SUMMER 2021
THE MAGAZINE OF MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION
Lives & Landscapes is the magazine of Montana State University Extension.
We’ll See You This Summer
Editorial Committee
A few summer highlights that we coordinate and regularly celebrate in MSU Extension are 4-H camp, the 4-H fair, and 4-H congress. These events showcase the year-long learning and life skills of 4-H members. With nearly 18,000 participants and 3,500 volunteers in Montana 4-H, you can likely see benefits of 4-H in your local community. And in summer at your local fair, you can see 4-H learning, teamwork, and leadership on full display. If you want to help empower Montana’s youth to learn skills to lead for a lifetime, contact your local MSU Extension office to inquire how to volunteer as a leader for a project or club or donate to their efforts. Explore montana4h.org to find more information about 4-H youth development, and how to join, volunteer or offer support. Montana 4-H is also on facebook at https://www.facebook. com/montana4h.
Sara Adlington Josie Evenson Jesse Fulbright Michelle Grocke Inga Hawbaker Mandie Reed
Adam Sigler Jason Stutzman Millie Veltkamp Mat Walter Roubie Younkin
Line & Interim Managing Editor Sara Adlington
Contributing Writers Sara Adlington Barbara Allen Katelyn Andersen Eva Grimme Laurie Kerzicnik Clain Jones Tyler Lane
Andrea Marzi Jeff Mosley Noelle Orloff Mandie Reed Abiya Saeed Sharon Wetsch Roubie Younkin
Thank You to Our Reviewers Jared Beaver Alison Brennan Colleen Buck Casey Delphia Chris Dorsi Patrick Mangan Molly Masters
Todd Kesner is the Director of the Montana 4-H Center and has worked
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in Extension for over 30 years, as an Extension agent and specialist in youth development programs.
Shelly Mills Dara Palmer Deb Regele Abiya Saeed Darla Tyler -McSherry Barb Watson
Featured Contributor Clain Jones is a professor of nutrient management in the Montana State University College of Agriculture’s Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, and the MSU Extension Soil Fertility Specialist. He studies nutrient cycling, primarily in agroecosystems, and has a particular interest in cropping systems, and teaches how to maximize economic return and soil health and fertility across Montana and the Great Plains region.
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27 Copyright © 2021 by Montana State University. All rights reserved. Excerpts from this magazine may be reprinted with permission from the Managing Editor. Please provide appropriate credit to Montana State University Extension and supply copies of printed materials to the editor. Opinions expressed herein are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the university administration. Montana State University Extension is an ADA/EO/AA/Veteran’s Preference Employer and Provider of Educational Outreach. Common chemical and trade names are used in this publication for clarity of the reader. Inclusion of a common chemical or trade name does not imply endorsement of that particular product or brand of herbicide and exclusion does not imply non-approval.
In This Issue...
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Grazing Decisions During and After Extended Drought
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Being Mindful Through the Years
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Baling Twine Recycling in Montana
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Featured Montanan: Darla Tyler-McSherry is Helping Prevent Suicide with the Website ‘Ask in Earnest’
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Ask Steward: Native Bee Conservation for Montana Landscapes
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Enhancing Work-Life Balance
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Master Gardener Spotlight: The Gardens at Zoo Montana
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The Science of Vaccines and How They Work
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Tools for Cleaner Indoor Air: A Few Things to Consider
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Plant Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
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Q&A: Grasshopper Pest Management in Cropland
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Common Issues with Conifer Trees in Montana
Have an idea for a story or a question for Ask Steward or our Master Gardeners?
E-mail: ExtensionMagazine@montana.edu Phone: 406.994.4602 Front cover photo by Casey M. Delphia. See article on page 15. Back cover photo by MSU Extension. Lives & Landscapes is published quarterly by Montana State University Extension. Also available online at msuextension. org. To receive a free online subscription, or purchase a print subscription, visit: msuextension.org/magazine.
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Jeff Mosley explains why Montana’s semi-arid environment makes it critically important for livestock owners to understand the potential impacts of drought.
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Molly Hammond
Grazing Decisions During and After Extended Drought
rought – the word conjures angst and even fear among many Montana livestock owners. Will I be able to produce or buy enough hay for the winter? Will I have enough stock water for my livestock to drink? Will I have enough grass for my livestock to graze? Will my pastures suffer long-term damage? Of course, living with drought is part of living in Montana. It’s a pretty safe bet that our state’s semi-arid climate will deal us at least one or more drought years per decade and people wanting to raise livestock here for the long-term need to plan accordingly. Three or more successive drought years, however, challenge even the best grazing land stewards, stressing their livestock, their finances, and their grazing lands. Years can pass without much apparent change to seeded pastures and rangelands, but extended drought can cause dramatic shifts in vegetation. The land then remains relatively unchanged until the next environmental trigger occurs. Three or more successive years of
drought represent an environmental trigger for Montana’s pastureland and rangeland, and failure to care for the land during and after extended drought can have serious consequences for decades. Were weeds or poisonous plants common before the drought?
poisonous plants will require extra attention during and after extended drought. It’s particularly important to be vigilant about new weed or poisonous plant infestations if hay was purchased from new sources during the drought. Be sure to inspect areas where the hay was fed and plan to control new infestations as soon as possible – before weeds or poisonous plants become well-established and suppression becomes more costly. When was the pasture grazed during drought?
One silver lining about drought years is that more of the grazing season usually occurs after plants are dormant. Plants are more tolerant of grazing during dormancy, so some plants may have endured less stress from grazing during drought than during
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Grazing plan adjustments depend upon the drought’s impacts to pastures. Drought does not impact every pasture equally. Weed infestations, poisonous plant densities, amounts of residual vegetation, and vigor of desirable plants all must be assessed. For example, if weeds were a problem before the drought, your weed problems will probably be worse after the drought ends. Drought stresses all plants, but weeds are usually stressed less than desirable forage
plants because most weeds grow earlier in the growing season before soil moisture is fully depleted. When normal amounts of rainfall return, weeds are in better shape to respond and they get a jump-start on the desirable plants. Poisonous plant problems also commonly worsen during or after an extended drought, especially early in the growing season when many poisonous plants green-up and attract livestock (e.g., low larkspur, death camas, and locoweed). After successive drought years, there is less residual carryover forage available from desirable plants to buffer the toxins in livestock diets, thus dietary concentrations can reach toxic levels even when livestock don’t increase the total amount of poisonous plants consumed. Altogether, areas with weeds and
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normal years. The plants stressed most during drought are plants that were grazed in early summer, because these plants were unable to regrow and recover before soil moisture was depleted. Pastures grazed during late spring to early summer immediately after drought should be those pastures that were grazed when plants were dormant during the drought. How heavily was the pasture grazed
stock water available during drought can be stretched by reducing livestock numbers. Early pregnancy detection enables earlier marketing of nonpregnant females. Early weaning and marketing of calves or lambs similarly reduces forage demand. For example, dry cows consume about 35% less forage and water than lactating cows, and one, 400-pound calf consumes about one-third as much forage and water as a mature cow.
before and during the drought?
Light or moderate grazing every year doesn’t harm most plants, nor does one year of heavy grazing, provided the plants are given sufficient time to recover before being grazed again. Plants are stressed when heavy use occurs for two or more consecutive years. When drought breaks, plants grazed lightly to moderately in the past will recover from drought quicker than plants that have been grazed heavily for many years. Sometimes stock water supplies dry up during drought and prevent portions of pastures from receiving much grazing pressure during drought. If possible after drought and after stock water supplies recover, these areas should be grazed during late spring-early summer while other areas are allowed more time to recover.
Should I consider reducing stocking rate after drought?
Current year’s forage production usually recovers by mid- to late-summer of the first year after drought, but total standing forage (current year’s forage production plus last year’s residual forage) doesn’t usually recover until mid- to late summer of the second or third year after drought. Therefore, because livestock consume both current year’s forage and last year’s residual forage, stocking rate may need to be lower for a year or two after drought ends. To avoid reductions in livestock numbers, extra hay can be purchased to extend the feeding period and thereby reduce pasture stocking rates. FOR MORE INFORMATION ON GRAZING
Should I consider delaying turnout
DURING AND AFTER DROUGHT
onto pasture during and after drought?
Contact Jeff Mosley (406-994-5601,
Jane Wolery
Desirable forage grasses may be harmed by grazing in late spring-early summer during drought years and during the first year after drought. However, grasses won’t be harmed by moderate grazing later in summer. Therefore, turning out onto pasture will likely need to be delayed as long as possible during and after extended drought. Extra hay will likely need to be purchased to extend the feeding period and allow delayed turnout onto pastures.
jmosley@montana.edu) or your local MSU Extension office. Jeff Mosley is the MSU Extension Range Management Specialist. This article originally appeared in the 2016 Spring/ Summer Big Sky Small Acres Extension magazine.
Should I consider culling or weaning animals earlier during drought?
The limited amount of forage and
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Roubie Younkin explores the benefits for children to learn and practice mindfulness.
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(this page) Bigstock, (opposite page) Bigstock
Being Mindful Through the Years
break from school is highly anticipated, and summer provides a perfect escape from the rigors of structured learning. For parents, it may be tempting to fill these days with activities to live each moment to the fullest. However, the greatest gift might be just slowing down. Carefree summer days lend themselves to introducing mindfulness and the importance of being present. By teaching children mindfulness skills, we can empower them to meet the stresses of the world with presence, self-compassion, and openness. Mindfulness practices can be simple techniques that encourage the individual to focus on what is happening in the moment. Mindfulness practices help youth and adults intentionally observe what is going on in the present. Examples might include a mindfulness walk, where youth focus on lifting their feet, the sounds around them, their breathing, what the air smells like or a mindfulness snack where youth notice how the food smells, what it tastes like, and how it feels. Other examples include mindful breathing, listening, or drawing. When mindfulness is taught to children, they gain tools to build confidence, cope with stress and relate to uncomfortable or challenging moments. For children, mindfulness may offer relief and a sense of control
when encountering difficulties. Teaching mindfulness to children can also help shape three critical skills developed in early childhood: paying attention and remembering information, shifting back and forth between tasks, and behaving appropriately with others. Children’s brain development aligns well with mindfulness as connections in the prefrontal circuits are created at a fast rate during childhood. These abilities are known as executive functions and they are essential for more advanced tasks: planning, reasoning, problem-solving, and positive social relationships. Practicing mindfulness is helpful in recognizing what is positive in our lives, and in noticing difficulties. Youth who practice being aware of their feelings during difficulties are better able to navigate through adverse situations. Mindfulness is most effective when it is modeled by parents or teachers. Parents are encouraged to develop their own inner mindfulness skillset and share their triumphs with children. The results of mindfulness and its effects on a child’s mental health make the time invested in modeling and
Photo Credit
Mindfulness Strategy Early training typically involves breathing exercises with concentration on each breath; breathe in and breathe out. Focusing on breathing while learning to bring the mind back when it wanders is the first step. For young children, placing a stuffed animal on their stomach and encouraging them to watch it rise and fall as they breathe is one effective means of illustrating focus and how relaxing it can be to just breathe.
learning this ancient art worthwhile. It is not conceptual learning and cannot be “taught” like math or science. It is, however, one tool that parents have a unique opportunity to gift their children; the gift of peace, with the ability to pause.
Mindfulness is one tool that parents have a unique opportunity to gift their children Mindfulness benefits include:
• Developing the habit of focusing on the moment, ignoring distractions, and improving attentiveness • Staying calm and regulating behavior during stressful moments
• Finding peace through meditation • Promoting happiness by lowering social anxiety • Encouraging patience • Creating habits for the future Practicing mindfulness does not come naturally to most kids, but most are receptive to the process. The research-backed benefits of mindfulness are a parent’s dream. They include positive effects on the child’s physical and mental health, the power to promote kindness, patience, and compassion for others and the ability to boost self-control, increase attention/focus and encourage better decision making. The more strategies a child has to handle emotions, the better equipped they will be to face challenges and move through hard times with confidence and resilience. Roubie Younkin is the MSU Extension Family and Consumer Science and 4-H Youth Development Agent in Valley County.
Baling Twine Recycling in Montana
Mandie Reed highlights the benefits of correct baling twine disposal to livestock and the environment.
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twine fibers readily stick and embed in the wool, significantly reducing the value. Twine fibers are very difficult to remove once they become embedded. Unfortunately, there are limited options for disposing of baling twine in an environmentally-friendly way. However, like other items made from polypropylene plastic, baling twine can be recycled. The Twine Collection and Recycling Site (TCRS) was started in 2019 in Laurel, Montana, to provide an environmentally safe and convenient way for people to collect and recycle baling twine. The site is maintained by volunteers of the Yellowstone Valley Audubon Society. Polypropylene baling twine that is 90% clean and dry can be gathered and delivered to the TCRS, located 2.5 miles north of Laurel on Buffalo Trail Road. Small deliveries can be dropped off in the outside bin (access is through the pedestrian gate) or appointments can be made by phone for larger deliveries. Once enough twine is gathered to fill a semi-trailer, about 38,000 pounds, the twine is transported to I90
Reprocessing in Minnesota. A full load of clean, dry twine will pay the cost of loading and shipping, so it is critical the twine is not wet or contaminated. Once delivered, the twine is reprocessed into beads which are recycled into outdoor tanks, flowerpots, bins and other #5 polypropylene plastic products. FOR MORE INFORMATION:
TCRS phone: 1-406-591-8606 TCRS email: yvas.twine.recycle@gmail.com Map and additional information: yvaudubon.org Mandie Reed is the MSU Extension agent in Wheatland County.
Deb Regele
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any Montanans feed livestock or horses hay, especially during the winter months. Most hay is held together with baling twine, which is often a polypropylene plastic rope. Polypropylene plastic is a non-renewable resource that remains in the environment for decades. In addition to persisting in the environment, loose baling twine can cause other inadvertent problems, especially for wildlife and livestock. Ospreys, ravens and other birds gather loose twine and use it to line their nests where both adult and young birds can become entangled in the twine increasing the likelihood of injury or even death due to suffocation, starvation, or infection. Twine can also be a danger for deer, elk, and antelope if it becomes tangled around their hooves or in their antlers or horns. Loose baling twine can also have an adverse effect on the livestock industry, especially sheep. Montana is known for the high-value wool produced in the state. Loose
ATV safety tips
Photo Courtesy Credit of Darla Tyler-McSherry
Darla Tyler-McSherry with her father, Dick Tyler.
Featured Montanan: Darla Tyler-McSherry is Helping Prevent Suicide with the Website ‘Ask in Earnest’
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arla Tyler-McSherry knows the firsthand effects of suicide in Montana. It’s how she lost her dad, farmer Dick Tyler. While Montana’s suicide rates have been amongst the top five in the nation for the last 40 years, suicide is a public health challenge that everyone can help positively impact. After living through the loss of her dad, TylerMcSherry, who is the director of Student Health Services at MSU-Billings, struggled to reconcile her profession with the knowledge that her family never saw it coming. “My dad was the stereotypical Montana farmer. I couldn’t imagine him doing anything else. A good farmer and steward of the land, a good neighbor, who loved a good story and to visit with neighbors and friends. He was very meticulous with machinery, and proud that anything with a motor had a place to sit inside. He wanted to help others and was appreciative and gracious
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of those who have helped him over the years. While he was proud of his accomplishments, he was also humble,” said Tyler-McSherry. Her warm description of her dad and his connected community contradicts the population data around the family farm at Lonesome Prairie, a rural location with just 1.5 people per square mile. Low population density and limited access to health care in rural areas are just two of the reasons why Montana ranks high in suicides per capita. In processing his death, Tyler-McSherry wanted to create something positive come from it. Her dad’s friend commented that her dad would always ask in earnest how others were doing, because he genuinely cared about them. The phrase “Ask in Earnest,” led TylerMcSherry to build the website, askinearnest. org, where people can learn more about helping to prevent suicide, especially in farming and ranching communities. While she worked on building and promoting the website, she met a lot of people who were willing to talk about suicide in farming and ranching communities, which is the opposite of what one might expect. “Most of my conversations about increasing suicide awareness have been healing. I’ve talked with lots of people at the NILE (Northern International Livestock Expo), peanut farmers in South Carolina, and potato farmers in Idaho. It’s all too common, and tragic, what they are working through. We help each other and it’s healing to make a difference, raise awareness and educate people,” said Tyler-McSherry. She is working on updating askinearnest.org, and highlights the need to just reach out and create an opportunity for honest conversation. “Some goals for the website and beyond include offering Question, Persuade, Refer (QPR is a training to help people recognize warning signs of a suicide crisis) directly to farming communities and making mental health more acceptable to talk about. Turns out people do want to
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talk about it, despite the belief that they don’t. I’ve been blessed and humbled with the stories people choose to share with me. Especially men want to talk about it, we just have to create the safe environment for them to do it, and they can leave that conversation with helpful tools,” said Tyler-McSherry.
Visit askinearnest.org to learn more about preventing suicide, especially in farming and ranching communities
farmer and clinical psychologist from Iowa, who studies how farmers will do whatever is needed to keep or keep up their land. His research, called “The Agrarian Imperative,” looks into what drives farmers to work incredibly hard, to tolerate uncommon pain, take huge risks, and trust themselves. “The coping tools that help a farmer or rancher find success in their work are also some things that put them at higher risk for suicide. They accept that pain and risk are a part of the work, and often have a lack of separation of work, from life outside of work,” said Tyler-McSherry. “Try to be aware of factors that put farmers and ranchers at higher risk–that lack of separation between work and life outside of work–and the thinking that if they’re not out there doing it, then no one else is.” ADDITIONAL RESOURCES:
MSU Extension Ag Stress Clearinghouse https://msuextension.org/wellness/
Lenore Tyler and Randall Tyler; Front row, Darla TylerMcSherry and Dick Tyler on the Old Fort Benton Bridge. Left: Dick Tyler’s 80th birthday.
stress-management/mt_farm_stress_clearing_house/index.html MSU Extension offers classes in Mental Health First Aid (MHFA), a course that teaches people to identify and respond to signs of mental illness or substance abuse disorders. Request classes here: http:// health.msuextension.org/mental_health. html
See next page for common warning signs someone is thinking about suicide.
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Courtesy of Darla Tyler-McSherry
Above: Back row,
To help a neighbor or anyone struggling with stress and contemplating suicide, Tyler-McSherry suggested some actions, helpful conversation starters and listed the warning signs (see inset). She wants to dispel the myth that talking about suicide will make someone start thinking about it. “Asking direct questions with care will help open a lifeline,” she said. “Be willing to have a candid conversation and hear what you may not want to hear. Be willing to make the bridge to mental health resources or professional help.” Tyler-McSherry also discussed some of the challenges unique to farmers and ranchers. “It’s important to be aware of the legacy for so many farmers and ranchers. They have the pressure of their own business, often combined with the legacy of what their family built, at risk. If they let themselves down, it’s also letting down the work of generations before them.” She refers to and highlights the work of Dr. Michael Rosmann, a fourth-generation
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Warning signs (these behaviors may be a sign someone is thinking about suicide)
Person reports feeling: Empty, trapped, hopeless; extreme sadness, anxiety or rage; unbearable emotional or physical pain Person exhibits changing behaviors: Making a plan or researching ways to die; withdrawing from friends, giving items away; taking dangerous risks like driving recklessly; extreme mood swings; eating or sleeping changes; using drugs or alcohol more often. Actions (Actions and conversations will not fix it but can be an important step toward getting mental health or professional help.) If you’re worried about someone, call the national suicide prevention hotline yourself to get advice on how to proceed, 800-273-8255 (800-273TALK) or text HELLO to 741741. Talk to others who know the person and raise your concern or ask if others also have concerns. Prepare to be candid and real with the person. You may hear something that’s hard or you don’t want to hear. Ask them if they are contemplating suicide (Prepare for them to answer yes, and remember that asking will not put them at greater risk of suicide. ) If an immediate crisis, get the person to the emergency room, or call 911, as law enforcement is trained in having these conversations.
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If you’re worried about someone, call the national suicide prevention hotline yourself to get advice on how to proceed. 800-273-8255 (800-273-TALK) or text HELLO to 741741.
Sit with the person and call the suicide hotline together. (Don’t leave a person alone if it feels like an immediate risk, especially if they are under the influence of drugs or alcohol.) Conversation starters: • “Gosh, I’m worried about you, but I care about you and want to know how you’re doing… • “Because I care and you’re doing things that make me worried, I want to check in with you… • “I want you to stay alive, how about I babysit your weapons for a while, because I am worried about your safety… (If weapons may be a safety issue) • …You don’t have to figure this out alone. There is a national hotline where you can talk with someone.
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Person talks about: Wanting to die, being a burden, having great guilt or shame, not seeing a future for themselves.
Ask Steward: Native Bee Conservation for Montana Landscapes Answered by Abiya Saeed, Extension Horticulture Specialist, Montana State University. Why is native bee conservation important for Montana and how can I incorporate “bee-friendly” practices
Casey M. Delphia
into the landscape?
Pollinators, especially bees, play a vital role in our agriculture, economy, and ecosystems through the movement of pollen, which enables successful reproduction of several of our crops and many of our native plant communities. Factors including habitat loss, reduction in diverse and nutritious food resources, and improper/unnecessary application of pesticides all play a role in contributing to the global declines observed for several pollinator groups. Many people do not realize that the diversity of bees lies far beyond just European honey bees, which are actually not native to North America. In fact, the number of native bees in Montana alone accounts for approximately 450 currently identified species, including the most bumble bees (28 species documented) of
any state in the U.S. However, Montana also has one of the least-studied bee faunas in the country. Because of the diversity of landscapes, topographies, climates, regions, and ecological zones in Montana, scientists estimate the actual number of bee species could potentially be as high as 1000. The Wild Bees of Montana project is currently underway to assess the diversity of native bees in the state. This puts us in a unique position to act as stewards of our native bees, through the incorporation of pollinator conservation practices in our home gardens and communities.
a diversity of bloom times. Early season (spring) and late season (fall) blooms are amongst the most vital since there are fewer resources available for bees and other pollinators during these times of year. Create nesting habitat for bees. • Leave small, undisturbed areas of bare soil in a garden to accommodate nesting habitat for ground-nesting bees. Most species of ground-nesting bees are solitary and are not aggressive, therefore will not sting. For cavity-nesting solitary bee species such as mason and leafcutter bees, incorporate a ‘bee hotel’ made up of wooden blocks with holes of varying sizes drilled into them, bundles of cardboard/bamboo tubes, or bundles of twigs and hollow or pithy plant stems. However, these types of above-ground nesting habitats do require some care so they do not become a place for diseases and parasites to build up and potentially harm bees. Make sure to read about and follow best-practices for properly caring for these types of nests. Incorporate IPM strategies to minimize unnecessary pesticide use. • Integrated pest management (IPM) is the utilization of a variety of tools to minimize pest problems in a way that is least harmful to the environment. Examples of this include scouting the landscape for pests, using mechanical/ physical exclusion strategies, selecting and planting pest-resistant cultivars, learning to identify and enhance beneficial insects, and using pesticides safely to minimize off-target effects.
There are simple steps that we can all take to create a more ‘bee friendly’
FOR MORE INFORMATION ON EACH OF
landscape:
THESE TOPICS, VISIT THE FOLLOWING
Incorporate a diversity of native plants into gardens. • To maximize food resources for native bees, plant native flowers of various colors, textures, shapes, and sizes with
RESOURCES:
https://www.xerces.org/ https://www.pollinator.org/ https://ipm.montana.edu/
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Melissodes on aster.
Melissodes on sunflower.
Casey M. Delphia
Hylaeus on cleome.
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Enhancing WorkLife Balance Katelyn Andersen describes a decision-making tool for planning and accomplishing tasks and suggests
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ways to build your personal calendar with purpose.
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he last year looked different in the various facets of each of our lives. The details of social engagements, school environments, sporting events, routine shopping trips, connections with loved ones changed. Initially, these changes may have felt awkward and unnatural because our habits, practices and routines were disrupted. The reasons for making decisions changed due to the circumstances around us. These changes challenged our unconscious choices to become conscious decisions and impacted our executive functioning skills. The executive function is the management system of the brain involved in setting goals, planning and accomplishing tasks. A tool, the ‘Urgent-Important’ Matrix, or the Eisenhower Matrix, can assist individuals in making decisions to support executive functioning. The Eisenhower Matrix was developed by President Dwight “Ike” Eisenhower, the 34th president of the United States. The Eisenhower Matrix was made popular by
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followed:
• Quadrant I: Do; urgent and important - tasks needed to complete immediately. Examples include emergencies or tasks with clear deadlines and consequences. • Quadrant II: Plan; important, but not urgent – tasks to schedule to do later. Tasks could include long-term projects and professional development. • Quadrant III: Delegate; urgent, but not important – tasks to delegate to someone else. These tasks need to be completed but not specifically by you. • Quadrant IV: Eliminate; neither urgent nor important – tasks to eliminate. These items are distractions or tasks that do not align with personal or family goals. As our world transitions to summer and you take inventory of your current life: What parts do you enjoy? What parts do you miss and are important to you? What routines do you want to keep? Be purposeful in designing a schedule and align tasks with your personal and family core values. Here are a few facets to consider:
Could feeding or walking pets be delegated to younger members of the household?
Build in transition times.
Routinize habits in life.
This last year, many meetings and activities were virtual or cancelled completely. When meetings were virtual, transition time was deleted and filled with other activities. Allow for space in the calendar to attend to informal conversations and connections with others. If virtual meetings are in your future, a recent study from Stanford shares that exhaustion from video conference meetings do take a toll on individuals. Individuals are encouraged to take steps to mitigate fatigue by scheduling breaks between meetings, implement no-video meeting days and understand the factors related to fatigue.
Planning ahead as much as possible can help with the cognitive load of our executive functioning. Consider selecting clothes at the beginning of the week to alleviate the time it takes each morning. Create a meal plan for the week so meal times flow better. Write down chores and tasks on paper, also called brain dumping, to prevent over thinking and help free up the cognitive load. Each individual and family will establish new habits and routines in the upcoming months. Take time frequently, possibly on a weekly basis, to communicate planned activities and priorities with family members and co-workers to help with accountability – for yourself and others. Revisit your long-term goals and plans frequently to adjust the workload for both home and work expectations.
Consider the needs of others.
Consider how family members might need to adjust to changes – pets, children and partners. Build in connection time for all family members to discuss the impacts of upcoming changes, which could include a child signing up for a seasonal sport team or a change in work hours. What aspects of your life could be delegated or deleted?
Katelyn Andersen, M.S., is a Professor for Montana State University Extension. She serves as the Family and Consumer Sciences Extension Agent for Ravalli County.
More Important
Refer to the diagram, each of the quadrants are labeled and outlined as
physical time, connecting time, time in, downtime and playtime as part of everyday self-care.
II
I
Less Important
Steven Covey’s book, Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, using the matrix to divide workload and priorities into actions of do, plan, delegate or eliminate based on the urgency and importance of the tasks at hand.
IV
III
Less Urgent
More Urgent
Block out time yourself.
As our lives resume with social engagements, activities and meetings, remember to block in time for personal time. Taking care of yourself is a Quadrant II task to prevent Quadrant I urgencies. Take the time to focus on personal interests and enjoyments. Refer to the Lives & Landscapes, 2020 Fall article, Stress Management and Social Connection in a Pandemic by Alison Brennan, PhD, for using and applying the self-care tool, Healthy Mind Platter. This tool incorporates sleep time,
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Master Gardener Spotlight: The Gardens at Zoo Montana
Courtesy of Sharon Wetsch
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he Yellowstone County Master Gardeners are very involved in keeping Zoo Montana looking spectacular. As the primary labor force for the zoo gardens, Master Gardeners are instrumental in the planting and care of the Sensory Gardens, the Heritage House Perennial Garden, and the Plant Select Garden. One of the newest gardens at Zoo Montana is the Heritage House Perennial Garden. This garden is the result of the vision and hard work of three Master Gardeners: Linda Franzen, Sherry Porter and Beth Adams. They designed, installed, and maintain the perennials, which are a beautiful showing in front of Heritage House. Walking through the zoo, you will see multiple, colorful containers that are tended by Karen Botnen, Outstanding Master Gardener and President of the Botanical Society. Containers are changed throughout the year and are a real highlight at the zoo. A big feature garden at Zoo Montana is the Plant Select Demonstration Garden. This garden is planted with perennials selected by Colorado State University and Denver Botanical Gardens for the Plant Select program. The purpose is to test what will grow in our area with little upkeep, little water, and if it can withstand our
cold weather conditions. Entirely a Master Gardener project in coordination with Ross Shrigley, Plant Select Executive Director, this garden is ever-evolving as new plants are added. The plants are all labeled by scientific and common name so one can visit their local nursery and purchase the same plants for their yards with confidence they will survive in our area. As with the other gardens mentioned, this planting proudly displays signage that identifies it as a Master Gardener project. There is much appreciation for all the dedicated Yellowstone County Master Gardeners who volunteer time and effort to keep the zoo looking beautiful. When you visit the gardens at Zoo Montana, look for the Master Gardener signs. Sharon Wetsch is a Level 3 Montana Master Gardener.
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Andrea Marzi, PhD, describes types of vaccines and how they work in the body.
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Used with permission of Bloomberg LP Copyright ©2021. All rights reserved.
The Science of Vaccines and How They Work
nfectious diseases, such as smallpox, the plague, and influenza virus, have caused millions of deaths over the centuries. Smallpox is a contagious and often deadly disease that has likely killed millions of humans throughout history. In the late 18th century, English physician and scientist Edward Jenner noticed that milkmaids were not getting sick even though others around them were getting sick with smallpox. He hypothesized that the milkmaid’s contact with pustules on cows’ udders (small blisters on the skin containing pus) might contain the cowpox virus, which could be making them immune to infection with the
Variola virus, the cause of smallpox. Jenner tested his 3) Subunit Vaccines: idea by “infecting” people with the cowpox virus. A few Scientists have established procedures to generate weeks later, he repeated the procedure with Variola virus. vaccines based on these principles for over 100 years, and None of the cowpox virus-infected people developed these principles have served as a basis to develop newer, smallpox and the world had its first vaccine. safer vaccines that do not involve the entire bacterium Vaccination against smallpox was later implemented or virus. In fact, the hepatitis B vaccine is based on only globally, and the Variola virus was eradicated in 1980, one protein from the hepatitis B virus. This is called a ridding our planet of a deadly burden. Vaccination “subunit vaccine.” A formulation of this protein is given against several other infectious diseases like Polio, in several doses often in combination with vaccines Measles, Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Hepatitis is still against other diseases like Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis ongoing. The vaccines against the viruses and bacteria and Polio to children under 10 years. causing these diseases follow the same principle – the human body is exposed to a substance that triggers a protective immune response. HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT WE CAN USE AS A VACCINE?
Scientists have developed a variety of different technologies that can be used as vaccines. A single protein or toxin has been used as well as nucleic acid of a bacterium or virus. In addition, viral vectors as well as the entire bacterium or virus have also been used. The three most used technologies until COVID-19 are the following:
The Photo National Credit Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
1) Live-attenuated Vaccines:
Jenner discovered that with certain viruses there exists a “weaker” version in nature. Following this principle, some of the vaccines we use today are “live-attenuated” (the process of weakening a disease-causing virus or bacterium in a lab so that it cannot cause disease). These types of vaccines infect the human body and grow, but they do not cause disease aside from mild side effects like fever and pain at the vaccination site. Today, we still use this principle for the Measles vaccine, among others.
A spike protein is found on the surface of the virus and forms a “crown” or “halo” around the virus.
Vaccine Development and COVID-19 2) Inactivated Vaccines:
Another common method for vaccine development is called chemical inactivation, which is still used today for the annual flu shot. This process involves a large amount of the virus being grown in a laboratory, and subsequently killed by a chemical treatment and/or heat. After the “killed” vaccine is purified and formulated with an adjuvant (a drug or substance used to increase the efficacy or potency of certain drugs), it can be administered to humans.
Vaccines in the U.S. are highly regulated like any other drug and require Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval before they can be used in humans. Before COVID-19, scientists worked on many ways to make vaccines safer and more effective with only a single dose. The knowledge they gained developing these new strategies was quickly applied to COVID-19 vaccine development at the beginning of 2020 when the disease started to spread. Now, 15 months later, scientists from the U.S. and abroad have developed several vaccines approved for human use to protect individuals from COVID-19 infection.
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All approved vaccines for COVID-19 use the spike surface protein of SARS-CoV-2 as the “antigen,” the protein triggering an immune response in a vaccinated person’s body. Two different vaccine technologies are currently in use for COVID-19 in the U.S. – mRNA (Pfizer, Moderna) and a viral vector vaccine (Johnson & Johnson). The mRNA-based vaccine has the genetic information for the spike protein as mRNA embedded in a lipid nanoparticle (LNP), or fatty droplet, that is stored at very cold temperatures. Because mRNA is a very unstable molecule and gets degraded quickly, the vaccine must be given to people within hours after a vial is thawed. This mRNA vaccine technology has been successfully developed for Zika virus and influenza virus in the past decade. It is relatively easy to produce as it does not involve production in cell culture and, therefore, could be generated quickly as a COVID-19 vaccine. Once the first vaccine dose (prime) is injected into a person’s arm, the LNP fuses with one of their cells and the mRNA is released, causing the spike protein to be produced in the cell. The immune system recognizes the spike protein as a protein foreign to the body and starts to make an immune response against it; during this process, antibodies that protect against SARS-CoV-2 infection are produced. This process can result in fever and pain at the injection site. The second dose (boost) of the mRNA-based vaccine serves as a trial run for the body. After this second dose is injected, the body recognizes the spike protein from the previous injection and ramps up antibody production, resulting in a boosted antibody level. In the viral vector vaccine, the spike surface protein genetic information is included in the viral vector DNA. During this process, the viral vector only serves as a vehicle to deliver the spike protein DNA into the cell, where then mRNA is produced from the DNA and the same process as with the mRNA vaccine starts. While the mRNA vaccines stay in the cytoplasm of the cell, the DNA in the viral vector vaccine gets into the cell’s nucleus and can interact with the cellular DNA. In case of a COVID-19 infection, the antibodies specific to the spike protein will bind the spike protein on the virus surface and neutralize the infection. Usually, the more antibodies a person has, the more they are protected from disease. However, no vaccine is 100% protective and while vaccinated people have spike antibodies, they can still get infected by SARS-CoV-2 and may even spread the virus to others, albeit at a much
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lower rate compared to a non-vaccinated person. In fact, two weeks after the vaccination is complete (two doses mRNA vaccine or one dose viral vector), the protection from COVID-19 is 94% (mRNA) and 66% (viral vector), respectively. Vaccines are also very important for building herd immunity in our communities. Herd immunity is the principle of protecting the vulnerable people in our community. The more people that are vaccinated, the smaller the pool of people is for the virus to infect and make sick (thus reducing the number of people that need hospitalization due to COVID-19 and/or other infectious diseases). In order to slow down the spread of the disease, we need 70% of the people need to be vaccinated. Curious as to how herd immunity works? Watch this video: https://imgur.com/gallery/8M7q8 What is a Coronavirus spike surface protein?
The spike protein is found on the surface of the virus and forms a “crown” or “halo” around the virus. In Latin, the word for crown is “corona”, which gives this virus family their name - Coronaviruses. Andrea Marzi, PhD, is a German virologist. She is Chief of the Immunobiology and Molecular Virology Unit at The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Rocky Mountain Laboratories in Hamilton, MT.
Tools for Cleaner Indoor Air: A Few Things to Consider Barb Allen illustrates the differences between using air cleaners and air purifiers to improve indoor air quality.
(top) Bigstock, (bottom) courtesy of Barb Allen
W
hen people think about devices to improve indoor air quality, the term “air cleaner” is often used interchangeably with “air purifier.” However, there are important distinctions between these two devices. Air cleaners, whether a portable unit or whole-house unit that is part of the HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) system, use filters to remove dust and particles from air. When selecting a portable unit, it’s important to consider the size of the room or area. If a whole-house system already exists, choosing the correct filter is key. Although HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filters are the most effective, if the HVAC system was not designed with HEPA filtration capabilities, using a HEPA filter can strain the fan/motor that is powering the air flow. The most common HVAC filters consumers will encounter will be labeled with a MERV (minimum efficiency reporting values) rating, scaled from 1-16. This rating tells how effectively the filter traps small airborne particles such as dust, pollen, mold
spores, pet dander, and tobacco smoke. Although higher MERV ratings are more efficient, the recommended MERV ratings for residential filters are between MERV 7 and MERV 13. Most residential airborne contaminants can be removed with an air filter within this range. (Filters higher than MERV 13 are usually found in hospital environments.) Choosing an HVAC filter that is the most effective at reducing these particles means selecting the highest-rated filter that system fan can accommodate. To filter gases,
choose a unit with an activated carbon filter or other filter designed to remove gases. Air purifiers use an electric charge to collect particles on a plate as they pass through the device. Purifiers tend to be better at getting rid of biological contaminants such as airborne pathogens that cause sickness, but are less effective at filtering and reducing larger particles like dust and pollen. Additionally, many air purifiers generate ozone which is a highly reactive molecule that is harsh on lung tissue. The U.S. EPA suggests avoiding any unit that produces ozone. A key consideration is the effectiveness of a unit at removing particles of different sizes, which are sometimes represented with examples of smoke (smallest), dust (medium), and pollen (largest). The smallest particles (<PM2.5 or less than 2.5 microns) are invisible to the naked eye but carry some of the largest risks for respiratory issues, while the larger pollen particles are common causes for allergy issues. FOR MORE INFORMATION:
Visit https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ files/2018-07/documents/guide_to_air_ cleaners_in_the_home_2nd_edition.pdf. Barbara Allen is an Environmental Health Project Director and MSU Extension Associate Specialist.
Size comparisons for particulate matter (PM) in micrometers (μm). Note that PM2.5 is not visible to the naked eye.
Fine beach sand 90 μm in diameter
Human hair 50–70 μm in diameter
PM10 ≤10 μm in diameter
PM2.5 ≤2.5 μm in diameter
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Figure 1: sulfur deficient pea.
Clain Jones discusses tools to identify nutrient deficiencies in plants.
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T
Clain Jones
Plant Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
here are three basic tools to diagnose which nutrients may be lacking and causing poor plant growth: soil testing, plant tissue testing, and visual observation of the plants for nutrient deficiency symptoms. Soil and tissue testing compare values measured by laboratory analyses to amounts considered sufficient based on research, while visual assessment is qualitative. Soil testing helps determine whether a specific nutrient should be added to the soil before the crop shows signs of deficiency. Given the time and expense of soil sampling and analysis, typically one sample is sent in for a field, garden, or lawn, thus providing an average value of soil nutrients over a large area. For example, a farmer may have separate samples for upper vs lower parts of a field, or a gardener might submit separate samples for the hoop house and the outdoor garden plot. Tissue testing and visual assessment can pinpoint specific areas where problems are observed. Tissue testing is limited because nutrient concentrations vary among
Figure 2, left: nitrogen deficient wheat. Figure 3, right: nitrogen deficient bean.
matter and movement of nutrients like phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) are slow in cold soils. Even if the soil contains sufficient available nutrients, the plants might be unable to take them up. If, additionally, the soil is waterlogged, root rot can further stress the plants and decrease nutrient uptake. This exacerbates nitrogen (N) and iron deficiencies. If deficiency is due to cold, nutrient deficiency symptoms should go away once soils warm, and applying more nutrients is a waste and won’t help. MSU Extension provides an online nutrient deficiency flow chart and the Extension bulletin Plant Nutrient Functions and Deficiency and Toxicity Symptoms to guide visual plant assessment. The flow chart quickly guides the user to a specific nutrient that is likely deficient based on which leaves are affected (old and near the base of the plant, or young and at top), the leaf color, whether the symptoms are spotted/striped or affect the whole leaf, and more. Nitrogen, sulfur (S), phosphorus, and iron are nutrients commonly deficient in Montana. Uniform yellow and light green leaves on crops are likely due to
(left) MSU Extension, (right) Kathrin Olson-Rutz
species and varieties, by the plant growth stage, plant part, even the time of day the sample is collected, and how the tissue is handled after collection. Unfortunately, there aren’t always published nutrient sufficiency ranges for many nutrients and crops in Montana. Looking at leaves is quick and easy. The limitation of visual assessment is that once deficiencies are strongly visible, plant production may have already been hurt. Before applying fertilizer on a large scale based on visual symptoms, plant tissue analysis should be used to confirm the nutrient deficiency. This is important because many growth issues can cause symptoms that look like nutrient deficiencies. These include stress caused by underwatering, overwatering, disease, insects, or herbicide damage. In a garden environment there are more options, with smaller economic consequences, to correct plant nutrients mid-season, than for large scale farms. The earlier a deficiency is detected and corrected the better. However, a challenge in this region is that our cool spring weather may cause nutrient deficiency in the short term. Specifically, nutrient release from organic
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Figure 4, left:
maple, aspen, strawberry, and mountain ash are plants highly susceptible to iron deficiency, which shows up as interveinal chlorosis, a sharp distinction between green leaf veins and yellow tissue between the veins (Fig. 5). Even if nutrient deficiency is identified too late to correct for a bumper crop this year, note where in the field or garden symptoms showed up. Soil sample those affected areas to determine how much fertilizer or amendment is needed for the next growing season. Visit the MSU Extension Soil Fertility website for regionally appropriate information about soil nutrients, or contact Clain Jones directly at clainj@montana.edu, 406-994-6076.
phosphorous deficient corn.
Clain Jones is the MSU Extension Soil Fertility
Figure 5, right:
Specialist and a Professor in Land Resources and
iron deficient
Environmental Sciences.
sweet pepper.
(left) A. Manson, Wikimedia Commons; (right) Kathrin Olson-Rutz
nitrogen and possibly sulfur deficiency. Nitrogen deficiency is first seen on older, lower leaves, whereas sulfur deficiency shows up first on upper, younger leaves (Fig. 1). In cereals nitrogen deficiency commonly shows as discoloration from the leaf tip backward in the form of a ‘V’ (Fig. 2). Yellowing due to disease, and some nutrients other than nitrogen and sulfur, is usually non-uniform, striped or spotty. Even legumes (beans, peas) which supply their own nitrogen through specialized bacteria on their roots (rhizobia), can be nitrogen deficient if they got off to a slow start and didn’t build healthy rhizobia nodules early on (Fig. 3). Phosphorus deficiency is seen on lower, older leaves first. The leaves and stems are dark green with purple on the leaves (Fig. 4), sometimes seen more on the underside of the leaf. Iron deficiency is common early in the year and in basic (high pH) soils. Corn, raspberry, rose, Amur
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hot period, followed by a minimum of one week of cloudy, wet weather. Warm, early springs promote embryo development. A hot period in early spring promotes hatching and one week of cloudy, wet weather promotes fungal pathogens on grasshoppers.
Q&A: Grasshopper Pest Management in Cropland
When should I start monitoring for grasshoppers?
Begin on May 1. The grasshoppers of most concern (Two-striped, Migratory and Packard) usually hatch close to May 15. Another monitoring rule of thumb is that embryos will continue development when the soil temperature rises to 50-55 degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs will typically hatch 14 days later. I saw grasshoppers long before the soil temperature reached 50-55 degrees. Should I be concerned?
Tyler Lane answers questions about grasshopper identification, monitoring, and control.
The answer is most likely no. There are a handful of grasshopper species that overwinter as adults and are not considered harmful. Catch the grasshopper and determine if it has wings. Winged grasshoppers are adults that have overwintered and will not cause any harm to the crop. How do I monitor for grasshoppers?
Why did we see high populations of
Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org
grasshoppers in Montana in 2020?
Favorable weather conditions have promoted grasshopper pest populations. In 2019, a cool, wet spring delayed hatching, and then warm weather moved in without additional cool, wet weather, which resulted in a high percentage of hatch survival rates later in the season. In addition, vegetation was highly productive in 2019, especially sweet clover. As a result, grasshopper populations grew without being noticed or managed. Why should I be concerned in 2021?
A dry summer in 2020 and an open fall promoted high egg laying which will result in large hatches in 2021. If a drought continues in Montana, populations will continue to increase. Grasshoppers are a boom and bust
species. As long as we have arid conditions, populations will continue to increase. What about the cold weather last winter? Wouldn’t below zero temperatures affect egg survival rates?
The answer for 2021 is probably not. In Canada, few grasshoppers hatched following a winter with temperatures at negative 22º F. However, Canada had little snow cover during the time period when mortality occurred. Snow cover generally reduces the impact of cold temperatures on below-ground overwintering insects.
Visualize a square-foot area from a distance and count the number of grasshoppers jumping out. Divide the number of grasshoppers by the number of areas counted and multiply by nine to estimate density per square yard. Be sure to completely disturb the square foot area because first and second instar nymphs often will not jump. Is it true that the migratory grasshopper is often the most harmful species to cereals?
Yes, it can travel very long distances, destroy seedlings, defoliate crops throughout the growing season and clip cereal grain heads before harvest.
Will a wet spring break the cycle?
The answer is yes if timed correctly with hatches. Prime conditions for decreasing populations begin with warm, early springs followed by a
How do I tell a harmful grasshopper from a non-harmful grasshopper?
Many spur-throated (having a spine on
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the throat area) grasshoppers are harmless, but a few species, like the Two-striped and Migratory are major pests of cropland. Slantfaced grasshoppers are slim and pointed in profile or they have disproportionately large heads, and lay too few eggs to be harmful. What are yield damaging levels for grasshoppers?
Thresholds for managing grasshopper pests in spring wheat are used for alfalfa and dry beans. Lentils are very susceptible to adult grasshoppers because they can clip the pods. The action threshold for lentils is only two grasshoppers per square yard in flowering to pod stages. See Table 1. I have heard about diflubenzuron (Dimilin®). Why is it so highly recom-
to loss of body fluids. Maximum control usually is achieved in 10-14 days. If a large influx from neighboring fields should occur, the time to reduce that population may not be short enough to minimize extensive foliage feeding; a tank mix with a knockdown insecticide is recommended under these conditions. Diflubenzuron can be mixed with the knockdown insecticide to provide 30 days of crop protection.
on field borders (a minimum of 150 feet). Lastly, spray contact insecticides if populations exceed economic threshold. Be sure to rotate insecticide groups to prevent resistance. Remember, diflubenzuron can be mixed with the knockdown insecticide to provide 30 total days of crop protection. Tyler Lane is the MSU Extension agriculture agent in Chouteau County.
When do I spray diflubenzuron?
It is important to apply diflubenzuron when grasshoppers are second to fourth stage nymphs, which is when they measure about three-fourths of an inch in length and do not have fully-formed wings. Diflubenzuron is not effective on adults. When in doubt, always refer to the product label.
mended for grasshopper control?
Diflubenzuron is active for 30 days, has a low toxicity to mammals, and provides some safety to beneficial insects.
What would be a good step-by-step management order if grasshoppers continue to exceed economic threshold levels?
Diflubenzuron interferes with formation of a grasshopper’s exoskeleton, which leads
Immatures/yd2
First, spray grass borders and neighboring rangeland at beginning of egg hatch using diflubenzuron. Second, use diflubenzuron
All Montana Spring
Adults/yd2
Crops and Alfalfa
All Montana Spring Crops and Alfalfa
Rating
Margin
Field
Treat?
Rating
Margin
Field
Treat?
Safe
<25
<15
No
Safe
<10
<3
No
Light
25-35
15-25
No
Light
10-20
3-7
Threatening
50-75
30-45
Threatening
21-40
8-14
Severe
>100
>60
Severe
>41
>15
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Depends on prices and crop condition Yes, monitor for retreatment
Yes, if there is a potential for head clipping Yes, if there is a potential for head clipping Yes, consider wider border treatments and monitor for retreatment
Courtesy of Kevin Wanner
How does diflubenzuron work?
Bruce Watt, University of Maine, Bugwood.org
Common Issues with Conifer Trees in Montana
C
onifers are a staple tree in many landscapes, but they can be affected by diseases and arthropod-related issues, resulting in needle discoloration, loss, and dieback of branches. Additionally, most conifer issues are not due to an insect or disease. Instead, many symptoms result from growing conditions or weather. In other cases, growth is normal but may look different than expected. SPRING ABIOTIC DISORDERS OF CONIFERS
Winter Injury
This injury happens when there is minimal snow cover and low humidity over the winter, causing conifers to dry out. Symptoms include red, yellow or brown needle discoloration appearing in the spring, especially on needle tips. Damage is most obvious on south and southwest sides of the tree. Water thoroughly during dry periods during the growing season and into the fall to avoid this issue.
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Cytospora Canker Ips Bark Beetles
White Pine Weevil Rhizosphaera needle cast
Stigmina needle cast
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Seasonal needle drop
(top row, left to right) Eva Grimme; S. Katovich, Bugwood.org; Ward Strong, BC Ministry of Forests, Bugwood.org; (center row, left to right) Laurie Kerzicnik; USDA Forest Service - North Central Research Station, Bugwood.org (bottom row, left to right) Joseph OBrien, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org; Eva Grimme
Spruce Spider Mite
Seasonal Needle Drop
Did you know that conifers naturally shed some of their needles every year? In the fall you might notice interior needles turning yellow, and these usually turn brown and fall off in the winter. A few trees might have interior brown needles that hang on until spring. Normal Plant Growth
Sometimes the way trees normally grow can look surprising to a homeowner. For example, if a conifer has more pollen cones than usual it might cause a second look. Another example is certain trees with a characteristic like shredding bark. COMMON DISEASES OF CONIFERS
Spruce Diseases
Needle Cast Diseases: Brown, bronze, or dark purple discoloration and gradual loss of innermost needles. Symptoms often start on lower branches. Youngest needles usually stay green. • Rhizosphaera needle cast: Small, black, spherical fruiting bodies emerge from stomata. • Stigmina needle cast: Small, black, fuzzy-looking fruiting bodies emerge from stomata. • Sudden needle drop: Small, spherical, fruiting bodies form only on branches or needle pegs.
Recommendations: Prune out and destroy affected branches. Support tree vigor by providing adequate water and nutrients. Fungicides are not recommended. Pine Diseases (primarily Austrian, ponderosa, mugo)
Dothistroma needle blight: Tan or brown needle tips (often with a distinct interface between dead and live tissue) that start as dark-green (water-soaked), tan or reddish-brown spots, eventually forming a band (possibly with small resin drops) around needles; dark fruiting bodies emerge from needles. Recommendations: Remove fallen needles. In spring, consider applying a protectant fungicide once when new needles are half their mature length and once when fully grown. COMMON ARTHROPOD ISSUES ON CONIFERS
White Pine Weevil (spruce):
The top of the tree (terminal) will wilt and eventually die. Side branches will start to grow upward to replace the dead leader. Recommendations: The infested terminal can be clipped, and a new leader can be trained (before July). Contact insecticides can be sprayed at the terminal of the tree or a systemic insecticide can be applied as a soil drench in the spring.
needle drop can occur. Damage is usually concentrated on the older, inside needles in the lower portions of the tree. Recommendations: Reduce environmental stress to the tree and provide adequate water. Several oils and miticides are available for spider mite control. Ips Bark Beetles (and close relatives) (pine and spruce):
Ips beetles cause fading of needles and eventual dieback on branches or tops of trees (can also be confused with abiotic-related issues). Trees that are newly transplanted, have root injuries, or are stressed are more susceptible to Ips beetle attacks. Woodpeckers might be seen feeding on the immature beetles underneath the bark. Recommendations: Terminal flagging or dieback in the upper canopy requires a sample taken from this area of the tree to rule out bark beetle-related causes. It is hard (if not impossible) to kill the beetles and correct damage once they are present in the tree. Preventive contact insecticides can be sprayed on the trunk of trees that are not infested. Slash from infested trees should be piled and burned prior to adult beetle emergence in May. Eva Grimme is an Associate Extension Specialist & Plant Disease Diagnostician. Laurie Kerzicnik is an Associate Extension Specialist and Insect Diagnostician. Noelle
Recommendations: Remove and destroy affected branches and fallen needles. Provide supplemental water during dry periods. Avoid spraying the needles with water during sprinkler irrigation. In severe cases, consider applying a protectant fungicide in spring, once when new needles are half their mature length and once when fully grown. Treatments for two consecutive years are recommended. Cytospora Canker: Canker develop on branches and/or trunks of stressed trees and may girdle limbs from within. Bluish or whitish resin might be visible on the branches.
Western Spruce Budworm (Douglas-fir,
Orloff is an Associate Extension Specialist
fir, spruce, and larch):
and Plant Identification Diagnostician.
Several areas of the tree will be defoliated. Needles will be deformed with chewing damage, insect excrement, and webbing. Recommendations: Beneficial predators help to control populations. Several contact insecticides are available for caterpillar control. Spruce Spider Mite (spruce, fir, pine, juniper, arborvitae, Douglas-fir, and yew):
Needles will have a greyish hue with flecking spots. Stunting and premature
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