violent and inconsistent parenting strategies

Declined frequency of: Multiparent to child RCT systemic Pre-test/Post-test aggression and neglect; Individual Therapy for improvement of health Follow-up: Child Abuse psychotherapy symptoms in children 16 months and Neglect and parents (MST-CAN)

Note. The effect size was calculated with the measure of the child’s externalizing behavior. ªThe effect size was calculated by the authors of the studies revised. bThe effect size was not available in the original study and calculated by the present authors.

are briefly described in chronological order, so that different studies analyzing the same program are illustrated in sequence. The first program developed by Kolko (1996) for families at risk of physical abuse against children (program at the time unnamed), aimed at comparing the application of individual therapy techniques to 55 families. Participants were randomly assigned in the following intervention programs: Family Therapy (FT), Individual Child and Parent Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) or Routine Community Services (RCS). Comparing the program phases (pre and post-test, with one year follow-up), the FT and CBT therapies were associated with specific improvements in externalizing child behavior, stress and risk of parental abuse, family conflict and decline aggression by children to parents. No differences were observed between the two therapies in

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consumer satisfaction or risk for abuse. According to the author, limitations involved: restrictions in application with participants with low intellectual levels, psychiatric problems and parents of very young children (age not specified). Based on this study, the Alternatives for Families: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy - AF-CBT was developed by Kolko, Iselin and Gully (2011). AF-CBT was evaluated in 52 families whose parents were reported to Child Protection Services (CPS), and planned in three phases: (1) engagement and psychoeducation; (2) individual skills building; (3) family applications. The first phase accessed the roles and interactions in the family: family members were guided to deal with thoughts associated with guilt; the negative effects of using violence were reviewed; and a family contract was established as an agreement of non-use of violence. The next phase aimed

Santini, P. M., & Williams, L. C. A. (2016). Parenting Programs to Prevent Corporal Punishment.

at training specific problem solving and communication skills. In the final stage, familiar routines as alternatives to the use of violent conflict resolution were established. Results showed better performance of parents and children in instrument scores when comparing pre and post-test (children: externalizing behavior; parents: anger, anxiety, social competence), and better social interaction among peers; child’s adjustment in connection with security and reduced fear/sadness. Reported limitations involved a lack of solid methodology (e.g. did not use RCT), and lack of independent measures, as only verbal measures were employed and not observational sessions of parent-child interactions. The study of Borrego, Urquiza, Rasmussen e Zebell (1999) was the first to adapt the Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) program with a specific content regarding corporal punishment. The PCIT was originally idealized by Capage, McNeil, Foote and Eyberg (1998), and used as an intervention procedure the observation of parent/caregiver and child interaction while the therapist was behind a twoway mirror. In these sessions, the parent used a bug-in-the ear device from where immediate orientations on how to interact with the child were received – a technique called coaching. Borrego et al. (1999) followed such PCIT methodology with only one mother-child dyad. Results indicated a reduction of child behavior problems, and mother and child’s stress, as well as increased frequency of positive mother-child interactions, comparing pre and post-test, with a 5 month follow-up, followed by another one at 16 months. The authors reported that the sessions conducted in an experimental environment may have been a limitation, as the absence of sessions in the natural environment might not ensure generalization. In addition, data were not collected with siblings of the target child, which would have been another measure of generalization. Still using the PCIT approach, Chaffin et al. (2004) conducted a large study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of PCIT in reducing the reoccurrence of reports with 110 parents who had previously been reported to authorities as using corporal punishment. The study compared three types of intervention: (a) PCIT; (b) PCIT plus individualized enhanced services; and (c) a standard community-based parenting group. Parents were randomly assigned among the different modalities, and attended motivational group sessions prior to the coaching sessions. The difference between the first and second version of PCIT resided in additional individualized services in cases of depression, alcohol/drug abuse and violence against woman. After the follow-up of approximately 28 months, 19% of PCIT participants relapsed in corporal punishment reports, a lower frequency compared to the standard parental group participants (49%). There were no significant differences when comparing pre and post-test results of PCIT and PCIT plus individualized enhanced services. The main limitation of the study referred by the authors involved not controlling the ‘therapist’ variable, as the therapists of PCIT and PCIT plus individualized enhanced services were the same, whereas the community group had different therapists. Another mentioned limitation referred to the selection of older children who did not have

behavior problems in the pre-test, rendering the evaluation of pre and post-test irrelevant. Nicholson, Anderson, Fox and Brenner (2002) evaluated the efficacy of a program with parents of young at-risk children. They defined “at-risk” as excessive use of verbal abuse and corporal punishment by parents from low socioeconomic status. Such program was originally developed by Fox and Fox (1992) and called STAR. It was divided into four phases: (1) strategies in dealing with anger and parental stress when faced with difficult children behaviors; (2) providing information to parents about child development phases; (3) orientation about positive parenting practices (e.g. the importance of affection, the use of differential reinforcement); and (4) guidance regarding disciplinary practices (e.g. setting limits and rules; timeout). 26 parents of 1-5 year old children participated in the Nicholson et al. (2002) study, and the group sessions (comprising of a maximum of four members) lasted 1h30m over 10 weeks. The study used RCT and the results indicated significant decreases of verbal abuse and corporal punishment against children; anger; stress; and reports of child behavior problems when compared to the control group. Such results were maintained at follow-up (1 month). Limitations discussed by the authors involved the restricted sample size, making it difficult to generalize the data; the challenge of adapting schedules and appointments with parents; and the low return rate of the instruments required to be answered by teachers. The Brazilian study by Santos and Williams (2008) was aimed at reducing physically aggressive parental behaviors towards their children. Three families whose parents had repeated reports to CPS of using physical violence were initially selected. However, because one mother moved to another city and another mother who was pregnant delivered her baby, only one family completed the intervention. Such family lived in poverty (earned only one Brazilian minimum wage), the father was physically handicapped and the mother had mental deficiency. Two children were under their care: a girl (10 years old) who was also mentally handicapped and a boy (8 years old) with behavioral problems who was the target of parental aggression. 26 weekly meetings were held with both parents in which relaxation techniques were applied, in addition to: strategies to foster self-control, social skills, social-problem solving, anger management; as well as modeling and role-playing of positive parentchild interactions. Parental and the target child’s self-reports were taken on weekly basis regarding possible aggressions; interviews and teacher assessments about the target child’s behavior; and case monitoring at Child Protection. Results indicated the elimination of parental aggressive behavior towards the child at post-test for all informants (parents, child, teachers and CPS), and this was maintained at a six month follow-up. The authors argue that such favorable result may be explained in terms of successful engagement strategies, but they do not point out the study’s limitations. Runyon, Deblinger and Schroeder (2009) conducted a pilot-study intervention to parents at risk of physically abusing their children, called Combined Parent-Child Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy - CPC-CBT. This program

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encompasses three phases: intervention with parents (first individually and subsequently in groups); likewise individual and group intervention with children; group intervention with parents and children together. The components covered in the sessions include: development of parenting skills; and analyzing parenting deficits and unrealistic expectations of their children. A procedure to maximize adhesion was planned, providing support for parents and children. In addition, the CPC-CBT aimed at involving the entire family in the training, and not only the parents or the target child. Other differential topics, according to the authors, involved strategies focusing on helping the child overcome Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression and dysfunctional beliefs associated with physical abuse. 12 parents and 21 children participated in a group psychotherapy format over 16 weeks. The data showed overall improvement in emotional and behavioral functioning of both parents and children, as well as a decrease of recurrence of corporal punishment reports by parents and children, comparing pre and post-test. In joint parent-child sessions, an improvement in the behavioral repertoire of children in talking to their parents about their history corporal punishment was observed, encouraging parents in their sharing efforts to improve. In addition, there was an improvement in parental perception of internalizing and externalizing behavior of children. The small sample size and the lack of solid methodology (did not use RCT, control groups or follow-up) were cited as limitations, but the authors stressed that it was a pilot study. Following the CPC-CBT model proposed by Runyon et al. (2009), Kjellgren, Svedin e Nilsson (2013) evaluated, also in a pilot study, the results of a psychotherapeutic treatment to Swedish parents with a history of physically abusing their children. Participants were 18 families (26 adults and 25 children) and the intervention lasted 16 sessions. When comparing pre and post-tests, results indicated a significant decrease in symptoms of parental and child depression; reduced physically abusive and inconsistent parenting practices; and decreased PTSD symptoms in children who reported lower frequency of violence by parents. In addition, there was an increase in the use of positive parenting strategies after completing the treatment. Study limitations highlighted by the authors were related to the small sample size, lack of solid methodology (did not use RCT, control group or follow-up), and difficulties in transferring an American program to the Swedish culture, mainly because of physical abuse definition and the level of tolerance of such a practice (Sweden has zero tolerance to the use of corporal punishment, while the US has some degree of tolerance for this practice). Finally, Swenson, Schaeffer, Henggeler, Faldowski and Mayhew (2010) assessed an application of the Multisystemic Therapy for Child Abuse and Neglect (MST-CAN) in families monitored by CPS due to child physical abuse. This study was a variation of the Multisystemic Therapy (MST) designed by Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland and Cunningham (2009), and intended for the prevention and treatment of antisocial behavior in youngsters. Overall, the MST has as principle participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; assistance in the community,

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whether at home, school or other sites. The therapy lasts 60 hours and therapists seek to make the family develop a social support network in the community and remove obstacles (such as the abuse of alcohol/drugs, the need for medication in mental health problems) to maximize parental functioning. In its adaptation, MST-CAN includes actions such as: (a) a plan developed and signed by the family about what to do in situations where some members feel in danger; (b) work in partnership with CPS when the case is under their supervision; (c) parental cognitive restructuring; (d) specific cognitive-behavioral techniques to use in conflict situations, such as anger management; problem solving; proper communication (without psychological abuse); and (e) parents with PTSD symptoms could have specific psychotherapy sessions. The MST-CAN results described by Swenson et al. (2010) showed significant improvement in the scores of instruments applied when comparing pre and post-tests, decreasing symptoms of mental health problems in both children and parents, as well as a substantial reduction in parental neglect and severe use of aggression. Such positive results are justified by the authors in terms of the quality of service (trained professionals), and the fact that the service location was inserted in the family community. Limitations of the study discussed by the authors relate mainly to restrictions for statistical analysis (risk for Type I and Type II Errors); the exclusive use of parental verbal reports on the measures, and the fact that the program developer also was co-supervisor, which would limit the generalizability of results.

Discussion Results from the programs here reviewed have shown that the use of corporal punishment to children may be changed through specific interventions based on parenting programs geared towards teaching how to raise children without the use of violence. These programs included teaching parents about positive discipline and child behavior management techniques, associated with monitoring parental performance by specialists when needed, components that may have contributed to parental improvement. With regards to the intervention procedures, three of nine studies used individual psychotherapy (Kolko, 1996; Kolko et al., 2011; Swenson et al., 2010); four used group psychotherapy (Kjellgren et al., 2013; Nicholson et al., 2002; Runyon et al., 2009; Santos & Williams, 2008); one used coaching (Borrego et al., 1999); and Chaffin et al. (2004) used a motivational orientation in the initial phase, followed by coaching. Among the nine studies, four have used a RCT design with pre-test/post-test (Chaffin et al., 2004; Kolko, 1996; Nicholson et al., 2002; Swenson et al., 2010); and the remaining used a pre-test/post-test design on the treatment group only (without a comparison group). Six of nine studies have conducted follow-up evaluations, and the period between post-test and follow-up ranged from 1 month (Nicholson et al., 2002) to 2 years (Chaffin et al., 2004). Although there is no rule about the appropriate length of time for follow-up, as this depends on many factors (Weiner, Schinka, & Velicer, 2012), we argue that, in general, longer periods (about six months) would

Santini, P. M., & Williams, L. C. A. (2016). Parenting Programs to Prevent Corporal Punishment.

be more reliable to identify the intervention maintenance over time. Thus, the period of one month for follow-up used on the Nicholson et al. study seems to be short. Despite the differences between procedures and designs, all studies have achieved satisfactory results in the reduction of aggression by parents against their children, and the majority reported a decrease of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavioral problems, as well as a decrease of emotional problems from parents and children. Only two studies (Borrego et al., 1999; Santos & Williams, 2008) could not have the effect size analysis conducted, as the authors did not offer sufficient quantitative data. Coincidentally, these two studies employ only 2-3 participants, featuring a casestudy format. Among the methodologically robust interventions, considering the variable â&#x20AC;&#x153;externalizing behavior of the childâ&#x20AC;?, the effects varied from 0.54 (medium effect) to 2.17 (large effect), indicating not only the potential of the intervention to produce positive changes in the post-test, but that the programs seemed to be consolidated. The study with the highest value of effect size was by Chaffin et al. (2004), suggesting that the intervention procedures used (motivational orientation associated with coaching) combined with solid methodology (large sample, RCT, follow-up of 28 months and the use of eight instruments for evaluation) were key elements in obtaining the positive effects. A Cognitive-behavioral approach (and derived techniques) was used in all studies reviewed here, except for the study Swenson et al. (2010), which used a multi-system approach. Kolko (1996) argues that the Cognitive-behavioral approach proves to be more effective than others in reducing the level of parental aggression and use of corporal punishment, and the results observed in this review reinforce this position. All studies, with exception for Santos and Williams (2008), identified honest limitations, emphasizing self-criticism regarding reduced sample of participants and the lack of solid methodology. As a way to improve the area, the programs would have to refine their methodology, using RCT, followup assessments over long periods, as well as observational measures examined by independent judges to reduce the risk of bias of self-reported measures to consolidate them as evidencebased programs. In addition, the difficulties of conducting and assessing interventions with parents who use corporal punishment to discipline their children must be stressed. Besides involving atrisk groups (parents living in poverty, with several mental health problems), the decision to accept taking part of a treatment program for the aggressive behavior against their children is a complex one, and possibly one of the challenges in recruiting participants. The engagement of such parents until the end of treatment requires much effort, patience and flexibility from the intervention team (Runyon et al., 2009). Studies whose services where offered in the community seemed to be more likely to retain participants (Kolko et al., 2011; Swenson et al., 2010), although such strategy is costly and not easily achievable. There are some limitations of this review that should be considered. The data analysis and data extraction were not carried out by independent judges. Furthermore, the heterogeneity in the terminology of the area imposed challenges to the literature search. In general, there were more

studies with the physical abuse keyword compared to the keywords corporal punishment and corporal chastisement. In addition, the use of the keyword physical abuse allowed for the inclusion of studies related to drug and sexual abuse, hindering the selection of relevant articles. Thus, papers with keywords sexual and drug/drugs were excluded, whenever such filter search option was available. Another difficulty involved separating intervention studies on abuse in general from those specific on corporal punishment. In such cases, the description of participant characteristics and focus of the study were carefully analyzed. Nevertheless, although detailed search efforts were made following specific criteria, it is possible that relevant studies may have not been included in the present review. Regarding the characteristics of the parenting programs detailed in this review with specific content in reducing corporal punishment against children, it seems that intervention procedures involving individual or group psychotherapy should be associated with coaching, as proposed by Chaffin et al. (2004). It would also seem advisable to add to the intervention the videofeedback procedure, in which parentchild interactions are recorded and subsequently presented to parents in the video format, indicating their appropriate behaviors and those still in need of improvement. This procedure is commonly used in interventions with families, as identified by Fukkink (2008) in a meta-analysis of family programs in general with the use of videofeedback, indicating that the use of videofeedback contributes significantly to the improvement of parental behavior. Compared to a parental program that uses only psychotherapy, the same program associated with videofeedback could present better results in parental behavior, according to Phaneuf and McIntyre (2007). In addition, we emphasize that the program should contain a Manual with guidelines, so that it is structured and favorable of replication. Future research may identify factors that contribute to the engagement in prevention programs of parents who abuse their children. Professionals working in the frontline with victimized children or with abusive parents could act in collaboration with researchers from this field, joining efforts in improvement of objective assessments with sound methodology. This review identified only one Brazilian study published in the last 20 years regarding an evaluation of an intervention to parents who use corporal punishment (Santos & Williams, 2008). Although this study is modest from a methodological point of view, its relevance relies in involving a high-risk family: a couple with multiple disabilities, with repeated reports to Child Protection for using physical violence to their son. There is a gap in the Brazilian literature in this area, notably because this country has recently approved a Federal Law (Brazil, 2014), to ban corporal punishment against children in its vast territory. Corporal punishment is commonly employed by parents around the world, however it seems there are only a few published studies describing effective parenting programs to reduce this behavior. Overall, the results presented in this review are encouraging about the applicability and positive effects of the intervention programs focused on corporal punishment. However, due to the limited number of studies

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found, there is a clear need to develop more research with solid methodology in order to promote further investigations on the application, utility and cost-effectiveness of the various intervention alternatives, to ensure that the investments made in treatment and prevention may show the desired return, as suggested by Bruns et al. (2008).

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How to cite this article: Santini, P. M., & Williams, L. C. A. (2016). Parenting programs to prevent corporal punishment: A systematic review. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 26(63), 121-129. doi:10.1590/1982-43272663201614

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Translators comprises highly qualified professionals with proven experience in scientific translations. 2. Abstract, in Portuguese. The abstract limit is 150 words. In case of research reports, the abstract should include: a short description of the research problem, purpose, relevant sample characteristics, data collection method, results and conclusions (or final considerations for qualitative studies). Final considerations should present the implications or applications of the produced knowledge. For research reports, the method should provide consistent information about the participants, instruments and procedures used. Only the most important results, which respond to the research purposes, should be mentioned in the abstract. No references should be included. The abstract has to be followed by three to five keywords for indexation, which should accurately classify the paper, permitting a fast recovery with similar papers in case of a bibliographic research. Keywords have to be selected through the instrument available at: http://www.bvs-psi.org. br/ – consult: Terminologies and Psi Terminology, where the Vocabulary of Terms in Psychology is available. Abstracts of systematic literature reviews or theoretical studies should included: topic addressed (in a statement), objective, thesis or construct under analysis or study organizer, used sources (e.g., an observation made by the author, published literature), and conclusions. 3. Abstract.The abstract limit is 150 words. It should comply with the same specifications as the Portuguese version, including the Keywords, in accordance with the Vocabulary of Terms in Psychology. 4. Resumen. The abstract limit is 150 words. It should comply with the same specifications as the Portuguese version, including the Palabras clave, in accordance with the Vocabulary of Terms in Psychology. 5. The text itself. The organization of the manuscript should be easy to recognize, signaled by a system of titles and subtitles that reflect this pattern. The text should start with an introduction and include the following headings: Method, Results and Discussion. As the introduction of the manuscript is easily identified by its place in the text, the heading Introduction is not necessary. In the research reports, the Method section must include the following subheadings: Participants, Instruments, Procedure (the latter subdivided into Data collection and Data analysis) and, finally, the subheading Ethical Considerations, in which the authors should mention the approval of the Research Ethics Committee, the name of the institution the committee is affiliated with and the protocol number. Authors should finish the Discussion section with a well reasoned comment, justifying the importance of the study findings. In this section, the authors should present the main contributions the research offers to the knowledge area within Psychology. Besides the implications and possible applications of the knowledge produced, authors should also point out the limitations of the study and its consequences in terms of prospects for future investigations. Suggested places to include figures and tables have to be indicated in the text. Quotations of other authors have to be done according to APA standards, as exemplified under

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section VII. Full transcriptions of a text have to be delimited by quotation marks and reference to the author, followed by the number of the page referred to. A literal quotation with 40 or more words has to be presented in a single block, starting with a new line, 05 (five) spaces from the border, in the same position as a paragraph. The font size should be 12, similar to the rest of the text. This type of citation should be avoided Authors are fully responsible for the contents and exactness of citations. 6. References. The references used should be coherent with the study’s theoretical-methodological framework. In this sense, literature on the research theme should be recovered, privileging scientific papers to the detriment of other publication modes. References should be up-todate. At least 50% should date back to the last five years, counted from the submission date. Non-compliance with this guideline implies return of the manuscript to the authors. The Editor, with support from the Editorial Board and ad hoc reviewers, can judge special cases that do not strictly fit into this criterion. 7. Figures and Tables should be inserted after the References section. The suggested place of insertion should be indicated in the body of the text though. The words Figure and Table in the texts should always be spelled with the first letter in upper case, followed by the respective number they refer to. Expressions like “the Table above” or the “Figure below” should not be used, as locations can change during the editing process. APA standards do not include the names Charts and Graphs, but only Tables and Figures. Figures and Tables should be presented with their respective legends and titles, one per page. 7.1 Figures, including subtitles, in black and white. As the published version cannot exceed 8.3 cm width for single figures and 17.5 cm width for complex figures, the author should make sure that no subtitle quality is lost in case width reduction is necessary. Reproductions of drawings will not be accepted. The quantity of figures and tables cannot exceed five. 7.2 Tables, including titles and notes, should be produced in black and white, one per page. The published table cannot exceed (17.5 x 23.7) cm (width x length). When preparing them, the author should limit the width to 60 characters for single tables to occupy a printed column, including three character-spaces between table columns, limiting complex tables to a 125-character width to occupy two printed columns. The table length cannot exceed 55 lines, including title and footnotes. For other details, especially for anomalous cases, please refer to APA’s manual. The quantity of figures and tables cannot exceed five units. Numerical and statistical information should be presented in compliance with the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition, 2010). For manuscripts written in Portuguese, numerical information should be standardized in line with Carzola, Silva and Vendramini (2009) in the book Publicar em Psicologia: Um Enfoque Para a Revista Científica, which can be accessed free of charge at the following electronic address: http://www.ip.usp.br/portal/ images/stories/biblioteca/Publicar-em-Psicologia.pdf In case of papers written in Portuguese, the authors should solve occasional inconsistencies between APA

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standards and writing in Portuguese, in view of general rules for writing in that language. Formatting of the manuscript, tables, figures and other elements should strictly comply with the APA manual. Before submitting, the authors should assess whether the manuscript complies with the checklist displayed on pages 241-243 of the APA manual. Non-compliance with these elements can represent a reason for the Editorial Board to reject the manuscript. As a complementary source, authors should access online ifnromation on the APA manual at: http://www. apastyle.org/ VII. EXAMPLES OF CITATIONS IN THE BODY OF THE MANUSCRIPT Citation of papers with multiple authors 1. Two authors Authors’ last name is explicit in all citations by using and or & as mentioned below: The method proposed by Siqueland and Delucia (1969) but “The method was initially proposed for sight study (Siqueland & Delucia, 1969). 2. From three to five authors Every author’s last name is explicit in the first citation, as above. From the second citation on, only the first author’s surname is explicit, followed by “et al.” and the year, if it is the first citation of a reference inside the same paragraph: Spielberg, Gorsuch and Luschene (1924) verified that [first citation] Spielberger et al. (1924) observed that [next quote, first in the paragraph] Spielberg et al. verified that [the year is omitted in the following citations when in the same paragraph] Exception: If the abbreviated form results in identitcal references to two papers with different co-authors, authors’ names are mentioned to avoid any mix-up. Hayes, S. C., Brownstein, A. J., Hass, J. R., & Greenway, D. E. (1986) and Hayes, S. C., Brownstein, A. J., Zettle, R. D., Rosenfarb, I., & Korn, Z. (1986) papers are mentioned as follows: Hayes, Brownstein, Hass et al. (1986) and Hayes, Brownstein, Zettle at al. (1986) verified that… In the References section, all names are mentioned. 3. Six or more authors In the text, from the first citation onwards, only the first author’s surname is mentioned, followed by “et al.”, except in case of ambiguities, when the same procedure described above is used. In the References section, all names are mentioned. Citation of papers based on a secondary source The paper uses a reference that discusses another reference, without having fully read the original one (e.g. Flavell’s study, cited by Shore, 1982). This kind of citation

should be avoided and limited to specific cases, which should be informed and justified to the editor in a separate message. In the text, the following citation format should be used: Flavell (as cited by, 1982) adds that those students… In the References, inform the secondary source (in that case, Shore), using the appropriate format. Citation of re-edited century-old publication Author (date of original publication / date of consulted edition), as in Franco (1790/1946). Citation of private communication This type of citation should be avoided, as it does not provide information obtained through traditional methods. If unavoidable, it can appear in the text, but not in the References. C. M. L. C. Zannon (private communication, October 30th 1994) VIII. ORIENTATIONS REFERENCES

FOR

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

References should be arranged according to the following general rules. Papers by a single author and the same authors are ordered per publication year, from older to newer publications. Single-author precedes multiple-author publications if the surname is the same. Papers in which the first author is the same but the co-authors differ are arranged by the co-authors surnames. Publications with the same multiple authorship are arranged per date, from the older to the newer. Papers with the same authorship and data are displayed alphabetically by the title, ignoring the first word if that is an article or pronoun, except when the title itself contains an indication of order; the year is immediately followed by lower-case letters. When repeated, the author’s name should not be replaced by a hyphen or other signs. The formatting of the bibliographic list should be appropriate for review and editing, with double lining and font 12. Each reference should be placed in a new paragraph, with an indentation of half centimeter from the left margin on the second line. Carefully check the Publication Guidelines before preparing the references. The authors are fully responsible for the exactness of references. Below are examples of common reference types. 1. Technical report Birney, A. J., & Hall, M. M. (1981). Early identification of children with written language disabilities (Rep. No. 811502). Washington, DC: National Education Association. 2. Proceedings of meetings and symposia Paidéia does not accept references to studies presented at meetings and symposia, even if they were published in the proceedings. We suggest replacing these references by papers published on the same theme.

3. Doctoral dissertations and master’s theses References to dissertations and theses should be avoided. Instead, the papers they originated, i.e. the indexed publications should be preferred. If no paper was published deriving from the dissertation or thesis, cite another article on the same theme. If the citation of dissertations or thesis is inevitable, they should be available on-line in an institutional or commercial database: 3.1 Master’s thesis available in commercial database McNiel, D. S. (2006). Meaning through narrative: A personal narrative discussing growing up with na alcoholic mother (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses database. (UMI No. 1434728) 3.2 Doctoral dissertation available in institutional database Juran, R. (2013). The relationship between perceived thought control ability, mindfulness, and anxiety (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ If the dissertation or thesis used as a source is not in English, inform the original title, followed by the English title as mentioned in the original document between square brackets: Sá, E. M. M. (2012). Habilidades sociais, bem-estar psicológico e rendimento escolar [Social skills, psychological wellbeing and school performance] (Doctoral dissertation, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal). Retrieved from http://ria.ua.pt/handle/10773/9222 4. Books Arendt, H. (1998). The human condition (2th ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. If the book used as a source is not available in English, inform the original title, followed by the translation to English between square brackets: Pitiá, A. C. A., & Santos, M. A. (2005). Acompanhamento terapêutico: A construção de uma estratégia clínica [Therapeutic accompaniment: Building a clinical strategy] (2nd ed.). São Paulo, SP: Vetor. 5. Book chapter Blough, D. S., & Blough, P. (1977). Animal psychophysics. In W. K. Honig & J. E. Staddon (Orgs.), Handbook of operant behavior (pp. 514-539). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. If the book chapter used as a source is not available in English, inform the title of the original chapter, together with the title of the original book, followed by the translation of both titles to English between square brackets: Hoffman, L. W. (1979). Experiência da primeira infância e realizações femininas [Early childhood experience and female achievements]. In H. Bee (Org.), Psicologia do desenvolvimento: Questões sociais [Developmental psychology: Social issues] (pp. 45-65). Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Interamericana.

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6. Translated book Kuhn, T. (1996). A estrutura das revoluções científicas [The structure of scientific revolutions] (B. Boeira & N. Boeira, Trans.). São Paulo, SP: Perspectiva. (Original work published 1970) Salvador, C. C. (1994). Aprendizagem escolar e construção de conhecimento [School learning and knowledge building] (E. O. Dihel, Trans.). Porto Alegre, RS: Artes Médicas. (Original work published 1990) If the translation to Portuguese of a book in another language is used as a source, inform the year of the translation to Portuguese and indicate the publication year of the original work at the end of the reference. In the body of the text, cite the year of the original publication and the year of the translation: (Salvador, 1990/1994). Include the original title, followed by the translation to English between square brackets. 7. Re-edition of century-old publication Franco, F. M. (1946). Tratado de educação física dos meninos. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Agir. (Original work published 1790) 8. Corporate authorship American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Conselho Federal de Serviço Social. Conselho Federal de Psicologia. (2007). Parâmetros para atuação de assistentes sociais e psicólogos(as) na política de assistência social [Parameters for social workers and psychologists’ performance in the Social Assistance Policy]. Retrieved from http://site.cfp.org.br/publicacao/parmetros-paraatuao-de-assistentes-sociais-e-psiclogosas-na-poltica-deassistncia-social/ For material available online, do not include the access date unless the source of the material changes over time (ex. wikis). 9. Journal article (with and without DOI) If the paper used as a source is not in English, inform the original title, followed by the translation to English as mentioned in the article between square brackets: Dugnani, K. C. B., & Marques, S. L. (2011). Construção e validação de instrumento para prática interventiva na adoção [Construction and validation of an instrument for intervening practices in adoption]. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 21(50), 317-328. doi:10.1590/S0103863X2011000300004 Articles published in bilingual journals, in which English is one of the languages, should be referred to using the title in English: Castaño-Perez, G. A., & Calderon-Vallejo, G. A. (2014). Problems associated with alcohol consumption by university students. Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 22(5), 739-746. doi:10.1590/01041169.3579.2475

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If the article published on-line does not have a digital object identifier (DOI), inform the URL. Do not inform the access date. Kirst-Conceição, A. da C., & Martinelli, S. de C. (2014). Análises psicométricas iniciais de uma Escala de Empatia Infantojuvenil (EEmpa-IJ) [Initial psychometric analysis of an Child and Youth Empathy Scale (EEmpaIJ)]. Avaliação Psicológica, 13(3), 351-358. Retrieved from http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_ serial&pid=1677-0471&lng=pt&nrm=iso 10. Journal article in press Avoid this type of reference. If it is inevitable, do not include the year, volume or number of pages until the article has been published. Respecting the order of names, this should be the final reference to the author. Carvalho, L. F., & Primi, R. (in press). Development and internal structure investigation of the Dimensional Clinical Personality Inventory. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica. 11. Legal documents Decreto No. 3.298. (1999, 20 de dezembro). Regulamenta a política nacional para a integração da pessoa portadora de deficiência, consolida as normas de proteção e dá outras providências [Regulates the national policy for the integration of the disabled person, consolidates norms of protection and other measures]. Brasília, DF: Presidência da República. Lei No. 9.394, de 20 de dezembro de 1996 (1996, 23 de dezembro). Estabelece as Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional [Establishes the Guidelines and Bases of the National Education]. Diário Oficial da União, seção 1. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil. (1988, 5 de outubro). Recuperado de http://www.senado.gov.br/sf/ legislacao/const/ Communication may be done via Phone: 55 16 3315.3829 or e-mail: paideia@usp.br Paidéia Prof. Dr. Manoel Antônio dos Santos – Editor-in-Chief Psychology Department / FFCLRP-USP Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900 - Monte Alegre CEP 14040-901, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil

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