nysascdMission Statement
NYSASCD aims to assist educators in the development and delivery of quality instructional programs and supervisory practices to maximize success for all learners.
nysascd
Executive Board 2024-2025
President
Mark Secaur
Smithtown CSD
President-Elect
Matthew Younghans
Clarkstown CSD
Immediate Past-President
Mary Loesing
Connetquot CSD (retired)/Science Consultant
Vice President for Communications and Affiliate Relations
Amanda Zullo
Tuper Lake CSD
Treasurer
Deborah Hoeft
Young Women’s College Prep
Secretary
Marcia Ranieri
Guilderland CSD
Ex-officio NYS Education Department
Santosha Oliver
Assistant Commissioner, Office of Standards and Instruction
Executive Director
Brian Kesel nysascd.director@gmail.com nysascd.org
Board Members
Brenda Aull-Klaben Cayuga Onondaga Teacher Center
Gregory Borman
NYC Department of Education
Lisa B. Brosnick
Buffalo State
Jill Christian-Lynch
Jamesville-DeWitt/Syracuse University Teacher Center
Ted Fulton Hicksville CSD
Martha Group
Vernon Verona Sherrill CSD
Eric Larison
Solvay UFSD (retired)
LaQuita Outlaw
Bay Shore UFSD
Krissy Purcell
Central NY/Oswego County Teacher Center
impact On Instructional Improvement
Published by: NYSASCD PO Box 282 Camillus, NY 13031 nyascd.director@gmail.com
Editor - IMPACT LaQuita Outlaw, Ed.D. nyascd.director@gmail.com
Design &
Digital Publication: CatStone Press (434) 960-0036 catstonepress.com@gmail.com
Publication Statement
Impact on Instructional Improvement is the official journal of NYSASCD. Membership in NYSASCD includes a subscription to Impact and the newsletter, NYSASCD Developments. The views expressed or implied in the articles in this publication are not necessarily official positions of NYSASCD or the editor.
Foreword
Dr. Santosha Oliver is currently the Assistant Commissioner for the Office of Standards and Instructional Programs, NYSED. She has extensive experience working as an instructional leader at the district and school levels. Prior to that, she served as the Assistant Superintendent for Instructional Services in Windsor, CT and as the Director of Teacher and Learning for Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics for Manchester Public Schools in Manchester, CT. Dr. Oliver holds a Ph.D. in Biomedical Sciences from the University of Connecticut and a Bachelor of Science in Biology from Morgan State University. Additionally, she holds educational leadership certifications from the University of Connecticut and Sacred Heart University
Over the past five decades, an increasing body of research spanning various disciplines has illuminated the intricate processes involved in learning to read and the multitude of factors that influence successful reading acquisition. As educators, we recognize that proficiency in reading is essential for academic achievement and lifelong learning. However, the journey to mastering this foundational skill can be complex and challenging for some students.
At the New York State Education Department, our primary goal is to enhance the knowledge, skills, and opportunities of every student in New York. In line with this mission, the New York State Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development (NYSASCD) has curated a selection of articles for this journal issue that delve into research findings and practical strategies for educators seeking to enhance reading instruction in their classrooms. Esteemed contributors in this edition explore the cognitive mechanisms underlying reading, effective instructional methodologies, innovative practices to support developing readers, and interdisciplinary approaches to enhance student learning.
By staying abreast of the latest advancements in the science of reading, we empower educators with the tools and insights needed to address the diverse needs of students in our educational institutions. Through collaborative efforts, shared expertise, and innovative practices, we can unite as a community of educators, researchers, and stakeholders to
narrow the achievement gap and cultivate more inclusive and equitable learning environments where every learner can flourish as a reader.
I invite you to engage with the insightful articles featured in this issue of the IMPACT journal and contemplate how you can contribute to collective endeavors aimed at enhancing literacy outcomes for students. May this compilation spark enriching dialogues, deepen our comprehension, and inspire innovative evidence-based approaches to reading instruction. Together, let us continue to champion evidence-based practices that foster reading proficiency and strive towards a future where every child embraces reading with confidence and joy.
Also if you aren’t already a member please consider joining New York ASCD or suggesting that a colleague join for only $55.00 annually.
As a member of NYASCD you will receive our on-line newsletter, NYSASCD DEVELOPMENTS, as well as our on-line journal, Impact and discounts for all of our professional development activities. Complete information about NYSASCD may be found on our website. This website gives you information about our organization, professional development activities, information about affiliates across the state, and links to other professional organizations and resources.
Supporting Shifts to More Brain-Friendly Literacy Practices: Three Important Leadership Questions
Jan Burkins and Kari Yates
Dr. Jan Burkins and Kari Yates are authors of Shifting the Balance: 6 Ways to Bring the Science of Reading into the Balanced Literacy Classroom (Stenhouse 2021) and Shifting the Balance: 6 Ways to Bring the Science of Reading into the Upper Elementary Classroom (Co-authored with Katie Eagan Cunningham) (Stenhouse 2023).
Jan and Kari help school leaders (both in-person and virtually) to develop literacy frameworks as well as provide literacy audits, leadership support, and professional development—all
These last years have been a whirlwind of conversation, reflection, and revision in many literacy classrooms. The call for changed practices—whether from state legislatures, local school boards, or parents—has left many school leaders scrambling as we’ve all worked to make better use of reading science.
Despite working to respond intentionally and with insight, you may still find it hard to hear the signal through the noise of information about literacy practices.
Maximizing the potential of both students and educators is at the heart of school leaders’ work. Leading for meaningful change—on behalf of children but through the adults—is the central challenge of school leadership.
Yet, momentum builds and grows in some schools, while it plateaus or dissipates in others. So, what is the leadership difference between schools that sustain growth and those that bump into barriers? Today, we offer 3 questions that successful leaders tend to ask, as well as the actions they take (and mindsets they adopt) to support more brain-friendly literacy instruction.
1. What is essential for school leaders to know (and understand) about the recommended shifts in literacy instruction?
Leading literacy change begins with tuning into the
research yourself. Of course, reading all the research literature about how children learn to read words and comprehend— not to mention how to best teach them these processes—is a daunting task. Fortunately, summaries of research can help you get started. We recommend:
• Quantitative summaries, or meta-analyses, explained further in this document, a Teacher-Friendly Guide to Making Sense of Scientific Research.
• Qualitative summaries, such as this article, “Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert” (Castles, Rastle, and Nations 2018).
If you’re interested in a short list of critical ideas about reading instruction, we offer six below. Of course, this list is not exhaustive; these bullet points are just a starting place.
• Reading is composed of decoding (or recognizing) the words and understanding the language used to communicate them. Reading models, such as The Simple View of Reading (Gough and Tunmer, 1986), Scarborough’s Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001), and the Active View of Reading (Burns, Duke, and Cartwright, 2023), attempt to represent the elements and nuances of the reading process. Many of these models are helpful; none are perfect.
• Humans are not naturally wired for reading and writing. Although our brains are hardwired to learn spoken language, written language is a whole different story. The alphabetic code is a human invention. Learning to read and write that code isn’t easy for the human brain because it requires rewiring and repurposing certain areas of the brain that already have other jobs.
anchored in the headwork of reading science and the heartwork of substantive practice changes. To learn more about working with Jan and Kari, write to JanandKari@ TheSixShifts.com.
Click on the covers for more information on Amazon.
• Reading and writing are reciprocal processes that are built on spoken language. Learning to encode (write) is freeze-drying spoken language by breaking it into its smallest sounds (phonemes) and attaching an individual symbol—which is part of a complete alphabetic code—to each sound. Learning to decode is learning to translate the written code back into speech so that the listening mechanisms in the brain can hear it (even when we read silently) and comprehend it.
• Decoding is not enough; comprehension is the end goal. Students need explicit, cumulative, and systematic instruction in foundational skills, such as phonics and phonemic awareness, but this work is in service of comprehension. Decoding doesn’t become reading until children think about the meaning a word represents.
• Teaching reading comprehension strategies is not enough for children to learn to comprehend. Intentional knowledge building is at least as important as strategy instruction when it comes to reading comprehension. Without knowledge, students won’t be able to apply strategies well, if at all. This means that reading instruction can focus less on teaching individual strategies and more on knowledge building and applying strategies in an integrated way—in service of thinking deeply about a worthwhile text.
• Engagement matters. Joyful learning, high engagement, emotional connection, and teacher responsiveness all remain brain-friendly instructional elements. Any instruction that is bereft of these aspects of learning is actually not brainfriendly. It is not only possible, but vitally important, to provide science-informed literacy instruction with texts, topics, and practices that engage, delight, and empower students. The descriptions above just scratch the surface of each idea.
2. Practically speaking, what are the most important things leaders can do to equip teachers for success as they make shifts to their literacy practices?
Hesitancy, even resistance, is a predictable response to impending change efforts. Yet, for most of us, these responses usually aren’t simply unwillingness. Instead, hesitancy and resistance are usually symptoms of fear. Fear of the unknown. Fear that we won’t have the information we need. Fear that we won’t have the resources we need. Fear that we won’t have enough time or energy to do what is being asked.
Here are a few things to keep in mind as you work to communicate and lead change in ways that don’t prompt a fear response from those you support.
• Provide clear and aligned communication. Once you are clear on even a single next
step for your team, it is essential that your communication be clear and consistent. Consistency in messaging means that your communications with and from all members of your leadership team must align. Mixed messages lead to confusion, frustration, and wasted time.
• Listen to teacher concerns with an open heart and mind. It’s critically important to offer safe opportunities for staff to express their concerns and ask their questions. Any hesitancy or resistance you observe can be honored rather than diminished or ignored, not to mention that teachers may see something that you have overlooked. Otherwise, those concerns are likely to resurface and may be even more difficult to ease down the road, diverting time and energy from your leadership efforts.
• Decide what’s settled and what’s flexible. In most change initiatives, some staff members will be more excited and ready to move forward than others. That’s one reason it’s important to take time to identify which specific actions or commitments will be asked of everyone (What’s settled?) as well as which actions staff are empowered to make their own decisions about (What’s flexible?). Choice increases engagement, so giving clarity on where teachers can be more flexible may make it easier for them to embrace those practices that are more settled.
• Keep professional development (for yourself and your staff) at the center. High-quality, job-embedded professional development is an investment in your most vital asset—the teachers you’ve hired to change children’s lives. Successfully shifting to more brain-friendly literacy practices can only happen when educators are equipped with learning opportunities to understand both “the why” (the science of how the human brain learns to read and write) as well as the really practical “how” (the craft of classroom pedagogy).
• Select quality resources that serve as a foundation for instruction, not a ceiling. Whether in the second year of teaching or the twenty-second, all teachers (and their students) can benefit from access to welldesigned, research-based resources. Of course, there is no “perfect” curriculum out there—if there were, we’d all be using it. But some materials are definitely stronger than others, and finding those best suited to your needs is a critical investment of time, energy, and money. In this post, “‘The Good’ and ‘The Bad’ of Curriculum Evaluation and Resource Adoption,” we provide guidance on this complex undertaking.
• Prioritize team collaboration. Even with a clear vision, high-quality professional development, and the support of welldesigned instructional resources, teachers
need regular, structured opportunities for collaboration. The highest-functioning teams are those with norms that support psychological safety—trust is high, and people know they can be honest and authentic (Duhigg, 2016). You may find our norms, The Six Commitments, a helpful foundation for creating safe adult learning spaces while navigating changes to practice.
emotional work. Making significant changes in the way we think about literacy instruction obviously requires attention to headwork, such as studying reading science and how to apply it in the classroom. But successfully leading change also requires paying attention to the often-overlooked heartwork. As educators
As educators work to let go of some closely held beliefs, they may even have to grapple with a realization that they have taught in some brain-unfriendly ways in the past.
3. What are some keys to building and maintaining positive momentum?
Meaningful change doesn’t happen all at once. In fact, it rarely happens as quickly as we might hope. Instead, it requires a steady, ongoing commitment to make continuous progress toward the ideal you’ve envisioned. So, how do you keep that momentum going, week after week, month after month, even year after year?
Below, we offer some ideas that we’ve seen successful leaders lean on to support a positive mindset for this work.
• Acknowledge that instructional change is both headwork and heartwork. Change work is not just technical work; it is also
work to let go of some closely held beliefs, they may even have to grapple with a realization that they have taught in some brain-unfriendly ways in the past. Honoring teachers as humans involves anticipating and acknowledging the inevitable feelings that can accompany this work—such as shame, defensiveness, insecurity, or frustration.
• Guard against overcorrection! As you reflect on current practices, you will certainly find instructional moves in every school and classroom that you can celebrate and hold tight. But it is easy to lose our grip on these already-sound practices as we introduce new initiatives. When investing in an important change, we can inadvertently set up a pendulum swing. But avoiding the negative effects of overcorrection--such as giving up readaloud time for more foundational skills
instruction--requires vigilance. Otherwise, you’ll solve one set of problems only to create an equal and opposite set.
• Commit to a series of starting points— no matter how small or imperfect— and get started. Overwhelm is real, widespread, and often an understandable reality for educators. But the antidote is finding a starting point—a safe place to put your boat into the water. As a leader, you are poised to help teachers find simple entry points that quiet the sense of overwhelm long enough to build some initial momentum.
• Celebrate short-term wins! Taking time to notice and celebrate small wins along the way becomes fuel in our tanks for the road ahead. Success leads to success, so one small step can quickly lead to another and another. Before you know it, this bitby-bit progress can add up to substantive progress in the rearview mirror.
Closing Thoughts
Learning to read is a complex and multifaceted process. And teaching is nuanced and delicate work, requiring a myriad of skills. So, it’s not surprising that the intersection of these two demanding undertakings— reading and teaching—poses the pinnacle of challenge: teaching children to read. After all, nurturing all students to become readers and
writers who are fluent, joyful, knowledgeable, engaged, and more is no small feat!
Yet, you choose this challenge because you know that, if children are to have access to opportunities for a bright future and a full life, they must learn to listen, speak, read, and write well. Supporting the educators who commit to this heroic work calls on leaders to lean into the science of reading, as well as the sciences of teaching, learning, leading, communicating, and relationship building.
Of course, there are no quick fixes or simple solutions that address the scope of literacy teaching and learning you want for all the students you serve. As we work closely with school and district leaders, like you, we observe time and again the synergistic power of grounding reforms in evidence and remaining respectful of educators, all while honoring the humanity of children. Such leadership attends to both the heads and hearts of the school community, with an eye toward balance.
REFERENCES
Burkins, J., & Yates, K. (2021). Shifting the balance: 6 ways to bring the science of reading into the balanced literacy classroom. Stenhouse.
Burns, M. K., Duke, N., & Cartwright, K. (2023). Evaluating components of the active view of reading as intervention targets: Implications for social justice. School Psychology, 38(1), 30–41. https:// doi.org/10.1037/spq0000519
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi. org/10.1177/1529100618772271
Cunningham, K. E., Burkins, J., & Yates, K. (2024). Shifting the balance: 6 ways to bring the science of reading into the upper elementary classroom. Stenhouse.
Duhigg, C. (2016, February 25). What Google learned from its quest to build the perfect team. The New York Times. https://www. nytimes.com/2016/02/28/magazine/ what-google-learned-from-its-quest-tobuild-the-perfect-team.html
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. https://doi. org/10.1177/074193258600700104
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis) abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp. 97–110). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Enhancing Literacy Through Interdisciplinary Learning: An Approach to Address the Science of Reading Research
Angela Di Michele Lalor
Angela Di Michele Lalor is a national educational consultant who has facilitated schoolwide professional development initiatives for over 20 years. She is the author of Making Curriculum Matter: How to Build SEL, Equity and Other Valued Priorities into Daily Instruction and Ensuring High Quality Curriculum: How to Design, Revise or Adopt Curriculum Aligned to Student Success. You can learn more about Angela here.
A group of students visit the nearby Hudson River as they begin a unit where they uncover the connection between the Hudson River and New York State’s rich history. Another group of students dive into scientific inquiry by collecting and analyzing data from a nearby pond to draw insightful conclusions about its ecosystem and environmental health. In a different school, students research how the local town government enhances accessibility for people with disabilities to playgrounds, picnic areas, boat launches, and other park amenities. While still in another school, a group of students hosts an ‘antique roadshow’ event, where they share artifacts and stories of life in the past.
On the first read, each scenario may seem like an engaging project-based learning experience. However, they are also examples of how interdisciplinary units of study can address the recently released New York State Literacy Briefs. In schools across the state, students engage in learning experiences where they read and research, analyze and discuss, and write and present their learning. When intentionally designed and implemented, existing content-specific learning experiences can be leveraged to address the research of the science of reading.
As explained in the Briefs, the science of reading is a large body of research that draws upon multiple fields to describe how children acquire reading and writing skills using research-based curriculum and instruction. The NYS Literacy
Briefs focus on the “Big 6” of reading—oral language, phonics, phonological awareness, comprehension, fluency, and vocabulary—and the reciprocal relationship between reading and writing. The balance of these skills varies greatly and depends on the development stage of reading and the individual student. A single program or approach cannot address all the skills and competencies at the same time. As elementary schools implement programs focusing on phonics, phonological awareness, and fluency, there is also an opportunity to develop existing social studies and science units to build the background knowledge and vocabulary necessary for comprehension. For middle and high school students, content and practices found across disciplines are prime leverage points for enhancing students’ literacy skills.
write about their learning for a variety of audiences and purposes. When teachers and students understand the purpose and intent of these experiences to support reading and writing and address the other important priorities outlined in the literacy briefs, there can be a significant impact on
For middle and high school students, content and practices found across disciplines are prime leverage points for enhancing students’ literacy skills.
students’ literacy skills and competencies. As I share in this article, when strategically designed and purposefully implemented, an interdisciplinary curriculum can routinely incorporate the high-impact instructional strategies necessary for developing essential reading and writing skills and competencies.
Interdisciplinary units build background knowledge and vocabulary.
Let’s return to the 4th grade example, where students explore the connection between the Hudson River and New York State’s history. Throughout the unit, students engage in rich literacy experiences. They read and analyze primary source documents and artifacts, discuss the positive and negative impact of human actions on the river, and
Students’ comprehension is significantly enhanced when they have a solid understanding of the content they are reading. This is one of the key reasons why student comprehension can vary depending on the subject matter. For example, a student whose family spends time fishing and discussing the varying conditions and tides of the Hudson River will be more familiar with the related vocabulary and information. When a unit is localized to the student’s community, the
content is more meaningful and relevant to their lives, providing more students with access to high expectations and rich learning experiences. This familiarity allows them to make meaningful connections to their knowledge and experiences, thereby improving their comprehension of texts about the Hudson River.
frameworks. For example, the chart below demonstrates the progression of disciplinary core ideas in science:
When teachers use diagnostic assessments, they can determine what students know and use this information to create learning for students that builds from their prior knowledge and skills.
Units of study are also valuable for students who may not have a strong background because they introduce students to new information that helps to build knowledge and vocabulary. Students focus on a topic for several weeks, examining images, listening to and reading texts, and discussing and writing about their learning. Through these experiences, they develop content, conceptual knowledge, and academic and discipline-specific vocabulary.
There are additional benefits when these units of study are tied to grade-level content. Teachers and students can focus more deeply on content already part of the curriculum. Units that strongly align with the NYS Standards also leverage the progressions built into the design of these standards and
Students’ comprehension is significantly enhanced when they have background knowledge of the content they are reading. Engaging in units of study built around the content students are studying in social studies and science classes improves the capacity of content instruction to reach this goal.
Curriculum-embedded performance assessments showcase student learning using the different modalities of literacy.
These multi-step projects are common in many classrooms. They are opportunities for students to demonstrate their learning through products and presentations. Unlike traditional projects, curriculum-embedded performance assessments prioritize both the process and the final product, and when
utilized effectively, they can help develop students’ reading and writing skills.
For example, in a high school civics class, students select a topic of interest, research a problem they have observed, and present a possible solution to an appropriate audience. One group of students chose to investigate how the local town government can improve accessibility for people with disabilities to various park amenities and present their findings to the local town board. This final presentation will require them to demonstrate strong speaking and writing skills. To ensure that students are prepared, the teacher allocates time throughout the semester for students to receive feedback and engage in revision on their work. These feedback sessions are opportunities for students to deepen their understanding and strengthen their literacy skills because they are working with the content in a meaningful way.
A similar approach can be observed in the kindergarten “Antique Roadshow” project. Students demonstrate their understanding of the past and present by sharing stories and related artifacts (items older than the students), such as rotary phones, iPods, and CDs. The final task requires that students use a range of literacy skills. Students’ presentations provide a venue for practicing oral language skills, including vocabulary, expressive and receptive language, pronunciation, grammar, and sentence
structure. Creating artifact labels for their classroom museum offers an authentic context for applying phonics skills, practicing spelling, and enhancing comprehension. At the primary level, these integrated literacy activities are foundational to their development as readers and writers.
Using literacy to demonstrate understanding in content-area subjects requires time within these units to connect the two. The relationship between literacy and content-area knowledge begins at the elementary level, where students use oral language skills to develop conceptual understanding and vocabulary and leverage the reciprocal relationship between reading and writing. At the secondary level, these skills develop into the disciplinary literacy necessary for engaging with complex text and information.
Units set the context for literacy lessons.
For content-based units to impact literacy development, it is necessary to explicitly identify the literacy skills students will use and provide students with direct instruction in those skills. The focus skills for the unit are those identified through standards and incorporated into the curriculum-embedded performance assessments. Direct instruction names the skill, identifies the strategy, and is followed by opportunities for students to practice, receive feedback, and set goals.
In content-based units, the models and practice opportunities use the knowledge and vocabulary of the unit.
For example, when 8th-grade students evaluate a local pond’s ecosystem and share their findings with an environmental group, they are engaged in multi-faceted literacy-based learning experiences. Students begin with background research on pond ecosystems, which involves reading and discussing scientific texts. When students analyze data, they read and interpret graphs, charts, and scientific explanations.
Students then develop models describing the cycling of matter and flow of energy, explain environmental and genetic influences, and predict the impacts of environmental changes. This requires students to articulate their understanding of ecosystem dynamics verbally and in writing, enhancing their comprehension and oral language skills through explanation and discussion.
students to effectively annotate scientific texts to extract important information about pond ecosystems. After reading the text as a class, students learn a strategy in which they highlight critical information (e.g., definitions, main ideas), underline essential facts (e.g., data, specific details), and write questions in the margins (e.g., Why is this important? How does it connect to other information?). They examine models of annotated texts and practice with a partner. In small groups, they share their annotations to notice similarities and discuss and reconcile differences in their approach and thinking before practicing the strategy independently. In this way, students are learning a strategy for comprehending the text and, at the same time, understanding the science of the unit.
While these literacy opportunities exist, explicit instruction is required for the skills to become part of students’ repertoire of strategies.
While these literacy opportunities exist, explicit instruction is required for the skills to become part of students’ repertoire of strategies. To illustrate, the objective of one lesson within this unit would be for
Another example of explicit instruction within a unit of study is vocabulary instruction. Often, vocabulary instruction provides students with a list of terms that they need to define. However, this type of instruction does not result in the longterm receptive and expressive language development that educators desire.
Mini-vocabulary units within the context of the larger unit are an effective
means of enhancing students’ vocabulary while deepening their understanding of the content. For example, a mini vocabulary unit can be launched through a text that includes a selection of 5 – 8 academic words that students will focus on throughout the unit. Students routinely engage in 5 – 10-minute activities to reinforce understanding of the meaning of these words and promote their use during discussion and writing. Having students create a word map for each word, including definitions, synonyms, antonyms, and example sentences, or writing sentences for images using the words are quick and simple activities that can be easily integrated into instruction.
The opportunity to enhance students’ reading skills, as supported by the science of reading research, exists in all classrooms and across subject areas. The most effective way to achieve this is not through a singular approach but by embedding literacy instruction within the context of the material students are already learning. Embracing and supporting integrated units of study alongside systemic instruction will give students the diverse experiences needed to become lifelong readers and writers.
REFERENCES
Educational Leadership. (2023, December/2024, January). Literacy across the disciplines. ASCD. Retrieved from https://www.ascd.org/el/literacy-acrossthe-disciplines
International Literacy Association. (2023). ILA Resource Collection: Unpacking the science of reading. International Literacy Association. Retrieved from https:// digitellinc.com/unpacking-the-scienceof-reading
Lalor, A. D. M. (2021). Making curriculum matter: How to build SEL, equity, and other priorities into daily instruction. ASCD.
Moats, L. C. (2020, March 29). Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. American Educator. Retrieved from https://www.aft.org/ae/ summer2020/moats
New York State Education Department. (2024). New York State Literacy Briefs. New York State Education Department. Retrieved from https://www.nysed.gov/ curriculum-instruction/literacy-briefs
The DNA of Learning
Part III, Requisite 3:
Cognition
Robert K. Greenleaf, Elaine M. Millen, and LaVonna Roth
Robert K. Greenleaf, Ed.D., has 45 years of experience in education from superintendent to playground supervisor. He was a former professional development specialist at Brown University and an adjunct professor at Thomas College SNHU and USNIIGSC. As President of Greenleaf Learning Bob specializes in strategies for understanding behaviors, learning and cognition. He holds a doctorate in education from Vanderbilt University and is the author of eight instructional books. bob@greenleaflearning.com
Introduction
Articles 1 & 2 conveyed that once relationships are mastered, three requisites for purposeful learning can be tackled. Optimal learning depends on competence in the requisites of 1) navigating uncertainties, 2) the art of relating and 3) human cognition.
“ ‘How will I teach this?’ is not the same as ‘How will my students learn this?’
Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.” (Einstein, 1921)
What is the Blueprint for Learning?
The combined elements of biological DNA and experience form unique individuals for sure; however, the way the brain acquires information is far more similar than diverse among humans. Understanding the brain’s learning functions, as well as how it acquires new knowledge and builds on past
Elaine M. Millen, M.Ed., C.A.G.S., has over 50 years of experience in education as a teacher, principal, director of special education, curriculum director and assistant superintendent of schools. She has taught at both the undergraduate and graduate levels in both public and private institutions. As an educational consultant and instructional coach, she has worked with hundreds of school leaders across the country and has written several articles on transforming professional learning opportunities for teachers, students and leaders. Elaine.millen90@gmail.com
understandings, is imperative to teaching and learning (Greenleaf, 2006). Devoid of this, our so-called “best practices” parallel the hit or miss of a baseball player in the batter’s box.
No Rocket Science without the Learning Sciences
We have learned so much from cognitive sciences about the brain and learning. This pandemic disruption has led to thoughts about what our future world of schooling might entail. The tensions in teaching today underscore how complicated and situational teaching is. It’s not rocket science—it’s far more complex and difficult. No packaged program or list of best practices can capture the extraordinary subtleties involved in making on-the-spot decisions continually, day after day.
Deep understanding of human cognition, as it relates to what we call “learning,” can foster subtle differences in instruction leading to magnified, long-term shifts in outcomes. Students deserve to work with educators who are versed in memory formation, recall and transfer (Greenleaf et. al., 2005). And educators will find joy in their thriving students—a winwin for all.
Preservice Programs: Where are our universities?
Daniel Willingham, Professor of Psychology at UVA, has contributed to the need to employ practices aligned with the findings on the science of cognition. Dr. Willingham’s writings, along with his work with “Deans for Impact,” an initiative of the Schools of Education across ten universities, demonstrate a distinction between prospective educators who have an understanding of learning sciences as contrasted with those who do not. This work makes clear the imperative for teaching approaches consistent with what we know about how learning takes place. A few of the learning science components address
such queries as:
• What is needed to support initial acquisition of knowledge?
• Are there instructional implications for acquiring, retaining and accessing memory and recall?
• Are there ways to manage cognitive load on working memory?
• What is the role of interleaving in learning?
• Does the right-left hemisphere matter in teaching?
• Is it true that we only use a fraction of our brain?
Understanding Cognition
We taught it—they demonstrated it today—yet tomorrow there’s little residue. Why don’t they remember? The term “learning” is generally referenced in ways that are not, in fact, learning. Forgetting typically means that we didn’t process sufficiently to generate memory in the first place. What does the mind have to do to make memories? What causes short vs long-term memory? Can recall be enhanced? Are there ways to apply and transfer memory? Knowledge leading to the answers of the above questions must be essential learning for all educators (Willingham, et. al. 2020). It’s time to unpack the fundamentals of cognition that lead to learning. There are pivotal understandings everyone must know and apply.
Cognition: Beyond regurgitation
Reciting something in the moment suggests that shortterm memory has placed the information where it can be accessed while the current context is still available. The difficulty comes when the patterns of practice surrounding today’s activities cease... and we go to another class... go home overnight... and the initial connections to information are no
LaVonna Roth, M.A.T., M.S.Ed. is an engaging and interactive keynote speaker, consultant, educator, and mom. LaVonna bridges her passion for how the brain learns with identifying how every individual S.H.I.N.E.s with their mindset and socialemotional well-being. She supports schools in harnessing the S.H.I.N.E. framework, increasing psychological safety, & building the foundation based on the brain sciences. LaVonna has 3 degrees, is the author of 8 books, and has worked with organizations in the U.S./Canada and internationally.
longer available. Synaptic strength weakens and memory fades. Tomorrow, we see a blank look from the child about yesterday’s work. Frustrating and all too predominant. Many students get A’s because they excel in short-term semantic recall. They gather and organize information, memorize quickly, and readily reconstitute it. This is rewarded handsomely in the traditional culture of schooling. But what of those whose strengths
differ? What about truly understanding how to apply knowledge, understand the analogies of meaning, and readily transfer concepts across topics to new areas of thought?
DNA of Learning Neuro-Moves
As examples of practices that are supported by learning sciences, we have briefly unpacked five imperatives that must be in all educator’s toolboxes.
Context provides relevance to the topic under consideration. When a learner is introduced to new ideas and concepts, learning and understanding happen when students see the relationship to prior knowledge or experiences. Context is essential for capturing the arena in which new information resides. This provides cues to meaning relationships and improves initial processing efforts. “Billy, I know you are interested in engineering, how would these concepts apply to you in your possible career?” “Mary, you mentioned fashion as a goal, in what way do you see the connection?” “Take 5 minutes - turn to your partner and talk about how learning this concept is important to your work.” Learners can increase active processing/attention through personal reference as they construct relevant understanding and purpose.
Pattern/Classification is what the brain does naturally from birth. Without existing understandings, patterns provide a means of generating an initial sense of the unchartered world. Is this similar? Different? How? Does it matter? While the brain is acquiring new ideas, skills, content, and understandings, it is efficient to cluster “like” things— using less working memory to hold newer information while continuing to process for understanding. The initial formation of groups provides significant understanding across venues. Then, the learner can begin to
re-work current knowledge and transfer it to aligned or non-related topics. This capacity demonstrates understanding at a deeper, more applied level.
Dual coding is the merging of visual and verbal cues EXPLICITLY and SIMULTANEOUSLY. When we actively use dual modes to process, our brain exercises multiple pathways. When we directly link the visual processing (items tangibly or mentally available) with the verbal processing, we provide greater cues for comprehension, recall, and transfer of learning. As external images and props are used, we need to keep in mind that our goal is to eventually transfer this external prompt into internally generated assets.
Social Functions. Social interaction causes substantial neural activity, growth, and processing. Building capacity in academics, decision-making, managing of emotions, empathy for others, as well as establishing and maintaining positive relationships are all potentiated. The brain is directly and powerfully shaped by interactions with others through a sense of belonging, acceptance, feeling worthy, and building community. Being accepted by peers provides emotional security and a safer environment for learning. The initial task at the beginning of every year is to establish a community of learners who can and will work together productively. Social well-being and emotional safety are essential for optimal learning to
occur. Learning activities without adequate synchronous discourse greatly reduces the provocation of thought (thinking), which is paramount to memory-making.
Emotional Tags. No meaning, no memory. At all ages, perceived importance, value and/or personal connections increase processing via the attentional system. The mental conclusion of “not important” suggests that little meaning (value) is indicated. That which has only minimal impact on learners can, by definition, have no significant emotional base for retention. When harnessed, emotion supports and bolsters the attentional system to persist through moments of struggle. Emotional “tags” are inputs that the individual allocates meaning to. We know all too well that when our students do not find meaning in material, they seldom are motivated to work thoroughly or to remember after the fact. Meaning comes through all emotions, positive and negative.
Moving to Tomorrow...
The requisite of high-impact cognition cannot be bypassed or minimized. Too much is at stake for YOUR class, YOUR organization, YOUR satisfaction at work... and most importantly THEIR learning. These required components have a huge return on investment. Theirs—and yours!
REFERENCES
Einstein, Albert. (1921) Boston Speech.
Greenleaf, Robert. (2006). Brain Based Teaching. Greenleaf-Papanek Publications.
Greenleaf, Robert and Wells-Papanek, Doris. (2005). Memory, Recall, the Brain and Learning. Greenleaf-Papanek Publications.
Willingham, Daniel and Rotherham, Andrew. (2020) “Education’s Research Problem.” Learning and the Brain, V77, no. 8.
No meaning, no memory.
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How will Artificial Intelligence (AI) Transform Teaching?
John Spencer
John Spencer is a former middle school teacher and current college professor on a quest to transform schools into bastions of creativity and wonder. He is passionate about seeing schools embrace creativity and design thinking. In his podcast, The Creative Classroom, he explores the intersection of creative thinking and student learning.
John explores research, interviews educators, deconstructs systems, and studies real-world examples of design thinking in action. He shares his learning in books, blog posts, journal articles, free resources, animated videos, and podcasts.
Note that this isn’t simply the question, “How will Artificial Intelligence (AI) change teaching in the future?” This starts with the question, “How is AI already changing the teaching profession?”
We can’t predict exactly how AI will change every aspect of teaching. But here are a few ideas of what it might look like in various aspects of the teaching profession.
Redefining the Lesson Planning Process
In terms of lesson planning, teachers will need to be both creators and curators. In terms of creativity, teachers will need to know how to create their own lessons from scratch. This helps them find their voice as educators and define what good learning looks like in their class. But they’ll also use AI as a co-creation tool within this process. They might use AI to expand their lesson plans and add details like objectives or new learning tasks. They might use AI to receive feedback on the pacing or alignment of their lesson plans.
In terms of curation, teachers will need to take AIgenerated lessons and analyze them for quality. Teachers will need to know how to access and analyze lessons with the driving question, “Is this the best option for my students?”
But they will also need to modify the lessons. I use the
Artificial Intelligence is like ice cream
metaphor of ice cream to describe how they might take the AI-generated lessons and modify them based on their own expertise in the above video.
A great set of reflection questions might be:
• Does the lesson align with curriculum standards and learning objectives?
Teachers would want to ensure that the AI-generated lesson plan meets specific state or district standards and aligns with the intended learning goals for students.
• Is the lesson plan appropriately differentiated for diverse learners?
Teachers might check whether the AI lesson plan offers modifications or accommodations for students with different learning needs, such as ELLs, students with IEPs, or advanced learners.
This is a chance to start with your knowledge of students and ask, “How should I design scaffolds based on what I know about _______?” Again, the more specific the better.
• Does the content promote student engagement and critical thinking? Teachers should evaluate whether the AI-generated activities and materials encourage active participation and higher-order thinking skills, rather than focusing solely on rote memorization.
This is a great chance to ask, “What actually engages my current class and how do I modify it?”
• Are the assessments and feedback mechanisms meaningful and aligned with the lesson’s objectives? Teachers would want to know if the formative
and summative assessments included in the AI plan truly measure student understanding and if the feedback provided helps guide improvement.
• Is the pacing and structure of the lesson realistic for the classroom environment? Teachers should assess whether the timing of activities and transitions is manageable within their specific class period and whether it takes into account the needs of their students. Again, you know your immediate context the best. Is this too slow or too fast for them?
Note that teachers will need to lean into the areas that they do well, like empathy (Does this fit with what my students need? Will they find this engaging?); contextual understanding (Is this relevant to my local context?), and divergent thinking (Can I add some interesting creative elements that will make things more engaging?). In my AI for Education elective course, I had students take an AI-generated lesson and modify it based on their knowledge of their students and the context. I also asked for at least 3 original ideas that the AI didn’t consider. Again, this taps into the concepts of divergent thinking, empathy, and contextual knowledge.
Re-imagining Differentiated Instruction
When I first began teaching, I learned about differentiated instruction and I fell in love with the concept. I would craft lessons
that would provide the precise scaffolds and supports that every student would need. I would modify our informational texts to be at each student’s reading level. I would break down tasks and create handouts to reduce the cognitive load on students’ executive function skills. And then . . .
I started student teaching. I fell into the trap of “teaching to the middle.” I couldn’t track every student. I couldn’t spend hours creating every single scaffold and support. I attended IEP meetings and worked hard to design learning supports, but I always had a lingering feeling that I was failing.
As I shifted toward student empowerment, I began to embrace the idea of UDL: Universal Design for Learning. I started to realize that I could provide supports for students but also make them universally accessible. I could empower my students to self-select the scaffolds and supports they need. This was a game-changer in terms of the logistics of differentiated instruction. I started to watch my students move through higher and higher levels of the ZPD:
Here are a few more ideas:
• Providing additional handouts to facilitate task analysis and executive function.
• Using AI to help schedule small groups.
• Using AI speech recognition software
It works like an assistant to create something general that you can then modify based on your own expertise and knowledge of students.
as an assistive technology to help students with writing.
• Using AI image generators to help students who need a more concrete example of what they are learning in class.
• Designing targeted skill practice. For example, you might use a chatbot to generate word problems for students who struggle with 2-step equations, or you might use it to create a highinterest non-fiction text at a student’s reading with sample questions.
• Using AI to modify assignments to reduce cognitive load (fewer steps) while encouraging students to still access the grade level content.
• Using AI to create skill practice that students can engage in when they need additional intervention throughout a larger project.
• Using AI to reduce the amount of work while still maintaining a high challenge level. For example, a student with dyscalculia might need fewer problems but can still master the math content at the same grade level.
None of these supports should replace
the goals within an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). We don’t want to replace educators with algorithms. We can, however, use the AI as a starting place for designing more personalized scaffolds and supports. While we want to take a UDL approach, we also want to craft supports that are tailored to individual students. Here, the AI platform saves time and makes the differentiation process more feasible for teachers. It works like an assistant to create something general that you can then modify based on your own expertise and knowledge of students. In other words, you can design individualized scaffolds for a specific student within seconds based on your own list of supports that the student needs. Similarly, we can use AI to design front-loaded vocabulary, translations, sentence stems, and other scaffolds for multilingual students.
We can also use AI to create leveled readers. We might take an older text (like a primary source) and have it create leveled readers from that. We might use the text that we write and have it do the same. We could use multiple texts and have the AI create a mash-up or do an open-ended question and use AI to design leveled texts from that. In each case, we will likely need to add revisions
based on our own knowledge and the knowledge of our students. But the AI does make this type of differentiation far more feasible than it has been in the past.
I also think teachers are going to get more imaginative in how they modify similar assignments. So, they might find that some students do well with complex directions and others with simplified directions and they’ll
And yet, these same tools that allow us to create differentiated scaffolds can easily become tools for cheating. Which leads to my next thought ...
Revising Our Assignment Design
One of my biggest concerns with AI is that students will cheat. I know that we aren’t supposed to be concerned about cheating.
...revise the assignments in a way that focuses on the human elements (context, empathy, curiosity,
train AI systems to tailor specific directions to meet the needs of specific students. As a middle school teacher, I used to break down tasks for students who struggled with task analysis and then we would go from my breakdown to a shared process and ultimately work toward students doing this task analysis on their own. AI systems do such a great job with task analysis that I imagine this whole process is going to change.
We also want to empower students to use age-appropriate chatbots for their own differentiated learning. Here, they go to a chatbot to ask questions, find new explanations, clarify misconceptions, and engage in skill practice. As educators, we will likely be working with stakeholders (parents and guardians) to use these tools at home in a way that creates new support.
etc.)
It’s just a tool. No different from a calculator or a slide rule. But it’s the same. It’s a large language model (LLM) mimicking the human brain, and students will use it to cheat.
It’s easy to lean on tools like AI detectors/ checkers to see if students are cheating. However, these tools are often unreliable, and we run the risk of falsely accusing a student of cheating when the AI mistakenly assumes a text is machine-generated. If an AI-checker is 85% accurate and you teach 180 students who each do ten essays in the semester, this could lead to 270 cases of either getting away with cheating or a false accusation of cheating. The result is a complete loss of trust.
What we can do is revise the assignments in a way that focuses on the human elements (context, empathy, curiosity, etc.).
I recently led a workshop on the future of writing in a world of AI. One of my favorite activities involved redesigning writing prompts to center on these human elements:
• Choose a Standard Writing Prompt: Start with a typical writing prompt that you would normally use in your classroom.
• Add Human Context: Revise the prompt to include elements that relate to human experiences, emotions, or backgrounds. Encourage students to consider how personal experiences and emotions influence responses.
• Encourage Divergent Thinking: Modify the prompt to allow for multiple correct answers or interpretations. Ask students to explore alternative outcomes, perspectives, or creative solutions. Consider using something like a creative constraint to push them to think more divergently.
• Stimulate Curiosity: Include questions in the prompt that make students question or delve deeper into the topic. Encourage them to research or imagine possibilities beyond the obvious. Provide some sentence stems for them to ask their own questions.
• Foster Empathy: Direct the prompt towards understanding and connecting with others’ situations. This could involve writing from another person’s perspective or considering the impact of actions on others.
• Feedback and Discussion: After rewriting your prompts, use the 20-minute peer feedback system to get feedback on how you might revise your prompts
Note that this doesn’t mean students won’t cheat and use AI for answers. This will not solve the issue of academic integrity. But it does require some deeper human element that machine learning cannot do.
As educators, we need to design systems that spell out exactly how and when students can use AI. Here’s an example of one I use in some of my assignments. Here’s how it works:
Blue: AI-generated text
Green: AI-Generated but Revised by Human
Pink: Human Generated but Edited by AI (think Grammarly or Spell Check)
Black: Human Generated (with no modifications)
As a professor, I can look at an assignment and see, in a clearly visual way, the interplay between AI and humans. I can see the way an AI-generated idea sparked an entirely new line of thinking that then led to something fully human. I can also see how students created significant modifications in their work. I’m still in the process of modifying this system and incorporating it into all of my assignments.
But there’s also a more subtle element at work, and it has nothing to do with cheating. If students use AI on auto-pilot, they run the risk of hitting cognitive atrophy. Cognitive atrophy happens any time we lose the ability to engage in a mental process due to inactivity. In a world of Artificial Intelligence, we need to be cognizant of the dangers of cognitive atrophy so that we can continue to engage in curiosity, creativity, and deeper learning. As we re-imagine our assignment design, we need to consider how we might integrate AI into previous instructional strategies that incorporate creativity and curiosity. For example, we might incorporate the student use of AI into something like project-based learning:
Here’s a sample of how this might look:
• Generating Additional Questions:
Toward the beginning of a project, a student might start with a list of research questions they have. They can then go to
AI to get a list of additional questions. Or they could use AI to refine their questions to be more specific. If they’re asking interview questions, they could ask the AI to refine their questions to be more openended or convey more critical thinking. Notice how they’re not outsourcing the inquiry but they are using AI as a tool.
• Clarifying Misconceptions During Research: Sometimes, students struggle with conceptual understanding. AI can function in a similar way to Wikipedia, in that it’s not the best source but it is a great starting place when students are trying to develop a schema.
• Restating Research in Simpler Terms: If students are doing text-based research, they might see a website with great research. They’ve looked at the reliability of the source and explored the bias. Unfortunately, the source contains technical language and dense grammatical structures. Students can use AI to simplify the language.
• Navigating Ideas: After students have engaged in a deep dive brainstorm, they can go to AI and ask for additional ideas. Students can then analyze these ideas and incorporate them into their design.
• Generating Project Plans: ChatGPT is really good at taking a larger task and
breaking it down into smaller tasks. After they have navigated ideas, students can use AI as a starting place for a project plan with dates and deadlines. They can then modify this based on their skill level, group dynamics, etc.
• Prototyping: If students are writing code, they might start with AI and then modify the code to make it better. They could mash up two examples. In this way, the AI functions like an exemplar within a project. The critical idea is that it should occur after students have engaged in ideation.
• Coming Up with Group Roles: Students can use AI as a starting place for group roles and then modify them to fit the group. Afterward, they can negotiate norms and consequences for breaking norms. The group can then use AI to create group contracts with norms, roles, and consequences.
• Project Management: Students can take the tasks and the progress they’ve made and use AI to help them determine what to do next and what they might need to change to stay on schedule.
• Receiving Feedback: I’ve been surprised at how well AI does in giving quality feedback. While peer feedback should remain a student-to-student endeavor, groups sometimes fall victim to groupthink. AI is a great tool for helping avoid groupthink.
These are just a few ideas, and they’re based largely on how I might use AI within PBL. As we craft assignments, we will need to consider how we might incorporate AI as a cocreation tool and as a tool for curiosity. We will need to bring students into the conversations about how to use AI ethically and wisely.
Embracing Lo-Fi
But we also need to step away from AI entirely at times and embrace the lo-fi. Years ago, I wrote a book called Vintage Innovation which explored the overlap of the old and the new. I know you’re not supposed to have a favorite book but it was my favorite book I ever wrote because it captures the nuance I want to hold onto as we redesign our assignments in light of AI.
I think it’s important to remember that relevance isn’t simply “flashy and new.” It’s often “better and different.” So, we might have times when we go off-screen and embrace the physical and tactile. We might say, “Kids are on screens too much, and we need to step away from that.” As we redesign our lessons, we also need to refine how we deliver instruction.
Reprinted with permission - https:// spencereducation.com/ai-transformteaching/
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