The Attenuating Tube; Tranquility and Wellbeing in the urban soundscspe of Orlando

The Attenuating Tube; Tranquility and Wellbeing within the Urban Soundscape of Orlando Written by:

Norden Ikriche

A research project presented to the University of Florida Graduate School of Architecture in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture,.

University of Florida 2017

Table of Contents

2

6 8

Abstract Chapter 1: Introduction

11 11 12 13 14 16 16 18 21

The Problem Statement The Objective The Urban Soundscape Definition of Noise Hearing Process Perception of acoustics Definition of Wellbeing Acoustic Impact on Wellbeing Healing from Acoustic Impact

22

Chapter 2: Theory

24 26 28 30

The city of Orlando, the Place.

The everyday sounds that shape the city.

The passive experience of the city, hearing it.

Filling the void. The soundscape.

32

Precedent Studies:

32 34 36

The absence of the interstate in an urban area; DeLand FL. Large scale Interstate renovation; The Boston (Big Dig) Interstate 93.

Sound wave isolation; Gate Tower Osaka, Japan.

38

Chapter 3: Analysis

40

Process

40 42

Project Goals Secondary Health Implication from interstates.

44

Literature Review

44 45 45

Introduction Methodology Findings

46

Section One: Phenomenology

46 47 48 49 50 51

Eyes of the skin: Listening and Voice: The Tuning of the World: A framework for improving urban soundscapes: The temporal structure of urban soundscapes: The phonic identity of the city urban soundscape for sustainable spaces:

52

Section Two: Noise and Health

52 53 54

Noise pollution: non-auditory effects on health: Noise Pollution: A Modern Plague: Do Quiet Areas Afford Greater Health-Related Quality of Life than Noisy Areas?

56

Section Three: Abatement Strategies

56 57 58

A Review of Research on Environmental Noise Barriers: Analysis of Highway Noise: Facade Effects on the Traffic Noise from the Expressway:

60

Methodology and Observation

60 61 62 64 66

Procedure Materials Observations of Findings The Cost Design Intent and Analysis

68

Chapter 4: Project Development

70 72 78

The beginning "An absurd solution to an absurd problem" Study of Section

108 Chapter 5: Lessons Learned 112 Work Cited 114 Figure Citations

3

Table of Figures 1 Form of the title 7 Figure 1: Interstate area of impact 9 Chapter 1: Introduction for what is to come 10 Figure 2: I4 Ultimate Expansion 11 Figure 3: Conceptual Analysis of I4 11 Figure 4: Conceptual Analysis Orlando 12 Figure 5: Conceptual Urban soundscape 13 Figure 6: Conceptual Transportation soundscape 15 Figure 7: How the ear works 17 Figure 8: Chart of sounds and Decibel level 23 25 27 29 31 33 33 35 35 36 37

Chapter 2 : Downtown Orlando...

Figure 9: Major intersections along Orange Ave. Figure 10: Study Area Locations Figure 11: Conceptual Loud Soundscape Figure 12: Conceptual Soundscape Visualization Figure 13: Downtown DeLand Sound Study Figure 14: Downtown DeLand Figure 15: Boston “BIG DIG” Expansion Area Figure 16: Boston “BIG DIG” Expansion Area Figure 17: Gate Tower Osaka, Japan Figure 18: Gate Tower Osaka, Japan. Aerial Image

39 41 43 54 55 59 63 65 67

Chapter 3: Project Analysis Figure 19: Identify Strategies to accomplish goals Figure 20: Toxic Air in the city Figure 21: Sensitive Location Data Figure 22: Sensitive Location Map Figure 23: Common Facade Materials in Orlando Figure 24: Acoustic Survey Results Figure 25: Cost of doing nothing Figure 26: Sound Diffraction Diagram

4

69 71 73 75 77 79 81 81 83 85 85 87 89 89 91 93 111

Chapter 4: Weaving together an urban gesture Figure 27: The Presence of the new Interstate 4 Figure 28: Aerial of Proposal Figure 29: Logarithmic Scale of Acoustic Intensity Figure 30: Adjusting to the urban condition Figure 31: Hydric ecologies and urban park.

Figure 33: Conceptual elevation...

Figure 32: Significant connections in the urban fabric Figure 34: Retail and residential interchange Figure 35: Initial studies of Enclosure and form Figure 36: Studies of Form and Structure Figure 37: Community development center Figure 39: The Tranquility Garden and the Interstate Figure 38: The Open space of the Bridge District Figure 40: Pedestrian entertainment connection Figure 41: Shaping sound...

Figure 42: 3D Analysis

Acknowledgments I would like to thank my professors at the University of Florida for the marvelous education I have received. I would like to give special thanks to my Committee Chair Martin Gold for all of his advice and expertise. Without his help I would not have been able to weave the complex technical details and over arching concept together into a complete project. I would also like to Thank my Co- Chair Dr. Frank Bosworth for taking so much time reading and helping me frame and organize my ideas and honing my presentation skills.

5

Abstract

The purpose of this MRP project is to search for tranquility within the loud urban soundscape of downtown Orlando. In the pursuit of this ideal this project proposes an intervention in downtown Orlando between Lakeview St. and South St. that mitigates the acoustic impact of Interstate 4 through the implementation of a sound attenuating enclosure. This structure by eliminating the sounds, tranquility within the soundscape is possible.

In search of spaces to develop these tranquil spaces such as tea houses and Japanese gardens. Investigations in downtown Orlando, measuring sound with a decibel meter revealed that there were no locations suitable. Downtown Orlando, however, is too loud to develop tranquil spaces. The acoustic impact of downtown Orlando is above the threshold that is potentially dangerous to wellbeing.

The threshold of intensity where prolonged exposure to sound causes negative effects to wellbeing begins at 65 dB. To determine whether the inter-

6

state negatively affects the inhabitants of Orlando, dB surveys at intersections between South St. and Livingston Ave. were taken at three different times of day to see how the interstate traffic effects the city. Through data collection at 4 am, 9 am and 7 pm, sound levels were found that were consistently above 65 dB threshold.

The data reveals that not only is Downtown Orlando affected by the acoustic impact of the interstate but that the sound penetrates deeper into the city than expected. Because the interstate is elevated, the facades of the buildings reflect and amplify sound waves and the lack of sound abatement through the downtown the resulting acoustic impact negatively affects the well-being, of individuals exposed to the soundscape.

In search of tranquility, mitigating the damage that sound has on people’s wellbeing and the urban soundscape this project proposes an intervention to eliminate the acoustic intensity of the interstate. Within the urban environment an elevated highway surrounded on both sides by large buildings clad in reflective materials, bounce and amplify sounds allowing them to penetrate further into the city. The sound from Inter-

state must be removed to preventing it from entering the city.

The intervention would consist of five components. The first component is the Exterior skin that seals the interior from the elements while interacting with the environment through localized opacity. The second component is the ventilation system the circulates air in and out of the structure. The third is the sound insulating materials to reduce the sounds of traffic. The fourth component is the structure where the skins attach.

The fifth component is the interior skin that provides an absorptive diffracting surface that creates an air tight seal around the interstate preventing sound from transmitting through the air.

With the acoustic impact of the interstate removed from the soundscape, tranquility is now possible. The structures benefit the city by creating the opportunity for wellbeing and tranquility.

A tranquil public space developed under a section of the interstate across three blocks of downtown.

Schafer, R. Murray. The Tuning of the World. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1977.  ll

Figure 1: Interstate area of impact

7

Chapter 1: Introduction

8

Chapter 1: Introduction for what is to come

9

The urban soundscape of the city of Orlando is an important aesthetic.

The downtown area of Orlando is a densely populated urban with over 6000 residents, within the study area. However, many sounds within the soundscape are unable to be perceived or experienced due to the presence and acoustic pollution of Interstate 4. The sound levels emitted from Interstate 4 are above the level of 65 dB, negatively effecting the wellbeing of the inhabitants of downtown Orlando [3][4][6].

The current renovation of Interstate 4 was increase the impact of sound pollution. The expansion of Interstate 4 was reach further into the city, adding more lanes increasing the density of vehicles on the road (Figure 1). The additional height of the interstate means that sound was be able to penetrate further into the city. The addition of the center lanes creates an opportunity for steady traffic to run at higher speeds at all times of the day.

10

Figure 2: I4 Ultimate Expansion

The Objective

The objective of this Masters Research Project is to identify the areas next to Interstate 4 that receive the highest intensities of sound. Interstate 4 now has negative effects on the inhabitants of downtown Orlando, (figure 2), these negative impacts was worsen with the renovation of the interstate. To prevent the negative impact on the wellbeing of inhabitants, identifying strategies and research to recapture and isolate the dangerous levels of sound from the downtown area of Orlando [3][4][8].

The Problem Statement

The constant high acoustic impact from interstate 4 overwhelms the local soundscape of Orlando. The effects of acoustic impact must be isolated from the sound of Interstate 4 to promote the wellbeing of the inhabitants of the city. This is done through the restoration of the urban soundscape that was allow more of the sounds present in the urban soundscape to emerge.

Figure 3: Conceptual Analysis of I4

Figure 4: Conceptual Analysis Orlando

11

The Urban Soundscape

(Schafer (1977)) defined the soundscape as “a subject of acoustic ecology and refers to both the natural acoustic environment consisting of natural sounds, including animal and sounds from trees, the sounds of water, weather, and environmental sounds created by humans through musical composition, sound design and other human activities, including sounds of mechanical origin resulting from the use of industrial technology (page 9)� [14].

In the urban environment, the totality of sound in any given area makes up the soundscape. The soundscape is composed of both positive and negative sounds that exist together to form an acoustic identity of place [9], (Figure 4).

The positive sounds in the soundscape are the sounds that have a positive influence on either the location or the receiver. This positive influence can either develop the sense of place by contributing to the area. Negative sounds are loud sounds and noise.

The issue Interstate 4 causes are high negative intensity sounds that masks the other sounds of the urban soundscapes. The aspects that make the

12

acoustic profile of a place unique comes from acoustic ecology term, sound mark [9] [14]. Sound marks are identifiers that produce a unique regular sound [8]. Within the soundscape, there may be one or more sound marks that create the unique sense of place in an area. The loss of acoustic individuality of place in the continuous acoustic impact of the interstate.

Figure 5: Conceptual Urban soundscape

Definition of Noise

Noise is defined as unwanted sound [3][4][5]. Noises are the sounds that are created by actions, were the resultant sound was not the desired outcome, they are the sounds that we have learned to ignore [14]. Noise pollution is the abundance of environmental sounds that pollute the soundscape [14] (Figure 5).

Figure 6: Conceptual Transportation soundscape

13

Hearing Process

The human sense of hearing perceives sounds waves passing through a medium, such as air. These sounds transverse into the complex working of the ear, converting into electrical impulses that the brain interprets. The human ear is divided into three different sections. The Outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear (Figure 7). Sound enters the outer ear funneled by the pinna into the ear canal. The sound travels through the ear canal until reaching the ear drum.

The ear drum connects to the middle ear through the ossicles. The ossicles are made up of three bones called the malleus, incus and stapes. Sound stimulates the eardrum to move, this movement forces the ossicles bones to strike each other and the cochlea. The cochlea is a fluid filled structure in the inner ear. The transfer of energy to the cochlea causes it to vibrate. The energy of the vibrations is then transferred to the 20000 hair cells (cilia) on the organ called the Corti. These cilia use the vibrations to create nerve impulses that replicate the frequency of the sound.

The electrical nerve impulses travel on

14

to the auditory nerve and then to the brain. The body’s mechanical response to this sequence, create the brain’s comprehension of sound, allowing humans to differentiate location and pitch of the surrounding noise.  

Stirrup Auditor nerve

Anvil

Pinna

Ear Canal Cochlea Ear Drum

Hammer

Outer

Middle

Inner

Figure 7: How the ear works

15

16

Perception of acoustics

Definition of Wellbeing

The perception of how sound is perceived at different levels is not very clear and has to be approached from a subjective perspective. Sound is calculated logarithmically, for example two sources that produce the same level of sound when added together increase the overall level of sound by three decibels.

However, this is not perceived as being twice as loud. Surveys done on the perception of the changes to sound intensity have found that a change of 10 dB is perceived as being twice as loud and a 20 dB change is perceived as four times as loud, per the (Environmental Protection Department) [17].

A one decibel change is unperceived, two to three is slightly perceived, five to six is a notable change. When dealing with traffic noise the same ideas apply however they are related at a higher scale, as shown in Figure 6.

Wellbeing is defined as a state characterized by health, happiness and prosperity. The characteristics of wellbeing are linked strongly together as one influences the others. The goal of studying soundscapes is to create an environment that was support these characteristics for the inhabitants of downtown Orlando.

Intensity of interstate sound

Intensity a Vehicle sound

Threshold of prolonged hearing damage Water Fountain (small)

Safe sound level for Healing Tranquil sounds Bird song

Trees blowing in the wind

Threshold of Hearing

Figure 8: Chart of sounds and Decibel level

17

Acoustic Impact on Wellbeing

Sound begins to have negative effects on wellbeing with pronged exposure to 65 dB of sound [3][5]. Prolonged exposure to sound causes physiological damage at a slow rate that is commonly overlooked [3]. The first and most common symptom or noticeable damage is noise induced hearing loss [3][4]. Exposure prolonged and sudden sound can cause hearing loss; sudden sounds cause damage to occur above 90 dB, (Figure 7) depending on the damage, the body can recover from sound induced damage if, 16 to 48 hours of acoustic rest can be reached after suffering damage [5]. This type of damage is referred to as temporary threshold shift. Prolonged and regular exposure to damaging levels of sound over 65 dB can reach the point that hearing loss becomes permanent [3] [4]. This is called the permanent threshold shift. A study done by the European Environmental Agency reported that one hundred and ten million people are suffering from adverse effects of noise pollution from being in traffic in Europe [3].

Hearing damage occurs in the inner ear. When high levels of sound enter the ear, the eardrum forces the ossicles

18

to contact the cochlea, if this process causes the destruction of the cilia they was no longer function to produce the electrical impulses to the brain.

Tinnitus is a condition caused by noised induced damage; it results in a ringing sensation experienced in the ear [3][4]. It is a permanent symptom caused by this type of damage.

When exposed to prolonged levels of sound surpassing 85 dB the human body starts showing physiological symptoms.

The hypothesized symptoms caused by prolonged levels of sound and exposure to intense sound above 110 dB, these results have found in research from the last 40 years [3][4][5].

There are four primary effects of prolonged exposure to sound.

First, sleep disturbance has been found disrupted at sound levels that ordinarily would not create issues. Sleep is disturbed at a level lower than that of the temporary phase shift, it does not damage hearing, but it still affects the body. At 30 dB of continuous noise, a person’s sleep can be disrupted [3].

Sleep is disturbed in several ways, beginning with the inability to fall asleep.

Noise may occupy enough of your sense of hearing which prevents sleep from oc-

curring. Frequent awakening or early rising may occur depriving the body of reaching its sleep stages. The fluctuation of the sleep stages and depth of sleep is most noticeable when it affects Rem sleep. Noise while sleeping causes, increased blood pressure, heart rate, pulse amplitude, vasoconstriction, changes in respiration, cardiac arrhythmias, and increased body movement [3][4][5]. These negative impacts affect the human body’s ability to regenerate and recover while asleep.

Second, noise exposure impairs performance. Cognitive and physical performance decreases in spaces with noise because that distract the brain and its senses ability to focus [2][3][4].

Noise also leads to decreased motivation, reading, learning, problem solving and increased errors. In laboratory studies, performance is impaired when voices spoke to subjects while they tried to read and remember the verbal material. The impairment is thought to occur because of the connection between reading and memorization that is disrupted by noise [3][4][6].

Third, noise can affect cardiovascular disease; the most common instances; increased blood pressure and

19

heart rate [3][4]. Studies have found that work areas that have an 85 dB or higher caused workers to have higher blood pressure then a worker in areas that were quieter. The stress caused by noise when added to the stress of focused tasks causes autonomic nervous system responses. It was found that inducing noise to in areas of complex work induced predictable physiological responses [3].

In Amsterdam studies around the Schiphol Airport reported more medical treatments for hypertension, high blood pressure cardiovascular drug use and high pulse rate, while sudden intense exposure to noise can induce abnormal heart rhythms [4].

Highways and interstates produce high levels of sound that much of the population is exposed to on an almost daily basis. Interstate noise can reach 90 dB, which can cause irreversible damage [3][5].

Fourth, noise also impairs communication. Noise is distracting; it interferes with the ability to understand [1][2][3][4]. The inability to understand can lead to many works and school related issues; errors, miscommunication, direction, etc. It directly affects

20

concentration, fatigue, confidence and irritation. This is an important aspect for schools because of sound limits the ability of students to understand what is taught; it is important to take steps to make spaces of learning quietly [1] [2].

Extremely high levels sound occurs at 120-130 dB, at this intensity, the threshold of pain is surpassed, and the sound becomes physical painful if experienced [3][4]. The two common sources that can create this level of sound are concerts and Jet engines.

This level of sound can cause permanent damage to hearing. It is extremely important to allow the body to recover if this threshold is surpassed.

Healing from acoustic impact

To heal after being exposed to prolonged sound over an eight-hour period or to a short period of very intense sound, the only way to heal is to escape from the sound [3][5]. Quiet spaces allow the body to heal, the quitter space the faster the body can heal [5]. At the temporary threshold shift the ability for the ear to heal ranges from 16 to 48 hours depending on significant the damage is. Daily exposure to a lower intensity prolonged sound may heal in a 16 hour period assuming a quiet space can be reached preventing more hearing damage. A Very loud concert exposed to high intensity sound for several hours my need up to 48 hours to recover.

Permanent damage sets in when the amount of exposure increases to the point that healing periods cannot offset it [5]. The compounding damage from sound without acquiring the time needed to heal was become permanent over time. Hearing loss is a relatively slow process; the body may adjust to the lower capacity to hear without conscious realization of the impairment [3][4].

To maximize the body’s potential to heal, spaces of tranquility, allow the

body to heal faster because of the lack of acoustic impact as well as lowered levels of stress. Tranquil spaces are beneficial to both the body the ear and the mind, allowing for restorative rest.

21

Chapter 2: Theory

22

Chapter 2 : Downtown Orlando acoustic impact study

23

The city of Orlando, the Place.

The city of Orlando is in Central Florida (28°24′57″N 81°17′56″W) and is the third largest metropolitan area in Florida with a population of 2,87,138.

Within the city, itself Orlando is home to 262,372 people as well as a dozen theme parks that welcomes 62 million visitors a year. 1880 brought citrus crops to Florida and was a major export until 1894 when a freeze lost the area 100 million dollars. As time passed the city grew and in 1971 Orlando became a tourist destination with the construction of Disney World [20].

Downtown Orlando has several areas that define the downtown sense of place. Lake Eola is the beloved park that the downtown area has formed around.

Orange Ave is the main street through downtown Orlando and is the main pedestrian corridor. Church St. is another very popular pedestrian oriented street that crosses Orange and is the origin of the Downtown. The Dr. Phillips Preforming Arts Center is the newest construction that defines the edge of downtown with a large urban public space and Interstate four and the 408 expressways that form the boundary of the downtown

24

district. Along with the Modern buildings that expressions of advanced materials and technologies, there are several much older buildings that are simple in the expression and welcoming to passersby.

Downtown Orlando is a unique mix of old and new, like the 1920’s Angebuilt building and the 2015 Dr. Phillips Center. This diversity in age, as well as size, imparts a scale that is comfortable at the pedestrian level.

Downtown Orlando then seen from afar seems larger then when seen in it. This is due to the design of the streets. Orange Ave incorporates most the high-rises in Downtown Orlando, but that is overlooked due to the trees that block the height of the buildings from the pedestrian. The pedestrian engages the ground floor of nearly every structure through storefronts that hold restaurants, clubs, or bars.

In the evening hours, these establishments spill out onto the sidewalks, and the dominate sound of the city is a balance of vehicles and conversations.

The sound is an unavoidable aspect of life. In urban context of Orlando, the acoustic impact due to the proximity density and diversity of sources within

the urban environment that producing sounds, these producers include transportation, building exhaust and pedestrians. The latter three factors decide the level sound is experienced in the urban environment. In rural areas, the factor that effects sound the most is the distance between sources and sound. Sound diminishes as it travels, the farther the distance, the more it diminishes.

Orange at Anderson

Orange at South

Orange at Church

Orange at Pine

Orange at Central

Orange at Jefferson

Orange at Washington

Orange at Livingston

Figure 9: Major intersections along Orange Ave.

25

The everyday sounds that shape the city.

Urban areas in general experience very similar sounds due to vehicle traffic pedestrians, public transport and a variety of smaller sounds. What distinguishes the experience of sound in an urban environment is the form and details of each. Downtown Orlando is laid out in a standard grid layout between Garland Ave (East side of downtown) and Roslind Ave (West side of downtown) and Colonial Ave (North side of downtown) Anderson Ave (South side of downtown) (Figure 10). (A) Garland Ave, (B) Orange Ave, (C) Magnolia Ave, (D) Roslind Ave. (1) Livingston St, (2) Robinson St, (3) Washington St, (4) Central St, (5) Pine St, (6) Church St, (7) South St, (8) Anderson St.

With Interstate 4 east of Garland, 408 south of Anderson and Lake Eola west of Roslind. The street range from three and one way roads on Orange and Roslind to two lanes both way roads on the rest of the streets. The one-way traffic street creates patterns of sound from vehicles stopping at traffic lights. There is an ebb and flow, as traffic comes to

26

a halt and then continues. The building facades of most of the structures of downtown along with they’re proximity to each other bounce sound back and forth off the surfaces amplifying the intensity of sound. Glass, concrete, tile, metals and stone all reflect sound back into the landscape. Denser areas along Orange have more of an issue with these phenomena while open spaces like Lake Eola disperse sound over a distance.

At night, the streets come alive and fill with pedestrians. There are other sounds that are lost in the high sound intensities. Many of the trees that line the streets are home to birds. Bird song is a very subtle sound that can be easily masked. Water fountains offer a relaxing sound to pedestrians while also masking other sounds from the area.

The wind blowing through the trees lining Orange Ave is also a quiet but relaxing experience, but there are enough trees that the sound they produce can be heard even through the much louder traffic. Especially around Lake Eola the scurrying creatures running up and down trees in search of food. These little sounds that take place in the city along with the regular higher intensity sounds form the Urban Soundscape.

The ways sound reacts within the specific context creates the unique experience that defines the sense of place. The texture, material, distances, volumes and environment influence sound. Church Street is a very dense occupied street and is more narrow in places then Orange. The ways sound reacts in that space more intense. Some of the buildings are made of wood and was absorb sound, meaning that the interior spaces was also be louder.

Lake Eola opens the dense city fabric. However, lined on either side with structures that reflect sound into the park. The fountain in the middle of the lake emits enough sound to bathe the entire park with 65 decibels sound masking any incoming sounds from the city. The Dr. Phillips Center contends with the high acoustic intensity of both Interstate Four and the 408 expressways.

Figure 10: Study Area Locations

27

The passive experience of the city, hearing it.

Of the five-human senses, there are active senses and passive senses [1]. Active sense like sight are seeking; they reach out to give shape and meaning to the world around them, they define. The hearing is a passive sense, meaning these experience are received. Sounds fill the voids sight creates, this sense is always present.

This is why the sound is overlooked. A steady hum elicits subconscious response, But the eyes are controlled and directed; the ears function without the need of control. A typical response of the human body is to develop coping mechanisms to deal with the onslaught of sound, the more regular it is, the easier the body can adjust to it. This leads to sounds that are overlooked and ignored. These sounds are referred to as noise, the sounds that are considered undesirable [14].

28

Figure 11: Conceptual Loud Soundscape

29

Filling the void. The soundscape.

The soundscape is the acoustic landscape of a given area. It is made of the totality of sound both positive and negative [14]. The positive sounds in the soundscape are the sounds that have a positive influence on either the location or the receiver. This positive influence can either develop the sense of place by contributing to the area.

Within the context of Orlando, there are several positive sounds that exist within the urban soundscape.

Flowing water has been proven to have a both calm and relax. There are several locations within the context that offer the sounds of flowing water. There are two locations along Orange Ave that use fountains as a feature to mask the sound of traffic to the structure they belong.

Lake Eola is a similar feature at a much larger scale. One of the most powerful positive sounds of the soundscape is the pedestrian activity. Orange Ave hosts bars restaurants and nightclubs in 70% of the buildings. Along with Church St. the road is shut down to traffic on certain occasions and tables, and chairs spill out into the streets. Pedestrian activity includes walk, talking and other

30

public activities. The sound resulting from activity varies from 40 decibels to 70 decibels depending on the location and context. There is a host of smaller sounds that are also positive. Bird song, Bicycles, small animals, wind blowing through trees.

The identified negative sounds within the soundscape are vehicle noise, mechanical noise, and construction.

Negative sounds are sounds that are loud unwanted sounds. There are many sounds that could make this list, however, are commonly grouped and referred to as noise. The former are negative sounds within the soundscape because they are potentially hazardous. One other type of sound that could join that list are sounds that have become unidentifiable. When enough sounds are created and bend together due to the proximity of sources, the brain cannot understand the resultant sounds. Uncomprehending sounds are dangerous because the body can cope with these sounds because of their irregular frequencies.

It is important to understand the soundscape and what sounds make up the soundscape to understand what sounds are desirable and supported and what sounds are hazardous and need to be

attenuated. Finding the hazardous sounds in the soundscape and the acoustic impact they have on the city effects how the urban context experiences sound and what was happen when they are gone.

Figure 12: Conceptual Soundscape Visualization

31

Precedent Studies: The absence of the interstate in an urban area; DeLand FL.

The city of DeLand FL is a much smaller city then Orlando and is located 25 miles north of Interstate 4. Downtown Deland is home to Stetson University, keeping the urban area thriving if still at a much smaller scale then Orlando. The significance of this area within this study is the lack of the interstate running through it.

In the urban area of Downtown Orlando, the proximity of the interstate has adverse effects on the wellbeing of the inhabitants due to the acoustic impact of vehicle noise. In DeLand Interstate 4 is more than two miles away and has no acoustic effect on the downtown urban area. DeLand has a soundscape that is perceivable having a positive influence on wellbeing.

The subtle sounds of the soundscape, wind blowing in the trees, bird song and casual conversation are perceivable. This is because the ambient sound levels are eleven to twenty-two decibels lower than that of Orlando. This level of sound is perceived as two to four times quieter than that of Downtown

32

Orlando. The scale of the urban area of DeLand is much smaller than that of Orlando. However, the difference in the acoustic impact of the ambient sounds of two cities is dramatic because of the Interstate (Figure 14).

Figure 13: Downtown DeLand Sound Study

Figure 14: Downtown DeLand

33

Large scale Interstate renovation; The Boston (Big Dig) Interstate 93.

The Boston “Big Dig� was a 1.7- mile renovation of Interstate 93 that passes through Downtown Boston (Figure 16).

Before the renovation, Boston had many similar issues to Orlando. The Interstate was an elevated roadway passing over the city. It was designed to handle 70,00 vehicles a day, at the time of construction it experiences 150,000 per day causing backups, and congestion throughout the city. Very like the issues experienced today in Orlando.

The renovation incorporated a design to remove the presence of the interstate from the urban area by burring it in the ground. This approach allowed the city to regain land that was once dominated by the supports of the interstate.

The city converted the regained land by converting the land into park space. Prerenovation the Downtown Boston area experienced a range of sound levels from 70 to 85 decibels from the interstate in residential areas. With the renovation project, several acoustic strategies are

34

used to dampen the acoustic impact of the interstate.

First, the use of slurry walls prevents the sound waves from penetrating the city. Slurry walls reduce the number of vibrations from sound waves. Without the slurry walls, the vibrations from the sound waves could penetrate though the walls and continue to the city. The slurry wall reduces the sound waves ability to travel due to the discontinuity of the structure. The individual particles absorb the vibrations, spending their energy within the wall rather than transferring through it.

Second, placing the interstate on the ground. By burring the Interstate in the ground the amount of sound that can penetrate the city is greatly reduced. When the Interstate is elevated the amount of sound penetration that occurs happens in all directions around the source. This sound then bounces from the structures next to the interstate and amplifies the sound in the area.

When the roadway is on the ground, the sound generates 180 degrees around the source. By placing the roadway beneath the ground the degree that sound can travel from the source into the city is very limited, as they can only travel

up.

Third, sections of the Interstate are enclosed offering acoustic isolation from the city. The tunneling completely enclosing the road blocks sound from the city by keeping all sound created within the tunnel. The sound levels within the tunnel was rise, but within the city, the sound levels was decrease in these areas.

Figure 15: Boston “BIG DIG” Expansion Area

Figure 16: Boston “BIG DIG” Expansion Area

35

Sound wave isolation; Gate Tower Osaka, Japan.

The Gate Tower in Japan is a unique structure that emerged as a compromise between a property owner and an infrastructure developer to build both an elevated highway and a building. To carry out both projects in the same location was a unique challenge.

The solution that the two parties came to agree to was to have the highway to travel right through the center of the building (Figure 16). The most significant feature in this project to overcome after its engineering is the acoustic impact of traffic traveling through the building.

To remove the acoustic influence of traffic on the building sound must be completely isolated from it. There are two important steps that must be overcome to negate the acoustic impact of the structure.

First, sound wave isolation of the tunnel. To stop sound from entering the building the sound from the vehicle traffic must be kept within the tunnel. If an air tight structure encircles the road it is possible to have the sound and prevent

36

it from entering the building. Without it, sound at highway intensities would enter the structure.

Second, is the separation of the two structure from touching. If the two structures came in contact sound waves would travel through conduction from one to the other. These sound waves would then continue from point of contact into ten structure and emanate throughout it. The design avoided this by cantilevering the elevated highway from one support through the building to the next support.

Figure 17: Gate Tower Osaka, Japan

Figure 18: Gate Tower Osaka, Japan. Aerial Image

37

Chapter 3: Analysis

38

Chapter 3: Project Analysis

39

Process Project Goals

Identify the level acoustic impact on Downtown Orlando from Interstate 4. A decibel meter was be used to create an auditory chart, distinguishing the intensities of sound at street intersections.

The sound was be recorded at intersections to create a soundscape analysis to discover the sources and intensities to distinguish desirable and sources from the undesirable. From this information, the level of need for sound abatement was determined.

The process informed the design requirements for the design of a sound isolating structure to end the acoustic impact of the interstate from Downtown Orlando. If the structure ends the acoustic impact of the interstate, it was also end the amplification of sound from the adjacent buildings on either side of the interstate [10]. To attenuate the internal sound strategies for interstate sound reduction was be employed to lower internal sound as much as possible. Sound strategies in these spaces were lowered approximately 6 dB [11]. Outside of that, an acoustic isolating structure can isolate sound created by the sources reducing the acoustic impact of sound

40

entering the city by 60 to 80 dB [9]. To take full advantage of sound isolation to remove it from the city it must take place in an airtight superstructure that confines sound within itself instead of downtown.

More than just a structure of sound retention this structure became an object that became a major identifying feature of the city of Orlando. The sound is the major focus of this MRP, but there are secondary features that are discussed by using this strategy in this way. Some secondary benefits that prove the validity of this project include the availability to develop an area of the city that has been lost to development since the interstate was built, air purification, renewable energy and improved safety and durability of the road [7] [13].

Figure 19: Identify Strategies to accomplish goals

41

Secondary Health Implication from interstates.

Due to the scale of the interstate Several health effects from prolonged exposure other than just sound. The sound is the most dramatic because of the range and degree of which it is experienced. However other health concerns do exist. A very serious threat to the wellbeing that effects everyone that lives next to Interstate 4 is air pollution.

Air pollution from vehicle emissions on Interstate 4 occurs at a rate and density high enough to create toxic plumes [12].

Nationally, transportation accounts for 27% of all emissions produced in the United States [19]. Since 1990 every year 1.5 to 2 billion tons of carbon is produced. Of that 82% is emitted from highway traffic.

On Interstate 4, 158 thousand vehicle drive by downtown Orlando every day [16]. The emissions from these vehicles produce 2 g/km [18]. This converts to 83 ppm (parts per millions) per hour. Exposure to this level of toxic gas for 4 hours was at the very least cause headaches vomiting and nausea [15].

Over a one day period, Interstate 4 pro-

42

duces 3.75 lbs of carbon emission each day over the downtown stretch of the interstate (Figure 19).

Toxic plumes are areas of concentrated pockets of pollution that collect and spread over areas through the wind. The makeup of these plumes holds many poisonous gases and substances such as Carbon monoxide, sulfur Dioxide, ozone and lead [12]. The health effects of prolonged exposure to these poisons can cause: Headaches, cough, fatigue, inflamed breathing passages, decreased lung function, decreased oxygen absorption.  

Toxic Plumes 83 PPM produced by 150,000 vehicles per day

Figure 20: Toxic Air in the city

43

Literature Review Introduction

This literature review cover data from journals about the effects of highway traffic on the health and quality of life of its residence. This paper discusses Interstate Four in Orlando FL, and with it current expansion it was be worsening this issue of health in the city.

Purpose:

The purpose of this review is to name the hazards and effects of loud and persistent noise on the inhabitants of downtown Orlando. This was the basis for the argument for the need for sound reduction.

From this point, the study continues to develop the need and importance of the soundscape of the city.

The research was conducted to discover how sound is attenuated to the interstate was done, and strategies developed from these findings were incorporated in this idea of ending the interstate sound from the city.

44

Methodology

The internet was the main reference tool used to find a journal article, fact sheets, and books for this paper.

The University of Florida’s database was used along with Google scholars search engine. This paper uses 14 sources that range from 40 years of research over several different schools of thought.

The research though is based on three broad topics. Noise and health, the phenomenology of soundscapes and sound abatement.

standing of what makes up the soundscape allows for the perceiving of the undesirable sounds and the ability to alter or remove some sounds. To reduce the greatest sound within the space combination of abetment strategies can be used together to increase the ability of that strategy to reduce sound.

Findings

While researching, several important items were discovered. First sound and noise can have a dramatic effect on health and wellbeing, yet for the most part, sound pollution and impairment are ignored. Hearing damage is not an instant failing, it gets worse over periods of time. Noise can be insidious because the damage that was done may not be perceived until it gets to a noticeable point too late to heal.

Studies of the soundscape need the ability to hear and accept all the sound in the landscape. The under-

45

Section One: Phenomenology Eyes of the skin:

The general functions of the senses in relation to architecture define the experience of space. The collaboration between the senses is the most natural experiential quality of architecture and how the lack of a sensorial experience dulls the value of that experience.

The articulation of the world around is strengthened by the interactions with senses, each improving on the articulation of the other reaffirming the presence or existence in space. This information is a need in life as it is the precursor to the mediation of information to make judgments.

The arguments about the distinctions of sound vs sight define and arguments of passivity and activity. Sight is an active sense that is done, where sound is passive sense that is received.

While vision defines, what is physically around the subject sound articulates and understanding of experience.

Sound carves through the void of darkness, that which cannot be perceived by another sense.

The most specific category (Pallasmaa (1996)) discusses in Eyes of the skin, is that of silence. He argues that the most

46

essential auditory experience is of tranquility. Thus, all senses can be used without distraction to articulate understanding and experience of the architecture.

Listening and Voice:

In the discussion about the phenomenology of acoustics, there is a compelling argument for the comparison and relationship between listening and speaking. To do this, first discussion how over the last 30 years’ sounds have risen and the world is getting louder, therefore the experience of how to listen and speak must be adjusted to this new context. The framework is built on the phenomenological argument of two people philosophers, Heidegger and Husserl Ian. The two arguments construct a process for analyzing phenomenology through the science of experience and through the horizon of phenomena.

(Ihde (2007)) delves into the importance of listening as it is the precursor to any vocal reaction, as it informs the reaction. Discussions of perceiving voice and the language of voice, as every sound is a type of language and the sound produced is the voice and the power of the conscious and subconscious over the experiential of perceiving.  

47

The Tuning of the World:

The soundscape and the importance of recognizing sound in the environment, is discussed by (Schafer (1977)). It is important to recognize that the soundscape in made up of both desirable and undesirable sounds. Embracing all the sounds present is the first step to the comprehension of the soundscape, and that to alter it, removing undesirable or harmful sounds one must understand the sounds and how they work within the space. Arguments about noise becoming a problem when there are sounds that are ignored and only is a problem when it reaches a level that it is noticed. But if sound is appropriately acknowledged then steps can be taken to deal with it, it can be avoided or discussed and restored to its original state. Sounds within the soundscape take on different roles for the receiver perceiving them. They help navigate, alert and combine to create unique profiles that develop senses of place.

48

A framework for improving urban soundscapes:

In the soundscape of urban areas argument for the acceptance of sound, that not all noise is bad and that soundscapes develop from both positive and negative sounds develops a structure for arguments to sell the idea of applied acoustics to developers and clients.

The framework begins with the development of the audience that is broken up into three parts. Listeners are either planning, seriously listening or are a user. The difference between the first to breaks down to regulations vs. design. The most important are the third, the user. The soundscape alters user’s perception it is not a direct perception of what is herd. The framework for soundscapes are the elements positive vs. negative and the intervention.

The main argument for the soundscape developed by (Jennings (2011)) is the fact that undesirable noise is a subjective issue. Some noise can be employed to have positive benefits. Running water has a positive effect on mood, while the sound from a car can alert pedestrians to the proximity of the vehicle.

The important point of soundscapes is that they are personal experiences that are not constant and are related to the activity taking place at that moment and location.

49

The temporal structure of urban soundscapes:

It is necessary to examine the urban soundscape as a temporal experience, using music as an analogy, sounds are an integral part of the urban condition; the aggregate of sounds can evoke specific emotions.

The soundscape is not an isolated area that can be studied it is encompassing and draws sound from all surrounding areas. Traffic is the loudest most overbearing sounds of the landscape.

There are two parts of the soundscape the spectral and the temporal that (Bottdooren (2005)) defines. The spectral sounds are the ever-present sounds that exist and persist. Temporal sounds are the myriad of sounds caused by occupation and activity.

The sources and development of soundscapes can be related to rhythm to develop an argument examining the variation and duration of sound over time. This argument is further explored by (Bottdooren (2005)) through graphs and interviews in attempts to develop and prove the correlation between the soundscape and music.

50

The phonic identity of the city urban soundscape for sustainable spaces:

Views on the urban soundscape offer an opportunity to incorporate sonic diversity and acoustic ecology into urban space planning. Taking up the position that urban sounds are a resource that is neglected in urban design. There is potential for acoustics profiles to support urban place making through the soundscape an attribute and potential resource.

The concept of introducing quiet calming spaces into Cairo using the soundscape approach begins in the design process by finding and analyzing the site context documenting its use. (Rehan (2014)) Documented the soundscape reducing noise, quiet zones and plan land use. Designing the space and selecting the noises that are wanted, gathering data from case studies and using surveys to reach conclusions about how to use the soundscape as a resource and introducing it into the urban design process.

51

Section Two: Noise and Health Noise pollution: non-auditory effects on health: What the effects of noise pollution have on health is examined clinical papers as proof damage due to sound impact. Diving each general health effect into sections discussing laboratory testing and surveys have found and how serious the effects of acoustic impacts are. Sleep disturbance, Noise exposure impairs performance, Noise, and cardiovascular disease, Increased Heart Rate High blood pressure, raised cortisol about noise Annoyance Nausea, headaches, argumentativeness, anxiety, change in mood, Adrenaline secretion, affects cognitive function, Difficulty concentrating and hearing loss as possible symptoms of noise pollution.

(Stanfield (2003)) States that some effects of cardiac function, hearing loss, performance and cognitive function have strong correlations in tests concerning noise exposure.

52

Noise Pollution: A Modern Plague:

discussed.

Noise pollution can be described as a plague due to nature of the serious issue that defies an understanding that would alleviate health problems caused by sound. Per (Goines (2007)), noise has risen to plague status because the loud environments are only going to get louder as vehicle use increases and other sources grow unchecked.

In the past sound was not nearly as much of a problem as it has been for the last 40 years. Over that period population and production have exploded thus creating a world filled with noise. The issues to health that noise triggers. It causes: Control hampered by a lack of knowledge, Widespread long term consequences, Impairment at 85 dB and above, interfering with spoken communication, Concentration, Working capacity. As a society, we are slow to respond to issues that concern health and safety that need changes to the way of life or routine.

But the health problems caused by sound was not go away until they are

53

Do Quiet Areas Afford Greater Health-Related Quality of Life than Noisy Areas?

that are simply below the level damage.

Researched on the effect of noise on health and quality of life in the city types and through surveys and clinical journals they dissected what benefits of recreational spaces and the negatives of loud urban areas.

(Daniel (2013)) Studied the effects of sound in 4 types of environments.

Loud urban, quite urban, loud rural and quite rural. Through surveys gaging the quality of life for the residence of loud traffic noise had the least positive effect on the standard of living.

Loud noise has negative effects on mood, mental health, and social interactions.

Loud noise is the reason urban areas experienced lowered quality of life then people who lived in quiet rural areas. Quiet spaces are also beneficial to recreational spaces because it would allow the body to heal from noise induced damage. The quieter space was, the better it was for audible health. The body recovers faster in quiet spaces then it does in spaces

54

Figure 21: Sensitive Location Data

lP

S

k

&

R

ep

C

D

sr tea'

rla

as

&

ve

u

te

el

ne si

tS

ir M

E

er

ss

p

g in

c

Si

In

&

g

n

C

te ni

ev

d

A

D

ce an

O

Sp

ec

an M

l ia

tie

em ag

s

t

M

en

fg

c In

55 Figure 22: Sensitive Location Map

no deed cr acm A C

U

u Tr

o

tnetr zershiesre rsgnicoCtneace Iyfnceic nfictsDAM C OastufePtfio&e necsrCgztnkcH asitO anLIO Ionefhdtm rcIensr& Lbw cnsrefm cwdaeogw eaM roiysuw O acinM sLueA Iofm ivLaM ahokfw altoePAfsLHfem CkLm epw fohdPSie ptsrhA eIknur& egm apPogklnIubctaeglInraytisO nO kim SroePagtLeaSr& w oCLgm baM olecuPrntw asw nim g'rnerHR om SahlioeyLrdailtyuebhw asm rdSearnFesw AoentcG gD LilroFTO ciW ktnsalC achlkosDrLehm c nwfoinuLM dcSbehHuanstoiNcbhelrfLtG M lvkC hFostB o& tkczhralestIw In yLbnorlepw aoiM B bluftw ScawH doEiLJPdhtCnyaocrilegG icFu&reiv TLasm uoB tgw enaM TLin ogSateinrm chdB sLnD M lpinNoaeB hTyA M & W B Q tBaTcedoLrPle A yuSisH W DR giartlpJSvC pTAstraf'dhenA isFLalynIH ankelrcm bEiRrkctegoC ylsom FClasoed&rnM isretynm olw aoeVritgnkudilsaSerbCy&ehncdfSsuga& fPqSFiC tdm is M itzkhSm eaJvnryikhgoces& frdio vtilehCoyclrnEaepiuctzglsvorbIlsTeuvtnia asgBoA cSiVm nlidreolw N ItK TLIC EAH YR W JC M IB UPNFAnoaeri'toha G FSD

r ro

e in ng

Shoulder Mounted, 8 FT (Recommended)

p B no t oP irniz PVer

s

he ut So

s la G

a re

e af C e hei hti oto m oo m mS te aSl iMc ys S o&p TMr ng ki ar P o nd

C

O of

ti

m tca ISn esr ibp n uilbl tio Rh d a ro P n Dd u an Fo rl O i ps ill h rP

ity

Noise Barrier Not Recomm ended

nt

rk e le dg in t C Ju d m our rt A C y ou tc cy C y up p t tc k r ru vc up l S an an k kr ia B an et r S B r S P U S U U

B

itS lhl AW

LIVINGSTONair ST ngs efim osto Ry oS lde anb orlb CO

ra

U

up ro lG ia Tr c 's o en ss m A o & W nt na s Co an r er te th rss u Feo -L an acl le I ni C m nc gae te ir e tian ys qu S atnF Es ng devn Aiv ki or ar CTh t en

m

C

c la

at

B

Existing Noise Barriers No NAC or NAC F: NON-SENSITIVE DEVELOPED, N/A; NAC

300 Feet 150 75 0

Ground Mounted (Recomm ended) Shoulder Mounted, 14 FT (Recomm ended) RESIDENTIAL, 66.0 dB(A) OTHER SENSITIVE LAND USES, 66.0 dB(A) INSTITUTIONAL (INT ERIOR), 51.0 dB(A) SENSITIVE COMMERCIAL (EXTERIOR), 71.0 dB(A) B: C: D: E:

d

ni te U

FIGURE 3-2 PRELIMINARY NOISE BARRIER LOCATIONS MAP Sheet 11 of 29 Noise Barriers Noise Activity Categories (NAC) and Criteria

I-4 ULTIMATE PROJECT FROM EAST OF KIRKMAN ROAD TO EAST OF SR 434 ORANGE AND SEMINOLE COUNTIES, FLORIDA FPID: 432193-1-52-01

C

e rt yas uSl

L TS

o

om

END PROJECT 15

ic nhg kei arV dPa atal otr epn ICm

o

d an

27 9

13 12 11 26

7

10 8

14 5 4

25 23 24 22

NSA 3-AA n io at St et re St h rc t hu C an l ur ai ta et es tR R & l ee tr ril ar S G B t & s ch en pa ur ar h B Ta t inm C a F o jo he ee rt M ic Str nte tr ev C rc h V E T h l hu ia nt se Es lr al

rl O

B

16

17

18

BEGIN PROJECT

29 1

6

Tr op hy d to ne

or l W Si gn lu b

Fi r

es 2

3

n er Ta v st

C 28

19

20

21

Tr u

X LY N

oo p' s H S U

ch

hu r

C

3-66

O ve

r

w

ra

e

n S

ve

i

ec

P

e

a

P e

Pl

a

a

z rs

y

e

al

O cl

Se S rv r ic s es a r w

er

r

ls

P ri

ar

Ve e/s S P ll ar ie a i s

Orlando Police Admin Svc Div

Sp ri In c

oh n

58

Ph ilj

lo n Sa

&

o

2o H az a Pl y ur en t C

Va l

Orlando Vehicles for Hire

o t

Orlando City Prosecutor e

s

Is

er

I

rl a

s

c

s

ee

r

rS

es

ea Se e

c

O O le il

i

s

i

O

c

rc Pa r

vc

i

ar

a

rP

Sy ic er

er

O rl

rk ar aw

rc e S

a S

O rl

e

s

s

m Y r

a

i

S is

er ric

r

a i

ea

re

r

t

i

s

O r

rla es

S

a

a

k e

le r c

ea S e ric iss i s a a e le r r s air ra r i ks ra a i i s e a i i e e ra s se

la

e

ie r

ar l

si

a

I

ki

ri

YO

P W P is r

a

er

i

e

O Sy s er

O

a

ra i

ic

e

e

e

c

I

Vi si

O al

w

er

s y

rs

c

le x

P

ia li c

i ll

W

o C

C PL IS t o AV t on p nt n o C

C

on

&

W

FBA

U Mn

h

n

Sm k r Pa

NSA 3-A b

t

po

g Le

H

p um

tC gh

n

&C

B B

Crime Line

D

&

NSA 2-K

th

w ro

C

nt ou t

ng

D F &

ar

R

ch Te o

nt rl O

d an o nd

u C ob B t ds en

R tz n

A nt n to u t

ou L

m A fL

on HN

ob

ng d u

ng

U

C

t D

t

Th th ou o nd

fo

m h

C t A ng

to

n

B o ut A Vu t

tC ou t

C

R on n U o nd

n L

C

AVE

To h t oo m t on t

o nd y od

ng

nt d o F

on

of t t

M u

p o C ks g g u as n M tg d H o e o g e M n ft r B Th on om H Ro & C n M d' o f A h Bo n p t o t h t d t f s A H ' n er C on ea nd t qu Z Cl ou H B P O d Up d T A

n

B ng f C

n

ff

n

ou C

nt

C to p om

ci l

S

c

ls

w

er

To th oo B o ho

m ub

m A n ou

A N E R A ay w

s

Section Three: Abatement Strategies A Review of Research on Environmental Noise Barriers: The equations for the calculations of sound abatement through different types of sound barriers dissecting different barrier types and their positive and negative features of their design and the amount of sound reduction in the source area. Strategies that work the best and could be used in interior attenuation are: Random Edge Barriers and Absorptive Barriers, Enclosure Type Barriers, Interfering Type Barriers and Phase Reversal Barriers. These Barriers all reach 5 or more dB of sound reduction. Random or multiple edge barriers work best in combination with absorptive barriers.

Then they are used in conjunction the can produce a 4 dB improvement over a single use type. Enclosure type Barriers have two issues that must be dealt with for them to be affected, they need to be ventilated, and the interior must have sound attenuation. Interfering Type Barriers use three-sided mass with multiple tunnels that funnel sound away from the source to the ground.

(Ekici (2003)) describes Phase Reversal

56

Barriers used to open networks of rigid stipes that delay sound and cause the destructive interference of sound waves which result in noise reduction.

Analysis of Highway Noise:

Different types of sources that contribute to highway noise and their characteristics and features of roadways are land configuration, elevation, the right of way and surface. These features are important because they affect sound propagation. The area roads because there are many environmental and regional factors that contribute to the noise of the roadway.

(Hogan (1973)) Found that there are also effects on the layout and spacing of the lanes. The surface of the roadway is a very important because the sound that is generated from the contact between the tire and the road creates high levels of sound that increase with speed. The total noise from highways is a combination of tire road noise and engine exhaust noise.

57

Facade Effects on the Traffic Noise from the Expressway:

The expressways and the land use surrounding it in Singapore; China affects how the sound in the area experienced. In China land is scarce in major cities like Singapore. However, there is still a high demand for roads to travel on, this forces roadways built in dense areas that do not share a positive adjacency. Expressways pass through the city and around building to connect the other various roadways together, but some of these buildings are residential.

(Chew (1994)) Found that the levels of sound produced by expressways are very load and have negative impacts on the residence. The type of façade on the exterior of the building can have a great impact on how much sound penetrates the building.

Problems get worse depending on the buildings heights that flank the road and receive the sound waves and whether there are buildings on one side or both. If there are buildings on just one side, the sound from the sources bounces from one façade, then travels away in the opposite direction. If there are two,

58

however, the sound bounces from one to another trapped in that space and amplifying the noise between buildings making the problem worse.  

Figure 23: Common Facade Materials in Orlando

59

Methodology and Observation Procedure

Data was collected from downtown Orlando west of Interstate four from Garland St. west to Roslind Ave. And south from Livingston St. to Anderson St. North of Livingston Interstate 4 is under heavy construction. Due to the construction, the traffic on the interstate slows to a halt in this area. To acquire consistent figures and variables the former area was chosen to compile and test data. The acoustic survey of the Ultimate Interstate 4 project, the section of Interstate 4 between Lake Ivanhoe and the 408 Expressway, named 480 sound sensitive locations [16].

Data collected at every intersection of streets that spanned through the test area. Alleys and intermediate streets were not tested. Data was collect at every intersection with a decibel meter. The sound was measure at each location at three different times of the day.

4 am, 9 am, and 7 pm. Sound data acquired by averaging the recorded decibel values over a one minute period, at each intersection. Data was acquired at intervals when local traffic was not present, so as not to affect the readings from the interstate. The streets tested are (east to

60

west) Garland St, Orange Ave, Magnolia St, Roslind St. and (north to south) Livingston St, Robinson St, Washington St, Central St, Pine St, Church St, South St, Anderson St.

Materials

The meter used is a Tocas Professional Digital Instruments Sound Level Meter.

The Meter has a +/- 1.5 dB tolerance with a meter range of 30 dB to 130 dB and uses ½ inch electret condenser microphone. Measurements were taken weighted in the A frequency setting.

Data was the entered in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The spreadsheet was arranged in correlation to the grid with the readings from each intersection. Data was then entered graphs to plot the change in dB through the study area (north to south).

61

Observations of Findings

Data was collected at three different times of day to explore the changes in acoustic affect the downtown area experiences. The 4 am sound reading taken to examine the ambient sound the urban environment. These sound readings reflect the urban soundscape without pedestrian impact and local vehicle traffic. These readings do include readings from Interstate 4, as even at 4 am the interstate still produces a regular impact but at a lower value (Figure 23).

Sound levels decrease by approximately 10 dB at 4 am compared to the other reading times and stay around the same level throughout the city.

The 9 am readings reflect the time of day when the interstate is occupied and at a standstill (Figure 23). Sound from the interstate during peak occupation is slow and the acoustic impact is lower than when there are fewer vehicles traveling at higher speed. When at stop vehicles produce 30 dB less than when traveling at interstate speeds. This reflected in the readings. Sound levels rise from the 4 am readings but stay at a steady medium range.

The highest readings were taken at 7 pm and found on Garland Ave, next to the interstate (Figure 23). Garland is approximately 80 ft. from the edge of the

62

interstate and experiences approximately 70 dB of acoustic impact. Although Orange Ave. is over 800 ft. Away it experiences a range of three to six decibels less than Garland. These figures imply that the structure of downtown Orlando amplify the sound that the interstate produces. The structures feature hard, smooth surfaces that bounce and amplify the acoustic impact of the interstate the sound level that Orange Ave should be experiencing given the distance is 50 dB. The difference between these figures is significant when examining the impact of the interstate on the wellbeing of the city and the urban soundscape.

The 7 pm reading reflect the highest reading measured overall. Readings were taken before the heavy pedestrian activity began. Readings taken at this 7 pm offer evidence of the influence of the interstate and the distance at which it can penetrate the city. The sound levels fluctuate with the increased/decreased sound production Garland to Roslind supporting levels higher then would be expected unless the sound produced from the interstate is amplified and carried through the city. Roslind experiences the smallest degree of change over the survey location, but it does react to the acoustic impact of traffic.

Figure 24: Acoustic Survey Results

63

The Cost

With the construction of the Ultimate Interstate 4 project an acoustic survey was taken to decide the areas that was be effected by sound and whether abatement is needed. The Florida Department of Transportation commissions the surveys which are done over a one hour period over one week. As far as the downtown section of Interstate 4, the report said that it was not possible or affordable to try to abate the sound in that area from Lake Ivanhoe to the 408 Expressway.

The FDOT name 480 sound sensitive locations from both sides of the interstate [16]. For abetment to be considered there are a few factors that limit what can be done. First abatement must achieve a 5 dB reduction to be considered. Second if the walls can achieve this $42,000 is spent on the abatement of each receiver. Third Abetment cannot cost more than $30 per square feet of surface area. From this information, a base line can be set up for a cost restraint. To meet the least requirements to achieve sound reduction the acoustic isolation of Interstate 4 can cost up to $252,000,000

64

from Lake Ivanhoe to the 408 Expressway.

Interstate passing through suburban area.

Interstate passing through urban area.

Figure 25: Cost of doing nothing

65

Design Intent and Analysis The intent of this project is to create opportunities for tranquility within the soundscape in Downtown Orlando to improve the wellbeing of its residents.

Through precedent analysis and literature analysis, several design feature standouts as being the most productive in achieving the goal of a tranquility and wellbeing. From the Acoustic Survey of the “Ultimate I4” project, the number of sensitive areas within the downtown area is strong evidence of the severity of the need of sound protection.

The fact that the acoustic survey report states that it is unfeasible is due to the estimation that sound abatement would not achieve a 5 dB reduction.

This is primarily due to three factors discussed in the literature. First, the roadway is elevated. Second, the facades of the surrounding buildings on both side amplify sound. Third, sound diffraction over the walls (Figure 25), in conjunction with the earlier factors would not hold or reduce sound by 5 dB to make the cost worth the outcome.

This situation is on a Larger scale but most like the Precedent study on the Gate Tower in Osaka, Japan and in

66

parts of the Big Dig. The Roadway was need to be isolated acoustically from the city. The previously referenced studies both reduce the amount of sound the interstate produces by fully enclosing the roadway. By doing so the three reasons that cause the Interstate 4 surveyors to consider the abatement as unfeasible.

If the interstate enclosed in a structure that would prevent sound from escaping into the city, Orlando could have the opportunity to develop with a soundscape that promotes tranquility and wellbeing.

Diffraction

Reflection

Transmission

Figure 26: Sound Diffraction Diagram

67

Chapter 4: Project Development

68

Chapter 4: Weaving together an urban gesture

69

The beginning This project began as an attempt to design tea houses and Japanese gardens, to develop tranquility within the soundscape. This first study quickly came to an end when sound studies found that Orlando was too loud to offer areas of tranquility. The acoustic impact on Downtown Orlando was in the 65 dB range which is above the threshold that causes physiological damage over prolonged periods of time. To discover why the sound is so loud in downtown the investigation process was reversed.

The study looked at the areas that

70

produced the most amount of sound.

Vehicle traffic was quickly found to be the loudest source within the soundscape. However traffic on the streets is not constant, there are an ebb and flow that has a significant effect on the sound with in the city. Even when vehicles are not present on the streets, there is still a high acoustic impact. The epicenter of the high acoustic impact was determined to be emitting from Interstate 4.

Interstate 4 produces very high levels of sound within the urban soundscape of Orlando. Vehicles on the Interstate can produce 90 to 105 dB of sound when traveling at 70 mph. With the in-

terstate producing such elevated levels of sound 24 hours a day, there was no longer any probable chance of creating tranquility within this soundscape unless the sound from the interstate can be removed from the soundscape.

Figure 27: The Presence of the new Interstate 4

71

"An absurd solution to an absurd problem"

To have any opportunity to create tranquil spaces within Downtown Orlando the sound from Interstate 4 must be removed from the soundscape. At the same time, Interstate 4 is now on an expansion project that was add two toll lanes in either direction and is widened to 384 ft. At its widest point and was rise 30 ft To a 40 ft clearance at its highest point. These changes to Interstate 4 was make the acoustic impact on the city worse because it was give more lanes for more vehicles and was raise them higher in the air allowing sound to travel farther.

Sound abatement is a common way to deal with sound, but in this environment building, abatement wall is not enough.

Typical sound wall could only reduce the sound by 5 dB which is slightly greater than the just notable difference for most listeners. In other words, for most of Orlando, they would barely notice an improvement with typical highway sound barriers. A much more aggressive solution is necessary.

Through research about abate-

72

ment strategies, the only reliable way to have sound at the size of the interstate is to encircle the roadway in a structure that would isolate the sound from the urban environment. If an air tight tube with a large amount of acoustic absorbing material could restrain the sound of Interstate 4 within in, potentially Orlando Could develop spaces of tranquility that would promote wellbeing (Figure 27).

In the design of this structure, the most crucial factor in its construction is that it completely encompasses the roadway of the interstate. By doing this, the structure can cut acoustic variables like diffraction, and if it is made air tight, the amount of sound that can be transmitted is also greatly reduced.

Most the sound isolation takes place in this feature of the structure. However, there is a great deal of energy that needs to be isolated, however.

Understanding how sound is measured is the first step to understanding the scope of the problem. The sound is measured in decibels and begins at zero which is the threshold of hearing.

Decibel changes are measured logarithmically; this means the calculations of decibels is more complex than simple

Figure 28: Aerial of Proposal

73

addition. An example that illustrates the changes in sound level is as follows: There are two mopeds parked next to each other. Each moped can emit 80 dB of sound. When they are, both running at the same time the resultant sound from both sources is 83 dB, a 3 dB increase. Perceptually an increase of 10 dB is perceptibly twice as loud (Figure 28).

Applying this principle to the problem of the interstate when it evolves into the scale of the Ultimate I4 is six lanes of regular traffic and four toll lanes of a total of ten lanes. If each lane has a car on it that is producing 95 dB of sound the total sound entering the urban soundscape is approximately 110 dB That is ten times above the threshold of pomological damage. If the level of sound could be reduced 90%, it would still be above that threshold of safety.

This structure needs to reduce the acoustic impact on the city by 99.9% to create a healthy soundscape to achieve the goals of tranquility.

The structure is a difficult problem to deal with, when the Interstate 4 expansion, there was be belittled space for the structure to come down and touch the ground. Therefor the shape of

74

the structure was have to bend around the roadway to touch available land area and was come down with the regular columns to give full access to it. He structure is to use structural truss that forms to the shape and needs of the space. The structure was need to be robust to span over the width of the roadway without intermediate columns. The structure is a vital element to the design as it was directly support and have each element.

There was need to be a very thick layer of sound insulating material that surrounds the roadway. This layer is part of the airtight barrier; it gives the necessary material to absorb any sound waves that manage to pass through the first layer. There was be areas with less insulation to give light baffles and transparency in the skin to react to the environment. The interior layer, as well as the structure and the insulation all, work in tangent in creating curved surfaces as the second strategy of sound absorption. To absorb sounds with long wave lengths an arterials surface needs to have a surface length equal to or greater than the wave length. If the wave length is longer then the surface, it was pass through the material. After that,

12 degree Intensity @100% zoom

4096,12 2048,11 1024,10 512,9 256,8 128,7 64,6

@3200% zoom

32,5 16,4 4,3

Acoustic energy, dB 2,2 Figure 29: Logarithmic Scale of Acoustic Intensity

1,1

75

the insulation was be able to absorb the kinetic energy of sound.

The ventilation system is a very important part of this concept because it has a significant effect on the wellbeing of the urban environment. There are more the 150000 vehicles that travel through downtown Orlando every day.

These vehicles produce 3.75 lbs of carbon monoxide alone in one day. Exposure to this level of carbon monoxide over a 4 hour period can cause headaches and nausea [15]. This gives an opportunity and a challenge for this project because like the sound all the pollution was be contained within the structure.

The opportunity comes in with what happens to all that pollution. If the pollution can be filtered out and the clean air reintroduced into the environment, it would further improve the urban environment (Figure 29).

The exterior of the structure is the layer that was seal together the other elements and was be the aspect most of the city was acknowledge. Sections of

76

this element was change from opaque to translucent to allow light to enter and to frame views of the city to orient drivers to their location within the city. This layer was be composed of polycarbonate panels and laminate glass panels so that the degree of translucency can be adjusted to suit the needs of the interior.

Toxic Plume exposure within the city.

Before

Toxic Plume exposure within the city.

After

2. Air Distribution 1. Fresh air in

3. Jets blow air in

4. Polluted air collected

5. Air is filtered and cleaned and blown back into city.

Figure 30: Adjusting to the urban condition; providing clean air

77

Study of Sections

78

Figure 31: Hydric ecologies and urban park.

79

To study the form and interior qualities of the proposal as well as the interaction between it and the urban context it is most proper to study these aspects in section and elevation.

The elevation is a necessary step to study because it creates a direct response and relationship across the length of the study area. It proves the relation of the height of the structure and the scale of the city. This also illustrates the iconic nature of such a project within Orlando, and seeks to respond to the question of what would this object be within the city.

The section is used to formulate the form and develop diagrams to fit the necessary components within it. It also gives enough of the context to develop the immediate relationship between the form and the immediate structures. The next step is to develop the sections along the study area that are vital to developing the relationship with the environment. Reviewing the adjacencies along the project area four locations stood out as key areas to develop relationships within. Lakeview St. is the north gateway into the tube. Colonial Dr. is a major thoroughfare that crosses under

80

Interstate 4 and is a major on and off ramp location. Livingston Ave is home to Lynx Central Station, the major public transportation hub for bus service and the Sun rail. The last section is Church St. which is the major pedestrian area.

At night on various times throughout the year Church St. between Orange Ave and Garland St. is closed and the restaurants and bars spill out into the street. At this intersection, it is important that the structure interacts with the pedestrian uses (Figure 31).

The elevation has two possible locations to be viewed from, either the east side or the west side. The east side is far less developed then the west side, therefore it is logical to view the tube from the east side as more of it was be visible above and between the structure.

If it were on the west only brief moments would be seen between the structures.

Molding to the needs of the environment.

Figure 32: Significant connections in the urban fabric Lakeview St. Colonial Dr. Livingston St. Church St.

Figure 33: Conceptual elevation of the Acoustic Density of the study area. 81

82

Figure 34: Retail and residential interchange

83

After finding all the criteria for the operational design requirements, the process of molding the space can begin.

The process for the design of a structure this large need an international process that adjust the design between section, elevation and three dimensional studies. Adding to the list of design modifiers are the later subjective experience elements (Figure 34).

The process for developing the form goes through various stages of integration and design in both computer modeling and sketching. The first stage was to develop a conceptual formal identity that was inform the gesture the form was take. In elevation, a series of sketches derived several ideas to drive the design. The first was to visualize the rhythmic patterning of sound traveling through Downtown Orlando and the fluidity of sound, the ebb and flow and the crest and fall of waves.

The second idea ties into the first as the ways respond to the city by reaching up and responding to the height of the surrounding structures. The flow of the form needed to reach out and respond to aspects of the environment to directly involve itself within the context (Figure 35).

84

As these important adjacencies and denies began to shape the form the other parts of the design began to introduce, the form would then change to account for the added features, and then the next feature was added.

The first feature designed was the form of the faรงade because it was the most immediate response to the environment. From the form, the structure added to the mix, and the depth of the truss began to add depth to form that influences the special aspects of the tube. The Interior skin and the acoustic insulation fills in and attaches directly to the structure allowing three elements to design at once.

From this point, the subjective experience considered. The experience within the tube needs to be designed to allow for a comfortable experience to not only drive through at 70 mph but also for those who was be stuck in it during rush hour moving very slowly. This needs a vertical depth that is not claustrophobic but is comfortable. Tied into this are lighting and air quality.

The final operational design feature is the ventilation system. This parameter has one of the greatest effects of the form. It needs a very large amount

Figure 35: Initial studies of Enclosure and form

Figure 36: Studies of Form and Structure

85

86

Figure 37: Community development center

87

of air to be taken in, moved across long distances, blown in sucked out moved to the filtration system, and vented out into the city. Vehicles within the tube was produce toxic plumes of exhausts that was have nowhere to go if not ventilated. At levels that would cause sickness for people within the tube. To avoid this the ventilation system and interior spaces need to be setup to deal with these factors. The interior must be large enough to have enough clean air to mix with the bad air. Because of the cross traffic ventilating longitudinally through the tube is not possible because traffic would implead airflow. Thus air was be circulated transactional, clean air in on one side bad air out on the other.

The bad air then needs to be treated so that the poison not reintroduced into the city. A system of modular biological filters can be used to filter out the pollutants in the air when passed through a biological filter (compost) this newly cleaned air can then be blown out under the interstate to help develop a space of wellbeing. Acoustically the ventilation systems running at this scale would create a lot of Oise in the process. But steps are taken to avoid that found. The ducts are oversized and are vibrational separated from the structure with anti-vibration pads and hung with springs and tension cables to prevent

88

the vibrations from traveling through materials and into the environment.

When all the feature implanted into the design, the fine molding of the overall form developed within the digital environment.

The original intent of this project was to create tranquil spaces; this was unable to be done because the city is too loud. The bridge district is the area of Interstate 4 that is carried by columns without the use of berms. This creates a unique opportunity to make use of that space to give back to the city. The opportunity to create tranquil space under the Interstate creates a unique juxtaposition. The tool that once polluted the environment can now provide the opportunity to improve it. The 440 Ft. by 630 Ft. Garden has been designed as a place to escape the stress of the city and relax. There are retail and sports areas as well as plenty of spaces to heal. The garden also has space dedicated to the bio filtration system that was clean the pollution from the air (Figure 39).

Sport Fields

Figure 38: The Open space of the Bridge District Bus Station Retail/ Restaurants

Childrens Area Public Facilities Park Office/ Staorage Biological Filtration Area

Figure 39: The Tranquility Garden and the Interstate

89

90

Figure 40: Pedestrian entertainment connection

91

92

Looking East at Lakeview St.

Figure 41: Shaping sound within the urban environment

93

94

Looking East at Park Lake St.

95

96

Looking East at Colonial Dr.

97

98

Looking East at Amelia St.

99

100

Looking East at Livingston St.

101

102

Looking East at Washington St.

103

104

Looking East at Church St.

105

106

Looking East at South St.

107

Chapter 5: Conclusion Through the design of a project on this scale, the size of work stood out the most.

This concept and project gave a multifaceted issue that has variables that need years of design and calculation to do work.

Working at this scale within the urban environment is difficult to challenge to balance. It is a complex idea that I believe best represented by the quote “This is an absurd solution to an absurd problem,�

Martin Gold.

The problem of the interstate in the

108

urban environment and what it does to the context was an issue that avoided a solution. The Acoustic impact can be dealt with adequately enough with the layers of sound protection that the form can be an expression of sound within the environment without the engineering the geometrical conditions of the interior.

Taking this project forward there are many considerations that complicate the issue of the design of this concept. However, I believe this design could push the

integration within the urban environment further. To have an even greater impact on the city if the interchange with the 408 Expressway could integrate into it so the urban soundscape would be firmly secure in it’s tranquility.  

Looking East at Anderson St.

109

110

Figure 42: 3D Analysis

111

Work Cited [1] Pallasmaa, Juhan(1996). The Eyes of the Skin.

Chichester, England: John wiley & Sons.

[2] Ihde, Don(2007). Listening and voice: Phenomenologies of sound.

Albany NY: State University of New York.

[3] Stanfield, Stephen; Matheson, Mark(2003). Noise pollution: non-auditory effects on health. London, England: University of London.

[4] Goines, Lisa Halger, Louis(2007). Noise Pollution: A Modern Plague. Oakland, CA: Southern Medical Journal.

[5] Rd, Daniel; Welch, David; Dirks, Kim; McBride, David(2013). Do Quiet Areas Afford Greater Health-Related Quality of Life than Noisy Areas? Auckland, New Zealand: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.

[6] Schine, Jenifer (2010). Movement, Memory & the senses in soundscape studies.

SensoryStudies.org [7] Jennings, Paul; Cain, R(2011). A framework for improving urban soundscapes.

Coventry, United Kingdom: University of Warwick.

[8] Bottldooren,S; De Coensel, B; De Muer(2005). The temporal structure of urban soundscapes. Ghent, Belgium: Ghent University.

[9] Rehan, Reeman Mohammed(2014). The phonic identity of the city urban soundscape for sustainable spaces. Gharb Somed, Eygpt; Helwan University.

[10] Chew, Chye H., and Kah B. Lim. “Facade Effects on the Traffic Noise from the Expressway.” Applied Acoustics 41, no. 1 (December 2, 1994): 47-62. doi:10.1016/0003682x(94)90084-1.

[11] Ekici, Inan, and Hocine Bougdah. “A Review of Research on Environmental Noise Barriers.” Building Acoustics 10, no. 4 (February 20, 2003): 289-323. doi:10.12 60/135101003772776712.

[12] “Health Effects from Automobile Emissions.” Health Effects from Automobile Emissions. Accessed October 27, 2016. https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/ documents/0002008.pdf.

[13] Hogan, C. Michael. “Analysis of Highway Noise.” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2, no. 3 (1973): 387-92. doi:10.1007/bf00159677.

112

[14] Schafer, R. Murray. The Tuning of the World. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1977.

[15] “Carbon Monoxide Danger Levels.” Nyad.com. Accessed November 27, 2016. http://www.nyad.com/pdf/carbon_monoxide_danger_levels.pdf.

[16] “Draft Noise Study Report Addendum.” Interstate 4ultimate.com. Accessed November 20, 2016. http://i4ultimate.com/documents/2012/04/I-4_Ultimate_NoiseStudy-Report-Addendum_Draft_7-30-2013_Website.pdf.

[17] “Human Perception of Noise.” Environmental Protection Department. Accessed November 27, 2016. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/noise_education/web/ENG_EPD_ HTML/m1/intro_4.html.

[18] The Ongoing Challenge of Managing Carbon Monoxide Pollution in Fairbanks, Alaska: Interim Report. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2002.

[19] Air Quality Selected Facts and Figures.” Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Fact Book - Publications - Air Quality - Environment - FHWA. Accessed November 11, 2016. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/air_quality/publications/fact_book/page15. cfm.

[20] “Orlando: History.” Orlando: History - City Built Around Fort, Citrus Industry Spurs Development. Accessed December 01, 2016. http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-South/Orlando-History.html.

113

Figure Citations

114

Title Figure 1 Chapter 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Chapter 2 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Chapter 3 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Chapter 4 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author Googleearth.com January 12, 2017

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author http://www.designboom.com/weblog/images/images_2/richelle/191audi/22audi.jpg November 20, 2016

By Author http:// binscorner.com/ mails/f/ fwd -gate-tower-highway-through-the-build/part-004.jpeg November 20, 2016 http://www.nairaland.com/2394229/photos-one-most-curious-building November 20, 2016

By Author

By Author

By Author i4ultimate.com/ documents/ 2012/04/I-4_Ultimate_Noise-Study-Report-Addendum_Draft_7-30-2013_Website.pdf. November 20, 2016 i4ultimate.com/ documents/ 2012/04/I-4_Ultimate_Noise-Study-Report-Addendum_Draft_7-30-2013_Website.pdf. November 20, 2016

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author

By Author