VTE March 2021

VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY ENGINEER

THE HYDROGEN HIGHWAY

Hydrogen Power: Australia is on the Hydrogen Highway Mohammad Fard: Passing on the Passion to Young Engineers ADAS for Motorcycles: A New Age on Two Wheels SAE-A AGM: Meeting in May

March 2021 Issue 27 Representing mobility engineers since 1927 www.saea.com.au

VTE | Contents

Contents March 2021

Paccar to go driverless with a partner

12

Hydrogen – Fuel Cells or Fool Cells

14

Motorcycles Enter the ADAS Age

20

Mohammad Fard: Passing on the Passion

22

Technical

25

Special Features 14

Hydrogen – Fuel Cells or Fool Cells

20

Motorcycles – Enter the ADAS Age

22

Mohammad Fard – Passing on the Passion to Young Engineers

VTE News 7

General News

8

Automotive News

10

Bus News

11

Defence & Aero News

12

Truck News

Society News 4

Notes from the Chair - Welcome from Adrian Feeney

5

SAE-A News

6

FSAE Update

Technical Feature 25

Technical – Situation Awareness, Scenarios, and Secondary Tasks: Measuring Driver Performance and Safety Margins in Highly Automated Vehicles

about the cover Kenworth and Toyota hydrogen trucks to come to Australia

About the SAE-A SAE-A was founded in 1927 to address the need for further education for all facets surrounding Automotive Engineering, and now encompasses all mobility engineering industries in the Australasian region. The SAE-A is a non-profit organisation that works to serve the needs of its members and to promote the relevance of mobility related technologies to governments, industry and the community in general.

The editor, publisher, printer, the Society of Automotive Engineers – Australasia (SAE-A) and their employees, directors, servants, agents and associated or related entities (Publishing Entities) are not responsible for the accuracy or correctness of the text, pictures or other material comprising the contributions and advertisements contained in this publication or for the consequences of any use made of the products, services and other information referred to in this publication. The Publishing Entities expressly disclaim all liability of whatsoever nature for any consequences arising from the use or reliance on material contained in this publication whether caused to a reader of this publication or otherwise. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Publishing Entities. The responsibility for the accuracy or correctness of information and other material is that of the individual contributors and the Publishing Entities do not accept responsibility for the accuracy or correctness of information or other material supplied by others. To the extent permissible by law, the Publishing Entities exclude all liability pursuant to the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) or other applicable laws arising from statute or common law.

Readers should make their own inquiries prior to the use of, or reliance on, any information or other material contained in this publication, and where necessary seek professional advice. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or part without the written permission of SAE-A is strictly prohibited.

www.saea.com.au

VTE | 3

Introduction | Secretary, CEO and Chairman Society of Automotive Engineers

VTE Published By: Society of Automotive Engineers - Australasia ABN:

95 004 248 604

Address: PO Box 103, Werribee Vic 3030 Phone: 0403 267 166 Email: info@sae-a.com.au Web: www.saea.com.au

Adrian Feeney

Membership & Subscriptions

Secretary, Chair and CEO Society of Automotive Engineers – Australasia

Rose De Amicis Email: rose@sae-a.com.au Events Melanie Webster Email: events@sae-a.com.au

Board of Directors: Chairman & CEO Adrian Feeney Board Greg Shoemark Noelle Parlier David Young

Michael Waghorne Bernard Rolfe Luke Callaway

Magazine Production: Editor Mandy Parry-Jones Trading Terms Media Email: mandypj@optusnet.com.au Mobile: 0409 806 986 Design Brigid Fraser Email: fraseram@optusnet.com.au Mobile: 0413 009 122 Advertising Jill Johnson Jill Johnson Media Email: jj@jilljohnsonmedia.com.au Mobile: 0409 217 624

VTE Industry Partner: Excellerate Australia

Dear member, Welcome to the first edition of VTE for 2021.

This year has started with a flurry of activity from the SAE-A National Office and the reasons are simple, new people and new ideas.

The most significant change for this year is the appointment of a professional events organiser, KE Creative who has been appointed to run all our events. Nadia Kentera and her staff have more than 16 years’ experience in this area and rather than have one person to perform all the tasks of an event manager, we will have access to a number of staff who are experts in the field of event management: graphic designer, webpage and promotion experts, etc. Already we are seeing the benefits of this arrangement with a number of events already either scheduled or being developed.

The first of these was a webinar facilitated by Sam Lagozzino on suspension development with more than 40 registrations. This was held online on Wednesday 17 March, so check out the website for details.

Perhaps our most important event is the Annual General Meeting which will be held live on 20 May at the Mulgrave Country Club in Victoria. This will be the first opportunity for our members to meet face-to-face in over 12 months and with two highly credentialled and interesting speakers. I encourage everyone to register and come along for a touch of normality.

The speakers are Saeid Nahavandi from Deakin University, a subject matter expert on robotics and military AVs and Ross Cureton from PACCAR, an expert on powertrains, specifically for AVs. So, with the focus SAE-A is placing on

4 | March 2021

autonomous vehicles this year and beyond, such speakers are going to be of immense relevance for our members.

Other news of note which relates to the AGM, is the recruitment of new board members. David Young from TAC has replaced Kin Cheong, who has stepped down for personal reasons and Luke Callaway from Hendrickson has been seconded to the board but is now standing for full election.

Finally, we also welcomed Professor Bernard Rolfe from Deakin University who late last year replaced Peter Dale who resigned due to medical reasons. I extend a warm welcome to our newest members and thank them for their commitment to our organisation.

Just this week we were able to announce the appointment of Mohammad Fard to be the new chair of the APAC21 conference, which will be held in November 2022, he replaces Kate Cousins who had to step down due to work commitments.

See the article in this edition for more information on Mohammad.

The other big news is that Formula SAE is back at Winton after 12 months of restrictions in Australia but particularly in Victoria and with the roll out of the vaccine we are expecting a full event without restrictions in December this year.

Discussions have already begun with Winton Raceway and the local universities, so normality returns to our premier event.

Have a great year everyone and I hope to see as many of our members in person over the coming months.

Adrian Feeney Chairman and CEO Society of Automotive Engineers - Australasia

SAE | News

APAC Update The Asia Pacific Automotive Engineering Congress (APAC) exists to advance the development of automotive engineering and the automobile industry internationally.

New Board Members for SAE-A Welcome to the new SAE-A board and returning board members.

The SAE-A has gone from strength to strength and the board has reflected this with members keen to step into positions as they become available.

David Young has accepted the offer to join the board as a replacement for Kin Cheong, hence taking over the balance of Kin’s term, which expires in 2023 and hence does not need to stand for election this year. He will be responsible for AV/EV technology.

Luke Callaway has also accepted our offer for a seconded position and his company Hendrickson has joined as a corporate member. Luke will be eligible to stand for the full three-year term at this year’s AGM. He will be responsible for events.

The SAE-A board now consists of Adrian Feeney – Chairman & CEO, Greg Shoemark, Michael Waghorne, Noelle Parlier, Professor Bernard Rolfe, David Young and Luke Callaway.

Adrian Feeney

Greg Shoemark

The inaugural APAC was held in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1981 under the name International Pacific Conference on Automotive Engineering. It was initiated by four countries, the US, Indonesia, Australia and Japan. South Korea and China joined the following year, Thailand, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka joined in the 1990s, India in 2004, and Iran in 2005, with a total of 11 countries now represented.

Michael Waghorne

Noelle Parlier

Its name was changed to the Asia Pacific Automotive Engineering Conference in 2007 to help attract new participants from the Asian region.

The Society of Automotive Engineers – Australasia was selected to run the 21st APAC in 2022 (APAC21) which has been themed “Autonomous Vehicle Technology - harmonising the future on and off-road”.

Professor Bernard Rolfe

David Young

Luke Callaway

Following what has been constantly described as a unprecedented year where the SAE-A was unable to hold an Annual General Meeting due to COVID-19 restrictions, this year is panning out much better for everyone. Hence the SAE-A will hold its AGM on Thursday 20 May at the Mulgrave Country Club at the corner of Wellington and Jells Road, Wheelers Hill, Victoria.

The AGM will start promptly at 6pm in the Panorama Room with the chairman and CEO’s address, followed by the treasurer’s report, the appointment of auditors for 2021 and the announcement of the 2021 board of directors.

After the formal conclusion of the AGM drinks and then dinner will be served in a separate room.

The SAE-A board is seeking additional nominations under new chair Mohammad Fard for the APAC21 Technical Committee from a local and international field of experts and leaders, covering both industry and academia.

The Technical Committee will be tasked with the following:

SAE-A AGM to be held in May

www.saea.com.au

Held every two years, APAC provides excellent opportunities for automotive experts to present the latest product and development innovations and to exchange information in the field of mobility, connected cars and automotive technology as a global challenge for industry, users and society.

The AGM presents a valuable opportunity to hear key developments within the SAE-A and to network with fellow industry professionals face-to-face following a year where meeting in these circumstances was difficult and different.

Keynote speakers at the dinner will be Saeid Nahavandi from Deakin University and Ross Cureton from PACCAR. Spaces are limited so please book early by contacting Melanie Webster via email events@sae-a.com.au or call 0400 835 900.

•

Provide a list of potential local speakers that are experts in the specific subject matter

•

Target well known national and international speakers

•

Determine timetable for the call for papers, review, select and notify speakers

•

Structure technical presentations – preliminary and break-out sessions

•

Provide peer review of technical papers

•

Meet every 4 weeks (this may become more regular as we get closer to the event).

APAC21 will be held on 3-5 October 2022 at the Hyatt Place, Essendon Fields, in Melbourne, Victoria.

For more information visit www.saea.com.au/apac21 VTE | 5

News | FSAE 2020

DESIGN

FSAE Update FSAE 2020 was nothing like we had expected when planning started in January last year, but we knew we had to find a way to ensure that all those students who had put in so much work could continue in some way to have their ideas and work evaluated.

We came up with a solution that was befitting the situation the world found itself in; we held the event over five days with video conferencing to determine placegetters in three categories: design, cost and presentation. No dynamic elements were possible.

One of the more positive outcomes was the wide range of students and universities that competed as can be seen in the list of winners with countries as varied as Poland and Indonesia.

FSAE 2021 will revert to a more traditional program albeit with some improvements to ensure that teams from Australia and overseas all have the opportunity to be involved.

In 2021 the 22nd FSAE competition will return to Winton Raceway and it will be held from 9-13 December. Details of the event are yet to be confirmed but the event is expected to be run in similar fashion to the 2019 event for local Australian teams unless COVID-19 throws up more challenges. There are some details on the SAE-A website (www.saea.com.au) The FSAE-A Rules Addendum 2021 and a FSG rules are both uploaded to the site and available for teams to download.

It is planned that for teams wishing to compete but located overseas and unable to enter Australia there will be an international program which it is expected will run similarly to the program that was in place for 2020 but more details will be released as they come to hand.

For the time being please check in with the SAE-A website regularly for updates.

Event Sponsors

Event Supporters

6 | March 2021

Place Car Number

Team Name

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

AGH University of Science and Technology Queensland University of Technology The University of Adelaide University of Sydney University of Technology, Sydney NED University of Engineering & Technology Auburn University University of Wollongong Universitas Gadjah Mada Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi Tokyo Denki University Poznan University of Technology NED University of Engineering & Technology Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember

35 E46 E8 22 E59 E58 E51 E85 72 E94 21 E50 57 36

Total Score 150.00 144.70 133.15 132.57 128.53 126.89 122.75 116.30 112.64 106.00 105.91 93.87 89.54 68.36

COST Place Car Number

Team Name

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi Queensland University of Technology NED University of Engineering & Technology Universitas Gadjah Mada University of Wollongong The University of Adelaide Poznan University of Technology University of Sydney Tokyo Denki University AGH University of Science and Technology Auburn University NED University of Engineering & Technology University of Technology, Sydney Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember

91.50 86.00 85.50 82.00 81.00 79.50 76.50 71.50 69.00 68.50 60.00 59.00 58.50 57.00

Place Car Number

PRESENTATION Team Name

Score

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

University of Sydney Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi Universitas Gadjah Mada University of Technology, Sydney Queensland University of Technology University of Wollongong AGH University of Science and Technology Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember NED University of Engineering & Technology Auburn University NED University of Engineering & Technology Poznan University of Technology Tokyo Denki University The University of Adelaide

75.00 72.24 69.99 68.78 68.26 61.35 59.79 58.93 55.47 54.78 50.98 50.46 48.91 47.52

E94 E46 57 72 E85 E8 E50 22 21 35 E51 E58 E59 36

22 E94 72 E59 E46 E85 35 36 57 E51 E58 E50 21 E8

LEAP AWARD 35 AGH University of Science and Technology

Total Score

General | News

BRIEFS

STEM careers important on International Women’s Day According to research conducted by Advanced Manufacturing Growth Centre (AMGC), one of the key factors contributing to low participation of females in Science, Technology, Maths and Engineering (STEM) is a lack of representation of female leads in STEM to understand all the exciting opportunities manufacturing has to offer.

MECHA GRANT FROM QLD GOVERNMENT Gladstone manufacturer Mecha Engineered Mechanical Solutions has been awarded funding through the Palaszczuk Government’s Regional Manufacturing Hubs Grants program to adopt world-leading technology and processes. Mecha will receive $243,605 from the $13.5 million program.

The funding provides an opportunity for Mecha to undertake a rapid reverse engineering project which will allow multiple organisations within the region to collaborate and reverse engineer parts on a large scale.

Mecha’s new advanced manufacturing equipment will include hand-held and in-situ 3D Laser scanners, a 3D printer for proto-typing, a holographic wall for design and display, and software to integrate and operate the equipment.

THE YEAR TO KICKSTART EV ADOPTION

Managing Director for AMGC, Dr Jens Goennemann couldn’t agree more.

Further research conducted as part of AMGC’s 10 Ways to succeed in Australian manufacturing report, involved focus groups of more than 1000 students across the nation in which students were presented with information about what today’s manufacturing looks like.

Women, in particular, said that having a better understanding of the industry’s opportunities and seeing themselves included in communications about manufacturing had a strong impact on their ‘mental availability’ to choose manufacturing as a career path.

Employing more than 1.27 million Australians, modern manufacturing has evolved to encompass seven distinct steps along the manufacturing “smiley-curve’ or value chain. These steps encompass roles in research and development, design, logistics,

production, sales (including marketing and communications), service and support, and as such support a vast array of career options for prospective students in disciplines that are higher paid and more resilient that those that went before them.

The Hon Karen Andrew MP was pioneer in the STEM field.

“Myself and another Karen were the first women to graduate with a mechanical engineering degree from QUT,” she explained.

“But today, things are different – girls and women are now taking their rightful place in all sorts of university courses and professions and I want to see more of it.”

To learn more about how Australian manufacturing is changing and the people driving the change, students, teachers, professionals and parents are encouraged to visit AMGC’s free Manufacturing Academy to hear from leaders from across the manufacturing industry.

This year will kickstart a decade of growing Electric Vehicle (EV) adoption, which will see EV sales move from a rounding error of total new vehicle shipments to over a quarter of new vehicles shipping in 2030, according to global tech market advisory firm ABI Research.

In its new whitepaper, 68 Technology Trends That Will Shape 2021, ABI Research’s analysts identified 37 trends that will shape the technology market and 31 others that, although attracting huge amounts of speculation and commentary, are less likely to move the needle over the next 12 months For more information visit www.abiresearch.com GOOD DESIGN AWARDED TO GENESIS The GOOD DESIGN Awards have recognised for its high standards of design. Genesis announced that it won three 2020 GOOD DESIGN awards in the Transportation category for the G80, the GV80, and its ‘Copper Design theme’ in the Genesis Infotainment System.

REDARC gains support from AMGC Australian electronics manufacturer REDARC will investment in cutting-edge Industry 4.0 technology and training with support from the Federal Government’s Advanced Manufacturing Growth Centre (AMGC).

The co-funding investment of over $800,000 will extend its smart factory and skill capabilities across its in-house and supplier operations with up to 35 new roles created due to the project.

The company has developed more than 600 product lines during its 40-year history, of which most are exported to markets including www.saea.com.au

Canada, USA, Mexico, Europe, New Zealand, the Middle East, South Korea and South Africa.

This is the sixth year in a row that Genesis has been recognised by the awards. Previous GOOD DESIGN award winners include the G90 in 2015, the Vision G Concept in 2016, the G80 Sport and GV80 Concept in 2017, the G70 and Essentia Concept in 2018, and the G90 and Mint Concept in 2019.

VTE | 7

News | Auto

BRIEFS WORLD CAR AWARDS GO ELECTRIC A new highlight of the 2022 World Car Awards program will be the debut of the World Electric Vehicle of the Year award. This new award is intended to recognize, support and celebrate the global transition to electrically powered vehicles now underway.

OLD HOLDENS LAST AND LAST The last Holden off the manufacturing line in Australia was auctioned for $750,000 but there is confusion about whether it was the last one as Holden has stated that the last one was on display at the National Motor Museum in Birdwood, South Australia. Apparently this ‘last one’ had the last VIN number.

MASERATI MASTERPIECE The online awards ceremony for the Festival Automobile International was held with the Maserati taking pride of place amongst the winners.

GM plugs in and drops out A year on from finishing up Holden in Australia, parent company General Motors has announced it is going all-electric.

It comes just 12 months removed from GM’s controversial decision to retire the Holden brand in Australia and New Zealand.

GM is on its way to an all-electric future, with a commitment to 30 new global electric vehicles by 2025 and plans to completely phase out vehicles using internal combustion engines by 2035. This would also involve the development of clean technology for heavyduty trucks.

GM also announced it would provide fuel-cell technology for Navistar International Corp and also explore other applications of the hydrogen technology it is investing in as part of a joint venture with Honda.

announced the creation of a new logistics company called BrightDrop. The new business will create an ecosystem of electrified products, software and services for first-tolast-mile delivery. This includes the EP1, a new electric pallet to shuttle packages, as well as a new commercial delivery truck the EV600 (above). The first customer of the new business will be FedEx Express.

During her CES 2021 keynote on January 12, GM Chairman and CEO Mary Barra

GM recently revised its logo to reflect the change to an electric future.

Hyperscreen hyperspace The recently launched MC20, which premiered globally last September at the MMXX international show in Modena, received the award for the “most beautiful supercar of the year 2021”.

Developed by the Maserati Innovation Lab and produced at the historic plant in Modena, MC20 is 100 percent made in Italy.

The most distinctive feature of the new super sports car is its exclusive butterfly doors. This is the first Maserati to have vertical headlights.

HYUNDAI IONIQ ELECTRIC SUV This is Hyundai’s first model in its new IONIQ brand for battery electric vehicles.

Set to debut on M-B’s 2022 EQS flagship EV sedan, is an all-new 56-inch IP screen will span the dash with an expansive and intelligent display.

Mercedes-Benz has unveiled its new Hyperscreen, that will serve as the visual cornerstone of its MBUX infotainment interface.

Revealed as part of M-B’s 2021 Consumer Electronics Show (CES) media runup, the Hyperscreen is the latest salvo in what is likely to be a barrage of dash dominating displays.

According to M-B, the all-new display will provide “emotional intelligence” for its upcoming all-electric EQS flagship model, and the curved panel will extend nearly the width of the A-pillars.

It has many new design features including flush door handles, aero-optimised wheels, a moveable centre console, a flat floor, full-touch screens and a V2L function that allows customers to charge any electric devices like bicycles or scooters.

FORD AND MAHINDRA NO GO An automotive joint venture between Ford and Mahindra has gone belly up, it was supposed to shift Ford’s struggling India operation.

The joint venture was also to collaborate in electric vehicle production. Ford has two assembly plants in India that employ around 14,000 people.

8 | March 2021

M-B is using the expanded display’s real estate to implement what it calls the “zerolayer” feature, reducing operating steps by eliminating the need to scroll through menus.

The screen permits applications deemed situationally and contextually important to be visible at all times at the top of the driver’s field of vision.

Distraction is reduced by giving the front passenger their own display space and operating area.

Driving the new Hyperscreen will be the latest version of MBUX (Mercedes-Benz User Experience), the voice-controlled

interface that leverages artificial intelligence (AI) and learn-capable software to control the display, adapting to individual users to make personalized suggestions for vehicle functions, infotainment and HVAC settings.

MBUX first appeared on the 2018 A-Class.

The curved Hyperscreen is composed of several OLED displays arranged to appear seamless.

The glass cover is coaxed into its threedimensional curves during a 1,202°F (650°C) moulding process to create distortion-free views from any seating position.

The Hyperscreen MBUX system is driven by an 8-core CPU supported by 24 gigabytes (GB) of RAM. Nvidia supplies GPUs that manage both graphics and AI processing, and the screen uses an embedded multifunction camera and a light sensor to continuously adapt screen brightness to ambient conditions.

Auto | News

Ford by design

Prepare to share to repair

Ford Australia is heading for a busy 2021 and beyond, recently expanding its high-tech design studio to accommodate more than 200 designers working on Ford vehicles for Australia and global markets.

The $12 million facelift is the biggest revamp of the studio since the 1970s and continues Ford’s ongoing investment in Australia, where more than 2,500 of the company’s engineers, designers, technical and automotive specialists are based.

Ford released photos of the expanded facility, which will benefit from another AU$2.3 million in additional studio technology infrastructure by the end of 2021.

The Ford Design Studio in Melbourne plays an important role in Ford’s global business portfolio.

Work on the new building, undertaken by architecture firm, Genton in collaboration with Cachet Group, has doubled the footprint of the studio to offer a brighter, well-lit facility that fosters creativity and innovation.

Melbourne-based Max Wolff, Design Director for Ford International Markets Group and China, said the improvements were aimed at keeping the facility contemporary and cutting edge with the technologies required to design the vehicles of tomorrow, from initial concept to prototype.

With the addition of 100 new workstations, an extended clay modelling workshop where fullscale models are made, and a new five-axis gantry milling centre, the 2300m2 expansion provides flexible and functional facilities that optimise the capacity of the office.

The design studio was originally built in the 1970s and has been the birthplace of some

The Australian Federal Government intends to introduce The Motor Vehicle Service and Repair Information Sharing Scheme to Parliament in early 2021.

iconic Fords. Today, it is the global lead studio for the Ranger pickup and Everest SUV. The studio also had significant input into the design of vehicles sold in other markets like South America, China and India.

Clay modelling, the backbone of vehicle design for years, has been given a new lease of life with the studio’s team of 40 clay modelers now using cutting edge digital technologies to speed up the design process.

“The new five-axis gantry mill is an interface between the physical and digital worlds, taking information from the computer and quickly and accurately translating it into the physical with a greater level of detail,” Mr Wolff said. “We can also feed that information back into the computer’s digital models.”

With natural light an important part of the design process, Genton designed a 1110 m2 internal courtyard where vehicles could be privately viewed outdoors.

The law will compel car manufacturers to share all mechanical repair and service information with the independent auto repair sector on “fair and reasonable commercial terms”.

Wheels COTY Continuing an esteemed tradition for over 54 years, Wheels Car of the Year is world’s longest continuously running motoring accolade for automotive excellence.

Photography by Peter Clarke.

Gordon Murray Automotive has unveiled its T.50s Niki Lauda track-focused supercar for the first time.

Developed in parallel with the T.50, the most drivercentric supercar ever built, the T.50s Niki Lauda has been conceived, designed and engineered to offer the ultimate on-track driving experience.

www.saea.com.au

The new law is designed to provide a fairer playing field for the repair and service of the 74 automotive brands available in Australia in an industry worth $25 billion annually.

The Ford Australia Design Centre has fostered Australian design talent over the years and continues to be an important part of the company’s annual graduate program, with more than 10 design graduates working in the studio.

£3.1m race car, be quick just 25 of them

Like the T.50, the T.50s Niki Lauda has been designed and engineered without compromise, but with an even more extreme specification. It weighs just 852kg and will be powered by a substantially redesigned version of the T.50’s Cosworthengineered 3.9-litre V12, producing 725bhp, revving to 12,100rpm and going through a newly designed Xtrac six-speed paddle-shift gearbox.

Following nearly a decade of campaigning by the Australian Automotive Aftermarket Association (AAAA), the new law will make it illegal for car companies to withhold information from qualified independent mechanics.

With COVID-19 sadly wreaking havoc on events and lives worldwide, the 2021 Wheels Car of the Year event was alas caught up in the global uncertainty with the accolade almost not awarded for only the fourth time in its illustrious history (1972, 1979 and 1986 when no newly released car was considered worthy of the award).

To be eligible, a car must have gone on sale in the 12 months since the last Car of the Year event, and as such 52 models were shortlisted.

Advanced aerodynamics, aided by a 400mm rear-mounted fan, will produce up to 1500kg of downforce for optimum track performance.

Just 25 of the T.50s Niki Laudas will be made, costing £3.1m (before taxes). Production will start in January 2023 at Gordon Murray Automotive’s manufacturing centre in Dunsfold, Surrey, UK, after the run of 100 T.50 supercars is completed.

Making the final cut were the Audi e-tron, BMW 4 Series, Ford Escape, Ford Puma, Mazda CX-30, Genesis GV80, Kia Sorento, Land Rover Defender, Mercedes-Benz GLB and Toyota Yaris.

And the award went to the Mazda CX-30.

This was Mazda’s ninth Car of the Year win, making it the second most successful manufacturer behind Holden.

VTE | 9

News | Bus

BusTech takes off after the emerging electric market The Adelaide group behind the manufacture of the Brabham BT62 supercar is positioning itself to become a major producer of electric buses for the emerging Australian market.

Co-located with sister company Brabham Automotive at Edinburgh in Adelaide’s north, BusTech is gearing up to produce at least 60 electric buses for the NSW Government over the next 18 months after its recent inclusion on a list of approved electric bus suppliers.

It also has orders for electric buses in Queensland, which it aims to start delivering in the second half of this year.

Its 12.5-metre ZDi electric bus has been designed, engineered and will be built in Australia.

The all-electric buses aimed at the NSW market will use a Proterra battery pack and drivetrain following a partnership with the US company.

Owned by SA-based Fusion Capital, which also owns Brabham Automotive, the company rebranded as BusTech Group in December following the purchase of Queensland-based Bustech by its Edinburgh-based Precision Buses in 2019.

BusTech Group executive chairman Christian Reynolds said the two bus manufacturers first collaborated under a licensing agreement back in 2017.

“We could see the opportunity to take more of a leading position within the bus space, so we worked through a transaction to acquire Queensland-based business Bustech to look at

New President at Volvo Buses Anna Westerberg was appointed as President Volvo Buses and a new member of Volvo Group Management.

more of a national manufacturing and supplier footprint,” he said.

“Fusion Capital saw the opportunity from the closure of Holden to bring together Tier 1 supply capability to basically look at how we could create a business from the stalled capacity within the vehicle space and that’s what has allowed us to move quite quickly.

“We went from four vehicles built in 2016 to a run rate now where we are building between 250 and 300 a year.”

The company has almost 300 staff with about 170 at a manufacturing plant on the Gold Coast, 110 in Adelaide and the remainder supporting national fleet operations and business development activities interstate.

It also has a manufacturing partner, Elphinstone, in Tasmania, which builds BusTech’s designed and engineered bus the XDi for the Tasmanian market.

Until now, BusTech Group’s commercial production has focused on hybrid diesel/electric buses.

Now it is switching its attention to all-electric buses and has a hydrogen bus in the project scope and design phase.

BusTech already has a number of all-electric prototypes, one of which runs on the Adelaide Metro North Adelaide connector route.

The NSW government recently committed to transitioning its entire bus fleet to zero emissions within the decade, starting with 120 electric buses in 2021, and ultimately planning

to convert all 8,000 buses in its fleet by 2030.

The company took on some former Holden staff around the time of the Elizabeth plant closure in 2017, but Mr Reynolds said the focus now was on attracting skilled ex-pats wanting to return to Australia from the United Kingdom.

“We’ve brought engineers in from Jaguar Land Rover, McLaren and Aston Martin so we’ve been able to look at Australians who went overseas and who have looked to come back home but couldn’t quite find the same positions with their skill sets,” he said.

Melbourne-headquartered Volgren is the industry-leading bus manufacturer in Australia.

Sydney-based Custom-Denning expects to release its production model electric bus in April.

“And we know that Scania and Volvo are planning to bring their rolling electric chassis in over the next 12 to 18 months as well,” Mr Reynolds said.

But the former Tesla executive said the next 12 months would provide BusTech the delivery window for what it had been working on for the past four years.

“It’s something that in the post-Holden era is a good demonstration of what’s possible and in the post-COVID era it should give us much confidence that we don’t need to be net importers of technology, it’s an opportunity for us to take matters into our own hands,” Mr Reynolds said.

Lightweighting a bus Ebusco 3.0, which will enter service for the first time in Germany later this year will be lighter thanks to the use of composite materials, making it a third lighter than its predecessor.

Anna Westerberg held the position as head of Volvo Group Connected Solutions. Her career at the Volvo Group began in 2009 and she has held many positions at the company such as head of Volvo Group Venture Capital. Ms Westerberg took on her position as 1 February 2021.

10 | March 2021

These materials have long been used for aircraft components, so the Dutch bus manufacturer teamed up with experts from the aviation industry.

The use of composite material – light but extremely strong – has several advantages.

Composite makes the bus 33 percent lighter compared with steel buses and also provides a degree of insulation.

Also, the material will not age nearly as quickly, so that the bus certainly last 20 years or so.

Damage can be repaired simply and cheaply by grinding a piece of composite and replacing it, as is already done with many composite products worldwide.

Defence & Aero | News

BAE welcomes 79 graduates and apprentices

Rheinmetall Lands MOU with Queensland government Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Rheinmetall Defence Australia reconfirming a long-term partnership that is now firmly focused on attracting to Queensland the LAND 400 Phase 3 contract valued at up to $27 billion.

BAE Systems has welcomed 54 graduates and 25 apprentices to its national defence business in roles right across Australia.

Reflecting the growing digital and software capability BAE Systems is building to support Australia’s future defence needs, 19 of the graduates are software engineers, with an additional three mechatronic engineers and three ICT engineers also being hired.

Underpinning the recruitment drive is the company’s role leading the upgrade of the Jindalee Operational Radar Network and the ramping up of the Hunter Class Frigate Program, together with major programs in BAE Systems’ maritime and aircraft sustainment businesses.

Each new graduate will work across a range of specialist roles in different business and engineering functions on critically important defence projects during their two year placement with the company.

Eighteen of the apprentices will work on the Hunter program, bringing the total number of apprentices on the program to 36. Another seven apprentices have been recruited to work at BAE Systems’ Henderson facility in WA, supporting the mid-life capability upgrade of the Anzac fleet.

In 2020, BAE Systems provided more than 140 opportunities for young people looking to kick start their careers in the defence industry, including: •

70 graduate roles

•

37 apprenticeships and seven traineeships and

•

29 internships.

Australian ViDAR testing for Sikorsky An Australian-developed innovative intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) system has been selected by Sikorsky, a Lockheed Martin company, to undergo a testing and development program.

The Premier said Rheinmetall has the full support of the Queensland Government in landing the Phase 3 contract that will deliver 450 infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for the Australian Army.

“Rheinmetall estimates the Phase 3 project could create an additional 500 jobs in addition to the 450 highly skilled positions being brought to Queensland through their Phase 2 win,” the Premier said.

“I have brought my entire Cabinet here today to familiarise them on the capabilities of this world-class facility that has categorically boosted Queensland’s defence manufacturing firepower.

“Rheinmetall’s new Military Vehicle Centre of Excellence (MILVEHCOE) here in Redbank is the most advanced military vehicle manufacturing facility in Australia, if not the world, and it would definitely be a compelling consideration in the Commonwealth’s LAND 400 Phase 3 tender evaluation.”

Rheinmetall also has a Memorandum of Understanding with TAFE Queensland, which is delivering a full range of skills development programs to suit Rheinmetall’s current and future needs.

Loyal wingman in the air

Boeing Australia and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) have successfully completed the first test flight of the Loyal Wingman uncrewed aircraft.

The flight of the first military aircraft to be designed and manufactured in Australia in more than 50 years flew under the supervision of a Boeing test pilot monitoring the aircraft from a ground control station at the Woomera Range Complex.

Melbourne’s Sentient Vision Systems (Sentient) has been awarded a contract to further test and develop the ViDAR (Visual Detection and Ranging) system that could see the cutting-edge Australian capability integrated with the sensor suites on the MH-60R Seahawk.

Lockheed Martin will work with Sentient to further evolve the capability of the ViDAR system, which is a persistent wide area motion imaging (WAMI) system that is designed to autonomously detect, geo-locate, track and classify objects over vast areas of terrain below an aircraft or UAS. This new opportunity with the ViDAR testing, development and integration validation www.saea.com.au

program is a demonstration of the strength of that partnership, with Sentient and Lockheed Martin engineers and teams in Australia and around the world developing a tailored solution that will enhance the capabilities of these platforms while also advancing Australian sovereign defence industry capability.

The world’s first Optical Radar, ViDAR is currently used by many agencies and forces including the Australian Maritime Safety Authority, Royal Australian Navy and the US Coast Guard for a broad range of search missions including search and rescue, illegal fishing, counter narcotics and maritime security.

“The Loyal Wingman’s first flight is a major step in this long-term, significant project for the Air Force and Boeing Australia, and we’re thrilled to be a part of the successful test,” said Air Vice-Marshal Cath Roberts, RAAF Head of Air Force Capability.

“The Loyal Wingman project is a pathfinder for the integration of autonomous systems and artificial intelligence to create smart human-machine teams.”

Following a series of taxi tests validating ground handling, navigation and control, and pilot interface, the aircraft completed a successful takeoff under its own power before flying a pre-determined route at different speeds and altitudes to verify flight functionality and demonstrate the performance of the Airpower Teaming System design.

Additional Loyal Wingman aircraft are currently under development, with plans for teaming flights scheduled for later this year.

VTE | 11

News | Truck

BRIEFS Iveco going Chinese CNH Industrial revived talks to sell the bulk of Italian truck group IVECO to Chinese automaker FAW Group, according to Reuters. Discussions were put on hold last year after the Chinese company made a preliminary offer valuing IVECO at a little more than 3 billion euros. CNH rebuffed the offer.

The latest talks come as Changchun-based FAW, which makes heavy duty trucks under its Jiefang brand, looks to expand outside China. FAW made an improved offer and wants to acquire all of Iveco’s commercial vehicles business, including trucks and buses, as well as a minority stake in its FPT engine division. CNH is controlled by Exor, the holding company of Italy’s Agnelli family, and has held talks with Chinese Shandong Heavy Industry Group.

Separately, IVECO is in talks to jointly develop autonomous truck technologies with Chinese startup Plus.

A sale of IVECO would be an alternative to a plan set to split into two and list its lower-margin truck and bus business, along with FPT, in an effort to boost the group’s asset values and streamline its businesses.

M-B and Daimler to divorce Daimler plans a fundamental change in its structure, which it says is designed to unlock the full potential of its businesses in a zero-emissions, software-driven future making the Daimler Truck business a fully independent, stand-alone corporate governance. Daimler Trucks is one of the world’s largest truck and bus producers, with industry leading positions in Europe, North America and Asia, and with more than 35 main locations around the globe. With more than 100,000 employees, it unites seven brands under one roof: BharatBenz, Freightliner, Fuso, Mercedes-Benz, Setra, Thomas Built Buses and Western Star. In 2019, a total of around half a million trucks and buses were delivered to customers.

Experienced new head at Fuso Commercial vehicle manufacturer, Daimler Truck and Bus Australia Pacific, has appointed Alexander Müller as the new Fuso Truck and Bus Australia Director. Mr Müller, was previously the Head of Global Key Account Management and Vocational Business for Mercedes-Benz Trucks in Stuttgart.

He has also served as the Head of Sales and Marketing of Fuso Europe from 2006 to 2013, during which time he oversaw a restructure of the sales network and set an annual sales record of 10,000 units.

Mr Müller began his career with Daimler in 1999 in Stuttgart, in the role of Marketing Manager Vans.

In 2002, he took over the role as Head of Sales and Marketing Vans in Italy.

In 2006, he returned to Stuttgart as Head of Sales and Marketing Fuso Europe until 2013, when he was given responsibility for Sales of Daimler Latina in South America for the Fuso, BharatBenz, Freightliner, Western Star, Mercedes-Benz Truck and Vans brands.

After his return from Sao Paulo in 2015, Mr Müller was responsible for the management of the worldwide Mercedes-Benz Truck Fleet and Bodybuilder business.

12 | March 2021

Mack’s new Australian national Anthem Mack Trucks Australia has revealed a revamped model line-up offering a new stand-up sleeper cab, redesigned interior, new transmission options and an all-new model line-up.

The new, locally engineered and Australian built Mack Anthem is powered by the proven 13 litre Euro 5 MP8 engine with horsepower ratings ranging from 435 to 535hp and 16551920lb-ft of torque, the Anthem is set to tackle all manner of transport applications, from vocational rigid roles to B-double highway hauler.

The bold new look manages to capture aerodynamic efficiency whilst retaining a hard-edged profile. Aerodynamic gains have been aided by closing gaps between panels and minimising seams. Even the tow hooks

in the 3-piece bumper have been covered to assist with air flow.

The Mack Anthem will be available as a sleeper or day cab and will be available in 6x4 and 8x4 rigid guise or as a 6x4 prime mover.

An integrated Bendix Wingman Fusion active safety system is standard equipment providing adaptive cruise control, blind spot alerts, autonomous braking and roll stability.

A 5-inch colour digital Co-Pilot display makes navigating various digital menus and functions a breeze while on the move.

The integration of the Bendix safety system now means that much of the system’s functionality can be accessed via the CoPilot display.

Paccar plans to go driverless and finds a partner Aurora has entered into a global strategic partnership with PACCAR in preparation for the delivery of the first driverless application in trucking.

This partnership combines PACCAR’s considerable expertise in heavy-duty truck development, manufacturing and sales with Aurora’s understanding of autonomous vehicle technology to bring a safe, efficient self-driving product to market quickly and deploy it broadly.

This partnership builds on that foundation in two ways, both are a first for PACCAR and Aurora in the trucking space. It brings the engineering teams together around an

accelerated development program to create truly driverless-capable trucks, starting with the Peterbilt 579 and the Kenworth T680.

It also brings together the broader PACCAR and Aurora organizations in the creation of an expansive commercialization plan for the deployment of these trucks at scale over the next several years.

Daimler signs MOU with Cummins

Daimler Trucks has signed a memorandum of understanding establishing a global strategic partnership for medium duty engine systems.

The announcement also stated that other opportunities for collaboration are also being evaluated.

Cummins will invest in the development of

medium-duty engine systems for Daimler Trucks and Buses and the global production and delivery of medium duty engines by Cummins for Daimler Trucks and Buses will begin after 2025.

Truck | News

First Volvo FL Electric is with Linfox As the Volvo Trucks electromobility journey gathers pace globally, Volvo Trucks Australia announced the arrival of the first Volvo FL Electric on Australian shores.

This first unit will be fitted with an 8-pallet body and tailgate lift and is destined for trials and evaluation with Linfox, undertaking metropolitan deliveries.

“It is very clear that both our customers, and our customer’s customers, are demanding a cleaner and quieter urban transport environment,” Vice President, Volvo Trucks Australia Tony O’Connell said.

“The electrification of our urban supply chain not only affects the local air quality of our cities. It also has the potential to make our urban areas more liveable.”

“The introduction of electric vehicles opens an exciting chapter for both Linfox and Volvo,” says Executive Chairman Linfox Pty Ltd, Peter Fox. This will play a crucial role in Linfox’s business as they work towards a cleaner and more sustainable transport industry.

“Our investment in sustainable vehicles will significantly help reduce our emissions in the foreseeable future,” Mr Fox said.

The 4x2 Volvo FL Electric is powered by 600 Volt, 200 kWh battery packs which power a 200kW/425Nm motor. Power gets to the drive wheels via a 2-speed I-Shift automated transmission.

In late 2020 Volvo Trucks announced its intention for all Volvo Trucks to be fossil fuel free by 2040.

It also announced that presales for the European market of a complete range of electric heavy duty truck models would begin in 2021 with production to start in 2022.

The road map to a fossil free future for Volvo Trucks also includes the development of Hydrogen Fuel Cell technology for long haul applications to complement the more urban centric electric drivelines and the gradual phasing out of the traditional diesel engine.

TWO NEW APPOINTMENTS AT IVECO AUSTRALIA

Discussion paper released for standards relating to Directional Stability Under Braking The National Heavy Vehicle Regulator (NHVR) has released a discussion paper on the transition arrangements for implementing the new deemed to comply provisions for the PBS standard related to Directional Stability Under Braking.

The essence of the new deemed to comply provisions is that they will require new vehicles added to the PBS scheme to comply with the latest ADRs which include requirements around ABS and Roll Stability Control.

The NHVR has proposed some transition requirements to deal with older vehicles, vehicles that are exempt from the ADRs, and existing PBS vehicles. These arrangements are designed to mitigate cost for existing PBS vehicles.

The basic principle is that existing PBS vehicles operating under their original Vehicle Approval (VA) will not need to be modified.

The transition arrangements proposed by the NHVR will require all new Design Approvals (DAs) and all modifications to existing DAs to comply with the new requirements by the end of January 2022. www.saea.com.au

Any vehicles entering the PBS scheme for the first time under a one of these design approvals will be required to comply with the new requirements.

The NHVR has adjusted the design approval modification process to accommodate modifications to DAs without requiring upgrades to PBS vehicles approved prior to the new rules being implemented, provided they stay on the original VA. From July 2022 all components of a combination that have not previously been in the PBS scheme will need to comply with the new requirements regardless of their manufacture date.

This will not impact on newly manufactured vehicles but may have an impact on older vehicles entering the scheme.

IVECO continues its transformation with the announcement of two key executive appointments.

Ella Letiagina has been appointed to the role of Head of Network Development, while Glen Dyer will take the reins heading Truck and Van Sales through the IVECO network.

Ms Letiagina joins the IVECO team with a wealth of automotive and management experience, locally and abroad, having held senior leadership positions with Mitsubishi and the Volkswagen Group. She will have responsibility for network performance and together with IVECO’s field-based teams, will oversee the development of new initiatives to strengthen the IVECO network and ensure customer satisfaction is the major focus.

Mr Dyer joins IVECO from Mercedes-Benz where he held a variety of senior management roles in their Commercial Vehicle sales and financial services divisions, developing total truck solutions and most recently as Head of Dealer Sales for MercedesBenz Vans.

VTE | 13

Feature | Hydrogen

Hydrogen – Fuel cells or Fool Cells According to Tesla CEO Elon Musk they are Fool Cells. Not surprisingly, he’s not a fan since his Tesla mega empire is firmly rooted in the use of lithium-ion batteries.

Once he may have been believed but that belief is being savagely shaken by educational institutions, government and some of the world’s biggest and most prestigious multinational companies.

Australia’s Hydrogen Strategy according to government The development of our hydrogen resources could enhance Australia’s energy security, create Australian jobs and build an export industry valued in the billions. We have all the pieces needed to create this new industry and supply clean hydrogen to the world: the energy resources, expertise and infrastructure.

The National Hydrogen Strategy sets a path to build Australia’s hydrogen industry; a plan to accelerate the commercialisation of hydrogen, reduce technical uncertainties and build up our domestic supply chains and production capabilities.

The Strategy looks to initially concentrate hydrogen use in niche hubs that will foster domestic demand.

The Australian Government has committed more than $146 million to hydrogen projects 14 | March 2021

that will help us learn more about how hydrogen can form part of Australia’s energy mix to help drive down prices and emissions, as well as provide a foundation of expertise to build a competitive export industry.

Every state and territory has regions with excellent prospects for hydrogen production.

Through this Strategy, all of Australia’s state governments are committing to remove barriers to industry development. This includes through nationally consistent and smart regulation, enhanced engagement with customer countries, and in ensuring safety concerns are addressed.

The Australian Government will track progress and monitor emerging industry changes here and overseas so that all jurisdictions can respond to market developments.

Clean hydrogen as a fuel is now poised to become a reality.

The COAG Energy Council Hydrogen Working Group has found that Australian companies and investors are ready to apply their ingenuity and considerable experience to activating the supply of hydrogen. The challenge is to develop the early demand that will enable the suppliers to begin their journey down the cost curve.

The best way to start this journey is for governments and industry to work together in the manner outlined in the Strategy.

In late 2018 the Council of Australian Governments Energy Council agreed to establish a Hydrogen Working Group, chaired

by Australia’s Chief Scientist, Dr Alan Finkel, to develop a National Hydrogen Strategy that can achieve this vision.

Hydrogen | Feature

governments, have been established around key, existing hydrogen projects and technology supply chains in strategic locations that have a demonstrated capacity to support them. This will ensure long-term local cohesion and sustainable capability across the emerging hydrogen value chain,” Miranda Taylor, NERA CEO said.

NERA implemented the Regional Hydrogen Technology Clusters Program to help build the skills, capacities and commercialisation opportunities necessary to unlock Australia’s enormous potential to create a globally competitive hydrogen industry.

Electrifying shift to hydrogen Australia has for years appeared to focus squarely on electric vehicles, or at least that was the appearance, but it has come to light – very rapidly – that the focus has shifted to hydrogen.

Within a space of a month or so the media has been inundated with information about hydrogen hubs, hydrogen vehicles, hydrogen research … even the government, which is usually well behind embracing new technology, jumped in wholeheartedly with funding.

In February 2021, National Energy Resources Australia (NERA) announced a $1.85M investment in 13 hydrogen clusters across all Australian states and territories as part of a drive to establish a nationwide hydrogen cluster, which will foster a multi-million-dollar globally competitive hydrogen industry.

Led by NERA, the national cluster (which would www.saea.com.au

operate as a virtual network) will establish a global identity and a recognised brand for Australian hydrogen technology and expertise.

It will also aid the development of the hydrogen supply chain, reduce overlaps and identify gaps in the development, deployment, and commercialisation of new hydrogen focussed technologies.

The establishment of the regional hydrogen clusters follows the conclusion of the selection process of Regional Hydrogen Technology Cluster Seed Funding Program announced in September 2020.

NERA was also able to leverage a range of funding commitments from state and territory governments around the country, as well as industry financial support.

“These regional clusters, all of which have the support of their state and territory

Ms Taylor said this was a crucial step and necessary to unlock Australia’s enormous potential to create a globally competitive hydrogen industry that, according to a 2019 Deloitte report, could increase Australia’s GDP up to $26 billion.

In November 2019, the Council for Australian Governments (COAG) released the National Hydrogen Strategy, which detailed the development of a national cluster, to be led by NERA. In February and March 2020, NERA held 11 workshops across Australia, consulting with almost 300 hydrogen industry professionals and interested stakeholders. In September 2020, it called for expressions of interest (EOIs) to the Regional Hydrogen Technology Clusters Seed Funding Program from businesses and consortiums with a clear focus on commercial outcomes, that demonstrated a commitment and capability to establish and/or grow a hydrogen technology cluster in a specified region within Australia. EOIs g closed in October 2020.

VTE | 15

Feature | Hydrogen

Deakin to develop with Paccar A Hydrogen Test Bed project is up and running at Deakin University’s Warrnambool campus. The five-year, $2.3 million industryled research project is being delivered in partnership with Future Fuels CRC and is a key step in establishing South West Victoria as a hub of hydrogen expertise.

Deakin already has a strong energy focus, establishing its own microgrid on the Waurn Ponds campus using solar power to generate around 7.3 megawatts, coupled with a 1MW/2MWh LiFePO4 battery for use onsite.

“Hydrogen was seen as the next type of fuel, so we’ve been developing this Hycel facility at Warrnambool to leverage what Deakin is good at, which is manufacturing and materials,” said Bernard Rolfe – Deakin University’s Professor of Advanced Manufacturing (Mechanical Engineering) and Director of 3DEC (Deakin Digital Design and Engineering Centre) in the School of Engineering.

“We’ve been looking at setting up facilities to manufacture fuel cells, looking at safety issues and also distribution, materials and processes for hydrogen.

“We’ve been investigating ways to manufacture fuel cells and how we can make them larger, more robust and affordable.”

In the transport industry, local passenger cars are likely to be electric but with heavy haulage, the requirement is that trucks will drive for long periods without recharging while carrying a load and that doesn’t suit an electric set-up.

Large batteries are “non-revenue cargo”.

Average refuelling time for diesel is around five minutes and hydrogen is around 15 minutes at current estimates but a battery recharge would take about three to four hours. Time is money in the transport industry.

Underlining the fuel cell development underway at Deakin University is a relationship that has been forged between Deakin and Kenworth/PACCAR. Kenworth has 10 hydrogen fuel cell trucks in Los Angeles, and one is said to be arriving in Australia late this year.

“We’ll be doing some performance analysis on that with Kenworth. The idea is to look at the performance to determine what we need from a fuel cell and how to improve it,” Professor Rolfe said.

“Currently they are using two passenger vehicle fuel cells, each about 90-kW, but a single cell over 200kW would be ideal to reduce complexity and take up minimum space for the powertrain with maximum space for payload.

“For us there’s a global competition to develop a high-powered fuel cell; there’s very few out there in the order of 200kW. We want to be 16 | March 2021

part of that competition and have Australia manufacturing things. Without the Hycel facility to prove innovation at scale, Australian research has barriers to entry into global supply chains.”

responder agencies will soon begin training in hydrogen at Hycel.

Mercedes is also investing in hydrogen fuel cell trucks and there’ve been moves in the US with some start-ups looking at hydrogen fuel cell trucks. There is definitely a move in heavy haulage to hydrogen fuel cells.

“Initially in the tens, but looking at 100 people in the medium term,” Professor Rolfe said.

“Part of it is bringing in people not necessarily on the university side. We’ve been setting up relationships with the local TAFE so they are onboard with how hydrogen can be used safely. There’s a lot to learn about hydrogen.”

The Hydrogen Test Bed facility is another piece of the puzzle – how to use existing and new pipe networks to efficiently transport hydrogen. Deakin University Vice-Chancellor Professor Iain Martin said the installation of the Hydrogen Test Bed facility is a vital step in the establishment of a hydrogen hub of expertise in the region.

“Deakin is responding to the needs of governments and industry to deliver research that unlocks the potential of hydrogen and regional Victoria,” Professor Martin said.

The establishment phase of the Hycel Technology Hub was backed with $2 million in Commonwealth Government funding, announced by Education Minister the Hon Dan Tehan in December 2019.

Deakin’s Hycel is a ground-breaking hydrogen research, testing and training initiative in South West Victoria and the new Training Testbed will see South West TAFE and industry partners start to prepare a workforce ready to embrace Australia’s hydrogen economy. Plumbers, engineers and technicians, regulatory bodies and first

Member for Wannon Dan Tehan and Deakin Vice-Chancellor Proffesor Ian Martin.

In the initial stages, four Deakin University staff are located at the Hycel facility and more will be located there in the future.

Engineers of all types, from chemical to mechanical engineers and mechatronic engineers, will find a niche at Hycel because a lot of what the fuel cell involves is power management, system integration and better regulation of the cell itself. There will be materials and manufacturing engineers as well. In terms of looking at the infrastructure, there will be civil and materials engineering involvement.

Professor Martin said Hycel’s industry-led approach focuses on developing hydrogen technologies and training that support Australia’s burgeoning hydrogen industry.

Hydrogen fuel cells are currently very costly, but Professor Rolfe said that drawing on the University’s expertise in materials and manufacturing would get those costs down and make hydrogen cells very attractive for heavy haulage.

Others can also see that, which is why most major truck manufacturers are also powering down that road.

Hydrogen | Feature

Swinburne powers up with CSIRO CSIRO welcomed Victorian government funding that will enable it to partner with Swinburne University of Technology to establish the Victorian Hydrogen Hub (VH2).

VH2 is designed to bring researchers, industry partners and businesses together to test, trial and demonstrate new and emerging hydrogen technologies.

Under the partnership, CSIRO will receive more than $1 million towards the development of a refuelling station to fuel and test hydrogen vehicles.

The refuelling station, to be located at CSIRO’s Clayton campus in Victoria, is a key milestone in the development of CSIRO’s national Hydrogen Industry Mission, which aims to support Australia’s clean hydrogen industry.

Swinburne University of Technology has received a $10 million injection from the Victorian Government to build the Victorian Hydrogen Hub with the CSIRO. Swinburne’s Vice-Chancellor Professor Pascale Quester said the Victorian Hydrogen Hub would house a demonstration hydrogen refuelling station with hydrogen production and storage facilities.

“As Australia considers energy alternatives, we know hydrogen is clean and will be cost-competitive but a major barrier to it becoming a fuel source for cars and trucks is how to refuel, and the lack of refuelling infrastructure,” CSIRO Executive Director, Growth, Nigel Warren said. “The refueller is a significant step towards removing that barrier.”

CSIRO Lead, Hydrogen Industry Mission Dr Patrick Hartley; Director, Swinburne Manufacturing Futures Research Institute, Professor Sally McArthur; Swinburne Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Enterprise) Professor Bronwyn Fox; Swinburne Vice-Chancellor Professor Pascale Quester, CSIRO Director, Manufacturing Business Unit Dr Marcus Zipper; CSIRO Executive Director, Growth Nigel Warren at the Victorian Government’s funding announcement.

Professor Quester said the University was excited by the development.

“Swinburne’s strong partnership with CSIRO means that we will be able to build on our focus of digitalisation and Industry 4.0, and support industry to enhance its understanding of what hydrogen can deliver.”

The refueller project will demonstrate a fleet trial for CSIRO hydrogen vehicles with the potential for expansion, providing refuelling opportunities to other zero emission Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) in the local area.

CSIRO is engaging with vehicle companies such as Toyota Australia to support the future adoption and supply of FCEVs in Australia.

“Toyota Australia is delighted to support the development of this new hydrogen refuelling station in Victoria with next-generation Mirai FCEVs,” Toyota Australia’s Manager of Future Technologies, Matt MacLeod said.

“This is a significant step towards having the necessary refuelling infrastructure to help grow hydrogen opportunities in Australia.”

Construction of the Victorian Hydrogen Hub is expected to take 18 months.

Swinburne has also partnered with Germany’s ARENA 2036, a research facility that brings industry on campus at the University of Stuttgart, to engage the global hydrogen economy. Working together since 2016, joint research projects focusing on light weighting and digitalisation have facilitated new business partnerships between Australia and Germany.

“The Victorian Hydrogen Hub will be connected to a matching facility to be built by ARENA 2036 in Germany, to bring together more than 40 industry partners in Stuttgart.

www.saea.com.au

“This is a unique opportunity to work across continents to create scalable, global solutions. Australia will be at the forefront in this important research, led by the team at Swinburne and CSIRO,” Professor Bronwyn Fox, Swinburne Deputy Vice-Chancellor Research and Enterprise said.

“The international partnership connects the largest industry players in the hydrogen sector in both countries, as well as some of the largest users of hydrogen expected to drive future demand. Our deep partnership with the CSIRO and the Hydrogen Mission connects VH2 into the wider Australian g hydrogen ecosystem.”

VTE | 17

Feature | Hydrogen

Hydrogen cars and trucks on Australian roads Already hydrogen vehicles are on the road in Australia, although the general public is largely unaware of them and probably not understanding their future potential.

Just this month 20 zero-emission Hyundai NEXO hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles were registered as part of the ACT government fleet.

The NEXO fleet represents the first deployment of fully certified, ADR-approved Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) in Australia, as well as the first use of hydrogen vehicles by a Government in Australia.

The arrival of NEXO on ACT roads is a milestone in the march towards a new era of vehicle transport.

Australia’s first publicly available hydrogen station is scheduled to open in Canberra in March 2021 and will provide the capability for 700-bar rapid refuelling of the NEXO fleet.

The Lennock Hyundai dealership in the ACT suburb of Phillip is the first dealership in Australia capable of servicing hydrogenpowered vehicles, as the provider of service and support for the government NEXO fleet.

“We want to demonstrate to the Queensland community that these vehicles can be on the road like any other vehicle,” Mr Dick said.

“They’ll be seamlessly introduced into the QFleet range of vehicles to show the public that hydrogen can be used safely.”.

NEXO is Hyundai’s second-generation mass-produced fuel cell electric vehicle from one of the companies that is pioneering mass production FCEV. NEXO has a range of 666km (WLTP), with a refuelling time of three to five minutes, in an SUV that emits only water vapour from its exhaust and purifies the air as it drives.

With drive from a near-silent electric drivetrain, NEXO creates far less external noise than a conventional vehicle, which is an especially important benefit in urban environments.

NEXO features the latest autonomous driving capabilities and is extremely safe, as the first FCEV to score the ANCAP maximum five-star safety rating.

The initial 20 ACT government NEXO vehicles will be followed by a fleet of five of the FCEVs for the QLD government, which are presently on a ship to Australia.

“As part of a line-up that includes the hybrid and plug-in hybrid IONIQ, and the pure electric IONIQ and Kona models, NEXO also underscores Hyundai’s leadership in ecomobility,” Hyundai Motor Company Australia Chief Executive Officer, Jun Heo said.

Queensland Treasurer, Cameron Dick MP said the aim is to demonstrate the viability of an FCEV for normal road use, whether for private motorists or the government.

“As a co-founder of the Australian Hydrogen Council, Hyundai is proud of the work carried out to date, to help develop and grow a sustainable hydrogen industry in Australia.”

18 | March 2021

Hyundai XCIENT trucks settle in Switzerland Hyundai is not just blowing water out of its tailpipe; the company is forging ahead on hydrogen with gusto and has delivered hydrogen trucks for customers in Switzerland.

This is the world’s first mass-produced fuel cell electric heavy-duty truck, which has now been delivered to customers in Switzerland, with a total of 50 hitting the roads there this year.

This delivery marks the official entry of Hyundai’s commercial vehicles in the European market, a touchstone for the company’s expansion into the North American and Chinese commercial markets.

Production capacity of the XCIENT Fuel Cell will reach 2000 units this year to support its expansion into Europe, the US and China.

The increase in capacity will be backed by a US$1.3 billion investment in addition to a previously announced US$6.4 billion.

In the US, Hyundai is collaborating with logistics leaders to supply mass-produced fuel cell heavy-duty trucks. To back this plan, Hyundai is partnering with companies to build a complete hydrogen value chain covering everything from hydrogen production and charging stations to service and maintenance.

By 2030, Hyundai expects more than 12,000 fuel cell trucks to hit the US roads.

Hyundai also is working with various parties in China, which the aim of getting one million hydrogen vehicles on its roads by 2030 as

Hydrogen | Feature

XCIENT is powered by a 190-kW hydrogen fuel cell system with dual 95-kW fuel cell stacks.

Seven large hydrogen tanks offer a combined storage capacity of around 32.09 kg of hydrogen.

The driving range per charge for XCIENT Fuel Cell is about 400km, which was developed with an optimal balance between the specific requirements from the potential commercial fleet customers and the charging infrastructure in Switzerland. Refuelling time for each truck is around 20 minutes.

It has been touted that XCIENT trucks designed for our conditions will be coming to Australia in 2024.

Other truck manufacturers are also charging into the sector with Daimler and Volvo announcing they would work together to develop a basic fuel cell technology to be fitted into various brands. IVECO has joined Nikola to develop the technology for its trucks and Paccar is working with Toyota to procure the technology for its Kenworth fleet in the US.

Fuel cell development continues at Toyota

the country’s hydrogen industry is on a sharp growth trend.

Three fuel cell electric trucks are scheduled for launch in China: a medium-duty truck in 2022, a heavy-duty truck in in a couple of years, and another heavy-duty truck strategically designed for the China market. With these models, Hyundai’s goal is to achieve aggregate sales volume of 27,000 units by 2030.

A key to Hyundai’s global expansion of fuel cell trucks will be the successful launch of XCIENT Fuel Cell in Europe.

Why Switzerland?

In 2019, Hyundai Motor Company formed Hyundai Hydrogen Mobility (HHM), a joint venture with Swiss company H2 Energy. HHM also is partnering with Hydrospider, a joint venture of H2 Energy, Alpiq and Linde. The customers will be leasing XCIENT Fuel Cell trucks from HHM on a pay-per-use basis that does not require an initial investment.

Toyota has developed a product that packages a fuel cell (FC) system into a compact module and plans to begin selling it sometime in 2021. The new module will be easily utilized by companies developing and manufacturing FC products including mobility such as trucks, buses, trains and ships, as well as stationary generators (FC).

In addition to its effort to popularize FCEVs, Toyota will continue to strengthen its initiatives as an FC system supplier to promote hydrogen utilization.

Toyota has been taking various initiatives, such as selling the “Mirai” FCEV and the “SORA” FCEV bus, selling FC systems to FC product companies, as well as allowing royalty-free use of its FCEV-related patent licenses. Through these experiences, the company has learned that many companies involved in FC products in a variety of industries are looking for FC systems that can be easily adapted to their own products.

To address these needs, Toyota developed a product that packages individual FC system-

related products of second-generation Toyota Mirai with enhanced performance, such as the FC stack, as well as components that handle air supply, hydrogen supply, cooling, and power control, into a single compact module.

The new module is available in four models; a vertical type (Type I) and a horizontal type (Type II), with rated output of either 60 kW or 80 kW. The new module has a wide voltage range (400 to 750 V) and can be directly connected to an existing electrical instrument provided with a motor, inverter, and battery, etc, thanks to a built in, dedicated FC boost converter that simplifies the development and manufacture of FC products. In addition, the system’s modularization greatly improves convenience.

The four module models can be combined thereby adapting to the output level and amount of installation space available.

Modularization eliminates the need to create designs for individually installing FC system related components and to connect individual components. It also integrates and decreases the number of locations the module must be connected to a device, allowing for easy installation.

To ensure safety the counter measures cultivated during the development of electrified vehicles such as FCEVs and HEVs were implemented. These are based on the basic approach of ensuring that hydrogen does not leak and, in the unlikely event that any leaks should occur, ensuring their immediate detection and stoppage.

The module is designed to work in a broad range of operating environments; at low or high temperatures, at higher altitude where the oxygen level is lower, and under applications involving vibration.

Capitalizing on the characteristics of the compact Toyota FC system, which eliminated the humidifier by circulating the water generated during power generation inside the FC stack, the new module has achieved a world-class, top level output density per unit volume.

The maintenance requirements of the new module are simple and infrequent, helping to reduce the total cost, from procurement and usage, to disposal.

As part of its production expansion plan, Hyundai expects to supply 1600 commercial fuel cell trucks by 2025. Currently, Coop, Migros, Traveco, Galliker Logistics, Camion Transport AG, F. Murpf AG and G. Leclerc Transport AG along with others have placed orders for XCIENT Fuel Cell. They will be utilizing the trucks to haul everything from food to cars around Europe.

To support the growing hydrogen ecosystem, Hyundai has a business case for more than 100 hydrogen fuelling stations in Switzerland, which is enough not only for commercial vehicles, but also passenger fuel cell electric vehicles. www.saea.com.au

VTE | 19

Feature | Motorcycle

Motorcycles enter the ADAS age

New models from Ducati, BMW and KTM will feature Bosch’s new ACC setup, but further advancements will require navigating critical rider-control strategies.

Story courtesy SAE International

PAUL SEREDYNSKI

Motorcycles are finally entering the advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) age, dipping both wheels into autonomous waters with the production debut of adaptive cruise control (ACC).

On passenger cars, ACC appeared more than two decades ago, double the time it took ABS to migrate from four wheels to two. Tier-1 supplier Bosch played a large initial role in bringing both those features to automobiles, and is again leading the OEM technology adoption for motorcycles.

The slower pace of ADAS feature migration to the moto set is understandable, given the lack of powered/integrated controls and passenger restraints, and the far more extensive role of the rider in vehicle dynamics. Thanks to these unique parameters, active and intervening ADAS roles will remain limited for motorcycles in the near term, until rider monitoring and control systems advance enough to increase rider safety without jeopardizing it.

So far, this latest tech is being sequestered to the European makes. Ducati was the first to announce in late 2020 it would be applying the Bosch radarbased ACC system to the 2021 Multistrada V4, along with a rear-mounted radar unit to add blind-spot monitoring. BMW will feature the Bosch ACC setup on the 2021 R 1250 RT, and the system will equip the 2021 KTM 1290 Super Adventure S (not expected in the US in its first model year).

Kawasaki has previously announced it will be the first Japanese brand to make use of Bosch’s ACC tech in 2021, but it has not yet revealed a model slated for the tech.

Positive interventions The big snag with any motorcycle ADAS feature is the challenge of assisting the pilot without making things worse. Riders keep themselves aboard

20 | March 2021

a motorcycle by gripping the handlebars and bracing their legs against the machine. Any active intervention by a safety system that changes the attitude of the bike – without the rider being prepared – could be disastrous. No one wants a motorcycle “safety feature” that can unintentionally eject the rider from the saddle.

Thanks to Bosch’s motorcycle inertial measurement unit (IMU), manufacturers now have extraordinary amounts of real-time data about the attitude of the machine, but almost no data about the status of the human piloting the bike.

“The technology right now is sitting at ABS with an IMU integration or traction control in an IMU integration, which is a very powerful system for a motorcycle,” explained Edward Fatzinger, forensic engineer, Momentum Engineering Corp., speaking at SAE’s 2020 WCX ADAS systems expert panel.

“It’s essentially stability control, and to me, that’s an advanced driver-assist platform.”

“The IMU is an integral component of the system and the ABS and MSC [stability] functionality we’ve been implementing for many years in motorcycles,” explained Justin Magri, technical project manager for two-wheel and powersports business for Bosch North America. “Drawing from that experience in the IMU and understanding the position of the vehicle allows us to utilize that into the ARAS, what we call Advanced Rider Assistant Systems.”

IMU-enabled setups are remarkably effective at managing events initiated by the rider. But unlike mitigating excessive throttle or braking input, where the system is reacting to a fully engaged pilot and trying to assist based on intention, ADASlike automatic responses could easily catch a rider unprepared.

Motorcycle | Feature

“Autonomous emergency braking on motorcycles is going to be quite difficult to achieve,” Fatzinger noted, adding that determining rider position will be the big challenge for advancing ADAS functionality.

“The rider has to be in a ready position to brace for the deceleration. There’s going to have to be force sensors in the hand grips to tell the system, ‘Hey, the rider’s reacting and applying force to the handlebars.’ It’s not like a car where the person’s seat-belted in, so the emergency-braking realm is going to be pretty far off,” he explained.

According to Matt Peters, lead application engineer for advanced rider systems for Bosch North America, motorcycle engine character and leaning dynamics also make things interesting for the new ACC setup.

“There’s added challenges understanding exactly the position of all the targets due to the moving rotation of the radar due to roll angle,” he said. “In addition, there’s a lot of vibration in the motorcycle which we need to filter in order to have an accurate course prediction. Course prediction really is the true underlying technology behind the motorcycle radar assistance.”

Bosch envisions its motorcycle technology progression as a growing shield. “The first level of that shield is vehicle stability, where we have ABS and MSC. The next layer of that shield we’re working on now is ARAS functions and more of a predictive and safe comfort level. Going further out, our goal is connectivity to the surrounding environment, which as more vehicles become automated is going to be important,” Magri said. “We’re all motorcycle riders in our group, so I take this pretty personally,” he added.

Alternative awareness Until systems are in place to determine when a rider is prepared for a significant intervention, motorcyclists should get ready to be bombarded with alerts. Israeli startup Ride Vision is taking a wholly visual approach, using an AI-enabled, camera-based system to create what it bills as “collision-aversion technology” (CAT), promising 360°coverage enabled by two wide-field lenses. The system is designed to detect forward collisions, blind spots, merging traffic and rear collision threats.

The Ride Vision hardware is comprised of two wide-angle HD cameras mounted on the front and rear of the motorcycle, visualalert indicators placed on the mirrors and an onboard computing unit. The system is designed to help riders maintain a safe distance from the vehicle in front of them, www.saea.com.au

regardless of pace, with collision alerts adapting to road conditions, time to impact and vehicle speed.

rider,” Fatzinger offered. “I like the haptic area – vibrate to seat, vibrate to hand grips – and I think it would be the most effective.”

Ride Vision uses a combination of image recognition and predictive-vision AI algorithms to supply its visual alerts. It claims its camera-based system (in action, below) has several advantages over fixed radar-based setups, including the ability to recognize stationary vehicles aand being unaffected by motorcycle lean angles, which can reduce radar range. According to Ride Vision, radarbased systems can be affected by lean-angles as narrow as 14°, reducing front-collision warnings in situations such as navigating a roundabout.

According to Lavi, its extensive human machine interface (HMI) research led them to visual cues as the most intuitive and effective alerts. “Visual language is simple, easy to grasp but retains the riders’ focus on the road.

Other alerts, such as haptic and audio alerts resulted in inability to respond or created too much overload/disturbance to the rider.

Having said that, Ride Vision is working with its OEM/Tier-1 partners both motorcycle and helmet manufacturers to add more alerts to enrich the possibilities without compromising on riders’ focus on the road.”

Ride Vision is already building out its industry connections, having announced a partnership with Continental AG, whose head of ADAS advanced engineering, Christian Weber, sits on Ride Vision’s advisory board. This board also includes former BMW-Motorrad executive VP of engineering Karl Viktor Schaller and e-superbike builder Energica’s CEO Livia Cevolini. Ride Vision has yet to announce an OEM partnership, but it’s begun offering an aftermarket setup that can be retrofitted to nearly any motorcycle.

“Ride Vision is already in the working process with several OEMs and Tier 1s such as Continental AG to employ Ride Vision’s tech directly,” explained Uri Lavi, CEO and cofounder of Ride Vision, offering the company’s vision approach as the best choice of ADAS systems that could further broaden safety and experience features.

Engaging the Rider Unlike OEM-integrated setups, an aftermarket alert system cannot employ motorcycle systems such as braking and throttle. Control inputs tend to get a rider’s attention quickly, but there are other options. “Obviously, motorcycles can be loud quite often, so I don’t know if sound’s going to work. A visible warning might be a little distracting to the

“Things that we’re still working on, ongoing research, [is] for sensing rider position and things of that nature,” Bosch’s Peters explained. “You could, in theory, have sensors in the handlebars to understand whether or not the rider currently has hands on the bars. There’s logic just by understanding if the rider’s swerving back and forth in the lane, what their intention is. It’s an ongoing evolution of trying to better predict what the rider’s doing, what the vehicle’s doing, and using our innovation with logic to come up with solutions to keep the rider safe.”

With autonomous features rapidly advancing on the automotive side, there’s no lack of technology ready to be applied to motorcycles. The trick will be adapting it to a bike’s unique physics and controls.

“It’s not a question of if, it’s a question of when,” Fatzinger said of motorcycles’ ADAS future. “Manufacturers are really pushing to the brink of ADAS, classic ADAS stuff for motorcycles. The technology is developed.

It’s just a matter of when it’s going to get implemented.”Fatzinger said of motorcycles’ ADAS future.

“Manufacturers are really pushing to the brink of ADAS, classic ADAS stuff for motorcycles.

The technology is developed. It’s just a matter of when it’s going to get implemented.”

VTE | 21

Feature | Mohammad Fard

Mohammad Fard: Passing on the passion to young engineers Steve Jobs once said: “Your work is going to fill a large part of your life, and the only way to be truly satisfied is to do what you believe is great work. And the only way to do great work is to love what you do.”

Without any doubt it was love that drew the SAE-A’s most recent chair Dr Mohammad Fard to mechanical engineering, and in his case, it was an enigmatic love for Nissan cars.

As Mohammad explains, it wasn’t that he didn’t like other car company’s products, but he was attracted from a young age to Nissan powertrains.

His heart led him down the path that has grown into an amazing career that has and will continue to change how we work and design motor cars, and the passion he instils into his engineering students.

Initially Mohammad studied in his native Iran obtaining his undergraduate mechanical engineering degree and then his master’s in mechanical engineering from the University of Tehran. But then his love of Nissan cars drew him to Japan and specifically to the University of Tohoku in Tokyo.

“The reason I went there; I wanted to work in the automotive industry particularly in Nissan because I had an interest in Nissan cars,” he said. “That was one reason I decided to go to Japan to do my PhD and I was searching for a good university. And the research topic was one I liked so that’s why I went there.”

Mohammad obtained a Japanese government scholarship to attend the university and they arranged a few months of intensive Japanese language instruction that included learning about Japanese characters to understand the concept.

Before arriving in Japan, he had taught himself some basic Japanese and then as he said, from the first day in Japan he pushed himself to express himself in Japanese.

After obtaining his PhD he did find his way into work at Nissan which no doubt made his heart sing as finally he was where he dreamt of working, which he did as a CAE design engineer at the Nissan Technical Centre for five years.

“When I decided to leave Nissan, I had a good job, it was a very difficult decision for me to leave,” Mohammad explained.

22 | March 2021

Mohammad Fard | Feature

“The reason I did was to work at university with younger people to develop my own research topics to have some freedom with the direction of the research which in a company is not possible. It’s not possible for any company to have that much freedom but in a university you have more.

“I came to Australia and it took time to develop my team and now I am very happy and lucky.”

Inspiration now not only comes from inside Mohammad, but he says also from the talented students he works with at RMIT University who come from a variety of different backgrounds all with one aim in mind, the same aim as he – to work and develop the field of mechanical engineering into the new form into which it is transforming.

He says that two or three years ago the writing was on the whiteboard, he and his research team quite clearly saw the transition that was happening in the automotive sphere with autonomous vehicles. And while the ravages of COVID-19 in 2020 were not welcomed Mohammad and his team were able to find more time during that year to revisit research activities and plan for work in the area of autonomous vehicles.

“Everyone in my research team, my PhD students, we had to bring autonomous components into our research,” he said. “For instance, I had a research team where we had collaboration with a Japanese company – a seat development company. I asked my PhD students to develop a seat for an autonomous car.

“I have another PhD student working on sound pattern recognition using machine learning or artificial intelligence to find the problems of the sound signature. So, I said we had to see whether we can use sound to make an autonomous car audible.”

He said this type of research and work ignites passion in his team and makes them proud. And the skills they learn are not just classical mechanical engineering, it goes well beyond that and it gives them strong skills to work in different sectors in the future professionally.

Mohammad says that the short answer to inspiring new engineers is that we have to offer new things for them in automotive – things that are coming. This will attract a lot of attention from students and attract young engineers to the sector.

“I think the digital components are coming more into classical mechanical engineering, but smart digital components,” Mohammad said. “Because this something that is needed in autonomous cars.

Mechanical engineering has already started in this direction. Digitisation of the industry, adding digital components into mechanical engineering is something we can expect.”

Secondly, artificial intelligence is helping to solve some of the classical mechanical engineering problems that in a way that is more cost effective and easier. One research topic done at RMIT University is sound pattern recognition, which in the past it took a lot of labour and costs to identify issues. But that has all changed now with new apps and other AI. Mohammad said that this means classical mechanical engineers must become familiar with AI tools and digital tools for this transition. “We need our students and young engineers to be ready for this digital mech engineering or smart mechanical engineering in the future,” he said.

Because Mohammad’s research team, and his research is related to the automotive industry, the SAE-A was a natural fit. He said it was the key source for the automotive industry in Australia so when it was suggested that he join he happily accepted.

Another reason he accepted was the realisation that he could bring industry knowledge and international contacts to APAC21 and contribute to running the conference by accessing and bringing more key leading industry experts into the event, particularly those from Asia.

Finally, it was Mohammad’s interaction with FSAE that clinched the deal.

“I was leading the RMIT FSAE team for two years so during that time I was amazed with the organisation and the programs SAE-A have for different levels particularly for the students. I was proud to join,” he said. www.saea.com.au

MOHAMMAD FARD - BACKGROUND Research areas • • • •

Human Body Vibration and Driver Drowsiness Structural Dynamics Noise, Vibration and Harshness Application of AI Technology in Noise and Vibration

Funded projects • • • • • • • • •

2013 to 2017: NHK Spring and Nissan (Japan) and CRC (Australian National Organization). Title: Development of New Method to Predict Occupied Seat Vibration and Comfort.

2013 to 2016: General Motors (Australia): Title: Development of a Smartphone Application for Diagnosing Vehicle Interior Noise.

2014 to 2016: Futuris Automotive Interiors (Australia): Title: Development of a Method to Predict Acoustic Properties of Vehicle Cabin.

2015 to 2018: Ford Motor Company (Australia): Title: Development of CAE Concept Modelling Method for Vehicle Body-In-White.

2016 to 2019: NHK Spring, Nissan (Japan) and CRC (Australian National Organization). Title: Development of a Method to Control the High Frequency Vehicle Seat Structural Vibration Using Piezo-Actuators.

2018 (six months): AMSI Intern Program Aurecon Group. Data Analytics and Machine Learning for system diagnostics, condition and assessment and operation modelling.

2018 to 2019: iMove CRC Research Project Agreement. Title: Algorithm Development for “Squeaks and Rattles” Identification Using Sound Pattern Recognition.

2018 to 2022: USG Boral Company. Title: The Impact Sound Signature of Lightweight Construction.

ARC Discovery Project (DP190100472). Under review.

Dr Fard’s cross-disciplinary research team from the schools of Engineering, Health and Biomedical Sciences, Science, and Media and Communication achieved a significant international media (TV, Radio, and Newspapers) coverage in Australia, Europe, Canada, Japan, and USA of their research on the effects of road vibration on driver drowsiness and road safety in July 2018.

Teaching responsibilities With nearly six years international working experience with Nissan (Japan) and 10 years at RMIT University, Dr. Fard has the experience and confidence to design and deliver lectures with direct connection to industry and realworld applications.

He has developed an innovative project-based approach for teaching two of the major Mechanical and Automotive engineering subjects –Advanced CAE. This is novel method uses the latest tools in 3D modelling and CAE technology for teaching a subject, which allows the students receiving a hands-on practice in a computer laboratory without any need to attend workshops, which can be impractical for large class sizes.

• • • • • • • • •

Automotive Advanced CAE (AUTO1026) Advanced CAE for Mechanical Engineering (MIET2491) Vehicle Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (MIET1192) Automotive Research Project (AUTO1035, AUTO1027) Motor Vehicles, Society, and Sustainability (AUTO1012) Postdoctoral Fellow, Tohoku University, Japan, September 2003.

PhD, Mechanical Eng., Tohoku University, Japan, March 2003.

Research Student, Tohoku University, Japan, 2000.

BSc and MSc, Mechanical Eng., Mechanical Eng., University of Tehran, Iran, 1998.

Dr Fard worked at Nissan Motor Company (JAPAN) on Vehicle Body Design [CAE and NVH] as a lead engineer between prior to joining RMIT University.

His experience at Nissan, as a member of a highly competitive and constantly innovative team of engineers that focused on real-world applications of research was invaluable. His significant achievements at Nissan focused mostly on reducing the vehicle body structural noise and vibration a using CAE (FEM) and NVH techniques. His contributions resulted in multiple discoveries for the company and translated into innovations in vehicle body design.

VTE | 23

Technical | Feature

Madeleine Gibson, John Lee, Vindhya Venkatraman, Morgan Price, Jeffrey Lewis, Olivia Montgomery and Bilge Mutlu, University of Wisconsin Joshua Domeyer and James Foley, Toyota Technical Center USA, Inc. Article courtesy SAE International

Situation Awareness, Scenarios, and Secondary Tasks: Measuring Driver Performance and Safety Margins in Highly Automated Vehicles

ABSTRACT The rapid increase in the sophistication of vehicle automation demands development of evaluation protocols tuned to understanding driver-automation interaction.

Driving simulators provide a safe and costefficient tool for studying driver-automation interaction, and this paper outlines general considerations for simulator-based evaluation protocols.

Several challenges confront automation evaluation, including the limited utility of standard measures of driver performance (e.g., standard deviation of lane position), and the need to quantify underlying mental processes associated with situation awareness and trust.

Implicitly or explicitly vehicle automation encourages drivers to disengage from driving and engage in other activities. Thus secondary tasks play an important role in both creating representative situations for automation use and misuse, as well as providing embedded measures of driver engagement.

INTRODUCTION Sophisticated technology is already active in vehicle control. Driver assistance systems support lane keeping, parking, speed maintenance, blind spot monitoring, and they also enhance night vision and detect driver impairment. In general, the potential safety benefits of these safety systems and automated vehicles are promising; however, realizing this promise depends on carefully coordinating driver and vehicle behavior.

As vehicles become more capable, this coordination can break down if the drivers’ role is not clear.

Types and Levels of Automation The types and levels taxonomy of automation [1,2] describes how different sets of activities can be allocated to the automation and to what degree. For each stage of information processing from perception to control, levels of automation can range from none to complete. Taxonomies that guide design of vehicle automation [3,4] share some similarities with the types and levels taxonomy: at one extreme the driver does everything and at the other the automation takes full control. The National Highway www.saea.com.au

Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) define Level 1 vehicle automation as those that perform one primary vehicle control function - either steering or speed maintenance, while the driver performs the others, monitors the roadway, and remains fully responsible for safe vehicle control.

Such automation is available in many vehicles today, for example, where the driver steers manually and engages cruise control. In NHTSA and SAE Level 2 automation, the automation performs at least two primary controls, for example both steering and speed maintenance. The driver is responsible for monitoring the roadway and should be ready to take-over control of the vehicle at any time [3]. Level 3 automation, from both NHTSA and SAE definitions, assigns higher capability to the automation, where the vehicle automation monitors the roadway and performs the primary control tasks; however, the driver may be expected to occasionally take control of the vehicle when the roadway demands exceed the capacity of the automation.

The crucial concern for Levels 2 and 3 automation is the potential driver confusion

Latent hazards-hazards that exist in the road environment and merit driver attention, but do not materialize to require a driver response-have been used with great success for understanding the vulnerability of novice drivers.

Latent hazards might provide a similarly useful index of driver attention to the road during periods where the automation is vulnerable to failure. With highly automated vehicles, latent hazards include potential roadway threats that might not be sensed by the automation and would require driver attention.

This paper describes driving simulator scenarios used to operationalize automation-relevant latent hazards, secondary tasks tuned to index driver disengagement from the driving task, and measures that reflect safety margins rather than driving performance, such as drivers’ trust, situation awareness, and expected time to transition to manual control.

CITATION: Gibson, M., Lee, J., Venkatraman, V., Price, M. et al., “Situation Awareness, Scenarios, and Secondary Tasks: Measuring Driver Performance and Safety Margins in Highly Automated Vehicles,” SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars – Electron. Electr. Syst.

9(1):2016, doi:10.4271/2016-01-0145.

VTE | 25

Feature | Technical

regarding whether the driver or the automation is primarily responsible for driving. NHTSA Level 4 and SAE Level 4 and Level 5 represent automation that can handle all driving situations and requires very limited control input from the driver.

Both Level 2 and Level 3 automation require some amount of driver attention to the roadway, either continuously, at critical moments, or during transitions between levels of automation. Attention to the road for monitoring, compared to attention for control, leads to longer response times and less effective responses [5, 6, 7]. Perception for control involves visual, cognitive, and proprioceptive engagement that is coupled to drivers control inputs and the expected outcomes.

Activating vehicle automation can sever the perception-action loop and transform the driver from a controller to a monitor. As a monitor, a driver is on or out of the control loop rather than in the control loop [8,9]. Being on the control loop implies the driver is not perceiving the vehicle and roadway state to control the vehicle, but is actively monitoring the vehicle and roadway state to ensure the automation is controlling effectively. With automation that assumes control of steering and speed, drivers might easily disengage from monitoring and slip from on the loop to out of the loop [10].

Drivers might even think of driving as a distraction from other activities [11], and vehicle automation might be seen as a means of disengaging from driving, even when doing so violates the capabilities of the automation and compromises safety. Therefore, a major consequence of increasing automation might be the drivers’ willingness to switch attention to non-driving tasks.

The evolving role of drivers in the context of automated driving and the additional activities drivers engage in present new challenges for evaluating how drivers work with the automation. Specifically, there are no standard scenarios and measures to evaluate joint control of the vehicle. This paper outlines a driving simulator evaluation protocol that captures driver engagement and disengagement in the driving task, and measures the safety margins achieved by drivers and automation.

Failure Modes of Driver-Automation Interaction Central to assessing driver interaction with highly automated vehicles is the need to anticipate and test for likely failure modes.

Risk analysis typically identifies failure modes associated with the mechanical, electronic, and software elements of systems and works to assure those risks remain below an acceptable level. Such risk estimates assume that drivers provide an additional safety margin, compensating for failures of the technology and other sources of unanticipated variability. This assumption is not always justified. Just as technology has failure modes, so do drivers and these failure modes should be assessed as part of a simulator-based evaluation.

Although highly automated vehicles lack operational exposure that might reveal prototypical driver-automation failure modes, experience in other domains suggests failure modes that might occur with vehicle automation.

A very likely failure mode concerns drivers confusing Level 2 and Level 3 automation, where a critical distinction between these levels involves whether the driver has primary responsibility for monitoring the vehicle.

Responsibility diffusion regarding whether the driver or the automation is primarily responsible for vehicle monitoring and control is likely a prominent failure mode. People are poorly suited to the role of monitoring automation and are prone to over trusting and neglecting reliable automation[12,13].

Mode confusion associated with whether automatic control is engaged and if so what mode of control has been engaged is a prominent failure mode with automation in other domains and will likely affect vehicles equipped with combinations of Level 1, 2, and 3 automation [12,14, 15, 16, 17].

Operating envelope awareness, similar to the more degraded situation awareness that can accompany automation introduction, concerns awareness of the intended operating envelope and proximity to safety boundaries of this operating envelope. This failure mode will affect vehicle automation that is not intended to be used on all road types and in all road conditions [18, 19, 20].

Ineffective transfer of control represents a general failure mode that might occur during planned, unplanned, and unwarranted transfers of control from the automation to the person [17,21,22]. Unwarranted transfers of control are those situations where the automation sees no need for driver intervention, but the driver initiates a steering or braking maneuver that might conflict with the automation. These automation failure modes define the requirements for assessing vehicle automation.

No single assessment protocol will likely address all the possible driver-automation failure modes. Several previous automated driving studies have focused primarily on the failure mode of ineffective transfer of control. The objective of these studies was to determine how quickly drivers recognize and respond to safety critical events. An alert or warning was used to prompt drivers to regain control of the vehicle when the automation fails. The method for how and when drivers were informed of needed actions was implemented differently across studies.

In some cases the warning time was varied across conditions [23,24]. Another study investigated driver response to one and two step processes to indicate a needed take-over [25]. This study also manipulated how drivers were alerted to the automation failure. The primary measure for these studies was the reaction time to begin the take-over process.

Other driving performance metrics included minimum headway to lead vehicle, standard deviation of steering wheel position, and standard deviation of road offset (distance from the centerline of the road) for evaluating performance once the driver gained control.

Although many studies have focused on how and when control is traded, other automated vehicle studies have considered mode confusion failures and responsibility failure modes. These studies have examined

26 | March 2021

Technical | Feature

driver behavior across different levels of automation. For example, manipulating the levels of automation (manual/fully automated) and traffic density (high/ low) and drivers’ willingness to overtake slow moving vehicles, management of car following, and secondary task engagement [26]. Similarly, drivers’ response to automation was compared to an initial manual baseline condition [27]. When drivers experienced increasing levels of automation (i.e., lateral or longitudinal control followed by full automation) they were more willing to focus attention on secondary tasks as automation capability increased.

The following sections outline a protocol for addressing failure modes of responsibility diffusion, mode confusion, and operating envelope awareness. Another protocol is needed to address ineffective transfer of control. We describe latent hazards as an important element of driving simulator scenarios, secondary tasks as a central component of driving highly automated vehicles, and measures of safety margin, rather than driver performance, as a critical indicators of resilience in the face of driverautomation failure modes.

DRIVING SIMULATOR PROTOCOL Driving simulators are usually composed of the following elements: cabs, computers and electronics, vehicle dynamics, scenario, and task environment [28]. Driving simulators have increasingly become a widely used and accepted tool for transportation human factors research due to the several advantages. One major advantage is the safe environment driving simulators provide to understand basic human limitations and driver behavior in safety critical events.

For example, in distracted driving studies, experimenters can evaluate invehicle systems through driver engagement in secondary tasks in situations that would be dangerous on the road. Similarly, design of vehicle automation and in-vehicle technologies can be evaluated without the risk inherent in on-road and test track evaluations. Another advantage of driving simulators is the controlled environment.

Each participant is exposed to identical driving scenarios, eliminating confounding variables such as weather or traffic found in naturalistic driving environments. Roadway conditions and other vehicle behaviors can be specified for the duration of the experiment.

Lastly, driving simulators allow for drivers to experience many test conditions in a short time [29]. During a single study session, drivers can experience many road situations that might take hours or months to occur in naturalistic driving.

Although choosing the correct methods for conducting research is important, it is equally, www.saea.com.au

important is choosing driving performance metrics that are sensitive to automation failure modes. Measures used to assess driver distraction with manual driving have included speed, vehicle following (headway), lane keeping, steering wheel metrics, event detection, response times, and subjective ratings. However, these measures do not consider joint performance of the driver and automation, such as when the driver is no longer in control of the vehicle’s primary functions. With automated driving, the driver’s role changes from being directly engaged in control to that of a monitor.

Drivers with automation need to be considered part of a joint cognitive system, with the unit of analysis moving from that of the driver to the driver-vehicle combination.

Therefore, measures of driver performance should not focus simply on the driver, but on the joint performance of the automation and the driver.

Furthermore, because vehicle automation can achieve very high levels of driving performance (e.g., maintain a fixed speed precisely) safety margins are more relevant.

A major challenge is to measure safety margins that are maintained by the driver across different levels of automation and in response to a range of roadway situations.

More specifically, this involves measuring driver awareness of the automation capability and driver adaptive capacity relative to automation limits.

Situation awareness and trust in automation are important indicators of drivers’ adaptive capacity. Situation awareness is defined as “the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of their meaning, and the projection of their status in the future” [30]. The first component of situation awareness (SA) has been measured as

attention allocation [31], and can be estimated by drivers’ glance behavior to road situations that might challenge the automation. Trust is an attitude that the automation will achieve the drivers’ goals [32], and could be indicated by the degree to which drivers engage in nondriving tasks, neglect the roadway, and keep hands and feet away from the controls.

Latent Hazards to Assess Situation Awareness Latent hazards offer a promising measure of situation awareness of automation. Latent hazards are possible roadway threats that do not necessarily develop into hazards that require immediate action [33]. Latent hazards have been used for understanding the limits of novice drivers. Novice drivers’ attention to potential threats differs from that of experienced drivers [34,35]. Attention to latent hazards is often measured using glance metrics. Drivers glances can be used as an indicator of what the driver is attention and what information the driver is processing.

Whether drivers gaze towards latent hazards can indicate whether they will anticipate the potential threat and are ready to act if needed [36]. Latent hazards might provide a similarly useful measure of driver attention to the road situations where automation is less capable and when the driver needs to resume control.

A critical consideration in using latent hazards to evaluate situation awareness of vehicle automation concerns drivers being part of a joint cognitive system consisting of the driver and the automation. Previous use of latent hazards has focused on challenges that drivers must accommodate to maintain safety. When automation acts with drivers to control the vehicle, latent hazards need to be defined in terms of situations that challenge the automation and might require the driver to intervene.

We have designed scenarios to reflect VTE | 27

Feature | Technical

steering wheel, and foot movement towards the brake.

The specific latent hazards considered in an evaluation depend on the design features of the automation. Latent hazards should represent situations at the edges of the operating envelope where relying on the automation is not appropriate or situations where drivers are expected to intervene in the event of an automation failure.

Secondary Task Engagement A major motivation for developing vehicle automation and a major motivation for drivers engaging vehicle automation is the freedom such automation affords in performing secondary tasks. Such secondary tasks include email, social network interactions, and audio and video entertainment.

situations that challenge automation. These scenarios were implemented as latent hazards. Such latent hazards involve potential safety conflict situations that do not develop into active threats. However, drivers need to pay attention to the possibility of such hazards.

switching back to manual control and exiting the highway.

Ideally, drivers are expected to recognize when latent hazards are present and be prepared to intervene to ensure safe operation of the vehicle. The hazards in our scenario do not require any control actions from the drivers. However, drivers can intervene at any point.

The rest of the drive includes five different zones. The zones are equal in distance and each includes one latent hazard. Latent hazards include: stopped vehicle on the side of the road, construction work in the adjacent lane, curves, emergency vehicles on the side of the road, and rain. The duration of the latent hazards is small relative to the period where the vehicle can easily accommodate roadway demands. For example, the construction work is 30 seconds in a zone of several minutes.

Figure 1 shows a drive composed of several scenarios. At the start of the drive, drivers manually operate the vehicle to merge onto the highway. When instructed, the drivers engage the automation, followed by one minute of baseline driving with the automation. A one-minute baseline period also occurs at the end of the scenario before

Measures for assessing drivers’ response to the latent hazards focus on glance behavior: total glance duration to latent hazard, frequency of glance to hazard, and time of first glance to hazard [33,36]. Beyond these measures, trust in automation might be reflected in behaviors that include moving hands to steering wheel, control inputs to the

Given the current engagement in secondary tasks while driving, automation evaluation should consider drivers interacting with a relatively engaging secondary task. In addition, secondary task engagement reflects drivers’ trust in the automation and their willingness to neglect the monitoring of the road and automation. Attention to latent hazards measure the engagement in the driving task, secondary task usage measures disengagement from the driving task.

When selecting a secondary task to use in an automated driving study, it is important to choose one representative of the experience drivers will enjoy when using automated driving, such as a self-paced interaction with an information system.

Many instances of self-paced tasks have been used in previous automated driving studies. These tasks include interaction with the in-vehicle entertainment system, eating, reading magazines, playing hand-held games, watching movies or TV shows, listening to the radio, performing grooming tasks, or completing word puzzles [24,26,27].

The secondary task protocol we developed consists of sorting emails into three categories, 1) Work, 2) Friends and Family, or 3) Trash, as described in Table 1. In the task, the driver sees a series of email subject lines displayed in a touchscreen application that models some basic functions of a common email client on a mobile device. Subject lines from the categories are chosen at random in a distribution of 1:1:4 respectively.

To complete the e-mail task, drivers need to press the edit button in the top right corner.

This button prompts checkboxes to appear next to the subject lines. Drivers can then select one or more e-mails to sort into the appropriate category.

FIGURE 1: Scenario layout showing a possible ordering of latent hazards over a drive.

28 | March 2021

If the driver correctly sorts the email, the count on the top of the homepage is updated to reflect the total number of emails sorted for each category. If the email is incorrectly sorted, the count remains the same. On the

Technical | Feature

Email Category

Example

Work

Emails relate to work, mentioning deliverables and distinctly work related meetings or events.

• Senior Developer Project updates • Expense Reports Deadline Tuesday • August Departmental Schedule Request

Family & Friends

Emails relate to family affairs and social gatherings • Family Dinner on Sunday at 4 • Grandma Birthday Celebration • Get Together 3/21 Downtown?

Trash

Emails are spam, featureing promotions, deals and products.

• Google TV, iPad, MacBook Air • Today Only: Save 20% on Holiday Gifts • Celebrate Summer with a Weekend Cruise

TABLE 1: Categories and examples of email messages Work: 0 Family and Friends: 0

Trash: 0 Edit

Capstone Project Powerpoint Request

Pictures of Scott’s New Baby Girl!

Knitting Club Get Together Tonight?

Strategic Desicion Making Presentation Today

FIGURE 2: The main display shows the four emails available for sorting, a header with counts of the number of emails correctly sorted into each category, and the edit button. sorting page, a cancel button returns that task to the homepage.

Because each subtask is comprised of several discrete actions that require input from the driver, the secondary task can serve as a surrogate for eye glance and driver engagement in the secondary task. To further ensure driver attention is directed to the task, a pop-up message appears if the task is inactive for more than five seconds. The message directs drivers to touch the screen to resume.

Data are collected for each button press, and so the task precisely indexes driver engagement. Overall, this task provides an activity representative of what drivers might do in a highly automated vehicle and one that precisely records drivers’ task engagement.

Measures of Driver Performance and Safety Margins Driving simulator studies often measure driver performance in responding to events or maintaining vehicle control. These measures become less relevant in understanding driver interaction with highly automated vehicles.

With measures of driving performance, the underlying assumption is that better driving performance corresponds to improved safety, which may not be the case with highly automated vehicles.

Automation might maintain perfect control performance before it fails catastrophically.

Because continuous measures of vehicle control, such as standard deviation of lane www.saea.com.au

position, will likely fail to indicate the safety achieved by the joint cognitive system of the driver and automation, alternatives are needed.

With highly automated systems the distinction between performance and resilience is critical. Resilience represents the actions, time, and resources that enable a system to accommodate unexpected demands [37]. Automation often performs well, but is brittle, failing in the face of unexpected demands. Humans enhance the resilience of the system through their ability to adapt to the unexpected.

A crucial measure is the degree of resilience the automation affords. This resilience can be measured in terms of safety margins.

Safety margins reflect the capacity of the automation to respond to road situations and the response time of drivers to compensate for automation limitations. This response time can be estimated as a function of drivers’ trust in the automation and situation awareness. Quantifying such safety margins represents an important measurement challenge in assessing vehicle automation.

This paper focused on simulator-based methods for evaluating vehicle automation.

Equally important are analytic methods to evaluate automation and assess potential failure modes. Several promising techniques have emerged to support formal evaluation of human-automation interaction [38, 39, 40].

These complement simulator-based methods because the can uncover failure modes that might occur too rarely to be detected in a simulator evaluation and yet these failure modes might substantially undermine vehicle safety.

CONCLUSION Highly automated vehicles will dramatically change the role of the driver. To ensure such changes enhance rather than degrade driving safety, an evaluation of design assumptions and driver-automation failure modes is needed. Driving simulators offer a promising approach to addressing these failure modes, but only if the scenarios, secondary tasks,

and measures are tuned to the particular demands of vehicle automation assessment.

Drivers and automation should be considered as part of a joint cognitive system that is vulnerable to new failure modes, and measures of safety margin rather than driving performance are most appropriate to ensuring these failure modes do not compromise driving safety.

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