Economic Commission for Africa
State of the Environment in Africa
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3TATE OF THE %NVIRONMENT IN !FRICA
Ú %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA !DDIS !BABA %THIOPIA
&OR THIS AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS PLEASE VISIT THE %#! WEB SITE AT THE FOLLOWING ADDRESS HTTP WWW UNECA ORG OR CONTACT 0UBLICATIONS %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA 0 / "OX !DDIS !BABA %THIOPIA 4EL &AX % MAIL ECAINFO UNECA ORG
4ABLE OF #ONTENTS %8%#54)6% 35--!29 3%#4)/. /.% /6%26)%7
).42/$5#4)/. "ACKGROUND 'OALS AND /BJECTIVES /RGANIZATION OF THE 2EPORT %.6)2/.-%.4 !.$ $%6%,/0-%.4 0HYSICAL #HARACTERISTICS 0OPULATION 4HE %CONOMY 4HE %NVIRONMENT !GENDA /N GOING )NITIATIVES FOR 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT
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!4-/30(%2% !.$ #,)-!4% )NTRODUCTION 4HE #LIMATE OF !FRICA IN THE 4WENTIETH #ENTURY #LIMATE #HANGE )MPACTS 6ULNERABILITY AND !DAPTATION TO #LIMATE #HANGE
.!452!, $)3!34%23 )NTRODUCTION $ROUGHT $ROUGHT 0REPAREDNESS AND -ITIGATION 3TORMS AND &LOOD (AZARDS &OREST AND 7ILD &IRES 6OLCANIC $ISASTERS
,!.$ !.$ &//$ )NTRODUCTION 2ESOURCE AND 5SES ,AND $EGRADATION 4HE 3TATE OF &OOD IN !FRICA )NITIATIVES IN ,AND $EGRADATION AND &OOD 3ECURITY
")/$)6%23)49 !.$ &/2%343 )NTRODUCTION "IODIVERSITY 2ESOURCES "IODIVERSITY AND THE CONCEPT OF 0ROTECTED !REAS 4HE 6ALUES OF "IODIVERSITY AND &ORESTS 4HREATS TO "IODIVERSITY $ECLINE IN &ORESTS
III
&2%3(7!4%2 )NTRODUCTION 7ATER 2ESOURCES 7ATER $EMAND AND 5SE $EPLETION OF 7ATER 1UANTITY AND 1UALITY )NITIATIVES #ONSTRAINTS AND /PPORTUNITIES
-!2).% !.$ #/!34!, !2%!3 )NTRODUCTION 0HYSICAL &EATURES AND "IODIVERSITY 0OPULATION 0RESSURE %CONOMIC !CTIVITIES 2ESOURCE $EGRADATION 3EA ,EVEL 2ISE #HALLENGES AND 2ESPONSES
52"!. %.6)2/.-%.4 )NTRODUCTION %NVIRONMENTAL 3USTAINABILITY 'REEN AND "ROWN !GENDAS $ETERIORATION OF THE 5RBAN %NVIRONMENT %NVIRONMENT AND %COSYSTEMS )MPACT ON (UMAN 3ETTLEMENTS 3OLID AND (AZARDOUS 7ASTE
4(% %.6)2/.-%.4 !.$ (5-!. (%!,4( )NTRODUCTION )MPLICATIONS OF %NVIRONMENTAL #HANGE ON (UMAN (EALTH %NVIRONMENTAL #HANGE AND )NCIDENCE OF $ISEASE IN !FRICA 5RBANIZATION AND (UMAN (EALTH .EXUS OF 0OVERTY %NVIRONMENT AND (EALTH
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IV
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%8%#54)6% 35--!29 4HE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF THE 3TATE OF %NVIRONMENT IN !FRICA REPORT IS TO IDENTIFY AND HIGH LIGHT THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF CONCERN ON THE CONTINENT AND TO MAKE RECOM MENDATIONS FOR ACTION 4HE INFORMATION PRESENTED CONlRMS THAT THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA HAS BEEN AND CONTINUES TO BE INmUENCED PRINCIPALLY BY RAPID POPULATION GROWTH INCREAS ING AND CHRONIC POVERTY AND INAPPROPRIATE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES ESPECIALLY AGRICUL TURE PRODUCTION METHODS 4HESE FACTORS HAVE LED TO WHAT HAS BECOME POPULARLY KNOWN AS THE POPULATION AGRICULTURE ENVIRONMENT NEXUS /THER FACTORS INCLUDE UNFAVOURABLE TERMS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE THE DEBT BURDEN THE IMPACT OF DROUGHT AND OTHER NATURAL DISASTERS AND INEFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT POLICIES 4HE CUMULATIVE IMPACT OF THE ABOVE MENTIONED FACTORS ON THE ENVIRONMENT IS EXTEN SIVE DEGRADATION OF LAND AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES 4HE ISSUES OF CONCERN ARE MANY AND INCLUDE WIDESPREAD LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIlCATION LOSS OF ARABLE AND GRAZ ING LAND DECLINING SOIL PRODUCTIVITY LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY POLLUTION AND DEPLETION OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND DETERIORATING AIR QUALITY ESPECIALLY IN URBAN AREAS 4HESE HAVE WIDER IMPLICATIONS ON FOOD SECURITY SUSTAINABLE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
HUMAN HEALTH AND EFFORTS TOWARDS POVERTY ERADICATION $ETAILS OF THE IDENTIlED FACTORS AND MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF CONCERN ARE DISCUSSED BELOW !FRICA S LARGE POPULATION ESTIMATED AT MILLION IN AND ITS HIGH RATE OF GROWTH ARE EXERTING PRESSURE ON THE CONTINENT S NATURAL RESOURCES 0ER CAPITA ARABLE LAND HAS DROPPED FROM HA PERSON IN TO HA PERSON BY 4HE MAJOR ITY OF THE PEOPLE ARE POOR AND THEY DEPEND ON NATURAL RESOURCES FOR THEIR LIVELIHOODS I E TO MEET THEIR FOOD ENERGY WATER AND OTHER BASIC NEEDS "ECAUSE OF THEIR POVERTY
MANY FARMERS ARE INCAPABLE OF UNDERTAKING INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE THAT REQUIRES SIGNIl CANT INPUTS OR TO UNDERTAKE OTHER SOIL IMPROVEMENT INVESTMENTS 4HE ONLY ALTERNATIVE LEFT FOR THEM IS TO USE THE SOIL UNTIL IT IS COMPLETELY DEGRADED ,AND DEGRADATION IS WIDESPREAD AND A MAJOR PROBLEM THROUGHOUT !FRICA .EARLY MILLION HECTARES ARE MODERATELY TO SEVERELY DEGRADED 4HIS IS LINKED TO POPULATION PRESSURE AS WELL AS INAPPROPRIATE LAND USES POOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION TECHNOLO GIES POOR LAND MANAGEMENT AND DROUGHT 4HE DEGRADATION HAS GIVEN RISE TO INCREASED DESERTIlCATION DECREASING LAND PRODUCTIVITY AND LOSS OF ARABLE LAND !PPROXIMATELY PER CENT OF LAND DEGRADATION IN !FRICA IS FROM OVERGRAZING PER CENT FROM ACTIVI TIES RELATED TO CROP PRODUCTION PER CENT FROM VEGETATION REMOVAL AND ANOTHER PER CENT FROM OVER EXPLOITATION OF THE LAND ! DEGRADED ENVIRONMENT PRODUCES LESS FOOD MAKES BIOMASS FUEL SCARCER REDUCES ECOSYSTEM RESILIENCE AND RENDERS PEOPLE MALNOURISHED AND MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISEASES !FRICA HAS A LARGE AND DIVERSE HERITAGE OF BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING MORE THAN PLANT SPECIES MAMMAL SPECIES AND BIRD SPECIES 5NFORTUNATELY A SIGNIl CANT PROPORTION OF THESE RICH BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES IS EITHER ENDANGERED OR UNDER THREAT OF EXTINCTION !FRICA HOLDS lVE OF THE BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS OF THE WORLD INCLUD ING THE 'UINEAN HOTSPOT WHICH IS HOME TO HALF OF !FRICA S MAMMALIAN SPECIES 4HERE V
ARE A NUMBER OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES IN ALL !FRICAN COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST NUMBERS BEING PERHAPS IN 4ANZANIA MAMMAL BIRD AND PLANT SPECIES AND -ADAGASCAR MAMMAL BIRD AND PLANT SPECIES 4HE $EMOCRATIC 2EPUBLIC OF #ONGO AND #ยนTE D )VOIRE ARE OTHER COUNTRIES WHERE BIODIVERSITY IS ENDANGERED AND OR ARE VULNERABLE -OST OF !FRICA S INDIGENOUS TROPICAL FORESTS ARE ALSO THREATENED /NE ESTIMATE PUTS THE RATE OF DECLINE AT NEARLY ONE PER CENT PER ANNUM 4HE MAJOR THREATS TO !FRICA S BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES COME FROM CLIMATIC VARIATIONS AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES ,OGGING OVER HUNTING INTRODUCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES AND EXPAN SION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND ARE SOME OF THE MOST SERIOUS THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY ,OG GING ACCOUNTS FOR PER CENT OF FOREST LOSS IN !FRICA WHILE AGRICULTURE AND ENERGY AND OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT ACCOUNT FOR AND PER CENT OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
RESPECTIVELY 4HOUGH THE CONTINENT IS ENDOWED WITH ABUNDANT WATER RESOURCES MOST OF THEM ARE NOT DEVELOPED AND THEREFORE ARE NOT AVAILABLE TO THE LARGE AND GROWING POPULATION !BOUT PER CENT OF THE RURAL POPULATION ARE WITHOUT ACCESS TO CLEAN AND ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY AND PER CENT OF THE PEOPLE IN RURAL AREAS DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO ADEQUATE SANITATION FACILITIES 4HE SITUATION IS NO BETTER IN THE URBAN AREAS WHERE AN ESTIMATED AND PER CENT OF THE POPULATION DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER AND SANITATION FACILITIES RESPECTIVELY 0ROJECTIONS SHOW THAT BY SOME MILLION PEOPLE WILL BE LIVING IN EITHER WATER SCARCE MILLION OR WATER STRESSED MILLION COUNTRIES DUE TO INADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT IN THE WATER SECTOR TO MEET DEMAND 0OLLUTION OF WATER BODIES FROM POOR SANITATION AND POOR MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTE
AND BY EFmUENTS FROM AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES IS AGGRAVATING THE PROBLEM OF WATER SCARCITY 7ETLANDS IN MANY COUNTRIES INCLUDING .IGERIA #AMEROON AND "OTSWANA ARE ALSO AT RISK FROM CONVERSION TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND OTHER DEVEL OPMENTS SUCH AS CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS ON RIVERS THAT FEED INTO THE WETLANDS $EVEL OPMENT OF WETLANDS HAS CONSIDERABLE ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO ECONOMIC COSTS ON THE CONTINENT )N ADDITION TO THE DEPLETION OF FRESH WATER RESOURCES MARINE AND COASTAL AREA RESOURCES ARE ALSO UNDER THREAT 4HE !FRICAN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT HAS A BROAD RANGE OF HABITAT TYPES THAT HARBOUR RICH BIODIVERSITY OF GREAT ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIl CANCE /VER THE YEARS HOWEVER THESE RESOURCES HAVE BEEN EXPLOITED TO MEET DEVELOP MENT NEEDS (UMANITY S INCREASING DEMANDS ON THE COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT HAVE BEEN VERY EXPLOITATIVE IN NATURE RESULTING IN THE DEGRADATION OF ITS RESOURCES BOTH QUANTITATIVELY AND QUALITATIVELY #OMPARED TO THE INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES OF %UROPE AND .ORTH !MERICA !FRICA S CON TRIBUTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IS NOT SIGNIlCANT &OSSIL FUEL #/ EMISSIONS ARE LOW IN BOTH ABSOLUTE AND PER CAPITA TERMS /NLY lVE COUNTRIES ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR !FRICA S REGIONAL EMISSIONS FROM FOSSIL FUEL AND CEMENT 3OUTH !FRICA IS BY FAR THE GREATEST EMITTER RESPONSIBLE FOR PER CENT OF THE CONTINENTAL TOTAL !NOTHER PER CENT OF #/ COME FROM !LGERIA %GYPT ,IBYA AND .IGERIA COMBINED /NLY ,IBYA WITH METRIC TONS AND 3OUTH !FRICA METRIC TONS HAVE PER CAPITA EMISSIONS HIGHER THAN THE GLOBAL AVERAGE OF METRIC TONS OF CARBON PER YEAR
VI
$ESPITE THIS THE CONTINENT IS CONSIDERED MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE BECAUSE LIMITED RESOURCES RESTRICT !FRICA S ABILITY TO UNDERTAKE PREVENTIVE MEA SURES TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE EXTREMES #LIMATE RELATED DISASTERS AND DISEASES ARE ON THE INCREASE 4HE IMPACT OF DROUGHT CYCLONES mOODS AND BUSHlRES HAS BROUGHT MISERY E G STARVATION HOMELESSNESS AND DEATH TO MILLIONS OF PEOPLE
ESPECIALLY IN THE (ORN OF !FRICA AND THROUGHOUT 3OUTHERN !FRICA -ALARIA CHOLERA AND LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS ARE ALSO ON THE INCREASE 4HESE ARE A RESULT OF CLIMATE CHANGE DETERIORATING WATER AND AIR QUALITY AND POOR DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE IN URBAN AREAS AMONG OTHER FACTORS -ALARIA FOR INSTANCE IS INCREASING IN TERRITORIES WHERE THE PARASITE WAS HITHERTO NON EXISTENT 3IMILARLY DISEASES ONCE THOUGHT TO BE UNDER CON TROL SUCH AS DRUG RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS HAVE REAPPEARED AND INCREASED TREMENDOUSLY
CAUSING OVER THREE MILLION DEATHS ANNUALLY 4HE INABILITY OF URBAN AUTHORITIES TO PROVIDE BASIC AMENITIES SUCH AS WATER AND SEWAGE FACILITIES AND THEIR INABILITY TO PROPERLY MANAGE SOLID AND OTHER WASTES FROM DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL SOURCES IS A MAJOR CONCERN 4HE QUALITY OF LIFE IN MANY !FRICAN CITIES DETERIORATED DURING THE S ESPECIALLY IN SPONTANEOUS UNPLANNED INFORMAL SETTLE MENTS !IR POLLUTION AND FOUL ODOURS ARE COMMON IN SUCH CASES )N CONCLUSION THE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA IS UNDERGOING VARIOUS TYPES OF DETERIORATION )N ORDER TO CORRECT THE CONTINUING DISASTROUS TREND !FRICAN COUNTRIES MUST ADDRESS THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE DETERIORATION )N THIS REGARD ACTION MUST BE TAKING IN FOUR MAJOR AREAS 4HESE ARE s s s s
4RANSFORMING THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR TO MAKE IT MORE PRODUCTIVE 3AFEGUARDING AND SUSTAINABLY UTILIZING THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE 0URSUING ACCELERATED SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT TO ERADICATE POVERTY AND 2EDUCING THE HIGH RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH
VII
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) ).42/$5#4)/. "ACKGROUND &OR THE PAST YEARS !FRICA HAS BEEN THE REGION WITH THE HIGHEST POPULATION GROWTH IN THE WORLD 4HE CONTINENT IS ALSO THE POOREST REGION 4HE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE
ESPECIALLY THE RURAL DWELLERS ARE POOR 2ECENT ESTIMATES SHOW THAT NEARLY PER CENT OF THE RURAL POPULATION LIVE BELOW THE ACUTE POVERTY LINE OF 53 PER PERSON PER DAY 5RBAN POVERTY IS EQUALLY WIDESPREAD WITH APPROXIMATELY PER CENT OF THE POPULA TION LIVING ON LESS THAN 53 PER PERSON PER DAY )N TOTAL THERE ARE ABOUT MILLION PEOPLE IN SUB 3AHARA !FRICA THAT LIVE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE 4HE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE DEPEND ON NATURAL RESOURCES FOR THEIR LIVELIHOODS 4HEY ARE ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE BUT BECAUSE OF THE HIGH RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH ARABLE LAND IS BECOMING SCARCE )N THE AVERAGE PER CAPITA ARABLE LAND IN !FRICA WAS HA PERSON "Y THIS AMOUNT HAS MORE THAN HALVED DROPPING TO HA PERSON 0OVERTY HAS ALSO RENDERED MANY FARMERS INCAPABLE OF UNDERTAKING INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE THAT REQUIRES SIGNIlCANT INPUTS AND CAPITAL INVESTMENTS IN LAND AND FARM LEVEL IMPROVE MENTS 4HUS !FRICAN AGRICULTURE HAS LARGELY REMAINED TRADITIONAL 4HE IMPLICATIONS OF THE ACUTE POVERTY POOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION METHODS AND HIGH POPULATION GROWTH RATE INCLUDE HIGH ILLITERACY INCREASING STARVATION POOR HEALTH AND A DEGRADED ENVIRONMENT AMONG OTHERS ! POOR AND HUNGRY PEOPLE WILL OFTEN DESTROY THE ENVIRONMENT IN THEIR EFFORTS TO SURVIVE 4HROUGH TRADITIONAL CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUC TION SYSTEMS THEY CUT DOWN FORESTS AND OR OVERUSE MARGINAL LANDS IN ORDER TO PRODUCE FOOD THEIR LIVESTOCK OVERGRAZE GRASSLANDS AND BECAUSE OF LACK OF ACCESS TO MORE LAND AS A RESULT OF INCREASES IN THEIR NUMBERS AND OBSTACLES FROM LAND TENURE REGIMES THEY MIGRATE TO CONGESTED CITIES IN GROWING NUMBERS IN SEARCH OF ALTERNATIVE EMPLOYMENT )N THE CITIES THEY ESTABLISH SHANTY DWELLINGS IN SLUMS WHERE THEY DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER AND SANITATION FACILITIES 4HE CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF THIS STATE OF AFFAIRS IS THE CREATION OF A VICIOUS CYCLE IN WHICH THE POVERTY AND DEPRIVATION INTENSIlES AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION WORSENS 4HE TRANSITION FROM A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT TO THE PRESENT CONDITIONS MAY BE TRACED BACK SEVERAL DECADES !T INDEPENDENCE I E BETWEEN AND MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES ACHIEVED FAST ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE EXPLOITATION OF THE RICH NATURAL RESOURCES (OWEVER TOWARDS THE END OF THE S AND IN THE EARLY S THERE WAS SEVERE DETERIORATION IN ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE AND A RAPID ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION -ANY COUNTRIES EMBARKED ON STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES WITH THE HOPE OF ADDRESSING WIDESPREAD POVERTY AND THE DEBT BURDEN WITHOUT MUCH SUCCESS &ROM SIM ILAR EXPERIENCES AROUND THE WORLD IT BECAME OBVIOUS THAT ISSUES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOP MENT CANNOT BE SEPARATED FROM ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND THAT THE TWO ARE NOT SEPARATE CHALLENGES BUT ARE INTRICATELY LINKED IN A COMPLEX SYSTEM OF CAUSE AND EFFECT 4HIS REALIZATION LED lRST TO THE 3TOCKHOLM #ONFERENCE IN AND SUBSEQUENTLY TO THE 5NITED .ATIONS #ONFERENCE ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT 5.#%$ IN 2IO
DE *ANEIRO IN !GENDA SEEN AS THE GUIDELINE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
WAS ADOPTED DURING 5.#%$ OR THE %ARTH 3UMMIT )N 2IO THERE WAS A lRM CONVICTION THAT THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD IN A SPIRIT OF MULTILATERALISM WOULD JOIN HANDS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF !GENDA SO AS TO CREATE HARMONY BETWEEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT THEREBY ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT !FRICA PARTICIPATED FULLY IN 5.#%$ WITH GREAT EXPECTATIONS FROM THE NEW IDEA OF GLOBAL COOPERATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FORGED IN 2IO 4EN YEARS AFTER 2IO AND AS THE WORLD PREPARES TO REVIEW THE PROGRESS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DURING %ARTH 3UMMIT )) IN *OHANNESBURG MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES STILL FACE ENORMOUS ECONOMIC PRESSURES AND THE QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT CONTINUES TO DETERIORATE 4HE NEED TO RAISE MUCH NEEDED lNANCE TO SERVICE THE INCREASING DEBT BURDEN AND TO ADDRESS ISSUES OF CHRONIC POVERTY IS AS STRONG AS EVER 4HE OVEREXPLOITA TION OF THE CONTINENT S RICH NATURAL RESOURCES CONTINUES WHILE SOIL FERTILITY IS DECREASING AS LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIlCATION ARE ON THE INCREASE 3ALINIZATION SOIL COMPAC TION OVERGRAZING DEFORESTATION AND AGROCHEMICAL AND ACCUMULATED PESTICIDE POLLU TION ARE ALSO ON THE INCREASE 3O ARE THE DEPLETION OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND SOME OF THE WORLD S RICHEST BIODIVERSITY
'OALS AND /BJECTIVES 4HE GOALS OF THE 3TATE OF THE %NVIRONMENT IN !FRICA REPORT ARE TWO FOLD lRST IT IS A REQUIREMENT UNDER THE 7ORK 0ROGRAMME OF THE &OOD 3ECURITY AND 3USTAINABLE $EVEL OPMENT $IVISION &33$$ OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA 5.%#! FOR THE BIENNIUM 4HE INTENTION IS FOR THE #OMMISSION TO PRO VIDE SPECIlC !FRICA REGIONAL INPUT INTO THE 'LOBAL %NVIRONMENTAL /UTLOOK REPORT PRO DUCED BY THE 5NITED .ATIONS %NVIRONMENT 0ROGRAMME 5.%0 3ECONDLY THE REPORT IS INTENDED AS A RESOURCE MATERIAL ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA FOR THE GENERAL PUBLIC 4HE REPORT SEEKS TO ACHIEVE THREE OBJECTIVES s s s
4O DESCRIBE THE CONTINENT S ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS FOR THE GENERAL PUBLIC 4O HIGHLIGHT THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES FACING THE CONTINENT AND 4O RECOMMEND STRATEGIC ACTIONS CONCERNING THESE ISSUES
)N THIS REGARD THE REPORT MAY BE A TIMELY AND USEFUL CONTRIBUTION TO THE !FRICAN REGIONAL PREPARATIONS TOWARDS THE 7ORLD 3UMMIT ON 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT "ECAUSE OF THE NEXUS DILEMMA OF POPULATION AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT THAT IS PLAGUING THE CONTINENT THIS REPORT ALSO ATTEMPTS TO LINK THE PREVAILING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES TO FOOD SECURITY AND POVERTY 5PDATES MAY BE PRODUCED IN THE FUTURE (OWEVER
THESE WILL DEPEND ON THE AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES AND THE DEMAND FOR REPORTING ON THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT .ONETHELESS COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS ARE INVITED FROM USERS WITH THE VIEW OF PROVIDING GUIDANCE AND IMPROVEMENTS UPON POSSIBLE FUTURE EDI TIONS
/RGANIZATION OF THE 2EPORT 4HE REPORT COMPRISES THREE SECTIONS 4HE lRST SECTION PROVIDES A GENERAL BACKGROUND TO THE CURRENT STATUS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ! HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF POST INDEPENDENCE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES AND CHOICES IS PROVIDED TO SHOW THE LINK BETWEEN SOME OF !FRICA S PAST DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS AND THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT SHOWN BY HIGHLIGHTING THE NEXUS OF POPULATION ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT )N SECTION TWO A SYNTHESIS OF VARIOUS CURRENT SECTORAL ISSUES AND FACTS ARE PROVIDED )SSUES RELATED TO THE ATMOSPHERE CLIMATE AND NATURAL DISASTERS LAND RESOURCES FOOD PRODUCTION FRESHWATER RESOURCES COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS BIODIVERSITY THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH ARE DISCUSSED 4HE lNAL SECTION CONTAINS SUGGESTIONS FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION INCLUDING THE SETTING OF PRIORI TIES WITH A FOCUS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
)) %.6)2/.-%.4 !.$ $%6%,/0-%.4 0HYSICAL #HARACTERISTICS !FRICA IS THE SECOND LARGEST OF THE WORLD S SEVEN CONTINENTS WITH A LAND AREA OF MIL LION KM ABOUT ONE lFTH OF THE WORLD S TOTAL LAND AREA 3TRADDLING THE EQUATOR IT STRETCHES KM FROM THE NORTHERNMOST POINT IN 4UNISIA TO ITS SOUTHERNMOST TIP IN 3OUTH !FRICA )T IS KM WIDE MEASURED FROM THE WESTERN TIP IN 3ENEGAL TO THE EASTERN TIP IN 3OMALIA -OUNT +ILIMANJARO IN 4ANZANIA MEASURING M ABOVE SEA LEVEL IS THE HIGHEST POINT WHILE THE LOWEST IS ,AKE !SSAL M BELOW SEA LEVEL IN $JIBOUTI 0HYSIOGRAPHIC 2EGIONS -ADE UP OF COUNTRIES THE CONTINENT COMPRISES A VAST ROLL ING PLATEAU -UCH OF THE WEST CENTRAL AND NORTHERN !FRICA IS LOW LYING WHILE THE EAST ERN AND SOUTHERN !FRICA REGIONS ARE DOMINATED BY HIGH ALTITUDES /N THE BASIS OF ELEVATION THE CONTINENT MAY BE DIVIDED INTO THREE MAJOR REGIONS s s
s
TAINOUS REGIONS ALONG THE DESERT FRINGES SUCH AS THE !TLAS -OUNTAINS THE &OUTA $JALLON AND THE !DAMAWA -ASSIF 4HE #ENTRAL AND 3OUTHERN 0LATEAU AVERAGING M IN HEIGHT ENCOMPASSES WEST CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN !FRICA )T CONTAINS SEVERAL MAJOR DEPRESSIONS NOTABLY THE #ONGO 2IVER "ASIN AND THE +ALAHARI $ESERT 3OUTH OF THIS PLATEAU ARE THE FOLDED CHAIN OF THE -ALUTI $RAKENSBERG MOUNTAIN RANGE WHICH RUNS SOME KM ALONG THE SOUTH EASTERN COAST OF THE CONTINENT 4HE %ASTERN (IGHLANDS THE HIGHEST PART OF THE CONTINENT LIE NEAR THE EASTERN COAST EXTENDING FROM THE 2ED 3EA SOUTHWARDS TO THE :AMBEZI 2IVER ALONG THE FAULT OF THE 2IFT 6ALLEY 4HE AVERAGE ELEVATION IN THIS REGION IS MORE THAN M ABOVE SEA LEVEL AND IT INCLUDES A NUMBER OF TOWERING VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS SUCH AS -OUNT +ILIMANJARO -OUNT +ENYA AND -OUNT %LGON
3OILS !LTHOUGH !FRICAN SOILS VARY WIDELY THEY HAVE MAJOR SIMILARITIES -OST HAVE DEVELOPED LOCALLY PRIMARILY BY WEATHERING ! FEW AREAS HAVE ALLUVIAL SOILS LAID DOWN BY RIVERS OR OCEAN CURRENTS "EING TYPICALLY TROPICAL SOILS MOST ARE RELATIVELY INFERTILE
LACKING HUMUS AND SUBJECT TO MINERAL LEACHING FROM HEAVY RAINFALL AND HIGH TEMPERA TURES !BOUT PER CENT OF THE SOILS ARE DElCIENT IN PHOSPHORUS A KEY NUTRIENT FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIOMASS 4HE SOILS ALSO HAVE LOW WATER INlLTRATION AND RETENTION CAPAC ITY DUE TO SURFACE CRUSTING 4HE MOST FERTILE SOILS INCLUDE THE BLACK SOILS OF EASTERN !FRICA AND THE ALlSOLS IN PARTS OF WESTERN AND SOUTHERN !FRICA !BOUT HALF OF !FRICA S CULTIVABLE LAND IS ARID AND SEMIARID COMPRISED MOSTLY OF DESERT SOILS ARIDISOLS AND ENTISOLS WHICH HAVE THE LEAST ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT 4HEREFORE
MOST OF THIS LAND IS DEGRADED !BOUT PER CENT OF CROPLAND AND PER CENT OF THE PAS TURELAND IN !FRICA ARE AFFECTED BY DEGRADATION WITH CONSEQUENT DECLINE IN CROP YIELDS AND CHRONIC FOOD INSECURITY )T IS ALSO ESTIMATED THAT PER CENT OF DEGRADED SOIL RESULT FROM VEGETATION REMOVAL PER CENT FROM OVER EXPLOITATION PER CENT FROM OVER GRAZING AND PER CENT FROM AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES 7ORLD 2ESOURCES )NSTITUTE 72)
$RAINAGE 3YSTEM 3OME OF THE WORLD S GREATEST RIVERS ARE CONTAINED IN !FRICA )N ALL
SIX MAJOR NETWORKS DRAIN THE CONTINENT 4HE 2IVER .ILE DRAINS NORTHEASTERN !FRICA AND
AT KM IS THE LONGEST RIVER IN THE WORLD 4HE 2IVER #ONGO SOME KM LONG
DRAINS MUCH OF CENTRAL !FRICA WHILE THE .IGER 2IVER KM LONG IS THE THIRD LON GEST ON THE CONTINENT AND RISING FROM THE &OUTA $JALLON HIGHLANDS IT DRAINS MOST OF 7EST !FRICA BEFORE EMPTYING INTO THE 'ULF OF 'UINEA 4HE OTHER MAJOR RIVER DRAIN AGE SYSTEMS ARE THE :AMBEZI KM THE ,IMPOPO KM AND THE /RANGE 2IVERS ALL OF WHICH DRAIN THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE ,AKE #HAD BASIN WHICH FORMS THE LARGEST INLAND DRAINAGE SYSTEM ALL THE DRAINAGE NETWORKS HAVE OUTLETS TO THE SEA )T IS ARGUED IN #HAPTER THAT IN SPITE OF ABUNDANT FRESHWATER RESOURCES A LARGE PROPORTION OF THE PEOPLES OF !FRICA ARE WITHOUT ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER DUE TO INADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT IN THE SECTOR #LIMATE #HANGES IN CLIMATE HAS BEEN EXPERIENCED OVER A LONG PERIOD &ROM YEARS AGO TO ABOUT YEARS AGO DIFFERENT CYCLIC CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OCCURRED RANG ING FROM COLD AND ARID TO WARM AND MOIST WITH ASSOCIATED POOR AND LUXURIANT VEGETA TION !DAMS 4HE WEATHER HAS ALSO VARIED BETWEEN WET AND DRY DECADES WITH INTERMITTENT DROUGHT AND mOODS (OWEVER EXTREME WEATHER CONDITIONS SEEM TO BE INCREASING IN FREQUENCY IN RECENT YEARS 7ORLD "ANK 0ROPORTIONATELY !FRICA HAS A LARGER AREA IN ARID OR DESERT CLIMATE ZONES THAN ANY OTHER CONTINENT EXCEPT !US TRALIA %ACH OF THESE AREAS THE 3AHARA IN THE NORTH THE (ORN OF !FRICA IN THE EAST AND THE +ALAHARI AND .AMIB DESERTS IN THE SOUTHWEST HAS LESS THAN MM OF RAINFALL ANNUALLY 0RECIPITATION VARIES FROM ALMOST ZERO OVER THE (ORN OF !FRICA AND THE .AMIB $ESERT TO OVER MILLIMETRES A YEAR IN THE WESTERN EQUATORIAL REGION 5NITED .ATIONS %NVI RONMENT 0ROGRAMME 5.%0 D ! LARGE PROPORTION OF THE CONTINENT HOWEVER
IS SEMIARID WITH RAINFALL RANGING FROM TO MILLIMETRES A YEAR ! STUDY OF THE RAINFALL PATTERN BETWEEN AND THE S SHOWS A DECLINE IN AMOUNTS SINCE 5.%0 6EGETATION -OST OF THE VEGETATION CAN BE CLASSIlED ACCORDING TO RAINFALL AND CLIMATIC ZONES ON BASIS OF WHICH SEVEN BROAD VEGETATION ZONES ARE IDENTIlED 4HE TROPICAL RAINFOREST ZONE WITH NUMEROUS SPECIES OF TROPICAL HARDWOOD TREES AND DENSE SURFACE COVER IS FOUND WHERE RAINFALL IS MORE THAN MM PER YEAR )N THE MOUNTAIN FOREST ZONE THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS SLIGHTLY LESS THAN IN THE TROPICAL FOREST 4HIS IS FOUND IN THE MOUNTAINS OF #AMEROON !NGOLA EASTERN !FRICA AND PARTS OF %THIOPIA 4HE SAVANNAH WOODLAND ZONE EXPERIENCES ANNUAL RAINFALL OF BETWEEN TO MM )T COVERS VAST AREAS AND IS CHARACTERIZED BY lRE RESISTANT SHRUBS DECIDUOUS AND LEGUMINOUS TREES 4HE SAVANNAH GRASSLAND ZONE IS FOUND IN AREAS WITH ANNUAL RAINFALLS OF BETWEEN AND MM AND IS COVERED PREDOMINANTLY BY LOW GRASSES AND SHRUBS 4HE REMAINING THREE ZONES OCCUR WHERE THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS BELOW MM PER ANNUM 4HESE ARE THE THORNBUSH ZONE AND MM CHARACTERIZED BY SPARSE GRASS COVER AND A SCATTERING OF SUCCULENT OR SEMI SUCCULENT TREES THE SUB DESERT SCRUB ZONE TO MM AND THE ZONE OF DESERT VEGETATION BELOW MM 4HESE HAVE SPARSE VEGETATION OR NONE AT ALL
0OPULATION !FRICA IS THE CONTINENT WITH THE HIGHEST POPULATION GROWTH RATE OF PER CENT IN !T THE TURN OF THE TH CENTURY THE REGION S POPULATION WAS ONLY MILLION BUT BY MID IT HAD REACHED MILLION %VEN THOUGH !FRICA S POPULATION GROWTH RATE HAS STARTED TO SLOW DOWN IT IS ESTIMATED THAT THE TOTAL POPULATION WILL INCREASE TO MILLION BY THE YEAR 4HERE WILL HOWEVER BE REGIONAL DIFFERENCES 4HE GROWTH WILL BE SLIGHTLY FASTER IN CENTRAL !FRICA PER CENT EASTERN !FRICA PER CENT AND WESTERN !FRICA PER CENT BUT SLOWER IN SOUTHERN !FRICA PER CENT 4WO MAIN POPULATION DENSITY TYPES CHARACTERISE THE CONTINENT S POPULATION HIGH VARI ABILITY AND LOW ON AVERAGE 4HE AVERAGE POPULATION DENSITY INCREASED FROM INHABIT ANTS PER KM IN TO IN AND IS PROJECTED TO INCREASE TO IN 4HIS IS LOW COMPARED TO OTHER TROPICAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD IN THE #ARIBBEAN IN SOUTHERN !SIA IN EASTERN !SIA AND IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA 2EGIONAL DIFFERENCES OCCUR HOWEVER IN THE CONTINENTAL DISTRIBUTION GIVEN RISE TO BOTH VERY LOW AND HIGH DENSELY POPULATED AREAS 4HE HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITIES ARE FOUND IN THE ISLAND STATES OF EASTERN !FRICA WHERE DENSITIES RANGE FROM IN THE 3EYCHELLES TO IN -AURITIUS 7HILE SOME OF THE LOWEST POPULATION DENSITIES ARE FOUND IN THE (ORN OF !FRICA FOR EXAMPLE 3OMALIA $JIBOUTI AND %RITREA &ACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR THE GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF !FRICA S POPULATION ARE ECOLOGI CAL AND HISTORICAL !REAS WITH ECOLOGICAL FACTORS CONDUCIVE TO AGRICULTURE HAVE DENSE POPULATIONS WHILE MOST DRY TROPICS ARE SPARSE (ILLS AND MOUNTAINOUS AREAS ARE NOT OBSTACLES TO HABITATION WHILE RIVERS SCARCELY INmUENCE SETTLEMENT (ISTORICAL FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED IN REDUCING !FRICA S POPULATION INCLUDE SLAVE TRADE DEVASTATED BLOODY CONmICTS AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION #OLONIZATION ON THE OTHER HAND ONLY MODIlED POPULATION DISTRIBUTION &UTURE 0OPULATION 4RENDS 0OPULATION PROJECTIONS SHOW A DECLINE IN FERTILITY FROM CHILDREN PER WOMAN IN TO BY 4HIS WILL BE ACCOMPANIED BY A SLOW AND UNEVEN DECLINE IN MORTALITY ,IFE EXPECTANCY IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE FROM YEARS BETWEEN AND TO IN 4HERE ARE EXPECTED STRIKING DIFFERENCES )N LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH COULD REACH YEARS IN 2EUNION IN -AURITIUS AND IN 3OUTH !FRICA )T WILL PROB ABLY NOT RISE MUCH ABOVE YEARS IN COUNTRIES WITH POOR HEALTH SERVICES OR HARD HIT BY THE ()6 !)$3 EPIDEMIC 4HE ()6 !)$3 EPIDEMIC HAS A DElNITE SLOWING EFFECT ON THE DECLINE IN MORTALITY 5RBANIZATION 4HERE IS A FAST URBANIZATION PROCESS IN !FRICA ALTHOUGH MOST !FRICANS LIVE IN RURAL AREAS )T IS ESTIMATED THAT RURAL POPULATIONS WILL CONTINUE TO GROW FROM MILLION IN TO MILLION IN BUT WILL EVENTUALLY FALL AFTER DROPPING FROM PER CENT IN TO PER CENT IN 5RBAN POPULATION ON THE OTHER HAND IS PROJECTED TO INCREASE FROM MILLION IN TO MILLION IN THUS JUMPING FROM PER CENT IN TO PER CENT OF THE TOTAL POPULATION IN &ROM TO
THE NUMBER OF CITY DWELLERS MULTIPLIED BY A FACTOR OF EIGHT WHILE THE TOTAL POPULATION INCREASE WAS ONLY THREE FOLDS 3UB 3AHARAN !FRICA WHICH HAD ONLY TOWNS WITH MORE
THAN PEOPLE IN HAD AT LEAST TOWNS IN WITH MORE THAN PEOPLE &ACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO URBANIZATION INCLUDE INCREASED ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE AFTER THE S AND S 4HESE FACTORS HAVE INTENSIlED MIGRATION FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS IN SEARCH OF BETTER PROSPECTS (UMAN (EALTH !FRICA CONTINUES TO SUFFER FROM PREVENTABLE DISEASES PARTLY DUE TO POVERTY AND THE INTRODUCTION OF USER FEES FOR BASIC SOCIAL SERVICES !LTHOUGH ACCESS TO POTABLE WATER
SANITATION AND HEALTH FACILITIES IMPROVED WORLD WIDE SINCE MORE THAN HALF OF !FRICA S POPULATION DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO POTABLE WATER AND ABOUT PER CENT LACK BASIC SANITARY SERVICES 4HE RESULT IS THAT ALMOST PER CENT OF !FRICANS SUFFER FROM WATER RELATED DISEASES &OR EXAMPLE OF THE COUNTRIES WORLD WIDE IN WHICH SCHISTO SOMIASIS IS ENDEMIC ARE IN !FRICA WHILE OF THE COUNTRIES WHERE GUINEA WORM DISEASE IS PREVALENT ARE ALSO IN !FRICA -ALARIA AND ()6 !)$3 HAVE BECOME MAJOR HEALTH HAZARDS IN !FRICA AND POSE SERIOUS THREAT TO !FRICA S SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT !BOUT MILLION CASES OF MALARIA ARE REPORTED ANNUALLY IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA -ALARIA MORTALITY RANGES BETWEEN MILLION AND MILLION DEATHS ANNUALLY WITH !FRICAN CHILDREN DYING OF MALARIA DAILY 4HE ESTIMATED DIRECT AND INDIRECT COST OF MALARIA IN SUB 3AHARA !FRICA IN WAS 53 BILLION #ENTRE FOR 3TUDY OF 2ESPONSIVE ,AW )N ABOUT MILLION PEOPLE IN SUB 3AHARA !FRICA WERE LIVING WITH ()6 !)$3 5.%0 4HIS lGURE INCREASED TO MILLION BY $ECEMBER 4HE RAPID INCREASE IN ()6 INFEC TION AND ()6 !)$3 RELATED DEATHS ARE LIKELY TO ERODE THE MARGINAL GAINS MADE IN INCREASING LIFE EXPECTANCY &OR EXAMPLE IT IS PROJECTED THAT :IMBABWE S LIFE EXPEC TANCY WILL BE CUT TO ONLY YEARS IN A DECADE 5NITED .ATIONS 0ROGRAMME ON ()6 !)$3 5.!)$3 7ORLD (EALTH /RGANIZATION 7(/ !NOTHER WORRISOME TREND ASSOCIATED WITH ()6 !)$3 IS THE INCREASING NUMBER OF ORPHANS IN SUB 3AHARA !FRICA AN ESTIMATED MILLION BY THE END OF A SITUATION THAT HAS TREMENDOUS NEGATIVE IMPACT ON !FRICAN ECONOMIES AND DEVELOPMENT
4HE %CONOMY !FRICA S PRE INDEPENDENT ECONOMY WAS DESIGNED TO SUPPORT THE ECONOMIES OF THE COLONIAL POWERS 4HE SECTORS OF INFRASTRUCTURE EDUCATION HEALTH AND INDUSTRY WERE PUR POSELY MAINTAINED SMALL OR JUST ENOUGH TO SUPPORT THE COLONIAL ECONOMY 2AW MATE RIALS WERE EXPORTED AND lNISHED GOODS IMPORTED 4HE S SAW THE BEGINNING OF THE POLITICAL EMANCIPATION OF !FRICA (OWEVER EVEN AFTER INDEPENDENCE MOST !FRICAN COUNTRIES MAINTAINED THE SAME COLONIAL ECONOMIC STRUCTURES 3INCE THE COLONIAL SYSTEM DID NOT EXPAND AND MODERNISE THE ECONOMIES GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES WERE LOW AND THIS ENSURED PRICE STABILITY AND POSITIVE BALANCE OF PAY MENTS )N CONTRAST GOVERNMENTS OF THE NEWLY INDEPENDENT !FRICAN STATES CAME UNDER PRESSURE TO EXPAND AND MODERNISE THEIR ECONOMIES SO AS TO ASSURE HIGHER STANDARDS OF LIVING FOR THEIR CITIZENS 0EOPLE NEEDED EDUCATION HEALTH ELECTRICITY WATER AND JOBS 4HE STRONG IDEOLOGICAL BATTLE BETWEEN THE COMMUNIST SOCIALIST AND THE MARKET LIBERAL ECONOMIC BLOCKS INmUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT MODELS ADOPTED BY THE NEWLY INDEPEN
DENT 3TATES 4HE SOCIALIST BLOCK ACHIEVED HIGH ECONOMIC GROWTH WITHIN A SHORT PERIOD OF YEARS 4HIS AND THE FACT THAT THE POLITICAL LEADERSHIP DID NOT CHANGE INmUENCED MOST INDEPENDENT !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE &RANCOPHONE COUN TRIES AND +ENYA ALL ADOPTED THAT MODEL OF POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY #ONSEQUENTLY DURING THE DECADE BETWEEN AND THE END OF THE ECONOMIES OF MOST !FRICAN COUNTRIES WERE CHARACTERIZED BY LARGE GOVERNMENT PRESENCE IN ALL SECTORS INCLUDING THE PRODUCTIVE ONES $UE TO SEVERAL FACTORS INCLUDING TERMS OF TRADE DETERIO RATION CONTROLLED PRICE REGIMES INCLUDING FOREIGN EXCHANGE INEFlCIENCIES LARGE GOV ERNMENTS CORRUPTION AND MILITARY COUPS EVEN COUNTRIES WHOSE ECONOMIES PERFORMED WELL IN THE S AND EARLY S DETERIORATED "ETWEEN THE LATE S AND MID S MOST COUNTRIES HAD BALANCE OF PAYMENT DElCITS HIGH RATES OF INmATION OVER VALUED CURRENCIES DETERIORATED INFRASTRUCTURE AND VERY LOW ECONOMIC GROWTH RATES 4ABLE SHOWS THAT ALL THE ECONOMIC INDICATORS GROWTH RATE OF '$0 AGRICULTURE MANU FACTURING OUTPUT SAVINGS INVESTMENT EXPORTS AND IMPORTS FELL FROM THE PERIOD $ESPITE THE GENERALLY POOR ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE THE .ORTH !FRICAN COUN TRIES IN PARTICULAR EXPERIENCED HIGH ECONOMIC GROWTH RATES WITH DIVERSIlED ECONOMIES DUE LARGELY TO INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND OIL REVENUE .ORTH !FRICA ACCOUNTED FOR PER CENT OF !FRICA S '$0 IN AND 3TRUCTURAL !DJUSTMENT 0ROGRAMMES !S A RESULT OF POOR ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE MOST !FRICAN COUNTRIES IN THE S UNDER TOOK STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES 3!0S WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE 7ORLD "ANK AND THE )NTERNATIONAL -ONETARY &UND )-& 4HE AIMS OF 3!0S WERE TO IMPROVE THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ENCOURAGE GROWTH REDUCE INmATION BUILD INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENHANCE THE STANDARD OF LIVING OF THE PEOPLE 4HE TYPICAL POLICIES INCLUDED DECON TROLLING INPUT AND OUTPUT PRICES INCREASING USER FEES FOR SOCIAL SERVICES SUCH AS EDUCA TION AND HEALTH LIBERALISING TRADE AND PAYMENTS REGIME DIVESTING STATE ENTERPRISES AND RETRENCHMENTS IN THE STATE SECTOR !T THE END OF THE SLIGHT ECONOMIC IMPROVEMENTS OCCURRED IN SOME COUNTRIES 4HE INDICATORS IN TABLE SHOW THAT THERE WAS A SLIGHT IMPROVEMENT IN ECONOMIC PERFOR MANCE BETWEEN THAT SEEMED TO HAVE DETERIORATED BETWEEN AND /N THE WHOLE HOWEVER THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE WAS BELOW THAT OF THE PERIOD 4HERE SEEMS TO BE AN UPTURN IN MOST OF THE INDICATORS IN AND THIS COULD BE A SIGN OF RECOVERY !LTHOUGH !FRICA S PERFORMANCE WAS GENERALLY NOT ENCOUR AGING SOME COUNTRIES MADE SLIGHT PROGRESS 4HE .ORTH !FRICAN COUNTRIES CONTINUED TO ACHIEVE HIGH GROWTH RATES -AURITIUS AND 3EYCHELLES DID WELL WHILE REFORMING COUN TRIES SUCH AS "OTSWANA 3OUTH !FRICA .AMIBIA ,ESOTHO %QUATORIAL 'UINEA 'ABON
'HANA AND #APE 6ERDE ACHIEVED GREATER '$0 GROWTH AND EXPORTS $ESPITE THE POSITIVE GROWTH RECORDED IN SOME COUNTRIES THERE WAS NO TRANSFORMATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMIES AND DEVELOPMENT LAGGED BEHIND EXPECTATION #OUNTRIES THAT ACHIEVED EXPORT GROWTH DID SO THROUGH INCREASED EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 4ABLE SHOWS THAT THE AVERAGE MANUFACTURING OUTPUT DECLINED FROM A HIGH OF PER CENT DURING THE PERIOD TO A MERE PER CENT DURING THE PERIOD 4HE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS SITUATION AND THE TERMS OF TRADE DETERIORATED FURTHER FOR MOST
4ABLE %CONOMIC PERFORMANCE IN !FRICA
).$)#!4/2
0OPULATION GROWTH RATE
'ROWTH RATE OF '$0 AVG
'ROWTH RATE OF AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT AVG 'ROWTH RATE OF MANUFACTURING OUTPUT AVG 'ROWTH RATE OF INVESTMENT AVG
3AVINGS '$0 AVG
'ROWTH RATE OF EXPORTS AVG
'ROWTH RATE OF IMPORTS AVG
3OURCE !FRICAN $EVELOPMENT "ANK
!FRICAN COUNTRIES !FRICA S SHARE OF WORLD TRADE DECREASED TO PER CENT IN THE S
FROM A HIGH OF PER CENT IN THE S AMOUNTING TO ANNUAL TRADE LOSSES OF 53 BILLION 4HE INTRODUCTION OF USER FEES DEPRIVED MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE ACCESS TO BASIC SOCIAL SERVICES RESULTING IN A REDUCTION IN THE STANDARD OF LIVING 4UTU 0OVERTY BECAME WIDESPREAD ESPECIALLY AMONG RURAL COMMUNITIES 'LOBALLY MORE PEOPLE ENJOY HIGHER STANDARDS OF LIVING TODAY THAN IN (OWEVER
IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA ABOUT PER CENT OF THE PEOPLE LIVE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE OF 53 PER PERSON PER DAY WITH AN ESTIMATED MILLION PEOPLE LIVING ON LESS THAN 53 PER PERSON A DAY "ECAUSE THE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE ARE POOR THERE IS CONTINUOUS OVEREXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES A SITUATION THAT DEEPENS THE DEGRADATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT $EBT "URDEN !FRICA S EXTERNAL DEBT ALSO PRESENTS A MAJOR BOTTLENECK TO DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRON MENTAL MANAGEMENT 4HE DEBT STOCK STOOD AT 53 BILLION IN 4HIS WAS EQUIVALENT TO PER CENT OF THE EXPORT EARNINGS AND PER CENT OF '$0 )N
!FRICA S DEBT STOOD AT BILLION -ORE THAN PER CENT OF !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE ON THE LIST OF THE WORLD S MOST HEAVILY INDEBTED COUNTRIES IN RELATIVE TERMS 4HE PRES SURE TO SERVICE THESE DEBTS LEADS TO THE EXPLOITATION OF MORE NATURAL RESOURCES WHICH IS THE QUICKEST MEANS OF RAISING MONEY TO MEET !FRICA S OBLIGATIONS IN DEBT SERVICING AND CAPITAL REPAYMENTS 4HE CONSEQUENCE IS MORE DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND FURTHER DEGRADATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
4HE %NVIRONMENT !GENDA 4HE NEED FOR !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS TO IMPROVE THE STANDARD OF LIVING OF ITS PEOPLE THROUGH INCREASED ECONOMIC GROWTH TOGETHER WITH THE SERVICING OF THE GROWING DEBT AND EFFORTS TOWARDS POVERTY ERADICATION HAS LED TO SIGNIlCANT ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADA TION NOTABLY LAND DEGRADATION DEFORESTATION DESERTIlCATION BIODIVERSITY LOSS AND POLLUTION OF WATER AND AIR QUALITY %NVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IS HEIGHTENED BY THE LACK OF TRANSFORMATION IN THE ECONOMIES FROM RESOURCE EXPLOITATION TO MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE 'LOBAL AND NATIONAL EFFORTS TO ADDRESS THESE ISSUES STARTED WITH THE
3TOCKHOLM #ONFERENCE LEADING TO THE RATIlCATION OF GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVEN TIONS ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES AND MINISTRIES OF ENVIRON MENTS AND PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AGENDAS BY WORLD GOVERNMENTS 'LOBAL %FFORTS TOWARDS 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT $ISSATISFACTION WITH TRADITIONAL IDEOLOGIES IN %UROPE AND .ORTH !MERICA DURING THE S LED TO SEVERE PROTESTS FROM DISENCHANTED YOUTHS AND FROM ACADEMICS 4HE ENVI RONMENT FEATURED STRONGLY 3EVERAL INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS SUCH AS 0RIME -INISTER )NDIRA 'ANDHI AND THE #LUB OF 2OME THAT PUBLISHED 4HE ,IMITS OF 'ROWTH PLAYED MAJOR ROLES IN BRINGING THE ATTENTION OF WORLD LEADERS TO THE STATE OF THE GLOBAL ENVI RONMENT 4HESE EFFORTS CULMINATED INTO THE 5NITED .ATIONS #ONFERENCE ON (UMAN %NVIRONMENT HELD IN *UNE IN 3TOCKHOLM 3WEDEN 4HAT #ONFERENCE MARKED THE TURNING POINT ON THE ISSUE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT !MONG THE ACHIEVE MENTS AT 3TOCKHOLM WAS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS %NVIRONMENT 0RO GRAMME 5.%0 WHOSE MANDATE IS TO PROVIDE ENVIRONMENT LEADERSHIP ENCOURAGE PARTNERSHIP IN CARING FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF HUMAN LIFE WITH OUT COMPROMISING THAT OF FUTURE GENERATIONS 3INCE SOME -ULTILATERAL %NVIRONMENTAL !GREEMENTS -%!S HAVE BEEN SIGNED BOX 4HE -%!S ARE MEANT TO PROTECT NATURAL RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY FROM OVER EXPLOITATION AND TO SAFEGUARD THE ENVIRONMENT -ANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE RATIlED MOST OF THE CONVENTIONS 4HE PROBLEMS FACING COUNTRIES IN THE IMPLE MENTATION OF THESE CONVENTIONS ARE THREEFOLD REPORTING FOR EACH CONVENTION INTEGRAT ING CONVENTIONS INTO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND LOOKING FOR SYNERGIES AND LINKAGES AMONG THE CONVENTIONS 4HE REPORTING PROCEDURES NEED TO BE HARMONIZED AND !FRICAN COUNTRIES NEED SUPPORT FROM THEIR DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS IN RELATING IMPACTS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF -%!S TO DEVELOPMENT AND IN EXPLOITING THE SYNERGIES AND LINK AGES AMONG THE -%!S TO IMPROVE UPON THEIR IMPLEMENTATION 4HE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION 4HE NEXT MAJOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE AREA OF THE ENVIRONMENT AFTER 3TOCKHOLM WAS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION BY THE 5NITED .ATIONS 'ENERAL !SSEM BLY )N THE 7ORLD #OMMISSION ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT 7#%$ OR THE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION WAS FORMED TO SOLICIT VIEWS AROUND THE WORLD ON ISSUES SUCH AS AGRICULTURE FORESTRY WATER ENERGY TECHNOLOGY AND HOW THEY IMPACT ON SUS TAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN GENERAL 4HE #OMMISSION S REPORT /UR #OMMON &UTURE FOR THE lRST TIME DElNED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AS hDEVELOPMENT THAT MEETS THE NEEDS OF THE PRESENT GENERATION WITHOUT COMPRISING THE ABILITY OF FUTURE GENERATIONS TO MEET THEIR OWN NEEDSv 7#%$ 4HE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION LAID THE FOUNDATION FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL GATHERING OF THE TH #ENTURY THE %ARTH 3UMMIT IN 2IO DE *ANEIRO IN
"OX 3OME INTERNATIONAL -%!S ADOPTED SINCE s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s
#ONVENTION #ONCERNING THE 0ROTECTION OF THE 7ORLD #ULTURAL AND .ATURAL (ERITAGE #ONVENTION ON THE 0REVENTION OF -ARINE 0OLLUTION BY $UMPING 7ASTES AND /THER -ATTER AS AMENDED #ONVENTION ON THE )NTERNATIONAL 4RADE IN %NDANGERED 3PECIES OF 7ILD &AUNA AND &LORA #)4%3 )NTERNATIONAL #ONVENTION FOR THE 0REVENTION OF 0OLLUTION FROM 3HIPS AS AMENDED #ONVENTION ON THE 0ROHIBITION OF -ILITARY OR ANY OTHER (OSTILE 5SE OF %NVIRONMENTAL -ODIlCATION 4ECHNIQUES #ONVENTION ON THE #ONSERVATION OF -IGRATORY 3PECIES OF 7ILD !NI MALS 5NITED .ATIONS #ONVENTION ON THE ,AW OF THE 3EA 6IENNA #ONVENTION FOR THE 0ROTECTION OF THE /ZONE ,AYER AND THE -ONTREAL 0ROTOCOL 4HE -ONTREAL 0ROTOCOL "ASEL #ONVENTION ON THE #ONTROL OF 4RANSBOUNDARY -OVEMENTS OF (AZARDOUS 7ASTES AND THEIR DISPOSAL )NTERNATIONAL #ONVENTION ON /IL 0OLLUTION 0REPAREDNESS 2ESPONSE AND #OOPERATION 5NITED .ATIONS &RAMEWORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE AND THE +YOTO 0ROTOCOL #ONVENTION ON "IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY AND THE #ARTAGENA 0ROTO COL ON "IOSAFETY #ONVENTION ON THE 0ROHIBITION OF THE $EVELOPMENT 0RODUCTION
3TOCKPILING AND USE OF #HEMICAL 7EAPONS AND ON THEIR DESTRUCTION 5. #ONVENTION TO #OMBAT $ESERTIlCATION IN THOSE #OUNTRIES %XPE RIENCING 3ERIOUS $ROUGHT AND OR $ESERTIlCATION PARTICULARLY IN !FRICA #ONVENTION ON .UCLEAR 3AFETY 5. #ONVENTION ON THE ,AW OF THE .ON .AVIGATIONAL 5SES OF )NTER NATIONAL 7ATERCOURSES #ONVENTION ON THE 0RIOR )NFORMED #ONSENT 0ROCEDURE FOR #ERTAIN (AZARDOUS #HEMICALS AND 0ESTICIDES IN )NTERNATIONAL 4RADE #ONVENTION ON 0ERSISTENT /RGANIC 0OLLUTANTS
4HE %ARTH 3UMMIT 7HEN TOWARDS THE END OF THE TH CENTURY SOME MILLION PEOPLE WERE BOTH HUNGRY AND ILLITERATE AND MORE THAN BILLION PEOPLE LIVED ON LESS THAN 53 PER PERSON A DAY IT WAS EVIDENT THAT THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WAS NOT GETTING FAR 4HIS LED THE 5. TO CONVENE THE #ONFERENCE ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT 5.#%$ IN 2IO DE *ANEIRO IN *UNE 5.#%$ OR THE %ARTH 3UMMIT BROUGHT TOGETHER THE LARGEST GATHERING IN THE AREA OF THE ENVIRONMENT BOX 4HE 2IO PRINCIPLES REAFlRMED THE ISSUES THAT WERE ARTICULATED IN 3TOCKHOLM IN
PLACING HUMAN BEINGS AT THE CENTRE OF DEVELOPMENT BY STATING THAT PEOPLE ARE hENTITLED TO A HEALTHY AND PRODUCTIVE LIFE IN HARMONY WITH NATUREv 4HE SO CALLED !GENDA IS
THE MOST SIGNIlCANT NON BINDING INSTRUMENT IN THE AREA OF THE ENVIRONMENT )T SERVES AS THE GUIDING DOCUMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN MOST COUNTRIES !GENDA IS THE CHANNEL TO SPEED UP SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRIES )T IS AN ACTION PROGRAMME PARTIALLY BASED ON A SERIES OF SPECIALISED CONTRIBUTIONS FROM GOV ERNMENTS AND INTERNATIONAL BODIES "OX )N THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY CONVENED A REVIEW SUMMIT I E 2IO IN .EW 9ORK 53! WHERE CONCERNS WERE EXPRESSED ABOUT THE SLOW IMPLEMENTATION OF !GENDA ! MAJOR REVIEW OF !GENDA IS SCHEDULED TO TAKE PLACE IN *OHANNESBURG 3OUTH !FRICA IN 3EPTEMBER &OR THIS SUMMIT THE REGIONS OF THE WORLD ARE PREPARING A REVIEW OF !GENDA SINCE 2IO "OX /UTLINE COMPOSITION OF !GENDA 3OME 3TATES GOVERNMENTS AND (EADS OF 3TATE SOME DEL EGATES NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS .'/S AND ABOUT JOUR NALISTS ATTENDED THE %ARTH 3UMMIT 4HE 3UMMIT PRODUCED MAJOR OUTPUTS
NAMELY s 4HE 2IO $ECLARATION ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT COMPRISING PRINCIPLES !GENDA A PAGE GUIDELINE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVEL OPMENT INTO THE ST CENTURY
s 4WO MAJOR INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS NAMELY THE 5NITED .ATIONS &RAME WORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE 5.&### AND THE #ONVENTION ON "IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY #"$
s %STABLISHMENT OF THE #OMMISSION ON 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT 5.#3$
s !GREEMENT TO NEGOTIATE A WORLD DESERTIlCATION CONVENTION 5.##$ AND s 4HE 3TATEMENT OF 0RINCIPLES FOR THE 3USTAINABLE -ANAGEMENT OF &ORESTS !GENDA CONSIDERS THE THREE MAIN PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WHICH ARE SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENT ISSUES !GENDA HAS CHAPTERS
AND ITS ACTIONS ARE DIVIDED INTO FOUR MAIN AREAS s 3OCIAL AND %CONOMIC )SSUES )NTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IS BEING SOUGHT TO ACCELERATE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT BY COMBATING POVERTY CHANGING CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION AND DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS AND PROTECTING AND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH s #ONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES FOR DEVELOP MENT 4HE ISSUES INCLUDE THE PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE COMBATING DEFORESTATION COMBATING DESERTIlCATION AND DROUGHT PROTECTION OF FRESH WATER RESOURCES AND THE OCEANS AND THE SOUND MANAGEMENT OF TOXIC CHEMICALS AND HAZARDOUS WASTES s 3TRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS 4HIS MAINLY CONCENTRATES ON STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN SUPPORTING !GENDA 4HE GROUPS INCLUDE WOMEN CHILDREN AND YOUTH INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND THEIR COMMUNITIES BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY THE SCIENTIlC AND TECHNOLOGICAL COM MUNITY AND FARMERS -EANS OF )MPLEMENTATION 4HIS INCLUDES lNANCIAL RESOURCES AND MECHANISMS
TRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGY PROMOTING EDUCATION PUBLIC AWARENESS AND TRAINING INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS INTERNATIONAL LEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS AND INFORMATION FOR DECISION MAKING
$ESPITE TEN YEARS SINCE 2IO AND 3!0S !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE FAR FROM ACHIEVING SUS TAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 4HE INCREASED LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION THE CON TINUED EXISTENCE OF PRE INDEPENDENT ECONOMIES AND AN INCREASING POVERTY AND DEBT BURDEN SHOW THAT A RE THINKING AND COMMITMENT TO DEVELOPMENT BY GOVERNMENTS MUST BE ACTIVELY PURSUED
/N GOING )NITIATIVES FOR 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT 4HE TWO MAIN INITIATIVES THAT ARE DESIGNED TO PROPEL !FRICA TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE ST #ENTURY ARE THE 0OVERTY 2EDUCTION 3TRATEGIES SPEARHEADED BY THE 7ORLD "ANK AND THE )-& AND THE 0ARTNERSHIP FOR !FRICAN $EVELOPMENT .%0!$ .%0!$ WAS BROUGHT ONTO THE DRAWING BOARD BY !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS DURING THE /RGA NIZATION OF !FRICAN 5NITY /!5 3UMMIT HELD IN ,USAKA :AMBIA IN *UNE .%0!$ RECOGNIZES THAT A HEALTHY AND PRODUCTIVE ENVIRONMENT IS A PREREQUISITE FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF !FRICA 4HE REVIEW OF IMPLEMENTATION OF !GENDA AND THE 7ORLD 3UMMIT ON 3OCIAL $EVEL OPMENT 733$ IN *OHANNESBURG 3OUTH !FRICA IN WILL BE A ROUNDTABLE AT WHICH THESE INITIATIVES MAY BE SCRUTINIZED WITHIN THE SCOPE OF !GENDA 4HE CONCURRENCE OF THE REVIEW OF THESE DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES AT THE WORLD MEETING OFFERS HOPE FOR PLACING !FRICA ON A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT COURSE 4HE GLOBAL INITIATIVES HAVE HAD POSITIVE IMPACTS ON !FRICA IN TERMS OF ESTABLISHMENT OF AGENCIES AND MINISTRIES OF ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY MAKING !LSO 5.%0 WAS ESTABLISHED OUT OF THESE INITIATIVES 4HE VARIOUS NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS HAVE ENACTED ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLANS TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 3EVERAL 3TRATEGIES AND 0LANS HAVE BEEN FORMULATED IN COUNTRIES INCLUDING NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLANS FORESTRY MANAGEMENT PLANS BIODIVERSITY PLANS COASTAL MANAGEMENT PLANS AND WETLAND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES 4HERE ARE ALSO ATTEMPTS TO ADDRESS RELEVANT MULTILAT ERAL ENVIRONMENT AGREEMENTS !LTHOUGH THESE PLANS AND ACTIONS HAVE NOT ACHIEVED THE DESIRED RESULTS EFFORTS ARE BEING MADE TO ADDRESS THE SHORTCOMINGS 3OME OF THE DIF lCULTIES INCLUDE LACK OF CAPACITY LACK OF lNANCIAL RESOURCES AND INABILITY TO EXPLOIT THE LINKAGES AMONG -%!S &INALLY THE INABILITY OF COUNTRIES TO MAINSTREAM ENVIRONMENT INTO NATIONAL POLICIES HAS RESULTED IN THIS LIMITED SUCCESS
3%#4)/. 47/ 34!4% /& 4(% %.6)2/.-%.4
))) !4-/30(%2% !.$ #,)-!4% )NTRODUCTION 4HE ATMOSPHERE IS THE ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR LAND BASED LIFE INCLUDING A SIGNIlCANT PROPORTION OF THE BIOSPHERE ON WHICH HUMAN LIFE DEPENDS #HANGES ANTHROPOGENIC OR OTHERWISE TO THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE HAVE THE POTENTIAL OF AFFECTING DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY THE QUALITY OF LIFE AND EVEN THE VERY EXISTENCE OF SOME FORMS OF LIFE 7ORLD -ETEOROLOGICAL /RGANIZATION 7-/ )NDEED THE PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN MEET ING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES HAS BEEN ADEQUATELY ARTICULATED IN #HAPTER OF !GENDA 5.#%$ 4HE CLIMATE OF ANY AREA IS DElNED AS THE STATISTICAL AGGREGATION OF LOCAL WEATHER RECORDS INCLUDING INFORMATION ABOUT EXTREME EVENTS 7-/ #LIMATE SHAPES HUMAN CULTURES LOCATION OF MANY SETTLEMENTS AND ALL LANDSCAPES IT LARGELY DETERMINES FOOD PRODUCTION AND ITS VARIABILITY CAN CAUSE FAMINE #LIMATE VARIABILITY IS CAUSED BY INTERNAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE OCEANS THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE LAND SURFACE %XTER NAL FORCES OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY INCLUDE CHANGED SOLAR LUMINOSITY EARTH ORBITAL ELE MENTS OR HUMAN ACTIVITY 7-/ !DAMS TRACED CHANGES IN THE CLIMATE OF !FRICA FROM TO ABOUT YEARS AGO /VER THIS PERIOD ALMOST ALL TYPES OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS HAVE BEEN EXPERI ENCED IN THE CONTINENT AND THESE CHANGES HAVE BEEN ALMOST CYCLIC I E COLD AND ARID
WARM AND MOIST POOR VEGETATION AND LUSH VEGETATION COVER 4HESE CHANGES WERE LARGELY ATTRIBUTED TO NATURAL CAUSES HOWEVER CLIMATE VARIABILITY DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY SIGNIlCANT IN RECENT TIMES 4HE ISSUE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING HAS BEEN A SUBJECT FOR DEBATE IN THE S S THROUGH TO THE S AND CULMINATED IN THE 5NITED .ATIONS &RAME WORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE 5.&### IN %VEN THOUGH !FRICA S RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IS NOT SIGNIlCANT THE CONTINENT IS CON SIDERED MOST SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE )N RECENT YEARS !FRICA HAS EXPERIENCED VARIOUS CLIMATE RELATED CONDITIONS AND DISASTERS SUCH AS DROUGHT mOODS
CYCLONES AND BUSHlRES THAT HAVE BEEN MAJOR SETBACKS IN THE ROAD TO SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT !FRICA S VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE CHANGE IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT IT DOES NOT HAVE THE RESOURCES OR TECHNOLOGY TO ADAPT TO THE CONDITIONS THAT WOULD BE IMPOSED BY CLIMATE CHANGE 'IVEN THIS SITUATION !FRICA SHOULD TACKLE CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF POVERTY ERADICATION 4HE DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGIES IN !FRICA SHOULD BE SEEN AS KEY
4HE #LIMATE OF !FRICA IN THE 4WENTIETH #ENTURY ,IKE OTHER REGIONS OF THE WORLD THE CLIMATE IN !FRICA IS INmUENCED BY GLOBAL CIRCU LATION AND OCEAN INTERACTIONS 4HE SOUTHERN OSCILLATION 3/ IS THE IRREGULAR mUCTUA
TION OF THE SEA LEVEL PRESSURE 3,0 lELD BETWEEN THE WESTERN TROPICAL 0ACIlC EASTERN )NDIAN /CEAN REGION AND THE SOUTHEASTERN TROPICAL 0ACIlC 4HE 3/ GIVES RISE TO CONDI TIONS CHARACTERISED AS %L .INO 3/ %.3/ WHICH INmUENCE THE WEATHER IN THE SOUTH ERN AND EASTERN PARTS OF !FRICA !NOTHER NAME FOR %.3/ IS h0ACIlC 7ARM %PISODEv %L .INO HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH DROUGHT IN %ASTERN !FRICA AND SEVERE STORMS AND mOODING IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA 4HE OPPOSITE CONDITIONS OF %.3/ ARE KNOWN AS h0ACIlC #OLD %PISODEv OR h,A .INAv $UE TO THESE CONDITIONS I E %L .INO AND ,A .INA
BELOW NORMAL PRECIPITATION AND WETTER THAN NORMAL EPISODES HAVE BEEN OBSERVED IN SOUTHERN !FRICA 7-/ #ONVERSELY ,A .INA CONDITIONS CONTRIBUTE TO BELOW NORMAL PRECIPITATION OVER EQUATORIAL %AST !FRICA 7-/ 4HE .ORTH !TLANTIC OSCILLATION .!/ IS A PROMINENT MODE OF LOW FREQUENCY ATMO SPHERIC VARIABILITY OVER THE EXTRA TROPICAL !TLANTIC 4HE .!/ INmUENCES WEATHER CONDITIONS AND CLIMATE IN NORTHERN PARTS OF !FRICA &OR EXAMPLE DEPENDING ON THE CIRCULATION PATTERNS OF THE .!/ CLIMATE CONDITIONS HAVE VARIED FROM BELOW NORMAL WIND SPEEDS ABOVE NORMAL JET STREAM WINDS DROUGHT AND ABNORMALLY WET AND WARM CONDITIONS IN .ORTHERN !FRICA 7-/ #LIMATE 6ARIABLES 4EMPERATURE !CCORDING TO THE lNDINGS OF THE )NTERNATIONAL 0ANEL ON #LIMATE #HANGE )0## THE GLOBAL AVERAGE SURFACE TEMPERATURE RELATIVE TO IS PROJECTED TO INCREASE BY ABOUT —# BY HTTP WWW WMO CH CLIMATE WMO STATEMENT 3INCE COMPARABLE RECORDS BEGAN IN THE S WERE GLOBALLY THE WARMEST DECADE 2ECENT SCIENTIlC EVIDENCE ALSO INDICATES THAT THE S WERE THE WARMEST CENTURY DURING THE LAST YEARS 4HE TEN WARMEST YEARS HAVE ALL OCCURRED SINCE 4HE FOUR WARMEST YEARS WERE —# ABOVE NORMAL AND HTTP WWW WMO CLIMATE ,IKE MOST OTHER REGIONS OF THE WORLD THE TEMPERATURE SERIES IN !FRICA SHOW LONG TERM WARMING 4HE WARMTH OF THE LAST CENTURY IS NEAR RECORD LEVEL IN SOUTHERN !FRICA 7-/ 4EMPERATURE RECORDS GENERALLY CORRELATES WELL WITH PRECIPITATION )N THE NORTHEAST AND NORTHWESTERN REGIONS OF !FRICA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ANOMALIES WERE ABOVE AVERAGE IN 4HIS CORRELATED WELL WITH BELOW AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OBSERVED IN THESE REGIONS AND CORRESPONDED WITH OBSERVED DROUGHT CONDITIONS )N CONTRAST TEM PERATURES WERE COOLER THAN THE AVERAGES ACROSS INTERIOR SECTIONS OF 3OUTH !FRICA 4HIS COMPARED WELL WITH THE ABOVE AVERAGE WETNESS OBSERVED AT THE SURFACE AND WIDESPREAD mOODING THAT DEVASTATED THE REGION ESPECIALLY IN -OZAMBIQUE HTTP WWW NCDC NOAA GOV O CLIMATE RESEARCH 0RECIPITATION AND $ROUGHT 4HE CONTINENT HAS A LONG HISTORY OF RAINFALL mUCTUATIONS OF VARYING LENGTHS AND INTENSITIES )N SOME PARTS OF !FRICA DROUGHTS ARE ROOTED IN THE GLOBAL OCEAN ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION VARIATIONS SOME OF WHICH OCCUR DRAMATICALLY IN ASSOCIATION WITH %.3/ EPISODES &OR EXAMPLE THE WARM EPISODE OF %.3/ HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH DROUGHTS IN SOUTHERN !FRICA (OWEVER IN 3AHELIAN !FRICA
DROUGHTS ARE NOT WELL CORRELATED WITH %.3/ EVENTS 7-/ 4HE WORST DROUGHTS WERE THOSE AROUND WHICH AFFECTED %AST AND 7EST !FRICA ALIKE )NCREASING RAINFALL AMOUNTS GENERALLY FOLLOWED THOSE YEARS BUT NEGATIVE TRENDS
WERE OBSERVED AGAIN FROM ONWARDS CULMINATING IN THE 7EST !FRICAN DROUGHT IN 'OMMES AND 0ETRASI %VEN ALLOWING FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN INDIVIDUAL YEARS THE PERIOD SAW WIDELY DIFFERENT CONDITIONS FROM YEAR TO YEAR 4HE YEARS FROM TO WERE AMONG THE WETTEST OF THE PERIOD WHILE LOWER RAINFALLS WERE RECORDED FOR THE S AND S 4HE DOWNWARD TREND FROM S AFFECTED THE WHOLE CONTINENT BUT RESULTED IN NEGATIVE IMPACT ON FOOD PRODUCTION ONLY IN THE LOW RAINFALL AREAS 4HE WORSE DROUGHT YEARS WERE AND WHILE AND TO A LESSER EXTENT WERE REMARKABLE YEARS IN THAT ALMOST THE WHOLE CONTINENT EXPERIENCED ABOVE AVERAGE CONDITIONS 4HE YEAR WAS INTERESTING IN THAT IT CONSTITUTED THE lRST POOR YEAR AFTER A RUN OF GOOD YEARS !S SUCH IT CAUGHT MOST COUNTRIES UNPREPARED )N CON TRAST THE IMPACT OF THE DROUGHT OF WHICH WAS MORE SEVERE THAN THAT OF IN CLIMATOLOGICAL TERMS WAS RELATIVELY LESS SERIOUS AS MANY COUNTRIES ESPECIALLY IN THE 3AHEL REGION WERE BETTER PREPARED TO COPE WITH SUCH EXTREME SITUATIONS )N AND LESS SO IN ALMOST ALL !FRICAN COUNTRIES SUFFERED .ORTH AND 3OUTH ALIKE )N CONTRAST THE SOUTHERN !FRICAN DROUGHT WAS RELATIVELY LIMITED IN SPACE SINCE THE 3AHEL HAD ONE OF ITS GOOD hAFTER v YEARS WITH AVERAGE OR ABOVE AVERAGE RAINFALL CONDITIONS 2EGIONAL 0ATTERNS )N DISCUSSING RAINFALL VARIABILITY AND DROUGHT IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA 'OMMES AND 0ETRASI CLASSIlED COUNTRIES IN THE REGION INTO EIGHT GROUPS BASED ON RAINFALL PAT TERNS SINCE 'ROUP ) THE 3AHEL AND THE 3UDAN THE GROUP COMPRISE "URKINA &ASO #APE 6ERDE
#HAD 'AMBIA 'UINEA "ISSAU -ALI -AURITANIA .IGER 3ENEGAL AND 3UDAN 4HE GROUP IS CHARACTERIZED BY A DOWNWARD TREND OF RAINFALL UNTIL FOLLOWED BY SERIES OF ABOVE AVERAGE YEARS 7ORST DROUGHT YEARS CORRESPOND TO AND BUT SEVERE DROUGHTS WERE ALSO RECORDED IN AND )N DROUGHT SEVERELY AFFECTED ALL COUNTRIES FROM -AURITANIA TO %THIOPIA INCLUDING SEVERAL BORDERING COUN TRIES ON THE SOUTHERN END OF THE 3AHEL -ALI AND .IGER WERE AFFECTED MORE SERIOUSLY THAN THE OTHER COUNTRIES IN 'ROUP )) SOUTHERN CENTRAL !FRICA REGION AND -ADAGASCAR THE GROUP COMPRISES -ADA GASCAR -ALAWI -OZAMBIQUE .AMIBIA :AMBIA AND :IMBABWE 4HE RAINFALL PATTERNS IN THIS GROUP ARE NOT CORRELATED WITH THAT IN THE 3AHEL REGION 4OTAL AMOUNTS ARE SLIGHTLY HIGHER AND THE INTER ANNUAL VARIABILITY IS SOMEWHAT LESS 4HERE IS ALSO NO MARKED NEGATIVE TREND IN RAINFALL ALTHOUGH THE YEARS AFTER AND PARTICULARLY AFTER
HAVE BEEN CHARACTERISED BY MARKED PSEUDO PERIODIC mUCTUATIONS WITH PEAKS IN AND AND LOWS IN AND -OST OF THE AREA HAD NOT EXPERIENCED SERIOUS DROUGHT SINCE EXCEPT IN UNTIL IT WAS HIT BY THE DROUGHT WHICH AFFECTED THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE SUMMER CROPPING SEASON 4HE DROUGHT MOST SERIOUSLY AFFECTED THE CENTRE OF THE GROUP WHILE .AMIBIA AND -ADAGASCAR WERE RELATIVELY LESS AFFECTED
'ROUP ))) THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION THIS GROUP COMPRISES "OTSWANA ,ESOTHO 3OUTH !FRICA AND 3WAZILAND 4HE 3OUTHERN !FRICAN GROUP HAS A RELATIVELY LOW RAINFALL INDEX AND A VARIABILITY THAT EXCEEDS THAT OF THE 3AHEL 4HERE ARE SOME COMMON FEATURES BETWEEN THIS GROUP AND THE 3OUTHERN #ENTRAL !FRICA GROUP &OR EXAMPLE THIS GROUP HAD DRY YEARS IN AND 4HE TWO GROUPS HOWEVER HAVE NOTABLE DIF FERENCES FOR INSTANCE IN AND 4HE COUNTRIES IN THIS GROUP WERE SEVERELY AFFECTED BY THE DROUGHT WHICH WAS THE MOST SEVERE AFTER THE DROUGHTS THE LATTER YEARS HAVING BEEN THE WORST SINCE THE S 'ROUP )6 CENTRAL 'ULF OF 'UINEA COUNTRIES AND 4ANZANIA THIS GROUP COMPRISES "ENIN
#ยนTE D )VOIRE 'HANA 4ANZANIA AND 4OGO 4HE BEHAVIOUR OF RAINFALL IN THIS GROUP IS SIMILAR TO WHAT WAS OBSERVED IN THE 3AHEL WITH A SLIGHT DOWNWARD TREND AND A TENDENCY TOWARDS RUNS OF DRY YEARS 4HE LOWEST RAINFALL INDEX WAS RECORDED IN WHICH ALSO AFFECTED THE 3AHEL FOLLOWED BY 4HE GREATEST DIFFERENCES HOW EVER WERE OBSERVED DURING THE S WHEN 'ROUP ))) EXPERIENCED SEVERAL WELL ABOVE NORMAL RAINFALL YEARS 'ROUP 6 %AST AND 7EST 'ULF OF 'UINEA THE GROUP COMPRISES #AMEROON #ENTRAL !FRI CAN 2EPUBLIC %QUATORIAL 'UINEA 'ABON 'UINEA ,IBERIA .IGERIA AND 3IERRA ,EONE 4HIS IS THE WETTEST 2AINFALL INDEX MM AND ONE OF THE LEAST VARIABLE GROUPS OF COUNTRIES IN THE CONTINENT 4HE NORTHERN HALF OF SEVERAL OF THE COUNTRIES HAS 3AHE LIAN FEATURES IN PARTICULAR THE DOWNWARD TREND OR RAINFALL (OWEVER IN CONTRAST TO THE 3AHEL THE %AST AND 7EST 'ULF OF 'UINEA COUNTRIES UNDERWENT LESS IRREGULAR RAINFALL ALBEIT BELOW NORMAL THAN THE 3AHEL 4HE COUNTRIES IN THIS GROUP DO NOT SUFFER SO SERI OUSLY AS THE ARID COUNTRIES FROM A COMPARABLE REDUCTION IN PRECIPITATION )N THIS GROUP
PERIODS OF GOOD AND BAD YEARS TEND TO BE LONGER THAN IN THE 3AHEL 'ROUP 6) CENTRAL WEST !FRICA THE GROUP IS MADE UP OF !NGOLA #ONGO AND :AIRE 4HIS IS THE SECOND WETTEST GROUP RAINFALL INDEX MM 4HE GROUP HAS SHOWN A VERY hSMOOTHv BEHAVIOUR BETWEEN AND WITH A SLIGHT POSITIVE RAINFALL TREND DUE TO A RUN OF WET AND VERY VARIABLE YEARS FROM TO 'ROUP 6)) THE (ORN OF !FRICA AND +ENYA COUNTRIES IN THIS GROUP ARE $JIBOUTI %THIO PIA +ENYA AND 3OMALIA 4HIS AREA INCLUDES SOME OF THE DRIEST PLACES IN THE WORLD 4HE TIME SERIES THAT DESCRIBES THE GROUP IS ALMOST UNCORRELATED WITH ANY OF THE ABOVE MENTIONED GROUPS BUT CORRELATES SLIGHTLY WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES OF THE 'REAT ,AKES ,OW RAINFALL AND A HIGH VARIABILITY CHARACTERIZE THE GROUP 4HE TIME SERIES DISPLAYS A TYPICAL PSEUDO PERIODIC BEHAVIOUR WITH A CYCLE OF FOUR TO lVE YEARS 4HE REGION AS A WHOLE EXPERIENCED GOOD RAINFALL IN BUT THE LAST RUN OF GOOD YEARS GOES BACK TO "AD YEARS TEND TO HAVE LESS NEGATIVE EFFECT AT THE HIGH ELEVATIONS
WHICH CHARACTERIZE CENTRAL %THIOPIA AND PARTS OF +ENYA 4HE YEARS AND WERE POOR ONES IN PARTS OF THE REGION 3OME PARTS HAVE MORE THAN ONE CROPPING SEASON AND DROUGHT DOES TYPICALLY AFFECT ONE OF THEM MORE SERIOUSLY THAN THE OTHER 3INCE THE LATE S DROUGHT CONDITIONS HAVE CONTINUED TO WORSEN WITH FAMINE REPORTED ACROSS POR TIONS OF +ENYA AND %THIOPIA HTTP WWW NCDC NOAA GOV CLIMATE RESEARCH 'ROUP 6))) THE 'REAT ,AKES COUNTRIES 4HESE ARE "URUNDI 2WANDA AND 5GANDA )N THIS GROUP RAINFALL INDICES ARE HIGH AND NOT VERY VARIABLE 4HE RAINFALL PATTERNS HAVE SOME SIMILARITY TO THOSE IN THE (ORN OF !FRICA WITH AN ALMOST SIGNIlCANT CYCLE OF ABOUT
SEVEN YEARS 4HE REGION RECORDED SOME VERY WET YEARS IN THE EARLY S AND A RUN OF LOW RAINFALL YEARS STARTING IN
#LIMATE #HANGE 4HE ISSUE OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE GAINED PROMINENCE AFTER SCIENTISTS BEGAN OBSERV ING A FEW DECADES AGO THAT GREENHOUSE GASES PARTICULARLY CARBON DIOXIDE #/
HAD BEEN ACCUMULATING IN THE ATMOSPHERE AS A RESULT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES )T WAS ALSO OBSERVED THAT THE GLOBAL MEAN TEMPERATURE HAD FOR SOME TIME BEEN STEADILY INCREAS ING AND IS NOW HIGHER THAN THE LATTER PART OF THE LAST CENTURY WHEN OBSERVATIONS BEGAN 'LOBAL CONCERN ON THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE WAS TRANSLATED TO INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS THAT LED TO THE ADOPTION OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS &RAMEWORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE 5.&### AT 5.#%$ HTTP WWW WMO CH CLIMATE SGSTATE !GENDA -ETHANE IS ANOTHER PRINCIPAL GREENHOUSE GAS (ALOCARBONS SUCH AS CHLOROmOURO CAR BONS #&#S AND NITROGEN OXIDES ALSO HAVE GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL %MISSIONS OF GREENHOUSE GASES AND AEROSOLS CONTINUE TO ALTER THE ATMOSPHERE IN WAYS THAT ARE EXPECTED TO AFFECT THE CLIMATE 4HE ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION OF #/ HAS INCREASED BY PER CENT SINCE !BOUT THREE QUARTERS OF THE ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS OF #/ TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING THE PAST YEARS IS DUE TO FOSSIL FUEL BURNING 4HE REST IS PREDOMINANTLY DUE TO LAND USE CHANGE ESPECIALLY DEFORESTATION 7-/ !FRICA S FOSSIL FUEL #/ EMISSIONS ARE LOW IN BOTH ABSOLUTE AND PER CAPITA TERMS 4OTAL EMISSIONS FOR !FRICA HAVE INCREASED BY A FACTOR OF EIGHT SINCE REACHING MIL LION METRIC TONS OF CARBON IN STILL LESS THAN THE EMISSIONS FOR SOME SINGLE INDUS TRIAL NATIONS INCLUDING #HINA 'ERMANY )NDIA *APAN 2USSIA AND THE 5NITED 3TATES OF !MERICA !LTHOUGH PER CAPITA EMISSIONS OF METRIC TONS OF CARBON IN WERE TIMES THOSE IN THEY WERE STILL ONLY PER CENT OF THE COMPARABLE VALUE FOR .ORTH !MERICA 3OLID AND LIQUID FUELS CONTRIBUTE ABOUT EQUALLY AND GAS FUELS ACCOUNT FOR ONLY PER CENT OF THE EMISSIONS /NLY lVE NATIONS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR !FRICA S REGIONAL EMISSIONS FROM FOSSIL FUELS AND CEMENT 3OUTH !FRICA ACCOUNTS FOR PER CENT OF THE CONTINENTAL TOTAL AND ANOTHER PER CENT OF THE #/ COME FROM !LGERIA %GYPT ,IBYA AND .IGERIA COM BINED 4HESE ARE THE ONLY !FRICAN COUNTRIES WITH ANNUAL #/ EMISSIONS IN EXCESS OF MILLION METRIC TONS OF CARBON /NLY ,IBYA METRIC TONS AND 3OUTH !FRICA METRIC TONS HAVE PER CAPITA #/ EMISSIONS HIGHER THAN THE GLOBAL AVERAGE OF METRIC TONS OF CARBON PER YEAR "ASED ON PER CAPITA EMISSION RATES OF THE !FRICAN NATIONS HAVE PER CAPITA EMISSIONS BELOW METRIC TON OF CARBON PER PERSON PER YEAR -ARLAND ET AL .ATIONAL GREENHOUSE GAS '(' STUDIES CARRIED OUT IN 'HANA +ENYA -ALI AND :IM BABWE DURING THE PERIOD TO REVEALED THAT ALL OF THESE COUNTRIES ARE '(' SINKS AND THE RESULTS CONlRMED THE LOW LEVEL OF '(' EMISSIONS OF !FRICAN COUNTRIES %.$! 4HE FORESTRY SECTOR HAD AN ABSORPTION CAPACITY GREATLY SUPERIOR TO THE EMISSIONS FROM ALL THE OTHER SECTORS THIS WAS THE CASE IN ALL THE COUNTRIES STUDIED (OWEVER IT WAS NOTED THAT THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR IN 'HANA AND +ENYA WAS A MAJOR
EMITTER ALONGSIDE THE ENERGY SECTOR IN -ALI AND :IMBABWE -ETHANE WAS THE SECOND MOST COMMON GAS EMITTED IN ALL THE COUNTRIES #LEAN $EVELOPMENT -ECHANISM )T IS RECOGNIZED THAT THE PRIMARY MEANS OF ACHIEVING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE 5.&### AND ITS +YOTO 0ROTOCOL IS THROUGH ACTIVITIES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS IN THE ENERGY SECTOR )N PRINCIPLE IT IS ACCEPTED THAT INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES CAN ENTER INTO AGREEMENT WITH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES TO IMPLEMENT PROJECTS ON CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM #$- 4HE MODALITIES OF THE #$- ARE STILL BEING NEGOTIATED BUT !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE GENER ALLY OF THE VIEW THAT THE PRIMARY MEANS FOR INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES TO ACHIEVE EMISSION REDUCTION COMMITMENTS UNDER THE +YOTO 0ROTOCOL SHOULD BE THROUGH DOMESTIC ACTION )T SHOULD THEREFORE BE ENSURED THAT PROJECTS PURSUED UNDER THE #$- MUST ASSIST DEVEL OPING COUNTRIES IN ACHIEVING THEIR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES 0OVERTY IN !FRICA IS A MAJOR HINDRANCE TO THE CONTINENT S ABILITY TO MITIGATE THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND TO BE ABLE TO IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION MEASURES 0OVERTY REDUCTION THROUGH DEVELOPMENT AND THE TRANSFER AND ADAPTATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGIES TO !FRICA SHOULD THEREFORE BE SEEN AS A KEY OBJECTIVE 3TRATOSPHERIC /ZONE 4HE OZONE LAYER PRESENT IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE PROTECTS MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF THE SUN S ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION 4HE HUMAN INDUCED DESTRUC TION OF THE PROTECTIVE OZONE LAYER ALLOWS HARMFUL ULTRA VIOLET RADIATION TO REACH THE SURFACE OF THE %ARTH WITH SERIOUS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH INCLUDING AN INCREASE IN EYE CATARACTS AND NON MELANOMA SKIN CANCERS DAMAGE TO THE GENETIC $.! AND SUP PRESSION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 4HESE CONCERNS LED TO INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS THAT CUL MINATED IN THE ADOPTION OF THE #ONVENTION ON THE 0ROTECTION OF THE /ZONE ,AYER IN 6IENNA !USTRIA IN ITS -ONTREAL 0ROTOCOL IN AND LATER AMENDMENTS TO THE 0ROTOCOL IN ,ONDON 5+ IN AND #OPENHAGEN $ENMARK IN /ZONE DEPLETION IS CLOSELY LINKED TO CLIMATE CHANGE MANY OF THE SAME GASES THAT CAUSE OZONE DEPLETION ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO CLIMATE CHANGE ! MAJOR ISSUE IS THAT THE STRATOSPHERE WILL MOST PROBABLY COOL IN RESPONSE TO ACTIONS RELATED TO CLIMATE CHANGE THEREFORE PRE SERVING OVER A LONGER TIME PERIOD THE CONDITIONS THAT PROMOTE CHLORINE CAUSED OZONE DEPLETION IN THE LOWER STRATOSPHERE PARTICULARLY IN POLAR REGIONS 7-/ 4HE OBSERVATION OF HIGHLY ELEVATED LEVELS OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE / IN SOME TROPICAL REGIONS PARTICULARLY OVER THE SOUTHERN TROPICAL !TLANTIC /CEAN BETWEEN 3OUTH !MERICA AND !FRICA LED TO THE HYPOTHESIS THAT BIOMASS BURNING EMISSIONS AND SUBSEQUENT PHO TOCHEMICAL PROCESSES MAY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY OVER A LARGE REGION OF THE %ARTH 4HIS WAS SUPPORTED BY SPACE BORNE OBSERVATIONS WHICH SHOWED THE OBSERVED OZONE ENRICHMENT TO COINCIDE GEOGRAPHICALLY WITH REGIONS OF ELEVATED CARBON MONOXIDE #/ CONCENTRATIONS SUCH AS 3OUTH !FRICA WHERE SAVANNAH lRES ARE FREQUENT )NTERNATIONAL &OREST &IRE .EWS )&&.
)MPACTS 6ULNERABILITY AND !DAPTATION TO #LIMATE #HANGE )MPACTS AND 6ULNERABILITY 4HE NOTION OF CLIMATE CHANGE CAN BE EQUATED TO CHANGES IN THE FREQUENCY LOCATION AND INTENSITY OF WEATHER RELATED DISASTERS 3TUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT CLIMATE CHANGE IS LIKELY TO DECREASE STREAM mOW AND GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN MANY WATER STRESSED COUNTRIES IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA AND AROUND THE -EDITERRANEAN 3EA -OST STUDIES SUGGEST THAT INCREASE OF A FEW DEGREES CENTIGRADE WOULD CAUSE FOOD PRICES TO INCREASE LOWER THE INCOMES OF VULNERABLE POPULATIONS INCREASE THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE AT RISK OF HUNGER AND POSSIBLY
WORSEN FOOD SECURITY IN !FRICA .ATURAL SYSTEMS SUCH AS CORALS MANGROVES FORESTS AND NATURAL GRASSLANDS ARE AT RISK FROM CLIMATE CHANGE 3OCIETIES IN !FRICA HAVE BEEN ADVERSELY AFFECTED BY REDUCTION IN CROP YIELDS DECREASED WATER AVAILABILITY GREATER EXPOSURE TO VECTOR AND WATER BORNE DISEASES AND INCREASED mOODING !DVERSE CHANGES IN SEASONAL RIVER mOWS mOODS AND DROUGHTS FOOD SECURITY
lSHERIES HEALTH EFFECTS AND LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY ARE AMONG THE MAJOR REGIONAL VULNER ABILITIES AND CONCERNS OF !FRICA 7-/ 4HE ABILITY TO COPE WITH THE CONSE QUENCES WILL RELY HEAVILY ON THE ABILITY TO ASSESS HOW AND WHERE WEATHER AND CLIMATE PATTERNS ARE LIKELY TO CHANGE TO PREDICT THE CONTINUOUS mUCTUATIONS IN RISK AND VULNER ABILITY TO COMMUNITIES AND TO DEVELOP ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES THAT WILL INCREASE COMMU NITY RESILIENCE 7-/ *ANUARY !LL REGIONS ARE LIKELY TO EXPERIENCE THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE BUT SMALL ISLAND SWATHES AND LOW LYING COASTAL AREAS ARE PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE #OASTAL SETTLE MENTS IN FOR EXAMPLE THE 'ULF OF 'UINEA 3ENEGAL AND %GYPT AND ALONG THE %AST AND 3OUTHERN !FRICAN COAST WOULD BE ADVERSELY AFFECTED BY SEA LEVEL RISE THROUGH mOODING AND COASTAL EROSION 0!.! )T IS BELIEVED THAT THERE MAY BE SIGNIlCANT EXTINC TION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN !FRICA DURING THE NEW CENTURY AS A RESULT OF GLOBAL WARM ING WHICH WILL INCREASE POVERTY BY IMPACTING ON RURAL LIVELIHOODS AND TOURISM 0!.!
%XAMPLES OF )NNOVATIONS TO !DAPT TO #LIMATE #HANGE 4HE ESTABLISHMENT OF IMPROVED EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS AND THE TRANSFER OF NEW AND IMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES COULD HELP !FRICA BETTER ADAPT TO THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 3OLAR WIND AND BIOGAS ENERGY ARE BEING USED IN SMALL SCALE PROJECTS CONTINENT WIDE
WITH PROMISING RESULTS &OR EXAMPLE IN RURAL :IMBABWE BIOGAS UNITS USING CATTLE DUNG ARE PRODUCING FUEL FOR NEARBY COMMUNITIES $ESERTIlCATION HAS SPARKED A RANGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY MANAGEMENT CHANGES IN .IGER FARMERS WITH ACCESS TO CREDIT ARE SETTING UP LOW COST TECHNOLOGIES TO COMBAT WIND EROSION INCLUDING WIND BREAKERS MULCHING AND ROCK BONDS )N 3ENEGAL AND "URKINA &ASO LOCALS HAVE IMPROVED THEIR REGIONAL CLIMATES BY USING TRADITIONAL PRUN ING AND FERTILISING TECHNIQUES TO DOUBLE TREE DENSITIES IN SEMI ARID AREAS 4HESE HELP IN HOLDING SOILS TOGETHER AND REVERSING DESERTIlCATION 3IMILAR COMMUNITY INITIATED PROJECTS IN -ADAGASCAR AND :IMBABWE HAVE BEEN ACCLAIMED SUCCESSES
2EGIONAL SCALE COOPERATION SUCH AS SHARED WATERCOURSES IS IMPORTANT 3EVERAL AGREE MENTS HAVE BEEN NEGOTIATED AND SOME ARE ALREADY WORKING /THER COOPERATIVE mOOD PLANNING ENVISAGES USING ONE COUNTRY TO STORE SOME OF A RIVER S mOODWATERS REDUCING THE mOOD PEAK AND POTENTIAL DISASTERS IN COUNTRIES DOWNSTREAM 0!.!
)6 .!452!, $)3!34%23 )NTRODUCTION 4HE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF SOME COMMUNITIES MAKES THEM MORE VULNERABLE TO EXTREME WEATHER AND CLIMATE EVENTS (OWEVER THE EXTENT TO WHICH AN EXTREME EVENT RESULTS IN DISASTROUS EVENTS DEPENDS ON THE COMMUNITY S ABILITY TO PLAN AND TAKE PROTEC TIVE MEASURES !FRICA BEING A POOR CONTINENT IS VERY VULNERABLE TO CLIMATE AND WEATHER EXTREMES THAT MORE OFTEN THAN NOT RESULT IN DISASTROUS EVENTS
$ROUGHT $ISASTERS CAUSED BY DROUGHT ARE EXACERBATED BY DIVERSE FACTORS SUCH AS POOR AGRICUL TURAL PRACTICES INCREASE IN POPULATION DENSITY AND A COUNTRY S INABILITY TO PROVIDE ALTERNATIVE SUPPLIES OF FOOD WATER AND EMPLOYMENT (OWEVER THE DEVELOPMENT OF LONG LEAD SEASONAL CLIMATE FORECASTS CAN IMPROVE EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS SO THAT THE OCCURRENCE OF DROUGHT WILL NOT BE SUCH A SHOCK TO COMMUNITIES )N !FRICA WHERE ECONOMIES ARE MAINLY TIED TO AGRICULTURE DROUGHT OCCURRENCES HAVE RESULTED IN MASS STARVATION FAMINE AND HAVE SEVERELY AFFECTED ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 7-/ $ROUGHT STRUCK NORTHWESTERN !FRICA AND THE -IDDLE %AST DURING )N THE NORTHWEST OF !FRICA WELL BELOW NORMAL RAINFALL WAS RECORDED ACROSS THE REGION DURING THE PERI ODS FROM *ANUARY TO EARLY &EBRUARY AND FROM LATE -ARCH TO -AY ADDING TO LONG TERM MOISTURE DElCITS THROUGHOUT MUCH OF -OROCCO !LGERIA AND 4UNISIA THAT HAD STARTED IN .OVEMBER "Y MID &EBRUARY DAMS IN -OROCCO HELD ONLY PER CENT OF CAPACITY ,ESS THAN PER CENT OF NORMAL PRECIPITATION WAS MEASURED FROM .OVEM BER TO *UNE ACROSS NORTHERN AND WESTERN -OROCCO CENTRAL 4UNISIA AND MUCH OF CENTRAL AND NORTHEASTERN !LGERIA ,ONG TERM SHORTAGES REMAINED UNTIL SURPLUS .OVEMBER AND $ECEMBER PRECIPITATION FELL OVER MOST OF THE REGION 7-/ #ASABLANCA -OROCCO RECEIVED MM COMPARED TO NORMAL ANNUAL VALUES OF MM AND MM RESPECTIVELY (OWEVER IN DROUGHT IN -OROCCO LEFT THE COUN TRY S RESERVOIRS AT HALF THEIR NORMAL CAPACITY 3INCE THE DROUGHT THAT WREAKED HAVOC WITH MOST ECONOMIES OF SOUTHERN !FRICA RECOVERY HAS BEEN RATHER SLOW !FTER A SHORT RESPITE DURING THE RAINY SEASON THERE HAS BEEN A VIRTUAL PERSISTENCE OF DROUGHT IN SYMPATHY WITH %.3/ &OR INSTANCE THERE WAS A PER CENT FALL IN THE CORN HARVEST IN COMPARED TO THE SEASON YIELD AS MOST COUNTRIES IN THE REGION SUFFERED A CLIMATICALLY UNFAVOURABLE GROWING SEASON 4HE DROUGHT RETURNED IN EARNEST IN THE RAINY SEASON 3EVERAL RAINFALL DElCITS OVER MOST OF THE SUB REGION RESULTED IN EXTENSIVE CROP FAILURES IN 3WAZILAND SOUTHERN :AMBIA AND PARTS OF :IMBABWE AND 3OUTH !FRICA #ONSEQUENTLY NATIONAL DROUGHT EMERGENCIES WERE DECLARED IN ,ESOTHO "OTSWANA
.AMIBIA 3WAZILAND :AMBIA AND :IMBABWE 4HE DROUGHT RELENTED IN THE SEASON EXCEPT IN PARTS OF .AMIBIA 'OOD RAINS STARTED IN NORTHERN AND EASTERN 3OUTH !FRICA 3WAZILAND ,ESOTHO PARTS OF "OTSWANA AND :IMBABWE IN $ECEMBER PRO GRESSING NORTHWARDS TO REACH %THIOPIA IN -ARCH !S A RESULT THERE WAS A TREMEN DOUS RECOVERY IN GRAIN OUTPUT ACROSS MOST OF SOUTHERN !FRICA 7-/
)N THE GREATER (ORN OF !FRICA THE YEAR WAS THE THIRD CONSECUTIVE YEAR OF BELOW NORMAL RAINFALL 4HIS AGGRAVATED EXISTING DROUGHT CONDITIONS OVER MUCH OF THE AREA
RESULTING IN SEVERE FOOD SHORTAGES 4ENS OF MILLIONS OF PEOPLE WERE AFFECTED BY THIS DROUGHT %SPECIALLY HARD HIT WERE %THIOPIA PARTS OF $JIBOUTI %RITREA +ENYA 3OMALIA AND 4ANZANIA 7-/ 4HE FAILURE OF THE RAINS IN THE -ARCH -AY PERIOD WAS ASSOCIATED WITH ,A .INA CONDITIONS AND CYCLONE ACTIVITY IN THE )NDIAN /CEAN 0ARTS OF EASTERN %THIOPIA NORTHERN AND SOUTHWESTERN +ENYA AS WELL AS THE NORTHWEST OF 4ANZANIA EXPERIENCED THE DRIEST CONDITIONS ON RECORD SINCE DURING THE USUAL PEAK RAINFALL MONTH OF !PRIL 3IMILARLY SOME PARTS OF SOUTHERN %THIOPIA EXPERIENCED THE DRIEST CONDITIONS ON RECORD SINCE DURING THE *UNE !UGUST PERIOD 7-/
$ROUGHT 0REPAREDNESS AND -ITIGATION )N THE PAST THE RESPONSE OF GOVERNMENTS AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY TO A DROUGHT HAS BEEN TO PROVIDE FOOD AID AND FAMINE RELIEF (OWEVER IT IS NOW BELIEVED THAT THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAY OF MANAGING DROUGHT IS TO STRENGTHEN THE CAPACITY OF LOCAL COMMU NITIES TO PLAN DEVELOP AND MANAGE THEIR OWN DROUGHT RESPONSE STRATEGIES BY DEVELOP ING DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION PROGRAMMES )T IS ESSENTIAL TO DECENTRALIZE THESE PROGRAMMES FOR A RAPID RESPONSE 'REATER COORDINATION AND COHERENCE IS THERE FORE REQUIRED AT LOCAL DISTRICT NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS HTTP WWW UNDP ORG SEED UNSO PROG 7-/ AND THE /FlCE TO #OMBAT $ESERTIlCATION AND $ROUGHT 5.3/ 5.$0 HAVE JOINTLY SPONSORED TRAINING SEMINARS ON DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT IN 7EST !FRICA AND IN THE -AGHREB REGION .ATIONAL DROUGHT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED FOR EXAMPLE IN %THIOPIA +ENYA :IMBABWE AND ,ESOTHO AND INITIATED IN -OZAMBIQUE AND 3WAZILAND !T THE SUB REGIONAL LEVEL DISASTER MITIGATION STRATEGY IS BEING PREPARED FOR %AST !FRICA AND 3OUTH !FRICAN $EVELOPMENT #OMMUNITY 3!$# WILL ALSO BE DEVELOPING A DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS STRATEGY FOR THE REGION WITH SUPPORT OF 5.3/ 4HE INTEGRATION OF DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION $0- PROGRAMMES IN NATIONAL ACTION PLANS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 5.##$ IS ALSO BEING SUPPORTED BY 5.3/ 5.$0 AND 7-/ 5.$0 !T TWO SEPARATE MEETINGS HELD IN RELATED TO COPING WITH DROUGHT IN !FRICA PARTICIPANTS INCLUDING FARMER REPRESENTATIVES AND POLICY MAKERS AGREED ON THE NEED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY TIMELINESS AND RELEVANCE OF CLIMATE INFORMATION PRODUCTS FOR USE BY FARMERS 4HE NEED TO BASE CLIMATE INFORMATION ON USER NEEDS WAS STRESSED AS WELL AS THE NEED TO PROVIDE THE INFORMATION IN FORMS AND LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDABLE TO END USERS 5.$0 $ROUGHT MONITORING CENTRES SUPPORTED BY 7-/ IN +ENYA AND :IMBABWE PROVIDES TIMELY WARNINGS AND GUIDANCE TO DECISION MAKERS AND FARMERS 4HE !FRICAN #ENTRE OF -ETEOROLOGICAL !PPLICATIONS FOR $EVELOPMENT !'(29-%4 IN .IAMEY .IGER MONITORS THE DROUGHT SITUATION IN !FRICA AND ISSUES TIMELY ADVICE TO ASSIST GOVERN MENTS IN HELPING THE AFFECTED POPULATIONS HTTP WWW WMO CH CLIMATE WMODROUGHT DESERTIlCATION PRESS
)N ORDER TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF DROUGHTS BROUGHT ABOUT BY %L .INO PHENOMENA IN GOVERNMENTS IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA ENCOURAGED FARMERS TO PLANT DROUGHT RESISTANT CROPS AS EARLY AS POSSIBLE AND TO ADOPT BETTER WATER CONSERVATION METHODS /THER CON TINGENCY PLANS INCLUDED THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEED PACKS AND INPUTS AND CONSERVATION OF FOOD STOCKS &OOD AND !GRICULTURE /RGANIZATION &!/ )N .AMIBIA A DROUGHT MANAGEMENT PLAN WAS PREPARED FOR THE LIVESTOCK SUB SECTOR IN ORDER TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF %L .INO 4HE PLAN INCLUDED ANTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT
DROUGHT CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND DROUGHT AFTERCARE 7ITH REGARDS TO ANTICIPATORY MAN AGEMENT HEEDING EARLY WARNING SERVICES WAS CONSIDERED VERY IMPORTANT $ESTOCKING GRAZING LIVESTOCK IS CONSIDERED AN EFlCIENT WAY OF MANAGING DROUGHT CRISIS HTTP WWW GEOCITIES COM AGR DROUGHT
3TORMS AND &LOOD (AZARDS 3TORMS OF ALL SCALES ABSORB AND CONVERT HUGE AMOUNTS OF ENERGY AND MOISTURE WHICH CAN HAVE SIGNIlCANT CONSEQUENCES 4HESE CAN BE BENElCIAL FOR EXAMPLE THE DELIVERY OF RAINFALL TO END A DROUGHT OR THE REMOVAL OF HIGHLY POLLUTED AIR (OWEVER THEY ARE MORE DETRIMENTAL TO SOCIETY 4HE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE )NDIAN /CEAN EXPERIENCED NOT LESS THAN lVE TROPICAL STORMS THAT CAUSED DEVASTATING mOODS IN THE EASTERN PARTS OF THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION IN ALONE "OX /F ALL NATURAL DISASTERS mOODS PRODUCE SOME OF THE HIGHEST DEATH TOLLS AND MATERIAL DAMAGE 'LOBALLY DURING mOODS COMPRISED ABOUT PER CENT OF THE MAJOR NATURAL DISASTERS KILLING MORE THAN PEOPLE AND CAUSING NEARLY 53 MILLION WORTH OF DAMAGE &LOODS ARE CAUSED BY A VARIETY OF FACTORS NOT ALL OF WHICH ARE METEOROLOGICAL 4OPOG RAPHY AND THE HYDROLOGICAL CAPACITY OF THE SUBSOIL HAVE CONSIDERABLE INmUENCE )N MANY CASES ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS DEFORESTATION
BUILDING OF DAMS AND DIKES OR STRENGTHENING OF RIVERS AGGRAVATES THE EFFECTS 3OME TIMES mOODING IS INDUCED BY STORM SURGES FROM THE SEAS WHICH WHEN ENTERING LOW LYING COASTAL REGIONS ARE EXTREMELY DESTRUCTIVE ESPECIALLY WHERE THESE REGIONS ARE DENSELY POPULATED &LOODING IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH CYCLONES HURRICANES AND TYPHOONS OR LONG PERIODS OF CONTINUOUS HEAVY MONSOONAL RAIN -ANY PARTS OF 3OUTH !FRICA AS WELL AS 3WAZILAND ,ESOTHO 3OUTHERN "OTSWANA #EN TRAL :IMBABWE .ORTHERN -OZAMBIQUE AND 3OUTHERN -ALAWI RECEIVED TORRENTIAL RAINS TO MM IN ONE WEEK DURING $ECEMBER ,OCALLY SEVERE mOODS PLAGUED THE REGION (EAVY RAINS OVER +WAZULU .ATAL ESPECIALLY IN THE THREE DAYS PRECEDING #HRISTMAS OF CONTRIBUTED TO THE 5MSUNDUZE 2IVER BURSTING ITS BANKS IN A mASH mOOD ON #HRISTMAS %VE !T LEAST PEOPLE DROWNED WHEN SETTLEMENTS IN LOW LYING AREAS NEAR 0IETERMARITZBURG WERE SWEPT AWAY )N HEAVY mOODING WAS AGAIN REPORTED IN +WAZULU .ATAL 4HE mOODING RESULTED IN SOME DEATHS AND THE DISRUPTION OF HARBOUR AND AIRPORT OPERATIONS AND TELEVISION RECEPTION HTTP WWW SOUTHAFRICA CO ZA DAILY?NEWS OCTOBER
"OX %XAMPLES OF DEVASTATIONS FROM CYCLONES AND STORMS $URING EARLY THE SOUTHWESTERN PORTION OF THE )NDIAN /CEAN WAS A VERY ACTIVE REGION OF lVE TROPICAL CYCLONES THAT BROUGHT UNTOLD HARDSHIPS TO -ADA GASCAR AND SEVERAL SOUTHERN !FRICA STATES #YCLONES $AISY MID *ANUARY AND 'ERALDA EARLY &EBRUARY TRAVERSED THE SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL PORTIONS OF -ADA GASCAR 4HE LATTER CYCLONE REPORTEDLY LEFT A HALF MILLION HOMELESS AND CAUSED THE LOSS OF MORE THAN LIVES MM OF RAIN FELL AND WINDS REACHED KM H 'ERALDA WAS DESCRIBED AS THE hCYCLONE OF THE #ENTURYv BECAUSE OF THE EXTREME DEVASTATION IT EXERTED ON THE %AST COAST )N -ARCH #YCLONE .ADIA
WITH SUSTAINED WINDS OF KM H CLAIMED A DOZEN LIVES AS IT CROSSED THE NORTHERN TIP OF THE ISLAND !FTER CROSSING THE -OZAMBIQUE #HANNEL .ADIA WENT INTO NORTHERN -OZAMBIQUE WHERE MORE THAN LIVES WERE LOST AND MORE THAN A MILLION PEOPLE WERE LEFT HOMELESS 4HE INTENSE RAINS ASSOCIATED WITH THE lVE TROPICAL SYSTEMS TOTALLED PERCENT OF NORMAL FOR THE *ANUARY TO -ARCH PERIOD THROUGHOUT MUCH OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN -ADAGASCAR $URING THE SAME YEAR .OVEMBER SOME %GYPTIAN HARBOURS WERE CLOSED AND CONVOYS IN THE 3UEZ #ANAL DELAYED DUE TO A SERIES OF STORMS THAT MOVED ACROSS THE -IDDLE %AST )N OTHER DEVASTATING CYCLONES SUCH AS %LINE 'LORIA AND (UDAH AGAIN STRUCK -ADAGASCAR AND THIS TIME -OZAMBIQUE AND PARTS OF SOUTHERN !FRICA CAUSING SEVERE mOODING AND LOSS OF LIFE BETWEEN &EBRUARY AND !PRIL 7-/
)N :IMBABWE POWER AND PHONE LINES WERE CUT AND CROPS AND VILLAGE GRANARIES WASHED AWAY 4HE ,IMPOPO 2IVER WAS AT ITS HIGHEST LEVEL IN YEARS HTTP WWW MG CO ZA MG NEWS FEB
)N PARTS OF THE REGION FROM -ADAGASCAR INTO -OZAMBIQUE AND :IMBABWE SOUTH WARD INTO NORTHEASTERN 3OUTH !FRICA HAD HEAVY RAINFALL FROM SEVERAL TROPICAL SYSTEMS 4HE STORMS BROUGHT HEAVY mOODING TO PARTS OF THE AREA HTTP WWW NCDC NOAA GOV CLIMATE RESEARCH )N :IMBABWE AT LEAST PEOPLE WERE KILLED AND WERE LEFT HOMELESS HTTP WWW MG CO Z MG NEWS FEB ,OSS OF LIFE DISPLACEMENT OF PEOPLE AND EXTENSIVE DAMAGE TO INFRASTRUCTURE AND AGRICULTURE WERE ALSO RECORDED FOR -OZAMBIQUE "OTSWANA 3WAZILAND AND 3OUTH !FRICA HTTP WWW FAO ORG 7!)#%.4 FAOINFO ECONOMIC GIEWS )N &EBRUARY HEAVY mOODS RESULTED IN THE DISPLACEMENT OF AT LEAST PEOPLE IN -ALAWI AND IN -OZAMBIQUE SOME TOWNS ALONG THE :AM BEZI 2IVER VALLEY WERE CUT OFF BY THE mOODWATER !LL TOGETHER NEARLY A MILLION PEOPLE HAVE HAD THEIR LIVES DISRUPTED BY SEVERE mOODS IN THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION &!/
"ETWEEN &EBRUARY TO !PRIL RAINFALL TOTALS WERE NEARLY DOUBLE THE NORMAL IN EAST ERN %THIOPIA SOUTHERN +ENYA SOUTHERN 5GANDA AND NORTHERN 4ANZANIA 4HE WORST mOODS IN YEARS OCCURRED IN THIS REGION DURING THE AND %L .INO PERIOD )N SOME PARTS OF +ENYA RAINFALL TOTALS MM ABOVE NORMAL WERE OBSERVED FOR EXAMPLE THE SWOLLEN 4ANA 2IVER LEFT THOUSANDS HOMELESS DISRUPTED TRANSPORTATION AND CAUSED EXTENSIVE PROPERTY DAMAGE IN EASTERN +ENYA -AJOR mOODING IN SOUTHERN 3OMALIA ALONG THE *UBA AND 3HABELE 2IVERS CLAIMED AN ESTIMATED LIVES AND FORCED HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF INHABITANTS FROM THEIR HOMES HTTP WWW WMO CH CLIMATE
WMO STATEMENT HTTP WWW WMO ORG CLIMATE %L.INO !FTER EXPERIENCING RECORD DROUGHT CONDITIONS IN THE EARLY PART OF FROM /CTOBER TO $ECEMBER THERE WAS HEAVY RAINFALL IN THE WEST AND SOME PARTS OF EASTERN 5GANDA AND THE SOUTHERN PART OF 4ANZANIA HAD THE WETTEST CONDITIONS ON RECORD SINCE FOR THE MONTHS OF /CTOBER AND $ECEMBER 4HIS SPILLED OVER TO *ANUARY WITH PARTS OF SOUTHERN CENTRAL AND WESTERN +ENYA AS WELL AS 5GANDA EXPERIENCING mOODING 7-/ %XTREME RAINFALL ALSO OCCURRED IN .IGER "ENIN AND %THIOPIA IN !UGUST CAUSING mASH mOODS WITH HIGH LOSSES 3TORMY WEATHER AND HEAVY RAIN HIT MANY AREAS IN %GYPT
THE 3INAI 0ENINSULA AND 3OMALIA IN .OVEMBER &OR THESE ARID AREAS WHERE THE MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION TOTALS AMOUNT TO TO MM AND MOST YEARS ARE COMPLETELY DRY THIS WAS AN EXCEPTIONAL EVENT -ORE THAN PEOPLE DIED WHEN LARGE AREAS WERE INUNDATED &LOOD SURGES MENACED THE ANCIENT TOMBS IN ,UXOR &LASH mOODS AND DEVAS TATING MUDSLIDES WERE REPORTED FROM BOTH 3OUTHERN 'HANA AND SOUTHWESTERN -OROCCO AFTER TORRENTIAL RAIN IN *ULY AND !UGUST .EAR !mOU NORTHERN !LGERIA PEOPLE DIED WHEN A BRIDGE COLLAPSED ON /CTOBER AFTER HEAVY RAINS 7-/ )N THE 3AHELIAN REGION AS A WHOLE RAINFALL APPEARED TO RETURN TO NEAR NORMAL AFTER A LONG PERIOD OF SUBNORMAL VALUES )N 7EST !FRICA THE WET SEASON RECEIVED THE HIGHEST AMOUNT OF RAINFALL IN YEARS WITH mOODING IN .IGER LEAVING MORE THAN HOME LESS 7-/ 4HIS PATTERN CONTINUED TO THE END OF THE S $URING AND %L .INO ENHANCED TORRENTIAL RAINS CAUSED SIGNIlCANT mOODS 4HE RAINY SEASON IN THE 3AHEL BEGAN LATE BUT ENDED WITH HIGHER THAN NORMAL RAINFALL ACROSS MUCH OF THE REGION AND mOODS WERE ALSO RECORDED IN 3UDAN )N THE *ULY TO /CTOBER RAINY SEASON PERIOD HEAVY RAINS AND mASH mOODS WREAKED HAVOC IN PARTS OF WESTERN !FRICA 4HOU SANDS WERE LEFT HOMELESS HUNDREDS DEAD AND THERE WAS EXTENSIVE PROPERTY DAMAGE ACROSS LARGE AREAS HTTP WWW WMO CLIMATE )N *ULY HEAVY RAINS IN THE COASTAL AREAS OF 'HANA INCLUDING THE CAPITAL !CCRA PROVOKED mOODS AND WATER LOGGING PEOPLE WERE AFFECTED AND SERIOUSLY SO AND WERE TEMPORALLY DISPLACED 3OME ROADS AND BRIDGES WERE DAMAGED AND DUE TO LACK OF CLEAN WATER SOURCES mOOD POSED HEALTH THREATS SUCH AS CHOLERA DIARRHOEA AND TYPHOID "Y THE TIME WEATHER CONDI TIONS IMPROVED PEOPLE WERE REPORTED DEAD HTTP WWW CIDI ORG DISASTER
&OREST AND 7ILD &IRES "USH lRES ARE MOSTLY DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES BUT ARE TO A LESSER EXTENT CAUSED BY LIGHT NING "URNING OF BUSH IS AN AGE OLD PRACTICE EMPLOYED BY MAN TO BOOST YIELDS IN THE CROP AND LIVESTOCK SUB SECTORS AS WELL AS IN GAME HUNTING &ARMERS USE SLASH AND BURN TECHNIQUES WHICH THEY CONSIDER ESSENTIAL FOR A GOOD CROP WITH MINIMUM LABOUR (ERD ERS SET lRE TO BUSH BECAUSE IT IS BELIEVED THAT THE REGROWTH OR YOUNG OFFSHOOTS ARE MORE PALATABLE AND CONTAIN MORE NUTRIENTS (UNTERS SET lRES TO DRIVE OUT GAME TO MORE OPEN AREAS SO THAT THEY BECOME EASY TARGETS )&&. #LIMATIC FACTORS ESPECIALLY RAINFALL VEGETATION AND WIND SPEED PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN BUSH BURNING 7EATHER EXTREMES AND RAINFALL VARIABILITY MAKE THE NATURAL VEGETATION VULNERABLE TO WILDlRES 7HERE THE WET SEASON IS SHORT AND WHERE POTENTIAL EVAPORA TION EXCEEDS RAINFALL FOR MOST OF THE YEAR THE NATURAL VEGETATION BECOMES VULNERABLE TO BUSHlRES /THER CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE HIGH WIND SPEED AND HIGH DEMAND FOR GRAZ
ING LAND 4HE NEED FOR FRESH GREEN GRASS IS AN INCENTIVE FOR HERDERS TO BURN OFF DRY GRASS FOR MORE PALATABLE PASTURE )&&. 4HUS BUSH lRES ARE MORE EXTENSIVE IN THE 3AHEL AND SAVANNAH REGIONS )&&. )N 3AHELIAN COUNTRIES THE TIMING OF lRES COINCIDES WITH THE (ARMATTAN WINDS WHICH CARRY HOT DRY CONTINENTAL AIR FROM THE 3AHARA DESERT AND WHICH DRY OUT THE HERBACEOUS VEGETATION LAYER THEREBY SUPPLYING A READY SOURCE OF FUEL )N 3OUTH !FRICA APART FROM HUMAN INDUCED lRES DUE TO AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES UNCON TROLLED lRES HAVE LARGELY BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO ARSON 3EVERAL MAJOR FOREST lRES AND BUSH lRES OCCUR IN 3OUTH !FRICA "ETWEEN AND BUSHlRES BROKE OUT REPEATEDLY AND PARTICULARLY IN WHEN A MASSIVE LOSS OF LIVESTOCK WAS REPORTED IN ADDITION TO CONSIDERABLE PROPERTY DAMAGE 7-/ )N lRES DESTROYED ABOUT HA OF PLANTATIONS IN THE PROCESS DESTROYING A WHOLE RURAL SETTLEMENT )&&. )N ,ESOTHO ON THE OTHER HAND BUSHlRES ARE GENERALLY CHARACTERIZED BY LOW INTENSITY 4HE REASON BEING THAT THE INTENSITY OF GRAZING BY LIVESTOCK IS SO HIGH THAT GERMINATED VEG ETATION IS BROWSED IMMEDIATELY AND NO ACCUMULATION OF MATERIAL TAKES PLACE 4HERE FORE BECAUSE OF LACK OF FUELS EXTENSIVE lRES ARE NOT POSSIBLE )&&. )N 'HANA SERIOUS BUSHlRES WERE EXPERIENCED DURING THE 3AHELIAN DROUGHT OF AND AGAIN IN THE PERIOD !VAILABLE DATA ON THE BUSHlRES IN ALL THE COUNTRY S ECOLOGICAL ZONES SHOWED THAT THE 'UINEA AND 3UDAN SAVANNAH AREA SUFFERED THE MOST IN TERMS OF LOSS OF VEGETATION STANDING CROPS FARMS WILDLIFE HABI TAT HUMAN LIVES AND PROPERTY )&&. )N #OTE D )VOIRE THE GOVERNMENT REGARDS BUSHlRE AND FOREST lRES AS A SERIOUS NATIONAL DISASTER SINCE THE DROUGHT OF )N THAT YEAR WILDlRES DESTROYED MORE THAN HA OF FORESTS AND HA OF COFFEE AND COCOA PLANTATIONS "ETWEEN AND WILDlRES DESTROYED HOMES OF MORE THAN PEOPLE AND KILLED PEOPLE )&&. )N THE #ENTRAL !FRICAN 2EPUB LIC SOIL EROSION ON THE HILLS AROUND THE CAPITAL "ANGUI HAS BEEN LINKED TO CULTIVATION AND INTENSIVE BURNING 4HE DEPOSITION OF ACID RAIN OVER THE FORESTS DOWNWIND OF THE COUNTRY S SAVANNAHS HAS ALSO BEEN LINKED TO BURNING )&&. )N ORDER TO PREVENT THE DETRIMENTAL ECOLOGICAL SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF BUSH lRES MOST GOVERNMENTS IN !FRICA HAVE TAKEN A NUMBER OF MEASURES TO PREVENT AND MANAGE BUSHlRES 4HESE INCLUDE ENACTMENT OF ANTI BUSHlRE LEGISLATION SETTING UP BUSHlRE MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES EDUCATION AND SENSITISATION CAMPAIGNS TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMMES FOR PROFESSIONALS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES )&&.
%ARLY WARNING SYSTEMS ARE USED IN A NUMBER OF COUNTRIES FOR EXAMPLE 3ENEGAL TO ALERT GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BUSHlRES FOR APPROPRIATE AND TIMELY INTERVENTIONS )&&. ! COMPUTERISED lRE DETECTION SYSTEM CONTROLLED BY A HUMAN OPERATOR WAS INTRODUCED IN 3OUTH !FRICA IN 4HE SYSTEM WAS DESIGNED TO BE INSTALLED IN REMOTE AREAS FOR EARLY DETECTION OF FOREST WIRES TO ENSURE TIMELY RESPONSE 3UB REGIONAL COOPERATION IS EQUALLY IMPORTANT IN PREVENTING AND MANAGING BUSHlRES ESPECIALLY FOR COUNTRIES THAT SHARE THE SAME BASIN )N THE CONTEXT OF SHARED BASINS
#ENTRE 3UIVI %COLOGIQUE #3% IN 3ENEGAL AND &OREST AUTHORITIES 'UINEA HAVE BEEN ENGAGED IN A TRIAL PROGRAMME AIMED AT RAISING AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEMS POSED BY
BUSHlRES )&&. )N THE 3!$# REGION A PROPOSAL ON COOPERATIVE lRE MANAGE MENT WAS MADE AND RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROJECT PROPOSALS FOR OPERATIONALIZATION OF A REGIONAL FOREST lRE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM WERE DRAWN UP IN
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6 ,!.$ !.$ &//$ )NTRODUCTION ,AND AND FOOD ARE TWO IMPORTANT RESOURCES UPON WHICH !FRICA S ECONOMIES ARE BASED ,AND IS USED TO PRODUCE FOOD RAW MATERIALS FOR INDUSTRIES AND FOR EXPORT MINERALS
TIMBER AND SEVERAL ECONOMIC RESOURCES IN !FRICA $ESPITE THE RICH STORE OF LAND RESOURCES !FRICA STILL REMAINS THE ONLY CONTINENT THAT IS VERY POOR AND POVERTY IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE HIGHLY INDEBTED UNINDUSTRIALIZED AND WITH A MALNOURISHED GROWING POPULATION )N !FRICA ESPECIALLY IN RURAL AREAS POVERTY IS GENERALLY PERCEIVED AS A STATE OF DEPRIVATION WITH REFERENCE lRST TO FOOD AND THEN TO HOUSING CLOTHING AND HEALTH 0OVERTY IS LARGELY PERCEIVED AS A STATE OF FOOD INSECURITY 7ORLD "ANK )NSTITUTE 7") 0OVERTY IS ENDEMIC IN !FRICA ESPECIALLY IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA h7ITH MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE POPULATION ABOUT MILLION PEOPLE LIVING ON LESS THAN 53 A DAY SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA REMAINS DESPITE RECENT FAVOURABLE TRENDS IN INCOME POVERTY ONE OF THE REGIONS MOST AFFECTED BY POVERTYv 7ORLD "ANK -OREOVER
OF !FRICANS LIVE IN RURAL AREAS AND THE RURAL POOR ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF !FRICAN POVERTY 7ORLD "ANK 7") 4HE CHALLENGE FACING !FRICA RESTS IN MANAGING LAND RESOURCES IN AN ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE MANNER SUCH THAT FOOD SECURITY AND POVERTY ERADICATION CAN BE ACHIEVED 4O ACHIEVE THIS WOULD REQUIRE PRAGMATIC AND PARTICIPATORY MACRO ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND SECTIONAL POLICIES THAT RECOGNIZE THE ADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL COOPERATION AND INTERNA TIONAL TRADE
2ESOURCE AND 5SES !FRICA HAS SIGNIlCANT LAND RESOURCES OF CONTRASTS AND EXTREMES VARYING FROM DESERTS TO THE EVERGREEN TROPICAL FORESTS ,AND RESOURCES ARE THE BASES UPON WHICH !FRICAN ECONOMIES LARGELY DEPEND 4HE MAIN LAND USE CATEGORIES IN !FRICA ARE AGRICULTURE
RANGELANDS SETTLEMENT AND WILDLIFE !BOUT PER CENT OF !FRICAN SOILS ARE DElCIENT IN PHOSPHORUS A KEY NUTRIENT IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOMASS 4HE SOILS ALSO HAVE LOW CONTENT OF ORGANIC MATTER AND LOW INlLTRATION AND RETENTION CAPACITY DUE TO SURFACE CRUSTING -OREOVER ABOUT HALF THE CULTIVABLE LAND IS UNDER ARID AND SEMI ARID CONDI TIONS SO POTENTIAL FOR IRRIGATION IS LIMITED 7ORLD "ANK 4HE MAJORITY OF !FRICAN COUNTRIES DEPEND ON AGRICULTURE FOR THEIR LIVELIHOOD !GRICUL TURE CONTRIBUTES PER CENT OF '$0 PER CENT OF TOTAL EXPORT VALUE AND EMPLOYS MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE LABOUR FORCE )00& 5NITED .ATIONS 0OPULATION &UND 5.&0! 4HE 7ORLD #ONSERVATION 5NION )5#. 5.%0 D )N CENTRAL !FRICA PER CENT OF THE LAND IS UNDER CULTIVATION OR GRAZING WHILE IN .ORTH !FRICA PER CENT OF THE LAND IS ARABLE AND PER CENT OF THIS IS UNDER CULTIVATION &!/34!4 )N 3OUTHERN !FRICA ABOUT PER CENT OF THE LAND IS USED FOR CULTIVATION WITH PER CENT BEING UNDER IRRIGATION AND IN -ALAWI PER CENT OF THE LAND IS UNDER CULTIVATION 'RIF lN * ET AL
4HE MAIN ISSUES ABOUT LAND IN !FRICA ARE ITS TENURE SYSTEMS AND ITS DEGRADATION )N SOME COUNTRIES THE FARMERS WHO USE THE LAND DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO LAND MAKING IT DIFl CULT FOR LONG TERM INVESTMENT IN LAND IMPROVEMENT PRACTICES TO BE UNDERTAKEN 4HIS IS MORE SO WITH REGARD TO WOMEN )N A WORLD WHERE WOMEN PRODUCE PER CENT OF FOOD
BUT OWN ONLY PER CENT OF ALL LAND A REALLOCATION OF RESOURCES IN FAVOUR OF WOMEN WILL CERTAINLY BE 0ARETO /PTIMAL AND RESULT IN INCREASED FOOD PRODUCTION #ROWLEY
,AND DEGRADATION ,AND DEGRADATION IS A MAJOR PROBLEM IN !FRICA )T IS ESTIMATED THAT !FRICA ACCOUNTS FOR PER CENT OF LAND DEGRADATION OF THE WORLD AND THAT MILLION HECTARES OF LAND IN !FRICA ARE MODERATELY TO SEVERELY DEGRADED 5.%0 D ,AND DEGRADATION IN !FRICA MANIFESTS MAINLY IN THE FORM OF SOIL DEGRADATION RANGELAND DEGRADATION DECLIN ING SOIL PRODUCTIVITY AND DESERTIlCATION )T HAS BEEN LINKED TO POPULATION PRESSURES
MINING INAPPROPRIATE AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY POOR LAND MANAGEMENT AND DROUGHTS ,AND DEGRADATION IN !FRICA IS EXTENSIVE 3OIL DEGRADATION IS THE MOST SERIOUS EFFECT OF LAND DEGRADATION )T IS ESTIMATED THAT PER CENT OF DEGRADED SOIL RESULT FROM VEGETATION REMOVAL PER CENT FROM OVEREX PLOITATION PER CENT FROM OVERGRAZING AND PER CENT FROM AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES 72) 3OIL LOSSES ARE REPORTED TO BE SIGNIlCANT IN .ORTH AND %ASTERN !FRICA )N %THIOPIA AND 5GANDA SOIL EROSION ACCOUNTS FOR OVER PER CENT OF THE COST OF ENVI RONMENTAL DEGRADATION ESTIMATED AT ABOUT PER CENT OF '$0 %THIOPIA IS REPORTED TO BE LOSING BILLION TONNES OF TOP SOIL FROM THE HIGHLANDS ANNUALLY WHILE "URUNDI IS LOSING TO TONS HA YEAR AND 2WANDA S IS ABOUT TONS HA YEAR #4 % #%$!2% )N 3OUTH !FRICA SOIL LOSSES ARE ESTIMATED TO BE AS HIGH AS MIL LION TONS ANNUALLY AND IN -ALAWI SOIL LOSSES RANGE FROM TO TONS HA PER YEAR 'RIF lN * ET AL #AUSES OF ,AND $EGRADATION $EMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO ECONOMIC FACTORS SUCH AS POVERTY ATTITUDES AND VALUES LAND TENURE SYSTEMS OVERGRAZING AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES OVEREXPLOITATION OF TREES FOR FUEL WOOD AND DEFORESTATION ARE THE MAIN CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION 0OPULATION INDUCED FACTORS INCLUDE CLEARANCE OF VEGETATION FOR AGRICULTURE OVERGRAZING DEFORESTATION
RECURRENT BUSHlRES AND EXTENSIVE CULTIVATION OF MARGINAL LANDS %CONOMIC #OMMIS SION FOR !FRICA 7HERE LAND IS ABUNDANT RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN THE SHORT TERM WILL NOT LEAD TO DEGRADATION AS FARMERS ADOPT SHIFTING CULTIVATION BY LEAVING THE CROPPED LAND TO FALLOW FOR SOME YEARS TO REPLENISH THE LOST NUTRIENTS (OWEVER IN MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES LAND IS SCARCE AND RAPID POPULATION GROWTH WITHOUT INTENSIVE CULTIVATION LEADS TO LAND DEGRADATION %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA 0OPU LATION PRESSURE IS ALSO LEADING TO DECLINE IN PER CAPITA ARABLE LAND &OR EXAMPLE PER CAPITA ARABLE LAND DECLINED FROM HA PERSON IN TO HA PERSON IN 'RIF lN * ET AL 0OVERTY RENDERS FARMERS INCAPABLE OF UNDERTAKING INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE THAT REQUIRES SIGNIlCANT INPUTS OR UNDERTAKE OTHER SOIL IMPROVEMENT INVESTMENTS 4HE ONLY ALTERNA TIVE LEFT FOR THEM IS TO MINE THE SOILS TILL THEY BECOME COMPLETELY DEGRADED 0OVERTY
ALSO MAKES RURAL PEOPLE DEPEND ON FUELWOOD FOR THEIR MAIN ENERGY DEMANDS 3INCE THERE IS NO AFFORESTATION TO TAKE CARE OF THIS THERE IS OVER EXPLOITATION LEADING TO DEG RADATION ,AND TENURE IS CLOSELY CONNECTED TO LAND DEGRADATION )N AREAS WHERE PEOPLE DO NOT HAVE TITLE TO LAND INCENTIVES TO INVEST IN LONG TERM LAND IMPROVEMENT ARE NON EXISTENT ESPECIALLY WHEN THEY ARE ON RENTED LAND /N RANGELANDS TRADITIONAL METHODS OF GRAZING MANAGEMENT HAVE BECOME LESS EFFECTIVE AND FREE RANGE GRAZING HAS LED TO OVER GRAZING ESPECIALLY IN ARID AND SEMI ARID AREAS LEADING TO DETERIORATION OF THE LAND COVER 4HE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE ARE VERY IMPORTANT IN LAND MANAGEMENT 2URAL PEOPLE WHO ARE NORMALLY POOR AND IGNORANT OF CONSERVATION METHODS TEND TO HAVE ATTITUDES THAT MAY BE LAND DEGRADING 3OIL $EGRADATION 3OIL DEGRADATION TYPIlED BY SOIL EROSION IS MADE UP OF WATER AND WIND EROSION CHEMI CAL DEGRADATION AND PHYSICAL DEGRADATION !SIA AND !FRICA HAVE THE MOST DEGRADED SOILS IN THE WORLD COMPOSING OF PER CENT AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY 4ABLE )N !FRICA WATER EROSION IS THE MAJOR PROBLEM PER CENT FOLLOWED BY WIND EROSION PER CENT CHEMICAL DEGRADATION PER CENT AND PHYSICAL DEGRADATION PER CENT -AIN CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION ARE OVERGRAZING PER CENT AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITY PER CENT OVER EXPLOITATION PER CENT AND DEFORESTATION PER CENT 5.%0 3OIL EROSION COMPRISES WATER AND WIND EROSION 4HE MOST PREVALENT FORMS OF WATER EROSION ARE SHEET AND GULLY 4HEY ARE WIDESPREAD IN ALL THE SUB REGIONS OF !FRICA ESPE CIALLY THE -EDITERRANEAN AND ARID .ORTH !FRICA IN HUMID AND SUB HUMID 7EST !FRICA
SUB HUMID AND MOUNTAINOUS %AST !FRICA AND SUB HUMID AND SEMI ARID SOUTHERN !FRICA SEE 4ABLE 7ATER EROSION WAS ESTIMATED TO HAVE AFFECTED MILLION HECTARES BY %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA 4HE MAJOR CAUSES OF WATER EROSION ARE OVERGRAZING EXCESSIVE DEFORESTATION AND CULTIVATION OF HILL SLOPES 7IND EROSION IS PREVALENT IN -EDITERRANEAN AND ARID .ORTH !FRICA 3UDANO 3AHELIAN !FRICA AND THE SUB HUMID AND SEMI ARID SOUTHERN !FRICA AND IS ESTIMATED TO HAVE AFFECTED MILLION HECTARES 7IND EROSION CAN EITHER BE HUMAN INDUCED OR A RESULT OF PROLONGED DROUGHT 5.%#! 3OIL EROSION IS MAINLY ASSOCIATED WITH ANNUAL CROPS SUCH AS MAIZE
MILLET ETC #ONTROL OF EROSION IS DIFlCULT WITHOUT USING NARROW GRASS STRIPS TERRACING OR SOME MULCH OF CROP RESIDUES 2EGIONS
7ATER %ROSION
7IND %ROSION
#HEMICAL $EGRADATION
0HYSICAL $EGRADATION
4/4!,
!FRICA
!SIA
3OUTH !MERICA
.ORTH AND #ENTRAL !MERICA %UROPE
!USTRALASIA 4/4!,
4ABLE 7ORLD SOIL DEGRADATION BY TYPE
#LASSIlED AS MODERATELY TO EXCESSIVELY AFFECTED
3OURCE %XTRACTS FROM 7ORLD !GRICULTURE 4OWARDS &OOD AND !GRICULTURE /RGANIZATION &!/
4ABLE SHOWS THE CATEGORIES OF SOIL DEGRADATION AND IMPACTS ON ARABLE GRAZING AND FORESTLANDS FOR THE VARIOUS REGIONS OF !FRICA )T IS APPARENT FROM THE TABLE THAT WHILE WATER EROSION IS PREVALENT IN THE ARABLE LANDS FOR ALL THE SUB REGIONS DUE TO THE CULTIVA TION OF ANNUAL CROPS WIND EROSION IS COMMON IN THE GRAZING LANDS THAT ARE MORE ARID #HEMICAL AND PHYSICAL SOIL DEGRADATION #HEMICAL SOIL DEGRADATION IN !FRICA ACCOUNTS FOR SOME PER CENT OF TOTAL SUSCEPTIBLE DRYLANDS OF !FRICA )T IS MADE UP OF LOSS OF NUTRIENTS SALINIZATION AND ACIDIlCATION 3ALINIZATION AND ACIDIlCATION ARE MAINLY THE RESULTS OF IRRIGA TION AND INAPPROPRIATE FERTILIZER APPLICATION #HEMICAL SOIL DEGRADATION AFFECTS SOME MILLION HECTARES OF LAND WITH MILLION HECTARES BEING NUTRIENT DElCIENT AND SALIN ITY AFFECTING MILLION HECTARES %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FRO !FRICA 0HYSICAL SOIL DEGRADATION RESULTS IN THE DETERIORATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOIL AND MAKES IT MORE COMPACT AND HARDER TO USE BECAUSE IT IS LESS PERMEABLE TO RAIN AND POORLY DRAINED 4HE SOIL ALSO DEVELOPS HARDPANS AND SURFACE CRUSTING 4HIS PROCESS HAS AFFECTED MIL LION HECTARES OF LAND IN !FRICA %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA ,AND DEGRADATION AND &OOD ,AND DEGRADATION HAS SIGNIlCANT IMPACTS ON SOIL PRODUCTIVITY AND FOOD SECURITY 3OIL EROSION REDUCES SOIL PRODUCTIVITY AND PLANT NUTRIENTS TO SUCH AN EXTENT THAT IF THE PROB LEM IS NOT ADDRESSED THE SOIL lNALLY BECOMES UNSUITABLE FOR CROP PRODUCTION 3OIL FERTILITY IS A MAJOR PROBLEM BECAUSE ABOUT PER CENT OF !FRICA S SOILS ARE ACIDIC AND LOW IN NUTRIENTS -ORAN "ESIDES OVER CULTIVATION WITH REDUCED FALLOW PERIODS
OVERGRAZING AND INADEQUATE TECHNOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO REPLENISH NUTRIENTS HAVE LED TO 4ABLE 3UB REGIONAL SOIL EROSION AND LAND TYPES IN !FRICA
2EGION
!RABLE LAND
-EDITERRANEAN AND .ORTH !FRICA
$ECLINING SOIL &ERTILITY 7IND AND WATER EROSION 3TALINIZATION ON IRRIGATED LANDS
3UDANO 3AHELIAN !FRICA
$ECLINE IN NUTRIENT LEVELS IN THE SOIL $ECLINE IN SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 7IND AND WATER EROSION $ECLINE IN NUTRIENT LEVELS IN THE SOILS $ECLINE IN SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 7ATER EROSION $EGRADED SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES $EGRADATION OF SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 7ATER EROSION $EGRADATION OF SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES $EGRADATION OF SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 7ATER EROSION $EGRADATION OF SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES $EGRADATION OF SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(UMID AND SUB HUMID 7EST !FRICA
(UMID CENTRAL !FRICA
3UB HUMID AND MOUNTAIN %AST !FRICA
3UB HUMID AND SEMI ARID SOUTHERN !FRICA
'RAZING LAND
&OREST LAND
'ENERAL $EGRADATION OF VEGETATION 7IND AND WATER EROSION
'ENERAL DEGRADATION OF VEGETATION 7IND EROSION IN SUB HUMID AREAS
$EGRADATION OF VEGETATION 7IND EROSION IN SUB HUMID AREAS
$EGRADATION OF VEGETATION
$EGRADATION OF VEGETATION 7ATER EROSION
$EGRADATION OF VEGETATION 7ATER EROSION
$EGRADATION OF VEGETATION 7IND AND WATER EROSION
$EGRADATION OF 6EGETATION 7ATER EROSION ON DEGRADED FOREST LANDS $EGRADATION OF VEGETATION
$EGRADATION OF VEGETATION %ROSION
3OURCE !FRICAN !GRICULTURE THE NEXT YEARS &OOD AND !GRICULTURE /RGANIZATION &!/
THIS PROBLEM 4HE TOTAL NUTRIENT LOSS BETWEEN AND IS ESTIMATED TO BE TONNES PER HECTARE OF UREA FERTILIZER KG OF TRIPLE SUPER PHOSPHATE AND KG OF POTASSIUM CHLORIDE 5.%#! 3OIL EROSION CAN ALSO LEAD TO SEDIMENT POLLUTION OF WATER SUPPLIES CAUSE mOODING AND REDUCE HYDRO ELECTRICITY POWER THROUGH SILTATION OF DAMS ,OSS OF TOPSOIL TERRAIN DEFORMATION AND CHEMICAL DETERIORATION OF THE SOILS ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF TOTAL LAND USE 4HE PRODUCTIVITY LOSS ARISING FROM THIS SINCE 7ORLD 7AR )) IS ESTIMATED AT PER CENT FOR CROPLANDS AND PER CENT FOR CROPLAND AND PASTURE TOGETHER )RREVERSIBLE LOSS OF SOIL PRODUCTIVITY OF AT LEAST PER CENT OF LANDS DUE TO EROSION HAS OCCURRED OVER THE PAST CENTURY IN LARGE PARTS OF !LGERIA %THIOPIA +ENYA 'HANA ,ESOTHO -OROCCO
.IGERIA 3OUTH !FRICA 3WAZILAND 4UNISIA AND 5GANDA #ROP YIELD LOSSES IN DUE TO EROSION RANGED FROM TO PER CENT WITH A MEAN OF PER CENT FOR ALL !FRICA &OR INSTANCE THE ESTIMATED SOIL LOSS IN -ALI IS ESTIMATED TO RANGE FROM T HA YEAR IN THE NORTH TO T HA YEAR IN THE SOUTH LEADING TO YIELD LOSSES OF TO PER CENT PER YEAR FOR THE COUNTRY %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA 4HESE EFFECTS FROM LAND AND SOIL DEGRADATION HAVE SIGNIlCANT NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON PRO DUCTIVITY OF AGRICULTURE FOOD PRODUCTION AND FOOD SECURITY IN !FRICA
4HE 3TATE OF &OOD IN !FRICA &OOD 3ECURITY &OOD SECURITY IS DElNED AS AN hACCESS BY ALL PEOPLE AT ALL TIMES TO ENOUGH FOOD FOR AN ACTIVE HEALTHY LIFEv 7ESTERN #ENTRE FOR %NVIRONMENTAL $ECISION -AKING 7#%$ &OOD SECURITY HAS THREE COMPONENTS NAMELY AVAILABILITY OF FOOD ACCESS TO FOOD AND PROVISION OF ADEQUATE NUTRITION )N TERMS OF FOOD AVAILABILITY FOOD PRODUCTION IN MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES DID NOT MEET DOMESTIC DEMAND FROM %HUI 4HE CURRENT SITUATION IS NOT DIFFERENT 4HE DISCUSSION BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE FOOD DEMAND GAPS IN !FRICA )N TERMS OF ACCESS TO FOOD MOST VULNERABLE PEOPLE IN !FRICA HAVE SEVERE PROBLEMS -AJOR CONSTRAINTS TO FOOD ACCESS AND THUS FOOD INSECURITY IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA INCLUDE LIMITED ACCESS TO BASIC INFRASTRUCTURE DOMESTIC POLICY BIASES HIGH FOOD PRICES AND CONmICTS 7$2 'OOD NUTRITION IS ESSENTIAL FOR PEOPLE TO BE FOOD SECURE AND LIVE HEALTHY AND PRODUC TIVE LIFE ! COMPLEMENTARY FACTOR FOR ACHIEVING GOOD NUTRITION IS ACCESS TO SAFE WATER ! MEASURE OF CHRONIC UNDERNUTRITION IS STUNTING WHICH ALSO CAPTURES THE EFFECT OF PER SISTENT MALNUTRITION %HUI -ALNUTRITION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE CANNOT HAVE THE &!/ STIPULATED MINIMUM DAILY REQUIREMENT OF CALORIES 4HE PICTURE IN TERMS OF MALNUTRITION IS NOT ENCOURAGING )T WAS ESTIMATED THAT IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA ALONE HAD A TOTAL OF COUNTRIES WITH SERIOUS MALNUTRITION PROBLEM &!/ !N )NTERNATIONAL &OOD 0OLICY 2ESEARCH )NSTITUTE )&02) REPORT INDICATED THAT THE PROPOR TION OF MALNOURISHED CHILDREN BETWEEN AND WAS PER CENT FOR SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA AND THIS PROPORTION IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE BY PER CENT TO MILLION IN !NDERSEN )T IS WORTH NOTING THAT KNOWLEDGE OF THE NUTRITIONAL CONTENT OF FOOD IS AS ESSENTIAL AS ITS AVAILABILITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN ACHIEVING GOOD NUTRITION
!NY STRATEGY TO ADDRESS THE MULTI FACETED NATURE OF FOOD SECURITY IN !FRICA MUST CON SIDER THE FOLLOWING ISSUES s s s s
4HE ISSUE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY 4HE ISSUE OF ()6 !)$3 AND MALARIA 4HE ROLE OF NON AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND ,AND DEGRADATION
5LTIMATELY INCREASING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IS KEY TO ACHIEVING FOOD SECURITY 7ITH POPULATION GROWING AT THE RATE OF PER CENT AGRICULTURE HAS TO GROW AT A HIGHER RATE !FRICA S AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION HAS BEEN POOR BUT VARIABLE OVER THE PERIOD 4HE HIGHEST GROWTH OF AGRICULTURE OCCURRED BETWEEN AND RECORDING ABOUT AN AVERAGE YEARLY GROWTH RATE OF PER CENT 4HERE WAS A SLOW DOWN BETWEEN AND BUT BOUNCED BACK IN S SEE GRAPH 7HILE AGRICULTURAL GROWTH RATE WAS ON AVERAGE MODEST PRODUCTIVITY HAS BEEN LOW OVER THE PERIOD %HUI !GRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY ALSO HAS TO DO WITH REFORM OF THE LAND TENURE SYSTEMS ACCESS TO OTHER RESOURCES SUCH AS CREDIT MARKETS RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SYSTEMS ,OW PRODUCTIVITY IS A RESULT OF LOW INVESTMENT IN INPUTS TO AGRI CULTURE /NLY ABOUT PER CENT OF LAND UNDER CULTIVATION IN !FRICA IS IRRIGATED 4HIS COMPARES WITH PER CENT IN ,ATIN !MERICA AND THE #ARIBBEAN A REGION WITH SIMILAR POPULATION DENSITIES AND RESOURCE ENDOWMENTS &ERTILIZER APPLICATION TODAY IS THE SAME AS IN !T PRESENT LESS THAN KG HA OF FERTILISERS ARE USED IN THE REGION COMPARED TO MORE THAN KG HA IN 3OUTH !SIA 4HE NUMBER OF TRACTORS PER WORKER IS LOWER THAN ANY OTHER REGION AND ENDEMIC ANIMAL DISEASES REDUCE THE USE OF ANIMAL DRAFT POWER ()6 !)$3 AND MALARIA ARE EXERTING SIGNIlCANT NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON !FRICAN COUNTRIES IN TERMS OF MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY THUS REDUCING THE LABOUR FORCE FOR FOOD AND AGRI CULTURAL PRODUCTION ()6 !)$3 MOSTLY AFFECT THE LABOUR FORCE &OR INSTANCE IN NINE COUNTRIES IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE ADULT POPULATION IS ()6 POSITIVE )N "OTSWANA .AMIBIA 3WAZILAND AND :IMBABWE TO PER CENT OF THE POPULATION AGED ARE LIVING WITH ()6 OR !)$3 WHILE PER CENT OF ALL !)$3 DEATHS OCCUR IN !FRICA (IGH DISPOSABLE INCOMES FOR !FRICANS ARE IMPORTANT FOR FOOD SECURITY 4HIS IMPLIES ADDRESSING POVERTY ESPECIALLY IN THE RURAL AREAS .ON AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN THE RURAL AREAS AS ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INCOME FOR FARMERS ARE IMPORTANT SINCE IT WILL SIGNIl
'RAPH 4RENDS IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA AGRICULTURAL GROWTH
'ROWTH RATES IN
3OURCE 7ORLD "ANK 4ECHNICAL 0APER .UMBER
CANTLY ENHANCE THEIR INCOMES AND ADDRESS FOOD INSECURITY )T HAS BEEN DISCUSSED ABOVE THAT LAND DEGRADATION WILL REDUCE FOOD PRODUCTION IN !FRICA &OOD 0RODUCTION IN !FRICA &OOD PRODUCTION IN !FRICA HAS BEEN LAGGING BEHIND THE LOCAL DEMAND FOR MOST COUN TRIES FROM TO %HUI 4HE CURRENT SITUATION IS NOT DIFFERENT !NALYSIS OF FOOD PRODUCTION IN THE SUB REGIONS SHOWS MOST COUNTRIES HAVING FOOD DElCIT IN THEIR PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION )N MANY EAST !FRICAN COUNTRIES THE FOOD SITUATION HAS DETERIORATED 4HE CONmICT IN SOUTHERN 3UDAN HAS WORSENED THE SITUATION SUCH THAT THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN NEED OF FOOD AID IS CURRENTLY ESTIMATED AT SOME MILLION 4HIS IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE )N %THIOPIA DESPITE THE IMPROVED FOOD SUPPLY SITUATION IN SOME MILLION PEOPLE DEPEND ON FOOD ASSISTANCE DUE TO SUCCESSIVE DROUGHTS AND THE WAR WITH NEIGHBOURING %RITREA &!/ $ESPITE FAVOURABLE WEATHER CON DITIONS FOOD EMERGENCIES PERSIST IN THE 'REAT ,AKES REGION DUE TO CONmICTS )N THE $EMOCRATIC 2EPUBLIC OF #ONGO FOR INSTANCE AN ESTIMATED MILLION INTERNALLY DIS PLACED PEOPLE FACE VERY SEVERE SHORTAGE OF FOOD AND DEPEND ON PROVISION OF ASSISTANCE &!/ )N SOUTHERN !FRICA FOOD PRODUCTION HAS SIGNIlCANTLY DECLINED IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES DUE TO LOWER PLANTINGS AND ADVERSE WEATHER -AIZE OUTPUT WHICH ACCOUNTS FOR OVER PER CENT OF THE SUB REGION S TOTAL CEREAL PRODUCTION IS ESTIMATED AT MILLION TONNES PER CENT LOWER THAN IN THE PREVIOUS YEAR AND WELL BELOW AVERAGE )N :IMBABWE FOR EXAMPLE MAIZE OUTPUT IS ESTIMATED AT OVER PER CENT BELOW THE LEVEL REmECTING LOWER PLANTINGS AND REDUCED YIELDS &!/ 3EVERAL 7EST !FRICAN COUNTRIES FACE FOOD SUPPLY DIFlCULTIES RESULTING FROM CIVIL STRIFE OR LOCALISED WEATHER ADVERSITIES IN 4HE FOOD SITUATION IS PARTICULARLY DIFlCULT IN PARTS OF "URKINA &ASO #HAD AND .IGER FOLLOWING REDUCED HARVESTS &OOD "ALANCE FOR #EREAL IMPORT REQUIREMENTS IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA IN ARE SET TO REMAIN HIGH
REmECTING MAINLY CONTINUED DROUGHT CONDITIONS IN PARTS OF EASTERN !FRICA DISPLACEMENT DUE TO ESCALATION OF CONmICTS AND EFFECTS OF ADVERSE WEATHER IN SOUTHERN !FRICA 4HE TOTAL FOOD AID REQUIREMENT IN !FRICA IS ESTIMATED AT MILLION TONNES ALMOST THE SAME AS ACTUAL IMPORTS IN 4OTAL FOOD AID PLEDGES FOR INCLUDING THOSE CARRIED OVER FROM AMOUNTS TO MILLION TONNES OF WHICH MILLION TONNES HAVE BEEN DELIVERED SO FAR )N 7EST !FRICA THE ESTIMATED COMMERCIAL FOOD IMPORTS FOR THE MARKETING YEAR IS MILLION TONNES WITH FOOD AID CONTRIBUTING TONNES MAINLY WHEAT AND RICE )N CENTRAL !FRICA THE SITUATION LOOKS BRIGHTER WITH ESTIMATED COMMERCIAL IMPORTS BEING TONNES AND FOOD AID TONNES FOR THE MARKETING YEAR )N SOUTHERN !FRICA COMMERCIAL FOOD IMPORTS ARE ESTIMATED AT MILLION TONNES WITH FOOD AID REQUIREMENTS AT TONNES WHILE IN EASTERN !FRICA COMMERCIAL IMPORTS ARE ESTI MATED AT MILLION TONNES WITH FOOD AID BEING MILLION TONNES
)NITIATIVES IN ,AND $EGRADATION AND &OOD 3ECURITY 3EVERAL INITIATIVES HAVE BEEN TAKEN TO ADDRESS LAND DEGRADATION AND FOOD INSECURITY IN !FRICA ! FAMOUS SUCCESSFUL ONE IS THE IMPROVED LAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE -ACHAKOS $ISTRICT OF +ENYA SEE BOX )N THE AREA OF FOOD SECURITY ONE SIGNIlCANT INITIATIVE IS THE 7ORLD &OOD 3UMMIT 7&3 THAT TOOK PLACE IN 4HE 3UMMIT COM MITTED ITSELF hTO REDUCE THE NUMBER OF UNDERNOURISHED PEOPLE TO HALF THEIR PRESENT LEVEL NO LATER THAN v $ESPITE THIS COMMITMENT lVE YEARS LATER hLITTLE PROGRESS IS BEING MADE IN BRINGING ABOUT SIGNIlCANT REDUCTION IN THE NUMBER OF THE WORLD S HUNGERv WWW FAO ORG NEWS EHTM
"OX )MPROVED LAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE -ACHAKOS $ISTRICT OF +ENYA )N THE S THE SEMI ARID -ACHAKOS $ISTRICT OF %AST CENTRAL +ENYA WAS CHARACTERIZED BY SOIL DEPLETION AND EROSION REDUCTION IN FALLOW USE OF MAR GINAL LANDS LEADING TO DECLINING CROP YIELDS LANDLESSNESS FOOD SHORTAGES
MALNUTRITION UNEMPLOYMENT RURAL INDEBTEDNESS AND OUT MIGRATION )MPROVED LAND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS BACKED BY ADEQUATE POLICIES WERE PUT IN PLACE TO ADDRESS THESE PROBLEMS 4HE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS INCLUDED OX DRAWN PLOUGHS SHORT DURATION MAIZE VARIETIES STALL FEEDING AND FODDER CROPS FOR INTENSIVE LIVESTOCK REARING MONO CROPPING OF THE MAIN ANNUAL CROPS IN ROWS TO FACILITATE PLANTING WEEDING TER RACING CONTOUR CULTIVATION WITH OXEN AND THE USE OF ANIMAL MANURE FOR FERTILIZER %NGLISH ET AL 4HE POLICIES INCLUDED s -ARKET ORIENTATION TO FARM PRODUCTION AND ACCESS TO MARKET OUTLETS FOR PRODUCTS s &ARMERS ACCESS TO INFORMATION ON THE AVAILABILITY OF A WIDE RANGE OF NEW CROPS AND TECHNICALLY VIABLE LAND USE OPTIONS s &ARM HOUSEHOLDS SECURITY AND LONG TERM RIGHTS TO FARMLANDS q $EVOLUTION TO THE LOCAL LEVEL OF DECISIONS CONCERNING THE ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES AND PLANNING OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND s 0UBLIC INVESTMENTS TARGETED AT PROVIDING CRITICAL PUBLIC GOODS AND INFRA STRUCTURE THAT LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND FARMERS CANNOT AFFORD ON THEIR OWN 2ECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT THERE IS NO EVIDENCE OF SOIL DEPLETION 7HILE SOME EROSION IS OCCURRING THERE IS NO SIGNIlCANT LOSS OF PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY BECAUSE OF MEASURES UNDERTAKEN 4HERE IS NO EVIDENCE OF DECLINING CROP YIELDS WHILE FARMING SYSTEMS IN MARGINAL LANDS DO NOT LEAD TO LONG TERM DEG RADATION 2EDUCTION IN FALLOW HAS OCCURRED BUT HAS BEEN REPLACED BY NEW AND MORE PRODUCTIVE INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS /UT MIGRATION HAS DECLINED WHILE THERE IS NO EVIDENCE OF LANDLESSNESS OR RURAL INDEBTEDNESS 5NEMPLOYMENT IS A PROBLEM IN SOME AREAS BUT FOOD SHORTAGES OCCUR ONLY IN EXCEPTIONAL YEARS -ALNUTRITION IS NOT SEVERE EXCEPT IN SOCIALLY DEPRIVED FAMILIES 3OURCE %NGLISH ET AL 4IFFEN ET AL
6) ")/$)6%23)49 !.$ &/2%343 )NTRODUCTION 4HE TERM BIODIVERSITY A SHORTENED FORM OF THE PHRASE hBIOLOGICAL DIVERSITYv REFERS TO THE VARIETY AND NUMBER OF LIVING ORGANISMS ON %ARTH OR PARTS THEREOF ALONG WITH THE LIVING AND NON LIVING SYSTEMS THAT THEY DEPEND ON FOR SURVIVAL "IOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AS WE KNOW IT TODAY IS THE PRODUCT OF MILLIONS OF YEARS OF EVOLUTION SHAPED BY NATURAL PROCESSES AND INCREASINGLY BY THE INmUENCE OF HUMAN BEINGS 4HE WORLD S BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES INCLUDE FORESTS WILDLIFE AND lSHERIES !S SUCH THE TERM BIODIVERSITY IS USED IN THIS DOCUMENT TO INCLUDE THE SUBSTANTIAL FOREST WEALTH FOUND IN !FRICA "IODIVERSITY PROVIDES THE BASIS FOR THE LIVELIHOODS OF MANY PEOPLE
AND FOR ECONOMIC GROWTH AT BOTH LOCAL AND NATIONAL LEVELS /N THE OTHER HAND ECOSYS TEM SERVICES SUCH AS WATER SUPPLY AND ABSORPTION OF POLLUTANTS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR MAIN TAINING HUMAN HEALTH )N ADDITION TO BEING AN ESSENTIAL RESOURCE FOR !FRICA S PEOPLES AND ECONOMIES THE VAST AND UNIQUE BIODIVERSITY ON THE CONTINENT IS ALSO AN INVALUABLE GLOBAL HERITAGE &ORESTS EXIST IN MANY DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD UNDER A WIDE RANGE OF CONDITIONS
MEANING THAT NO FOREST IS STATIC IN SPACE AND TIME 7HILE DElNED BY THE PRESENCE OF TREES FORESTS CONSIST OF MUCH MORE LOWER PLANTS FUNGI BACTERIA ANIMALS WATER SOIL
PEOPLE AND THE ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES THAT MAINTAIN THESE COMPONENTS AND TO WHICH THEY CONTRIBUTE )N SHORT FORESTS ARE PART AND PARCEL OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
!FRICA S "IODIVERSITY !FRICA HAS A LARGE AND DIVERSE HERITAGE OF PLANTS ANIMALS AND MICROORGANISMS )T IS HOME TO MORE THAN KNOWN PLANT SPECIES MAMMAL SPECIES AND BIRD SPECIES 4HE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY FOUND IN ANY ONE AREA OR COUNTRY VARIES IN COMPLEX WAYS DEPENDING ON THE PHYSICAL SIZE LOCAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS TOPOGRAPHY VEGETA TION AND SOIL TYPES 4HE ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF MAMMALS BIRDS mOWERING AND NON mOWERING PLANT SPECIES FOUND IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES IS PRESENTED IN 4ABLE %ASTERN !FRICA CONTAINS PER CENT OF !FRICA S ENDEMIC MAMMAL SPECIES PER CENT OF BIRDS PER CENT OF REPTILES AND PER CENT OF AMPHIBIANS )N TERMS OF SPECIES ENDEMISM -ADAGASCAR IS THE RICHEST COUNTRY IN !FRICA )T RANKS SIXTH IN THE WORLD FOR HIGHER VERTEBRATES MAMMALS BIRDS AND AMPHIBIANS WITH MORE THAN ENDEMIC SPECIES 4HE $EMOCRATIC 2EPUBLIC OF #ONGO IS THE MOST PLANT SPECIES RICH COUNTRY IN !FRICA FOLLOWED BY 4ANZANIA AND -ADAGASCAR 4HE TROPICAL SAVANNAH IS THE MOST EXTENSIVE ECOSYSTEM TYPE IN !FRICA AND IS INHABITED BY THE LARGEST PROPORTION OF THE HUMAN POPULATION LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE 4HEY HAVE A HIGH INCIDENCE OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS AND ANIMALS AND HOST SOME OF THE WORLD S REMAIN ING GREAT CONCENTRATIONS OF LARGE MAMMALS -ANY OF !FRICA S MOUNTAINS AND HIGHLANDS HAVE UNIQUE AND RICH BIODIVERSITY 4HE HIGHLANDS OF %THIOPIA +ENYA AND 4ANZANIA PRESENT PARTICULARLY RICH CENTRES OF SPECIES ENDEMISM
!FRICAN WETLANDS COVERING ABOUT ONE PER CENT OF THE CONTINENT S TOTAL SURFACE AREA AND FOUND IN EVERY COUNTRY ALSO HAVE A RICH BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY WITH MANY ENDEMIC AND RARE PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES 7ETLANDS ARE AMONG THE MOST BIOLOGICALLY PRODUCTIVE ECOSYSTEMS IN !FRICA 4HE /KA VANGO $ELTA THE 3UDD MANY OF THE 2IFT 6ALLEY LAKES COASTLINES AND THE BASINS mOODPLAINS AND DELTAS OF!FRICA S MAJOR RIVERS PROVIDE IMPORTANT SEASONAL HABITAT FOR MIGRATORY BIRDS SPECIES FROM THE TEMPERATE BIOMES ,AKE -ALAWI !FRICA S THIRD LARGEST AFTER LAKES 6ICTORIA AND 4ANGANYIKA
CONTAINS THE LARGEST NUMBER OF lSH SPECIES FOR ANY SINGLE LAKE IN THE WORLD WITH ALMOST SPE CIES FROM FAMILIES -ANY OF THEM ARE UNIQUE TO THE LAKE WHICH IS HOME TO THE WORLD S LARGEST POPULATION OF CICHLIDS CATlSHES MINNOWS MORMYRIDS TRUE EELS AND SPINY EELS 4HE!FRICAN COASTAL REGION IS EQUALLY DIVERSE WITH MORE THAN SPECIES OF lSH 4ABLE %STIMATED NUMBER OF MAMMAL BIRD AND PLANT SPECIES IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES
2EGION #OUNTRY
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3OURCE 7ORLD #ONSERVATION -ONITORING #ENTRE #OMP 'ROOMBRIDGE " %D "IODIVERSITY $ATA 3OURCEBOOK 7ORLD #ONSERVATION 0RESS #AMBRIDGE 5+ PP 2EVISION *ANUARY
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!FRICA HOLDS lVE OF THE IDENTIlED BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS OF THE WORLD 4HESE ARE THE 'UINEAN HOTSPOT WHICH STRETCHES FROM 'UINEA IN THE 7EST TO #AMEROON IN THE %AST THE -ADAGASCAR AND )NDIAN /CEAN ISLANDS HOTSPOT THE %ASTERN !RC MOUNTAINS AND COASTAL FORESTS OF +ENYA AND 4ANZANIA AND THE #APE &LORISTIC 0ROVINCE AND THE 3UCCULENT +AROO HOTSPOTS BOTH LOCATED IN 3OUTH !FRICA S WESTERN CAPE )T ALSO CONTAINS PART OF THE -EDITERRANEAN "ASIN HOTSPOT 4HE 'UINEAN HOTSPOT RANKS lRST IN MAMMALIAN DIVERSITY AMONG THE WORLD S HOT SPOTS 7ITH SPECIES IT IS HOME TO HALF OF !FRICA S KNOWN MAMMALIAN SPECIES 4HE FORESTS OF 7EST !FRICA ARE OF GLOBAL IMPORTANCE 4HE LAST SIGNIlCANT REMAINS OF THE STRUCTURALLY COMPLEX AND SPECIES RICH FORESTS OF THE UPPER 'UINEA ZONE INCLUDE THE FOREST RELICS AT 'OLA IN 3IERRA ,EONE 3APO IN ,IBERIA 4AI IN #ยนTE D )VOIRE AND THE &OUTA $JALLON -OUNT .IMBA AND ,OMA AT THE HEADWATERS OF 2IVERS .IGER 3ENEGAL AND 4HE 'AMBIA $UE TO THE DIVERSITY OF THE LANDSCAPES IN -ADAGASCAR AND THE EXTREMELY HIGH LEVEL OF ENDEMISM OF ITS mORA AND FAUNA THIS COUNTRY IS ON THE LIST OF ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES IN THE WORLD 4HE -ADAGASCAR AND THE )NDIAN /CEAN ISLANDS BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT IS CONSIDERED ONE OF THE RICHEST BUT ITS UNIQUE PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE HIGHLY THREATENED BY THE LOSS OF NEARLY PER CENT OF THE ORIGINAL FOREST COVER OVER THE PAST YEARS 4HE %ASTERN !RC MOUNTAINS HARBOUR THE DENSEST CONCENTRATION OF UNIQUE PLANTS BIRDS AND A VARIETY OF THREATENED PRIMATES #APE &LORISTIC 0ROVINCE CONTAINS AN INCREDIBLE
PLANT SPECIES OF WHICH ARE ENDEMIC TO THE AREA WHILE THE 3UCCULENT +AROO HAS PER CENT OF ITS NEARLY SUCCULENT PLANT SPECIES BEING ENDEMIC 4HE +AROO IS ALSO A CENTRE OF DIVERSITY FOR REPTILES AND INVERTEBRATES 4HE -EDITERRANEAN "ASIN IS THE SITE OF MANY ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS AND IS THUS ONE OF THE MOST HEAVILY IMPACTED OF THE HOTSPOTS IN THE WORLD )T IS HOST TO ENDEMIC PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES
"IODIVERSITY AND THE OF #ONCEPT OF 0ROTECTED !REAS !T THE )6TH 7ORLD #ONGRESS ON .ATIONAL 0ARKS AND 0ROTECTED !REAS IN #ARACAS 6EN EZUELA IN A PROTECTED AREA WAS DElNED AS hAN AREA OF LAND AND OR SEA ESPECIALLY DEDICATED TO THE PROTECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND OF NATURAL AND ASSOCIATED CULTURAL RESOURCES AND MANAGED THROUGH LEGAL OR OTHER EFFECTIVE MEANv 0ROTECTED AREAS ARE A KEY ELEMENT OF STRATEGIES TO CONSERVE !FRICA S RICH BIODIVERSITY 4HEY OCCUPY SLIGHTLY OVER SQUARE KILOMETRES OF !FRICA S SURFACE AREA OR ABOUT PER CENT OF THE CONTINENT 4HIS REmECTS BOTH THE VAST SIZE OF !FRICA AND A HIGH LEVEL OF COMMITMENT BY !FRICAN NATIONS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY AND PROMOTE SUSTAIN ABLE DEVELOPMENT )N PROTECTED AREAS OF GREATER THAN HECTARES IN EXTENT OCCUPIED PER CENT OF THE LAND SURFACE IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES 4ABLE SUMMARISES THE EXTENT OF !FRICAN FORESTS IN DIFFERENT )5#. CATEGORIES OF PROTECTION 4HIS INFORMATION INDICATES THAT AS AT *UNE ABOUT PER CENT OF THE TOTAL LAND AREA IN !FRICA WAS FORESTED OF WHICH LESS THAN PER CENT ARE PROTECTED
4HE 6ALUES OF "IODIVERSITY AND &ORESTS 4HE DIRECT BENElTS OF BIODIVERSITY INCLUDE THE PROVISION OF FOOD MEDICINES AND ENERGY )NDIRECT BENElTS INCLUDE THE PROVISION OF ESSENTIAL LIFE SUPPORT SERVICES SUCH AS THE RECYCLING OF CARBON OXYGEN AND NITROGEN MITIGATING POLLUTION PROTECTING WATERSHEDS
AND COMBATING SOIL EROSION "IODIVERSITY IS ESSENTIAL FOR ENSURING FOOD SECURITY AND ITS ECONOMIC VALUE IS EASILY RECOGNISED !LL OF THE WORLD S MAJOR FOOD CROPS AND LIVE STOCK DEPEND ON NEW GENETIC MATERIAL FROM THE WILD TO REMAIN PRODUCTIVE AND HEALTHY -ODERN AGRICULTURE IS NOW A TRILLION GLOBAL BUSINESS WHILE NATURE TOURISM GENERATES SOME BILLION IN ANNUAL REVENUES WORLDWIDE )N THE GLOBAL COMMERCIAL TRADE IN WILD PLANTS EXCLUDING TIMBER AND ANIMALS WAS VALUED AT BILLION "IODIVERSITY IS ALSO IMPORTANT FOR HUMAN HEALTH !BOUT PURE CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES USED IN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY AROUND THE WORLD ARE EXTRACTED FROM SOME SPECIES OF HIGHER PLANTS )N ADDITION BIODIVERSITY PROVIDES AN ARRAY OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNI TIES AND AESTHETIC VALUE )N ADDITION TO PROVIDING FOOD FODDER TIMBER FUEL WOOD NON TIMBER PRODUCTS AND GENETIC RESOURCES FORESTS GENERATE OXYGEN EXTRACT POLLUTANTS FROM THE AIR ASSIST IN NUTRIENT CYCLING AND MAINTAIN WATERSHEDS FOR DRINKING AND IRRIGATION WATER 4HEY ALSO PROVIDE HABITAT FOR HUMANS AND OTHER FORMS OF LIFE AND ABSORB CARBON DIOXIDE FROM THE ATMOSPHERE AMONG OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES 4HESE VALUES ARE EXPLICITLY RECOGNIZED BY !FRICAN LEADERS AS EVIDENCED BY THEIR COM MITMENT TO INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS AND IN THE MANY DECLARATIONS AND PRONOUNCE
MENTS !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE RATIlED OR ACCEDED TO THE #ONVENTION ON "IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY #"$ WHICH WAS ADOPTED AT THE 5NITED .ATIONS #ONFERENCE ON %NVIRON MENT AND $EVELOPMENT 5.#%$ IN 2IO 4HE #ONVENTION S THREE MAIN OBJEC TIVES ARE TO ENSURE THE s s s
#ONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 3USTAINABLE USE OF ITS COMPONENTS AND &AIR AND EQUITABLE SHARING OF THE BENElTS THAT ARISE OUT OF THE USE OF GENETIC RESOURCES
5NDER THE CONVENTION !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE UNDERTAKEN TO CONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE BIODIVERSITY 4OWARDS THIS END THEY HAVE DEVELOPED NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATE GIES AND ACTION PLANS AND ARE WORKING TO INTEGRATE THESE INTO BROADER NATIONAL PLANS FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PARTICULARLY IN SUCH SECTORS AS FORESTRY AGRICULTURE
lSHERIES ENERGY TRANSPORTATION AND URBAN PLANNING
4HREATS TO "IODIVERSITY !T THE DAWN OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM THERE IS INCREASINGLY LITTLE DOUBT THAT THE PLANET IS IN THE MIDST OF A BIODIVERSITY CRISIS )T IS CLEAR THAT CURRENT SPECIES EXTINCTION RATES ARE DRAMATICALLY HIGHER THAN BACKGROUND RATES 4HE LAST TWO DECADES HAVE WITNESSED A STEADY RISE IN CONCERN OVER THE RAPIDLY INCREASING RATE OF SPECIES LOSS !FRICA PRES ENTS NO EXCEPTION 2APID POPULATION GROWTH DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE
LOGGING lSHING AND URBANIZATION ARE CAUSING LARGE SCALE LOSSES OF !FRICA S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 4HE WORLD S LARGEST ENVIRONMENTAL GATHERING IN THE YEAR 4HE 3ECOND 7ORLD #ONSERVATION #ONGRESS HELD IN !MMAN *ORDAN REPORTED THAT THE LOSS OF SPECIES HAS ASSUMED DRAMATIC SPEED AND MAGNITUDE AS MORE SPECIES MOVE INTO THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED CATEGORY OR GO EXTINCT /VERALL AT LEAST SPECIES ARE THREATENED WITH EXTINCTION ACCORDING TO )5#. S 3PECIES 3URVIVAL #OMMISSION 4HE NUMBERS OF THREAT ENED MAMMAL BIRD AND PLANT SPECIES ARE PRESENTED IN 'RAPH SEE ALSO BOX 4HE MAJOR HUMAN INDUCED THREATS TO ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY ARE UNSUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION HABITAT CHANGE POLLUTION INVASIONS BY EXOTIC SPECIES AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE (UMAN BEINGS ARE USING MANY OF THE WORLD S NATURAL RESOURCES FASTER THAN THEY CAN REPLACE THEMSELVES 3OME SPECIES REQUIRE LARGE AREAS OF LAND OR WATER IN ORDER TO MEET THEIR NUTRITIONAL
MIGRATORY SHELTER AND BREEDING NEEDS (UMAN ACTIVITIES ENCROACH ON THE NATURAL HABI TATS OF MANY SPECIES 4HE LOSS FRAGMENTATION AND CONVERSION OF NATURAL AREAS DUE TO THE SPREAD OF CULTIVATION AND PASTURE ARE A MAJOR CONTRIBUTING FACTOR TO THE LOSS OF !FRICA S BIODIVERSITY 7HILE !FRICA CURRENTLY MAKES A RELATIVELY SMALL CONTRIBUTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
IT IS EXTREMELY VULNERABLE TO THE RESULTS OF IT ! SIGNIlCANT CHANGE IN CLIMATE OVER THE NEXT TO YEARS IS LIKELY TO RESULT IN MANY NATURAL POPULATIONS OF WILD ORGANISMS BEING UNABLE TO EXIST WITHIN THEIR NATURAL RANGES #HANGES IN TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITA
TION ARE LIKELY TO SERIOUSLY AFFECT THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF MANY SPECIES 4HUS CLI MATE CHANGE IS AN ADDITIONAL FACTOR THREATENING THE SURVIVAL OF SPECIES 3OME SPECIES SUCH AS MOSQUITOES AND OTHER DISEASE VECTORS AND SOME PESTS MAY mOURISH AND EXPAND THEIR RANGES 6ARIOUS POLLUTANTS INCLUDING PESTICIDES AND OTHER AGROCHEMICALS CAN UNDERGO BIOLOGI CAL ACCUMULATION IN FOOD WEBS 4HIS DOES NOT ONLY HARM THE SPECIES THEMSELVES BUT ALSO THEIR FOOD RESOURCES AND PREDATORS 'RAPH .UMBERS OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
ENDANGERED AND VULNERABLE SPECIES OF MAMMALS
BIRDS AND PLANTS IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES
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4HE INTRODUCTION OF ALIEN OR INVASIVE SPECIES HAS SERIOUS NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON NATIVE SPECIES 3INCE THEY HAVE NO NATURAL PREDATORS OR DISEASES IN THEIR NEW HABITAT THEIR NUMBERS INCREASE RAPIDLY THEREBY LEADING TO INCREASED COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES 4HE IMPACT OF THESE THREATS ARE WELL EXPRESSED ON A CONTINENTAL SCALE AS WELL AS AT LOCAL SCALES SEE BOX FOR AN EXAMPLE
4HE $ECLINE OF !FRICA S &ORESTS 4HE RATE OF DECLINE IN THE WORLD S FOREST COVER HAS COMMANDED A TREMENDOUS AMOUNT OF RESPECT OVER THE LAST FEW DECADES !T THE END OF !FRICA HAD AN ESTIMATED MILLION HECTARES OR PER CENT OF THE WORLD S TROPICAL FORESTS !CCORDING TO THE &!/
TROPICAL DEFORESTATION OCCURRED AT AN AVERAGE RATE OF PER CENT PER ANNUM BETWEEN AND 4HIS GLOBAL ANNUAL RATE WAS EXCEEDED IN MANY SUB 3AHARAN !FRICAN COUNTRIES 4HE DECLINE HAS RESULTED MAINLY FROM THE RISING DEMAND FOR AGRICULTURAL LAND TIMBER OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS AND LIVESTOCK 4HESE PROXIMATE CAUSES OF DEFORES TATION ARE THE RESULT OF UNDERLYING DRIVING FORCES WHICH INCLUDE THE POLICIES AND ATTI TUDES OF GOVERNMENTS AND SOCIAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS THAT INmUENCE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION PATTERNS "OX 4HREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN THE :AMBEZI "ASIN 4HE BIODIVERSITY OF THE :AMBEZI "ASIN IS THREATENED BY VARIOUS FACTORS BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT 4HE FACTORS CAN BE GROUPED INTO SIX CATEGORIES POLLUTION
lRE EXOTIC ALIEN SPECIES DAMS AND OTHER HYDROLOGY STRUCTURES LAND CLEAR ANCE AND OVEREXPLOITATION 4HE SEVERITY OF EACH OF THESE FACTORS VARIES FROM PLACE TO PLACE IN THE BASIN AND OFTEN MORE THAN ONE OF THESE FACTORS ARE EXPE RIENCED TOGETHER 4HE EFFECT OF POLLUTION IS USUALLY FELT AFTER A LENGTHY PERIOD OF CONTINUOUS DIS CHARGE OF WASTE 0OLLUTION EMANATES FROM DElNITE SOURCES CALLED POINT SOURCES SUCH AS MINING COMPOUNDS AND INDUSTRIES OR FROM GENERAL OR NON POINT SOURCES SUCH AS PESTICIDES AND FERTILISERS IN RUNOFF FROM AGRICULTURAL LAND 4WO EXAMPLES OF POLLUTION OBSERVED IN THE BASIN INCLUDE POLLUTION OF THE ,AKE #HIVERO NEAR (ARARE WHERE lSH DEATHS WERE OBSERVED IN AND THE EFFECT OF MINING ON TRIBUTARIES SUCH AS THE +AFUE IN :AMBIA ,ARGE AREAS OF THE "AROTSE &LOODPLAINS AND MANY OTHER PARTS OF THE BASIN ARE SUBJECT TO REGULAR lRES 4HE VEGETATION IN THESE AREAS HAS SINCE MODIlED TO SUIT THE PREVAILING CONDITIONS )NTRODUCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES HAS MIXED EFFECTS ON THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE BASIN 0INE TREES HAVE INVADED THE GRASSLANDS OF .YANGA IN :IMBABWE AND -T -LANJE IN -ALAWI 4HE .ILE 4ILAPIA lSH WAS INTRODUCED IN THE WATERS OF THE -IDDLE :AMBEZI AND THE +ARIBA 7EED 3ALVINIA MOLESTA INTO THE #HOBE SYSTEM 4HE WATER HYACINTH WEED IS NOW IN MOST TRIBUTARIES OF THE :AMBEZI REDUCING THE BIODIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS SPECIES
"OX 4HREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN THE :AMBEZI "ASIN CONT D )NTRODUCTION OF THE KAPENTA lSH ,IMNOTHRISSA MIODON IN ,AKE +ARIBA IN THE S IS BELIEVED TO HAVE HAD MORE POSITIVE EFFECTS THAN NEGATIVE AS IT WAS INTRODUCED IN A NEWLY CREATED HABITAT 4HE CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS HAS THE GREAT EST EFFECT ON BIODIVERSITY OF WETLAND SPECIES AS NEW HABITATS ARE FORMED AND OLD ONES DESTROYED OR MODIlED 4HE HYDROLOGY OF THE :AMBEZI 2IVER SYSTEM WAS MODIlED BY THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE +ARIBA #AHORA AND )TEZHI 4EZHI DAMS (UMAN SETTLEMENTS HAVE SPRUNG UP IN AREAS PREVIOUSLY BELONGING TO THE NATU RAL ENVIRONMENT !S THE SETTLEMENTS EXPAND DUE TO POPULATION INCREASES AND OTHER FACTORS MORE LAND IS ACQUIRED AND CLEARED FOR AGRICULTURE URBANISATION AND EXPANSION OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES 3UCH LARGE SETTLEMENTS INCLUDE THE #OPPERBELT TOWNS OF :AMBIA THE LARGE URBAN SETTLEMENTS OF (ARARE ,USAKA ,ILONGWE AND MANY OTHER TOWNS IN THE BASIN ,AND IS ALSO CLEARED TO MAKE WAY FOR FARMS AND PLANTATIONS THAT REPLACE A RICH DIVERSITY WITH A MONOCULTURE OF PLANTS !SSOCIATED WITH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IS OVEREXPLOITATION OF SPECIES OF PARTICU LAR INTEREST TO HUMAN NEEDS %XAMPLES INCLUDE THE DESTRUCTION OF LARGE MAMMALS SUCH AS THE ELEPHANT
RHINO AND ANTELOPE OVER WIDE AREAS HARVESTING OF VALUABLE TIMBER SUCH AS MUKWA !FRICAN EBONY AND :AMBEZI TEAK OVERGRAZING IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE BASIN AND OVERlSHING IN ,AKE -ALAWI 3OURCE 3TATE OF THE %NVIRONMENT OF THE :AMBEZI 2IVER "ASIN &ACTSHEET .O "IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY 3OUTHERN !FRICAN 2ESEARCH AND $OCUMENTATION #ENTRE HTTP WWW SARDC NET HTTP WWW SARDC NET
4HE LARGEST PORTION OF !FRICA S TROPICAL FOREST COVER OCCURS CLOSE TO THE EQUATOR WHERE PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURES ARE HIGH AND MORE OR LESS EVENLY DISTRIBUTED THROUGH OUT A YEAR 4HE #ONGO "ASIN CONSTITUTES THE SECOND LARGEST CONTIGUOUS PRIMARY TROPI CAL RAINFOREST AREA IN THE WORLD AFTER THE !MAZON 4OPICAL FOREST SOILS ARE VERY EASILY LEACHED OF NUTRIENTS AND QUICKLY LOSE THEIR PRODUCTION POTENTIAL UPON CONVERSION TO CULTIVATION )N ITS LATEST ASSESSMENT THE 7ORLD 2ESOURCES )NSTITUTE 72) CONCLUDED THAT ALMOST MILLION SQUARE KILOMETRES OF !FRICA WERE ORIGINALLY FORESTED /NLY PER CENT OF !FRI CA S ORIGINAL FOREST REMAINS AS FRONTIER FOREST COMPRISING RELATIVELY UNDISTURBED UNITS AND LARGE ENOUGH TO MAINTAIN ALL OF THEIR BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING VIABLE POPULATIONS OF THE WIDE RANGING SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH EACH FOREST TYPE )T ALSO CONCLUDED THAT PER CENT OF !FRICA S REMAINING FRONTIER FORESTS ARE UNDER MODERATE TO HIGH THREAT AND THAT ALMOST PER CENT OF THIS THREAT IS DUE TO LOGGING 4HESE ARE SUMMARISED IN "OX
!T 5.#%$ THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERED WAYS TO SLOW DOWN THE RATE OF GLOBAL DEFORESTATION AND INTEGRATE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INTO FORESTRY PRACTICES -ANY COUNTRIES INCLUDING !FRICAN ONES AGREED ON A SET OF PRINCIPLES FOR A GLOBAL CON SENSUS ON THE MANAGEMENT CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALL TYPES OF FORESTS 4HESE PRINCIPLES HAVE BEEN ELABORATED UPON FURTHER THROUGH A SERIES OF NEGOTIA TIONS CULMINATING IN A NEW 5NITED .ATIONS &OREST &UND 5.&&
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,OGGING WHICH CAN SIGNIlCANTLY hREWRITEv THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF FORESTS )N CENTRAL !FRICA OVER PERCENT OF ALL LOGGING OCCURS IN PRI MARY FOREST ONE OF THE HIGHEST RATIOS OF ANY REGION IN THE WORLD ,OGGING ROADS OPEN UP A FOREST TO HUNTERS WOULD BE FARMERS AND OTHER PROlT SEEKERS !FRICA PERCENT 7ORLD PERCENT
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6)) &2%3(7!4%2 )NTRODUCTION !FRICA IS SEEMINGLY ENDOWED WITH ABUNDANT FRESHWATER RESOURCES (OWEVER THEIR DIS TRIBUTION IS HIGHLY VARIABLE IN TIME AND SPACE 7HILE SOME COUNTRIES HAVE AN ABUN DANCE OF WATER RESOURCES OTHERS EXPERIENCE WATER SCARCITY AND STRESS 4HE REGION S FAST GROWING POPULATION PLACES A HIGH DEMAND ON WATER RESOURCES TO MEET DOMESTIC
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL REQUIREMENTS 4HERE IS HIGH POTENTIAL FOR WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT BUT THIS HAS BEEN GROSSLY UNDER UTILISED DUE TO lNANCIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS $UE TO VARIOUS ACTIVITIES BY MAN THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE REGION S WATER RESOURCES IS CONSTANTLY BEING DEPLETED THUS PLACING FURTHER STRESS ON AN ALREADY SCARCE BUT VITAL RESOURCE )N RESPONSE TO THE GROWING CHALLENGES IN THE REGIONS WATER RESOURCES VARIOUS INITIATIVES HAVE BEEN TAKEN AT THE NATIONAL SUB REGIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS WITH A VIEW TO IMPROVING ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF THE RESOURCE 4HERE ARE CONSTRAINTS TO REALIZING VISIONS AND IMPLEMENTING PROGRAMMES BUT OPPORTU NITIES EXIST WHICH CAN BE MAXIMIZED TO YIELD DESIRED RESULTS
7ATER 2ESOURCES !FRICA S TOTAL AVAILABLE WATER RESOURCE SEEMS ABUNDANT HOWEVER IN ACTUAL TERMS IT IS INADEQUATE FOR A VAST CONTINENT WITH HIGH EVAPORATION RATES AND A RAPIDLY GROWING POPULATION )N ADDITION THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE CONTINENT IS HIGHLY VARIABLE IN TIME AND SPACE !VERAGE ANNUAL mOW IS OVER BIL LION M AND INCLUDES THE WORLD S LONGEST RIVER THE .ILE AND ITS SECOND LARGEST IN TERMS OF BASIN AND mOW THE #ONGO 4HE WET EQUATORIAL ZONE MAINLY THE CENTRAL AND SOUTH WESTERN COUNTRIES PRODUCES PER CENT OF !FRICA S TOTAL mOW WHILE THE ARID AND SEMI ARID ZONES PRODUCE ONLY PER CENT ,AKE AND 3OURE )N TERMS OF SURFACE WATER BODIES !FRICA HAS RIVERS WITH CATCHMENT AREAS GREATER THAN KM )T HAS MORE THAN LAKES LARGER THAN KM MOST OF WHICH ARE LOCATED AROUND THE EQUATO RIAL REGION AND SUB HUMID %AST !FRICAN HIGHLANDS WITHIN THE 2IFT 6ALLEY 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY 'ROUNDWATER REPRESENTS PER CENT OF !FRICA S WATER RESOURCE WITH THE MAJOR AQUIFERS LOCATED IN ARID ZONES OF THE NORTHERN 3AHARA .UBIA 3AHEL #HAD "ASINS AND +ALAHARI ,AKE AND 3OURE 'ROUNDWATER IS A VERY IMPORTANT SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER SUPPLY USED BY MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE POPULATION 4HIS IS PARTICULARLY TRUE IN THE .ORTH !FRICAN COUNTRIES SUCH AS ,IBYA 4UNISIA AND PARTS OF !LGERIA AND -OROCCO
AS WELL AS IN SOME 3OUTH !FRICAN COUNTRIES 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #EN TURY 4HE AVERAGE RAINFALL ON A CONTINENTAL BASIS IS ABOUT MM PER YEAR !T SUB REGIONAL LEVEL THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL IS VARIED 4HE HIGHEST RAINFALL OCCURS IN THE )SLAND 3TATES MM PER YEAR THE #ENTRAL !FRICAN COUNTRIES MM AND IN THE 'ULF OR 'UINEA MM )N CONTRAST THE LOWEST RAINFALL OCCURS IN THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES WHERE THE AVERAGE RAINFALL IS ONLY MM 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY 4HE INEQUALITY IN DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES IS MORE STRIKING
ON THE BASIS OF PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY WHILE THE PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY IN 'ABON FOR EXAMPLE IS CUBIC METRES IN ,IBYA IT IS LESS THAN ,AKE % " 3OURE - 4HE INTERNAL RENEWABLE RESOURCES IS GENERALLY LOW FOR THE CONTINENT PER CENT OF TOTAL RAINFALL RANGING FROM PER CENT IN THE 3UDANO 3AHELIAN COUNTRIES AND PER CENT IN THE ISLAND 3TATES 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY $UE TO THE SHEER INTENSITY OF THE RAINS VERY LITTLE GOES TO RECHARGE UNDERGROUND AQUI FERS MOST OF IT IS LOST AS SURFACE RUNOFF )N +ENYA FOR EXAMPLE ONLY PER CENT OF THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS AVAILABLE FOR USE 4HE COMPARABLE lGURE FOR %THIOPIA IS A MERE PER CENT $RAFT !%/
7ATER $EMAND AND 5SE 4HE VARIABLE AND UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES IN !FRICA COMBINED WITH THE REGION S CURRENT STATE AND PACE OF DEVELOPMENT AND URBANIZATION TOGETHER POSE SIGNIl CANT CHALLENGES TO MEETING WATER NEEDS !FRICA HAS A POPULATION OF MORE THAN MIL LION PEOPLE AND WITH A GROWTH OF ROUGHLY PER CENT PER YEAR IT IS ONE OF THE FASTEST GROWING REGIONS IN THE WORLD 4HE RAPIDLY GROWING POPULATION PLACES A HIGH DEMAND ON AVAILABLE WATER RESOURCES TO MEET DOMESTIC AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL NEEDS 4HE PROBLEM OF WATER SCARCITY IS NOT ONLY CAUSED BY NATURAL PHENOMENA )T IS ALSO DUE TO THE LOW LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT AND EXPLOITATION OF THE WATER RESOURCES IN SPITE OF THE GROWING DEMAND FROM A RAPIDLY GROWING POPULATION SEE 4ABLE 4HE REGION WITH DRAWS ONLY PER CENT OF ITS INTERNAL RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCES FOR AGRICULTURE INDUS TRIAL AND HUMAN CONSUMPTION 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY /F THE WORLD REGISTERED DAMS AND LARGE RESERVOIRS ONLY AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY ARE FOUND IN !FRICA WWW WRI ORG WR FRESHWATER )N THE 3OUTH !FRICAN $EVELOPMENT #OMMUNITY 3!$# REGION WATER DEMAND IS PRO JECTED TO RISE BY AT LEAST PER CENT ANNUALLY TILL A RATE EQUAL TO THE REGION S POPU LATION GROWTH !S A CONSEQUENCE IT HAS BEEN ESTIMATED THAT BY UP TO PER CENT OF !FRICA S POPULATION WILL BE LIVING IN COUNTRIES FACING WATER SCARCITY AND PER CENT IN WATER STRESSED COUNTRIES 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY
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4HERE IS INADEQUATE COVERAGE OF SAFE WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES ESPECIALLY AMONG THE PERI URBAN AND RURAL POOR )N RURAL !FRICA ABOUT PER CENT OF THE POPULATION DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY AND PER CENT ARE WITHOUT ACCESS TO ADEQUATE SANITATION FACILITIES )N URBAN AREAS PER CENT AND PER CENT DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO ADEQUATE WATER AND SANITATION FACILITIES RESPECTIVELY 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY )N ,ESOTHO THE COVERAGE IN WATER SUPPLY IS IN THE RANGE OF TO PER CENT AND THAT FOR SANITATION IS TO PER CENT %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA 3EWAGE FACILITIES ALWAYS SEEM TO BE OF LOWER PRIORITY THAN WATER )N URBAN AND PERI URBAN AREAS SEWAGE NETWORKS ARE EITHER NON EXISTENT OR INCOMPLETE AND PEOPLE OFTEN RESORT TO INDIVIDUAL DISPOSAL FACILITIES SUCH AS SEPTIC TANKS )N 3ENEGAL PER CENT OF THE URBAN AND PERI URBAN POPULATION HAVE INDIVIDUAL DISPOSAL UNITS AND SIMILAR lG URES HAVE BEEN RECORDED IN OTHER !FRICAN CITIES AND SUBURBS ,ACK OF SAFE DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES AND ADEQUATE SANITATION OFTEN RESULT IN DISEASE AND PREMATURE DEATH FROM WATER RELATED ILLNESSES THAT KILL AN ESTIMATED MILLION !FRICANS EACH YEAR ,AKE AND 3OURE )N MANY PARTS OF !FRICA LACK OF ADEQUATE WATER RESOURCES IS A MAJOR CONSTRAINT TO FOOD SECURITY $URING THE PAST THREE DECADES AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION HAS INCREASED AT AN AVERAGE OF LESS THAN PER CENT WHILE THE POPULATION HAS BEEN GROWING AT A RATE OF PER CENT !S A RESULT FOOD DElCIT PARTICULARLY CEREALS HAVE INCREASED AND IMPORTS ARE EXPECTED TO RISE FROM THE CURRENT MILLION METRIC TONS PER ANNUM TO MILLION IN )N MUCH OF 7EST !FRICA AVERAGE FOOD SUPPLY KCAL DAY PERSON IS BELOW WHAT IS REGARDED AS THE OPTIMUM LEVEL I E KCAL DAY PERSON 7EST !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY )T IS WORTH NOTING HOWEVER THAT DESPITE THE HIGH LEVELS OF FOOD INSECURITY IN THE CON TINENT MOST COUNTRIES HAVE GROSSLY UNDER UTILISED THEIR FULL IRRIGATION POTENTIAL 4WO THIRDS OF !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE DEVELOPED LESS THAN PER CENT OF THEIR POTENTIAL %THIOPIA HAS A POTENTIAL IRRIGABLE LAND AREA OF ABOUT MILLION HECTARES OF WHICH ONLY HECTARES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED $RAFT !%/ )N .ORTH !FRICA EXPAN SION OF IRRIGATED AREAS IS EXPECTED TO CONTINUE IN SOME COUNTRIES SUCH AS -OROCCO AND 4UNISIA TO SUPPLY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MARKETS 4HE -EDITERRANEAN 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY )N !FRICA MUCH WATER IS WASTED THE AVERAGE LEVEL OF UNACCOUNTED FOR WATER IS ABOUT PER CENT IN URBAN AREAS !S MUCH AS PER CENT OF THE WATER EXTRACTED FOR IRRIGATION IS LOST 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY THROUGH EVAPORATION AND OTHER MEANS &OR EXAMPLE IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA NEARLY HALF OF THE IRRIGATED LAND IS WATERED BY HIGHLY INEFlCIENT mOOD IRRIGATION METHODS WHILE MORE EFlCIENT METHODS SUCH AS MICRO JET AND DRIP IRRIGATION ARE APPLIED ON LESS THAN PER CENT OF IRRIGATED FARMLAND 7ATER USED FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES REPRESENTS PER CENT OF THE TOTAL WATER USE IN THE REGION )T IS ESTIMATED THAT MAKING THE PRESENT IRRIGATION SYSTEMS PER CENT MORE EFlCIENT WOULD RESULT IN WATER SAVINGS OF BILLION CUBIC METRES IN THE REGION EACH YEAR ! COMPARISON OF IRRIGATION METHODS IN :IMBABWE AND )SRAEL REVEALED THAT FOR THE SAME CROP WHILE :IMBABWE USES M OF WATER PER HECTARE )SRAEL USES ONE THIRD THAT AMOUNT I E M PER HECTARE BECAUSE THE LATTER EMPLOYS MORE EFlCIENT
SYSTEMS 2OTHERT AND -ACY )N THE -EDITERRANEAN REGION WHICH INCLUDES .ORTH !FRICAN COUNTRIES IT IS ESTIMATED THAT REDUCING UNACCOUNTED FOR WATER BOTH IN URBAN AND IRRIGATION NETWORKS CAN PROVIDE TO PER CENT SAVING OF IRRIGATION WATER AND TO PER CENT SAVINGS IN URBAN WATER 4HE -EDITERRANEAN 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY $EVELOPMENT IN THE lSHERIES SECTOR AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF NUTRITION IN !FRICA IS HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON ADEQUATE WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY BOTH IN TERMS OF QUANTITY AND QUALITY )N ,AKE 6ICTORIA THERE WERE MAJOR SHIFTS IN THE lSH POPULATION CAUSED BY EUTROPHICATION WHICH RESULTED FROM LAND USE CHANGES IN THE WATERSHED AND POLLUTION WWW WRI ORG WR FRESHWATER 4HE LIVESTOCK SUB SECTOR ALSO DEPENDS ON WATER RESOURCES DIRECTLY AS A SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER FOR HERDS AND INDIRECTLY FOR FODDER PRODUCTION $ROUGHT CONDITIONS IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA HAVE RESULTED IN THE DEATH OF MANY ANIMALS IN THE SUB REGION 23!0 FOR )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES $EVELOPMENT AND -ANAGEMENT 4HE SUSTAINABILITY OF THE ENERGY SECTOR WHICH DRIVES INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT TO A LARGE EXTENT DEPENDS ON ASSURED WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY )N 7EST !FRICA RIVER BASINS MAINLY IN .IGERIA 'HANA AND #ยนTE D )VOIRE HAVE BEEN HARNESSED TO PRODUCE HYDRO ELECTRIC ENERGY /F THE APPROXIMATELY INSTALLED CAPACITY OF -7 IN THE SUB REGION THESE THREE COUNTRIES ACCOUNT FOR AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY ,ATELY
MANY RESERVOIRS IN SOUTHERN !FRICA HAVE EXPERIENCED LOW WATER LEVELS THUS AFFECTING ELECTRICITY SUPPLIES )N :AMBIA DURING THE DROUGHT OF GENERATION OF ELEC TRICITY FELL BY ABOUT PER CENT RECOVERED BY AND PER CENT RESPECTIVELY IN AND AND FELL AGAIN BY AND PER CENT IN AND RESPECTIVELY 23!0 FOR )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES $EVELOPMENT AND -ANAGEMENT 4HIS DECLINE IN POWER OUTPUT HAS ADVERSE IMPACTS ON MANY ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE COM MERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS NOTABLY MINING AND MANUFACTURING $ECREASING WATER RESOURCES ALSO HAS DIRECT IMPACT ON MINING AND MANUFACTURING ACTIVITIES THAT DEPEND ON BULK WATER SUPPLIES 4HIS HAS HOWEVER LED TO THE ADOPTION OF WATER CONSERVATION MEA SURES &OR INSTANCE IN .AMIBIA THE 2OSSING 5RANIUM -INE REDUCED ITS DAILY FRESHWA TER CONSUMPTION FROM M TO M PER DAY THROUGH CONSERVATION /THER IMPORTANT USES OF WATER WITHIN THE REGION ARE TRANSPORTATION RECREATION AND TOURISM 2IVERS LAKES AND COASTAL WATERS PROVIDE TRANSPORT SERVICES ESPECIALLY IN AREAS INACCESSIBLE TO OTHER MODES OF TRANSPORT 2ECREATION LEISURE AND TOURISM HAVE ASSUMED AN IMPORTANT PLACE IN THE REGIONS ECONOMY 7ETLANDS 'REAT ,AKES AND RIVERS RECREATIONAL lSHING FOR LEISURE SPORTING ACTIVITIES ARE MAJOR FEATURES IN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY )N -ALAWI WATER BASED TOURISM IS THE COUNTRY S LARGEST FOREIGN EXCHANGE EARNER 23!0 FOR )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES $EVELOPMENT AND -ANAGE MENT )N 7EST !FRICA THE RESERVOIRS THAT HAVE BEEN CREATED ON THE 6OLTA
.IGER AND 3ENEGAL 2IVERS AT THE !KOSOMBO +IANJI AND -ALANTALI ARE PROVIDING OPPORTUNITIES FOR NAVIGATION OF GOODS AND PASSENGERS 7EST !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY
$EPLETION OF 7ATER 1UANTITY AND 1UALITY 4HE PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE REGION ARE FURTHER COMPOUNDED BY THE NEGA TIVE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES WHICH THREATENS THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF AN ALREADY SCARCE BUT VITAL RESOURCE $EGRADATION OF 7ETLANDS 7ETLANDS ARE A KEY COMPONENT OF FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS AND HAVE GREAT ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE 7ETLANDS PROVIDE A WIDE ARRAY OF GOODS AND SERVICE INCLUDING mOOD CONTROL NUTRIENT CYCLING AND RETENTION CARBON STORAGE WATER lLTERING WATER STOR AGE AND AQUIFER RECHARGE SHORELINE PROTECTION AND EROSION CONTROL AND A RANGE OF FOOD AND MATERIAL PRODUCT SUCH AS lSH SHELLlSH TIMBER AND lBRE 7ETLANDS ALSO PROVIDE HABITAT FOR A LARGE NUMBER OF SPECIES FROM WATERFOWL AND lSH TO INVERTEBRATES AND PLANTS WWW WRI ORG WR FRESHWATER (OWEVER WETLANDS AROUND THE WORLD HAVE UNDERGONE MASSIVE CONVERSION WITH CONSID ERABLE ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO ECONOMIC COSTS 7ETLAND CHANGES WITH SIGNIlCANT SOCIAL
ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES INCLUDE CONVERSION TO AGRICULTURAL LANDS AND CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS THAT CURTAIL THE SEASONAL REPLENISHMENT OF THE WETLANDS .OTABLE EXAMPLES OF THESE INCLUDE A LARGE SCALE IRRIGATION SCHEME IN THE (ADJIA *AMA ARE RIVER BASIN IN NORTHEASTERN .IGERIA AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DAM AND DEVELOPMENT OF A RICE IRRIGATION SCHEME IN THE 7AZA ,OGONE mOODPLAIN IN NORTHERN #AMEROON WWW WRI ORG WR FRESHWATER )N SOUTHERN !FRICA MANY WETLANDS AND mOODPLAINS ARE AT RISK OF DISAPPEARING AS A RESULT OF LARGE SCALE IRRIGATION SCHEMES AND OTHER WATER MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES ! CASE IN POINT IS THE /KAVANGO $ELTA IN "OTSWANA WHICH IS A GLOBALLY IMPORTANT WETLAND AREA 7ATER PROJECTS BEING PROPOSED IN THE AREA IF IMPLE MENTED COULD BE ECOLOGICALLY DAMAGING AND PUT THE DELTA AT RISK FROM DRAINAGE AND WATER EXTRACTION WWW WRI ORG WR FRESHWATER 0OLLUTION OF 7ATER "ODIES 7ATER BODIES ARE BEING DEPLETED DUE TO POOR WASTE MANAGEMENT AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES AND OVER EXTRACTION 0OLLUTION LIMITS THE REGENERATION OF FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEMS AND COMPLICATES WATER TREATMENT FOR DOMESTIC USE ,AKE % "
3OURE - )NDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION RELEASE CHEMICALS PESTICIDES AND FERTILISERS INTO WATER BODIES THUS COMPROMISING THEIR QUALITY 4HE LEVELS OF CON TAMINATION IN SOME WATER BODIES SUCH AS ,AKE -ALAWI .YASA ARE SO HIGH THAT lSH KILLS HAVE BEEN EXPERIENCED WWW SADCWSCU ORG LS !NOTHER WATER QUALITY PROBLEM IS SALT WATER INTRUSION 4HIS IS AN ISSUE PARTICULARLY IN THE -EDITERRANEAN COAST AND ON THE OCEANIC ISLANDS LIKE THE #OMOROS THAT ARE HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON GROUNDWATER RESOURCES .UTRIENT ENRICHMENT OR EUTROPHICATION OF WATER BODIES ARISING FROM POLLU TION FROM PHOSPHATES AND SULPHATE RICH MATERIALS CAN RESULT IN THE BLOOMING OF AQUATIC WEEDS PARTICULARLY WATER HYACINTH 4HIS HAS SERIOUSLY AFFECTED MANY WATER BODIES SUCH AS ,AKE 6ICTORIA THE .ILE AND ,AKE #HIVERO !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY
/VERGRAZING AND DEFORESTATION THAT RESULT IN SEVERE SOIL LOSS AND SEDIMENT LOADING INTO WATER BODIES ARE PROBLEMS CAUSING SERIOUS CONCERN $ESERTIlCATION AND EROSION THREATEN MUCH OF !FRICA )N SOME 3AHELIAN COUNTRIES RAINFALL HAS BEEN DECLINING BY ABOUT MM ANNUALLY )F THE TREND CONTINUES AND PREDICTIONS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE COME TRUE SOME OF THE REGION S AQUIFERS MAY BE RENDERED UNUSABLE %ROSION RESULTS IN SOIL LOSS THUS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY %ROSION ALSO SHORTENS THE USEFUL LIFE OF RESERVOIRS LAKES AND PONDS )N +ENYA SEDIMENTATION IS CUTTING THE LIFESPAN OF DAMS
REDUCING STORAGE CAPACITY AND IMPAIRING WATER SUPPLY DOWNSTREAM )N 7ESTERN !FRICA
THE )BOHAMANE AND -OUELA RESERVOIRS ON THE .IGER 2IVER ARE REPORTED TO HAVE LOST HALF THEIR CAPACITY BECAUSE OF SILTATION OVER THE PAST YEARS ,AKE AND 3OURE
)NITIATIVES )N RESPONSE TO THE SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES BEING POSED BY THE WATER RESOURCES SECTOR MANY INITIATIVES HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN AT NATIONAL SUB REGIONAL
REGIONAL AND BASIN LEVEL .EARLY ALL COUNTRIES IN !FRICA HAVE ADOPTED WATER STRATEGIES
POLICIES AND LEGISLATION /VER THE YEARS SEVERAL SUB REGIONAL CONSULTATIONS HAVE BEEN HELD AND REPORTS PRODUCED ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND MORE RECENTLY ON )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES -ANAGEMENT )72- 4HESE INCLUDE %XPERT #ONSULTATION ON 7ATER FOR &OOD ON 7EST !FRICA SUB REGION !CCRA 'HANA 7EST !FRICAN #ONFERENCE ON )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES -ANAGEMENT "URKINA &ASO 23!0 FOR )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES $EVELOPMENT AND -ANAGEMENT FOR THE 3!$# REGION )N PREPARATION FOR THE 3ECOND 7ORLD 7ATER &ORUM THAT WAS HELD IN 4HE (AGUE IN
THE 7EST AND SOUTHERN !FRICA REGIONS FORMED ADVISORY COMMITTEES THAT DISCUSSED THEIR RESPECTIVE STRATEGIES APPROACHES AND VISIONS FOR WATER 4HE OUTPUT OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEES TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF RIVER BASIN ORGANISATIONS AND THE OUTCOMES OF OTHER REGIONAL FORUMS PROVIDED A USEFUL BASIS FOR THE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION !FRICA S VISION FOR WATER STATES h3AFEGUARDING ,IFE $EVELOPMENT IN !FRICA ! 6ISION FOR 7ATER 2ESOURCES -ANAGEMENT IN THE ST #ENTURYv !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY 4HE FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION HAS BEEN WELL ARTICULATED BUT THERE ARE CHALLENGES AND THESE REQUIRE SYSTEMATIC AND WELL DElNED APPROACHES IF THE VISION IS TO BECOME REALITY AND OTHER WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT INITIA TIVES SATISFACTORILY IMPLEMENTED (OWEVER AN IMPORTANT OPPORTUNITY WITHIN THE REGION IS THAT THE POLITICAL WILL IS ALIVE TO STRENGTHEN REGIONAL COOPERATION 4HE 3!$# 0ROTOCOL ON 3HARED 7ATERCOURSES IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF THE BENElTS OF REGIONAL COOPERATION PERTAINING TO TRANS BOUNDARY WATER RESOURCES 4HE MEMBER 3TATES ARE NOW PREPARED TO IMPLEMENT THE PROTOCOL WHOSE MAIN INTENT IS TO PREVENT CONmICTS OVER THE REGION S SHARED WATERS WWW SADCWSCU ORG LS PROGRAMME *OINT REGIONAL WATER PROJECTS IN THE REGION INCLUDE THE ,ESOTHO (IGHLANDS 7ATER 0ROJECT BETWEEN ,ESOTHO AND 3OUTH !FRICA 4HE !FRICA 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY
2IVER BASIN ORGANIZATIONS HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED FOR THE .IGER 3ENEGAL 'AMBIA 2IVERS AND ,AKE #HAD )N THE CASE OF THE 6OLTA 2IVER THERE IS AN INFORMAL ARRANGEMENT FOR CONSULTATIONS ESTABLISHED BETWEEN 'HANA AND "URKINA &ASO
)N .ORTH !FRICA MANAGEMENT OF SHARED RIVER BASINS SUCH AS THE .ILE HAS CONTRIBUTED TO SOME REGIONAL TENSION BUT HAS ALSO LEAD TO SOME IMPORTANT SPECIlC AGREEMENTS 4HERE ARE BASIN AUTHORITIES AND ADVANCED WATER LAWS IN COUNTRIES LIKE !LGERIA ,IBYA AND -OROCCO 4HE -EDITERRANEAN 7ATER 6ISION IN THE ST #ENTURY 4HE .ILE "ASIN )NITIATIVE IS THE MOST RECENT RIVER BASIN INITIATIVE WITHIN THE REGION 4HE INITIATIVE IS A COOPERATIVE PROGRAMME AIMED AT ADDRESSING POVERTY ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND INSTABILITY IN THE TEN COUNTRIES THAT ARE BOUND BY THE .ILE WWW WORLDBANK ORG AFR NILEBASIN
#ONSTRAINTS AND /PPORTUNITIES -AJOR ISSUES CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MAN AGEMENT ARE AS FOLLOWS s
7EAK LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND LACK OF HARMONIZATION OF NATIONAL LEG ISLATION ON WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE REGIONAL AND BASIN LEVEL OPPOR TUNITIES FOR HARMONIZATION INCLUDE AGREEMENTS SIGNED AT SUBREGIONAL AND BASIN LEVELS
s
)NADEQUATE INSTITUTIONAL AND lNANCING ARRANGEMENTS CURRENT INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGE MENTS ARE OFTEN INADEQUATE AND THE lNANCING OF INVESTMENTS IS OFTEN UNSUS TAINABLE 4HERE IS LACK OF INTEGRATED PLANS AND THE MULTIPLICITY OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES INVOLVED IN WATER RESOURCES ISSUES %FFORTS ARE USUALLY NOT COORDINATED
HENCE CREATING A SITUATION WHERE CONmICT SITUATIONS OFTEN ARISE 0UBLIC INVEST MENTS OFTEN EXCLUDE LOCAL COMMUNITIES WHO THEREFORE SEE DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE PROGRAMMES AS GOVERNMENT S RESPONSIBILITY 4HIS LEADS TO UNSUS TAINABILITY OF PROJECTS 0UBLIC PARTICIPATION SHOULD BE AN INTEGRAL PART OF POLICY AND PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT AS WELL AS IMPLEMENTATION /PPORTUNITIES INCLUDE THE ADOPTION OF )72- BY REGIONS AND ESTABLISHMENT OF REGIONAL WATER COORDI NATION UNITS AND BASIN AUTHORITIES )NITIATIVES TO ENCOURAGE THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN S AND YOUTH GROUPS IN PROGRAMMES ARE GAINING MOMENTUM
s
,ACK OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS TO PROVIDE MONETARY INCENTIVES WHICH WILL PRO MOTE THE CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF WATER AND AS WELL AS PRIVATE SECTOR INVESTMENT IN THE WATER RESOURCES SECTOR /PPORTUNITIES LIE IN THE EXPANSION OF SOUND SOCIO ECONOMIC POLICIES AND OPTIONS EXPLORED TO ENCOURAGE PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT
s
$ATA AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS RELATING TO WATER RESOURCES IN !FRICA IS GENERALLY INADEQUATE 4HE LIMITATION IS LINKED TO INADEQUATE HUMAN CAPACITY FOR THE COL LECTION ASSESSMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF DATA ON WATER RESOURCES FOR DEVELOP ING PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING PROJECTS 4HE SKILLS FOR )72- ARE NOT WIDELY AVAILABLE IN !FRICA 5NDER THE 'LOBAL 7ATER 0ARTNERSHIP A CAPACITY BUILDING ASSOCIATED PROGRAMME IS BEING DEVELOPED TO PROVIDE STRATEGIC ASSISTANCE FOR DEVELOPING THE NECESSARY SKILLS FOR )72- /THER INITIATIVES INCLUDE THE (YDRO LOGICAL #YCLE /BSERVING 3YSTEM (9#/3 &LOW 2EGIMES FROM )NTERNATIONAL %XPERIMENTAL AND .ETWORK $ATA &2)%.$ AND 'LOBAL %NVIRONMENTAL -ONI TORING 3YSTEMS '%-3 WATER PROGRAMME
)N THE REGION THERE IS A GENERAL LACK OF AWARENESS OF WATER RESOURCES ISSUES INCLUDING THE STATE OF WATER RESOURCES THE ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 0EOPLE NEED TO BE AWARE IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND AND BE COMMITTED TO ACT )MPLEMENTATION OF VARIOUS WATER RELATED AGREEMENTS REQUIRES AWARENESS CREATION AT ALL LEVELS 0OLITICAL INSTABILITY IN !FRICA HAS STImED THE REGIONS SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INCLUDING DEVELOPMENT IN THE WATER SECTOR /PPORTUNITIES LIE IN THE SUCCESS OF REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PEACE INITIATIVES TO BRING AN END TO HOSTILITIES -ISSIONS HAVE BEEN LARGELY SUCCESSFUL THUS GIVING REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS THE OPPORTUNITY TO CONCENTRATE ON MUCH NEEDED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
6))) -!2).% !.$ #/!34!, !2%!3 )NTRODUCTION !FRICA S COASTLINES ARE EXPERIENCING INTENSE DEMOGRAPHIC PRESSURES /WING TO POORLY PLANNED CONSTRUCTION AND OTHER DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AS WELL AS OVER EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES THE PHYSICAL AND ECOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF COASTAL AREAS IS ACCELERATING 4HE ISSUE OF COASTAL EROSION IS INCREASINGLY BECOMING A MAJOR SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND ENVI RONMENTAL CONCERN TO A LARGE NUMBER OF ISLAND AND COASTAL 3TATES 2EVERSING AND HALT ING THIS THREAT REQUIRES COMPREHENSIVE MEASURES AND STRATEGIES 4HE OFTEN IRREVERSIBLE ALTERATION OF NATURAL COASTAL SYSTEMS AND EXTENSIVE COASTAL POLLU TION ARE CAUSED BY THE CONCENTRATION OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ACCOMPANIED BY INAD EQUATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND SECTORAL DEVELOPMENT 4HE SITUATION IN SOME OF !FRICA S SMALL ISLAND STATES WHICH LARGELY DEPEND ON DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF COASTAL ZONES IS OF PARTICULAR CONCERN 4HE COASTAL ZONE NEEDS TO BE CONSIDERED AS A lNITE ECONOMIC ASSET WHICH CAN BE USED ON A SUSTAINABLE BASIS ONLY THROUGH PRUDENT AND RATIONAL EXPLOITATION 4HIS INTRINSIC ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE COASTAL NATURAL RESOURCES AND AMENITIES SHOULD BE ACCORDED A HIGHER DEGREE OF IMPORTANCE IN NATIONAL POLICIES ON THE MARINE ENVIRON MENT $ECLINING CATCHES IN SOME OF THE CONTINENT S lSHING GROUNDS CLEARLY DEMON STRATE THAT INCREASED lSHING EFFORT AND INVESTMENT AS WELL AS UNMANAGED SMALL SCALE lSHERIES CAN BRING ABOUT THE TOTAL DISSIPATION OF THE VALUE OF lSHERIES /VER THE LAST TWO DECADES !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE BEEN PARTIES TO INTERGOVERNMENTAL AGREEMENTS AND ARRANGEMENTS WHICH HAVE NOW PROVIDED THE LEGALLY BINDING BASIS FOR ACTION ON THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA 4HESE INCLUDE THE !BIDJAN
.AIROBI *EDDAH AND "ARCELONA #ONVENTIONS AND THEIR RESPECTIVE PROTOCOLS 7ITHIN THESE FRAMEWORKS !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE ADOPTED A NUMBER OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL PRO GRAMMES AND ARE PARTNERS IN SIMILAR INITIATIVES WHICH CONSTITUTE THE SUBSTANTIVE BASIS FOR ACTION IN THE CONTINENT
0HYSICAL &EATURES AND "IODIVERSITY 4HE MARINE ENVIRONMENT INCLUDING THE OCEANS AND ALL SEAS AND ADJACENT COASTAL AREAS FORMS AN INTEGRATED WHOLE THAT IS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF THE GLOBAL LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM AND A POSITIVE ASSET THAT PRESENTS OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT #HAPTER !GENDA 4HE !FRICAN COASTAL ENVIRONMENT CONTAINS DIVERSE AND VALUABLE ECOSYSTEMS OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY AND BIODIVERSITY AND OFFERS UNIQUE HABI TATS FOR MANY SPECIES 4HESE ECOSYSTEMS CONTRIBUTE SIGNIlCANTLY TO THE LIVELIHOOD OF COASTAL COMMUNITIES AND TO THE ECONOMY 4HESE RESOURCES HAVE INTRINSIC VALUE INCLUD ING SHORELINE STABILITY BEACH ENRICHMENT NUTRIENT GENERATION RECYCLING AND MODERA TION OF POLLUTION )NTERGOVERNMENTAL /CEANOGRAPHIC #OMMISSION )/# 7ORKSHOP 2EPORT .O
4HE COASTAL ZONE IN %ASTERN !FRICA IS CHARACTERISED BY PALM FRINGED BEACHES CORAL REEFS MANGROVE FORESTS AND BRIGHT BLUE WATERS 7ARUINGE -ANGROVES LAGOON AND ESTUARIES ARE ABUNDANT IN THE 7EST !FRICAN COAST )/# 7ORKSHOP 2EPORT .O AND CORAL REEFS ALONG THE COAST OF THE 2ED 3EA (ANAFY )/# 7ORKSHOP .O 4HE TROPICAL %AST COAST OF 3OUTH !FRICA IS EDGED BY CORAL REEFS DYNAMIC SANDY BEACHES PRISTINE COASTAL FORESTS AND CLEARED COMMUNITY LANDS *URY AND 'OVENDER
WWW UNESCO CSI INITIALSURVEY )N CENTRAL !FRICA THE COASTAL ZONE IS CHARAC TERISED BY COASTAL LAGOONS MANGROVES SEA GRASS BEDS SANDY BEACHES AND ESTUARINE WETLANDS WHICH CONSTITUTE VITAL RESOURCES FOR SUBSISTENCE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 5.%0 $RAFT !%/
0OPULATION 0RESSURE 4HIRTY SEVEN PER CENT OF THE WORLD S POPULATION LIVE WITHIN KILOMETRES OF THE COAST 3INCE THE COASTAL KILOMETRE STRIP REPRESENTS PER CENT OF THE TOTAL LAND AREA OF KM THE AVERAGE HUMAN POPULATION DENSITY IN COASTAL AREAS IS ABOUT PERSONS PER SQUARE KILOMETRE TWICE THE GLOBAL AVERAGE #ONSIDERING THAT MANY COASTLINES ARE SPARSELY POPULATED OR UNINHABITED E G !NTARCTICA THE FAR .ORTH ETC
THE ACTUAL POPULATION PRESSURE ON THE COAST IN THE MORE HABITABLE AREAS IS VERY HIGH WWW IOC UNESCO ORG IGOSPARTNERS !CCORDING TO AN &!/ NEWS BRIEF WWW FAO ORG A RECENT STUDY FOUND THAT MORE THAN HALF THE COASTAL ZONES IN MOST REGIONS WERE ALREADY MODERATELY TO HIGHLY AT RISK OF BEING THREATENED FROM HUMAN ACTIVITIES )N !FRICA THE lGURE STANDS AT PER CENT )N THE POPULATION IN THE %GYPTIAN COASTAL URBAN AGGREGATIONS WAS BOUT MILLION LIVING NO MORE THAN KM INLAND )T WAS ESTIMATED THAT THERE WOULD BE MORE THAN MILLION %GYPTIANS BY THE YEAR (ANAFY )/# 7ORKSHOP 2EPORT .O
%CONOMIC !CTIVITIES 4HE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE COASTAL ZONE ARE MANY AND RANGE FROM lSHING ACTIVITIES
AGRICULTURE TOURISM AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES 4HE COASTAL ZONE THEREFORE ATTRACTS A LOT OF PEOPLE THUS LEADING TO A RAPID POPULATION INCREASE IN THE ZONE &OR EXAMPLE
IN IT WAS ESTIMATED THAT THE POPULATION OF THE COASTAL ZONE OF -ADAGASCAR WAS PER CENT OF THE NATIONAL POPULATION -OST OF THE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE COUNTRY ARE IN TERMS OF lSHING AQUACULTURE AND TOURISM %XPORTS FROM lSHING AND AQUACULTURE AMOUNT TO MORE THAN TONS REPRESENTING ABOUT 53 MILLION ANNUALLY WHILE TOURISM GENERATES MORE THAN 53 MILLION !NTANANARIVO )/# 7ORKSHOP 2EPORT .O )N IT WAS PROJECTED THAT TOURISM WOULD ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF THE '$0 IN 3OUTH !FRICA WWW UNESCO CSI INITIALSURVEY )N %GYPT THE COASTAL ZONE HOUSES MORE THAN PER CENT OF THE %GYPTIAN INDUSTRY AND IS SUBJECT TO EXTENSIVE URBAN AND TOUR ISM DEVELOPMENT /THER IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS RELATE TO IRRIGATION AND LAND RECLAMA TION INFRASTRUCTURE AND HARBOURS (ANAFY )/# 7ORKSHOP 2EPORT .O !S REGARDS PORT AND HARBOUR DEVELOPMENTS 4ANZANIA FOR EXAMPLE HAS THREE MAIN PORTS
AND THREE SMALL ONES )N THE NUMBER OF SHIPPING MOVEMENTS WAS WHICH AMOUNTED TO NEARLY PER CENT INCREASE OVER THE PREVIOUS YEAR $AR ES 3ALAAM HAR BOUR ALONE IN HANDLED A TOTAL TONNAGE OF MILLION &RANCIS )/#).#7)/ )6 INF
2ESOURCE $EGRADATION 4HE MANY AND VARIED ACTIVITIES TAKING PLACE IN THE COASTAL ZONE WITHOUT PROPER PLAN NING AND WITHOUT REGARD TO THEIR ATTENDANT IMPACTS HAS RESULTED IN SEVERAL !FRICAN COUN TRIES BEING FACED WITH SERIOUS COASTAL MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS )N 3EYCHELLES FOR EXAMPLE THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY ON MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS ESPECIALLY ON SEA GRASS BEDS AND CORAL REEFS IS DETRI MENTAL WWW UNESCO ORG CSI ACT PASICOM PACSI HTM )N 4ANZANIA ACTIVITIES IDENTI lED INCLUDE REMOVAL OF COASTAL NATURAL VEGETATION SUCH AS MANGROVES DESTRUCTION OF OFFSHORE BARRIERS SUCH AS CORAL REEF OFFSHORE DREDGING SAND AND GRAVEL MINING ALONG STREAMS WHICH DRAIN THE BEACHES -UTAKYAHWA AND -UHAMED )N 4OUBACOUTA 3INE 3ALOUM REGION SOUTHERN 3ENEGAL MANGROVE FORESTS HAVE BEEN ALMOST COM PLETELY DESTROYED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE WITH NATURAL DESERTIlCATION PROCESSES PLAYING A SECONDARY ROLE !S A RESULT OYSTER FARMING AND ARTISANAL lSHING HAVE BEEN AFFECTED IN MANY VILLAGES WWW UNESCO ORG CSI REGION DESERT 4HE ANNUAL MARINE lSH PRODUC TION IN 'HANA HAS DECREASED FROM A PEAK OF METRIC TONNES IN TO METRIC TONNES IN 4HE CATCH PER UNIT EFFORT HAS ALSO DECREASED INDICATING THAT THE STOCK IS BEING DEPLETED )/# 0OLLUTION 0OLLUTION IS A COMMON OCCURRENCE WITHIN THE COASTAL ZONE AS A RESULT OF DIRECT DIS CHARGES AND SPILLAGE OF BOTH SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES )N .ORTH !FRICA DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES AND DUMPING UNTREATED SEWERAGE ESPECIALLY IN COASTAL AREAS HAVE CONTAMINATED SURFACE WATER AND IS THREATENING COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS WWW ESD WORLDBANK ORG ENVMAT 4HE %GYPTIAN 2ED 3EA IS EXPOSED MAINLY TO OIL POLLU TION 4HE OIL DISCHARGE FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES INTO THE %GYPTIAN 2ED 3EA AVERAGED TONS YEAR FROM A TOTAL OF TONS YEAR IN THE WHOLE 2ED 3EA (ANAFY )/# 7ORKSHOP 2EPORT .O )N 3OUTH !FRICA SOME OCEAN OUTFALLS ARE LOCATED ALONG THE COAST AND THESE DISCHARGE APPROXIMATELY CUBIC METRES OF SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL EFmUENT INTO THE SEA DAILY %NVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES ASSOCIATED WITH SUCH DISCHARGES INCLUDE ORGANIC ENRICHMENT INCREASE IN SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND TOXIC AND CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS TO MARINE LIFE $EPARTMENT OF %NVIRONMENTAL !FFAIRS AND 4OURISM #OASTAL %ROSION #OASTAL EROSION IS A SERIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM FOR SEVERAL COASTAL AND ISLAND COUN TRIES IN !FRICA )N MANY PLACES THE RATE OF COASTLINE RETREAT AND THE RESULTING ENVI RONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND ECONOMIC LOSS IS SO RAPID AS TO BE ALARMING !LTHOUGH NATURAL COASTAL DEGRADATION HAS OCCURRED SINCE THE FORMATION OF THE OCEANS THIS HAS BEEN EXACERBATED BY HUMAN ACTIONS WWW UNESCO ORG CSI ACT PACSICOM EAFRICA HTM )N 4HE 'AMBIA COASTAL EROSION HAS BEEN ESTIMATED AT A RATE OF TWO METRES PER ANNUM
(APHAZARD PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION WORKS CLOSE TO THE MANGROVE AREAS IN THE 'REATER "ANJUL !REA POSES A THREAT TO THE STABILITY OF THE MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM .ATIONAL %NVI RONMENT !GENCY )N THE 7ESTERN )NDIAN /CEAN COASTAL EROSION HAS BEEN SEVERE IN MANY AREAS BUT IS CONCENTRATED IN THE CORAL FRINGED COASTS IN THE REGION 6ARIOUS ATTEMPTS HAVE BEEN MADE IN ALL THESE COUNTRIES TO PROTECT THE COAST FROM FURTHER EROSION BUT THESE ATTEMPTS HAVE ONLY ACHIEVED TEMPORARY RELIEF )NSTITUTE OF -ARINE 3CIENCE :ANZIBAR 4ANZANIA
3INCE TOURISM IS A MAJOR FOREIGN EXCHANGE EARNER IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES AND SINCE COASTAL HOTELS AND ASSOCIATED AMENITIES SUCH AS BEACHES ARE MAJOR ATTRACTIONS TO THE TOURIST TRADE COASTAL EROSION IS A SERIOUS THREAT TO BOTH NATIONAL AND LOCAL ECONOMIES WWW UNESCO ORG CSI ACT PACSICOM EAFRICA HTM
3EA ,EVEL 2ISE 2ECENT EVENTS SUCH AS THE %L .INO PHENOMENON AS WELL AS ASSESSMENTS CARRIED OUT BY ORGANIZATIONS SUCH AS THE 7ORLD -ETEOROLOGICAL /RGANIZATION 7-/ SHOW THAT THE EXPECTED IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE IN PARTICULAR WILL EXACERBATE THE PRESENT PROBLEMS )T HAS BEEN CONCLUDED THAT THESE PHENOMENA COULD IMPAIR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF LOW LYING AREAS AND COASTAL ZONES AND CAUSE SETBACKS IN !FRICA S EFFORTS TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 'LOBAL /CEAN /BSERVING 3YSTEM '//3 !FRICA )T WAS REPORTED FOR EXAMPLE THAT AT THE PRESENT RATE OF SEA LEVEL RISE THE APPARENT LOSS OF SEDIMENTS ALONG 4HE 'AMBIA COAST IS PRELIMINARILY ESTI MATED AT SOME M YEAR .ATIONAL %NVIRONMENT !GENCY
#HALLENGES AND 2ESPONSES #HALLENGES 'IVEN THE DIVERSE ACTIVITIES TAKING PLACE IN THE COASTAL ZONE ADMINISTRATION OF THE ZONE HAS BEEN VERY FRAGMENTED WITH DIFFERENT GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS MANDATED TO CARRY OUT DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS 4HIS STATE OF AFFAIRS COUPLED WITH ACTIVITIES OF LOCAL COM MUNITIES HAS RESULTED IN HAPHAZARD PLANNING AND UNCOORDINATED DEVELOPMENT OF THE COASTAL ZONE )NADEQUATE RESEARCH AND MONITORING CAPABILITIES AND FACILITIES HAVE BEEN MAJOR CONSTRAINTS IN ACQUIRING NECESSARY DATA AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION FOR EFFECTIVE POLICY FORMULATION AND PLANNING )NADEQUATE lNANCIAL TECHNICAL AND HUMAN RESOURCES HAVE BEEN MAJOR SETBACKS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL PROGRAMMES !NOTHER IMPORTANT CHALLENGE IS THE LOW LEVEL OF AWARENESS LEVEL ON THE PART OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES AS REGARDS THE IMPACTS OF THEIR ACTIVITIES ON COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES 2ESPONSES )N ORDER TO IMPROVE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES !FRICAN COUN TRIES HAVE INCREASINGLY ADOPTED POLICIES AIMED AT INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT AND WHICH TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT )N 3OUTH !FRICA A DRAFT 7HITE 0APER WAS PUBLISHED IN -ARCH WITH THE OBJECTIVE OF ENSURING COORDINATED MAN AGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COASTAL ZONE 6ARIOUS LAWS TO CONTROL
POLLUTION AT SEA HAVE BEEN ENACTED 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANS RESULTED IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE #OASTAL 3ENSITIVITY !TLAS OF SOUTHERN !FRICA $EPART MENT OF %NVIRONMENTAL !FFAIRS AND 4OURISM 3OUTH !FRICA )N THE 'AMBIA A MULTIDISCIPLINARY WORKING GROUP ON THE COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRON MENT WAS ESTABLISHED WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE .ATIONAL %NVIRONMENT -ANAGEMENT !CT .%-! OF WITH A VIEW TO COORDINATING ACTIVITIES IN THE COASTAL ZONE )N A COASTAL PROlLE WAS DEVELOPED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THIS WORKING GROUP 4HE NEXT STEP IS TO DEVELOP AN )NTEGRATED #OASTAL !REA -ANAGEMENT 0ROJECT .ATIONAL %NVI RONMENT !GENCY 4HE 'AMBIA )N 'HANA LAUNCHED AN INTEGRATED #OASTAL :ONE -ANAGEMENT )#:- 0ROJECT TO IDENTIFY ECONOMICALLY SOCIALLY AND ENVIRONMEN TALLY APPROPRIATE INTERVENTIONS AND PROJECTS IN THE COASTAL ZONE THAT IMPROVE THE PROS PECTS FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 4HE INITIATIVE WAS A PARTICIPATORY PROCESS WITH INPUTS FROM NATIONAL LOCAL AND COMMUNITY LEVELS WWW WORLDBANK ORG AFR lINDINGS !T THE SUB REGIONAL LEVEL COOPERATION EXISTS FOR THE PROTECTION MANAGEMENT AND DEVEL OPMENT OF THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT )N EASTERN !FRICA THE .AIROBI #ONVEN TION WAS ADOPTED IN BY THE GOVERNMENTS OF #OMOROS 2EUNION &RANCE +ENYA
-ADAGASCAR -AURITIUS -OZAMBIQUE 3EYCHELLES 3OMALIA AND 4ANZANIA 4HIS COM PRISED THE !CTION 0LAN FOR THE PROTECTION MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE EASTERN !FRICA REGION 4HESE GOVERNMENTS SIGNED THE .AIROBI #ONVENTION AND ITS RELATED PROTOCOLS ON PROTECTED AREAS WILD FAUNA AND mORA AND THE PROTOCOLS CONCERNING COOPERATION IN COMBATING MARINE POLLUTION IN CASES OF EMERGENCY IN THE EASTERN !FRICA REGION 4HE #ONVENTION ENTERED INTO FORCE ON -AY AND A REGIONAL COORDINATING UNIT BASED IN 3EYCHELLES WAS ESTABLISHED IN *ANUARY HTTP IOC UNESCO ORG ODINAFRICA PUBLIC?E -AY 77& +-&2) WORKSHOP HTM 4HE 7ESTERN )NDIAN /CEAN -ARINE 3CIENCE !SSOCIATION 7)/-3! AND &ISHERIES 3OCIETY OF !FRICA &)3! WERE ESTABLISHED TO PROVIDE A PLATFORM FOR FOSTERING BETTER COMMUNICATION AMONG !FRICAN SCIENTISTS AND INSTITUTIONS IN THE REGION AND WITH SCI ENTISTS AND INSTITUTIONS FROM OUTSIDE !FRICA /KEMWA 7)/-3! GATHERS AND DISSEMINATES MARINE SCIENCE INFORMATION HOLDS MEETINGS TO FOSTER MARINE SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT AND INFORMATION TO ENHANCE BETTER COMMUNICATION AMONG THE MARINE SCI ENTISTS AND OTHER PROFESSIONALS INVOLVED IN THE ADVANCEMENT OF MARINE SCIENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE 7)/ REGION 4HE 7EST )NDIAN /CEAN 7)/ REGION COM PRISES ISLAND AND COASTAL COUNTRIES SUCH AS #OMOROS -ADAGASCAR -AURITIUS 2EUNION &RANCE 3OMALIA +ENYA 4ANZANIA -OZAMBIQUE AND 3OUTH !FRICA *IDAWA HTTP IOC UNESCO ORG IOCHTM W 7EST AND #ENTRAL !FRICAN 3TATES ADOPTED THE #ONVENTION FOR #OOPERATION IN THE 0ROTEC TION AND $EVELOPMENT OF THE -ARINE AND #OASTAL %NVIRONMENT OF THE 7EST AND #ENTRAL !FRICAN 2EGION AND RELATED 0ROTOCOL IN !BIDJAN IN 4HE #ONVENTION ENTERED INTO FORCE IN WITH THE OBJECTIVE OF PROTECTING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT COASTAL ZONES AND RELATED INTERNAL WATERS OF THESE 3TATES &!/ IN COOPERATION WITH 5.%0 IS ASSISTING COUNTRIES IN THE REGION TO IMPLEMENT PROJECTS WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE #ONVENTION /NE SUCH PROJECT THROUGH WHICH SEVERAL COUNTRIES BENElTED IS h )NTEGRATED #OASTAL !REAS 4RAINING AND $EVELOPMENT OF .ATIONAL #APABILITIES FOR 0LANNING AND -ANAGE MENT OF THE 7EST AND #ENTRAL !FRICA 2EGIONv
)N .ORTH !FRICA THERE ARE SEVERAL CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS RELATED TO THE PROTECTION OF THE -EDITERRANEAN 3EA OF WHICH STATES IN THE .ORTH !FRICAN 2EGION ARE PARTIES 5.%0
! 2EGIONAL #ONVENTION FOR THE #ONSERVATION OF THE 2ED 3EA AND 'ULF OF !DEN %NVIRONMENT WAS ADOPTED IN IN *EDDAH 3AUDI !RABIA AND ENTERED INTO FORCE IN ! RECENT PROGRAMME FORMULATED FOR THE 0ROTECTION OF THE %NVIRONMENT OF THE 2ED 3EA AND THE 'ULF OF !DEN 0%23'! AIMS TO PREVENT POLLUTION AND UNPLANNED DEVELOPMENT IN THE 2ED 3EA 4HE PROPOSAL WILL BE SUBMITTED TO THE 'LOBAL %NVIRON MENT &ACILITY '%& FOR POSSIBLE FUNDING WWW ESD WORLDBANK ORG ENVMAT 2EGIONAL LEVEL INITIATIVES INCLUDE 4HE 0AN !FRICAN #ONFERENCE ON 3USTAINABLE )NTE GRATED #OASTAL -ANAGEMENT 0!3)#/- ORGANISED IN -APUTO -OZAMBIQUE IN *ULY BY THE 5NITED .ATIONS %DUCATIONAL 3CIENTIlC AND #ULTURAL /RGANIZATION 5.%3#/ 5.%0 AND THE GOVERNMENTS OF &INLAND AND -OZAMBIQUE !NOTHER SUCH INITIATIVE IS THE #APE 4OWN #ONFERENCE ON #OOPERATION FOR THE $EVELOPMENT AND 0RO TECTION OF THE -ARINE AND #OASTAL %NVIRONMENT IN SUB 3AHARA ORGANIZED IN $ECEMBER BY THE 'OVERNMENT OF 3OUTH !FRICA 5.%0 AND !#/03 4HE TWO EVENTS RESULTED IN THE STRENGTHENING OF A UNIlED POLITICAL POSITION FOR !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS OF THE NEED TO DEVELOP AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT AND PRESERVATION OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES IOC UNESCO ORG ICAM )#!-IN!FRICA HTM 7ITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 7-/ AND )/# OF 5.%3#/ A PROGRAMME FOR 'LOBAL /CEAN /BSERVING 3YSTEM '//3 WAS ESTABLISHED IN !FRICA 4HE PROGRAMME IS GEARED TOWARDS IMPROVING AND STRENGTHENING MARINE DATA ACQUISITION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETA TION CAPABILITIES IN SUPPORT OF 3USTAINABLE )NTEGRATED #OASTAL -ANAGEMENT 3)#/- IN !FRICA !S AN INTEGRAL PART OF 0!3)#/- A TECHNICAL WORKSHOP ON '//3 !FRICA WAS HELD TO LAY THE FOUNDATION FOR SUPPORTING ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR '//3 IN !FRICA '//3 !FRICA 5.%3#/ ALSO SUPPORTED AN AWARENESS RAISING CAM PAIGN AT 0!3)#/- AND HAS OFTEN FORMED AN INTEGRAL PART OF THEIR SUPPORT PROGRAMMES AT NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS 4HE #APE 4OWN #ONFERENCE ADOPTED THE #APE 4OWN $ECLARATION WHICH REmECTS WIDE SPREAD CONSENSUS ON A RANGE OF STRATEGIC QUESTIONS /NE OF THE PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF THE #APE 4OWN $ECLARATION WAS THE ADOPTION OF AN !FRICAN !CTION 0LAN AND 3TRAT EGY FOR THE $EVELOPMENT AND 0ROTECTION OF THE #OASTAL AND -ARINE %NVIRONMENT IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA CALLED hTHE !FRICAN 0ROCESSv 4HE !FRICAN 0ROCESS HAD BEEN WIDELY ENDORSED BOTH BY !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS AND AT THE HIGHEST POLITICAL LEVEL IN BY THE /RGANIZATION OF !FRICAN 5NITY /!5 3UMMIT -OREOVER THE 'OVERN MENT OF 3OUTH !FRICA HAS ADOPTED THE !FRICAN 0ROCESS AS A KEY ELEMENT OF ITS GOVERN MENT PROGRAMME AND HAS MADE IT AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE -ILLENNIUM !FRICA 2ECOVERY 0ROGRAMME -!0 IOC UNESCO ORG MARINE COASTA <REGIONALPROGRAMMEME
)8 52"!. %.6)2/.-%.4 )NTRODUCTION $ElNITIONS OF hURBANv AND hRURALv VARY WIDELY ACROSS !FRICA -ANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES USE A POPULATION lGURE OF TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL SETTLEMENTS (OWEVER THE lGURE VARIES FROM IN 5GANDA TO IN .IGERIA AND -AURITIUS 4HE PATTERN OF URBANIZATION IN 7EST !FRICA DIFFERS SOMEWHAT FROM THAT IN %AST !FRICA )N MANY 7EST !FRICAN COUNTRIES THERE ARE FEW SECONDARY CITIES SO THE POPULATION IS CONCENTRATED IN ONE OR A FEW LARGE CITIES WHILE IN %AST !FRICA POPULATION IS MORE EVENLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SECONDARY OR TERTIARY CITIES "UT THERE PRIMARY CITIES ARE GOING THROUGH A PERIOD OF RAPID GROWTH "Y IT IS EXPECTED THAT ,AGOS .IGERIA WILL HAVE A POPULATION OF MORE THAN MILLION INHABITANTS AND CITIES WILL HAVE POPULATIONS OF MORE THAN MILLION 4HE MOST IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTOR TO URBANIZATION IN BOTH 7EST AND %AST !FRICA WAS UNTIL RECENTLY MIGRATION FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS )N 3OUTHERN !FRICA NATURAL POPULATION INCREASE IS ALREADY THE MOST IMPORTANT CAUSE OF URBANIZATION )N !FRICA THE URBAN AREAS ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF THE TOTAL POPULATION OF MIL LION AND ARE CREDITED WITH PER CENT OF THE REGION S 'ROSS $OMESTIC 0RODUCT '$0 -UNICIPALITIES IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA HOWEVER CAPTURE ONLY A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF '$0 53 PER CAPITA IN REVENUE CREATING DISPARITY BETWEEN THE REQUIREMENTS FOR MUNICIPAL GOVERNANCE AND AVAILABLE RESOURCES 5NITED #ENTRE FOR (UMAN 3ETTLEMENTS 5.#(3 4HE !FRICAN CITIES ARE UNDERGOING RAPID POPULATION GROWTH MORE THAN PER CENT PER YEAR ACCOMPANIED BY RAPID DEVELOPMENT PRESSURES WITH HIGH DEMANDS FOR HOUSING AND INFRASTRUCTURES 3OME OF THESE CITIES ARE DOUBLING IN POPULATION AND HAVE MORE THAN DOUBLED IN AREA WITHIN THE LAST DECADE 4HE RAPID GROWTH OF THE POPULATION AND CONCENTRATION IN THE URBAN AREAS HAS LED TO THE DETERIORATION OF THE HUMAN ENVIRON MENT CAUSED BY THE INCREASING GAP BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH ON ONE HAND POPULA TION GROWTH AND CONCENTRATION ON THE OTHER 4HIS URBANIZATION HAS LED TO DETERIORATING HUMAN SETTLEMENTS DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND INCREASED DISCHARGE OF UNPRO CESSED WASTES INTO THE ENVIRONMENT WHICH IS RESULTING IN SEVERE HEALTH PROBLEMS 4HE REVIEW OF THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING PROCESSES AND EXPERIENCES IN SOME !FRICAN COUNTRIES SHOWS THE EVIDENCE THAT OVER THE PAST DECADES THE CONVENTIONAL FORMS OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING REGULATIONS HAVE FAILED TO PROVIDE ORDERLY AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT $ESPITE THE VARIOUS PLANNING LEGISLATION THAT HAVE BEEN PUT IN PLACE TO PROMOTE URBAN DEVELOPMENT THIS HAS BEEN DISJOINTED !S A RESULT
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS AND INFORMAL SECTOR ACTIVITIES HAVE CONTINUED TO MUSHROOM DUE TO INADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT CONTROL MECHANISMS POOR PLANNING STANDARDS AND PLANNING LAWS #ONSEQUENTLY THERE ARE PROBLEMS OF OVERCROWDING INADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION POOR DRAINAGE ROAD TRANSPORT AND HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT LEVELS WHICH ARE NOW COMMON TO MOST !FRICAN CITIES
)T IS EVIDENT THAT THE LIMITED MANAGEMENT CAPACITY OF CENTRAL AND SPECIALLY LOCAL GOV ERNMENTS RESULT IN FAILURE TO REGULATE URBAN DEVELOPMENT INADEQUATE INFRASTRUCTURE PROVISION AND ARRANGEMENTS OF LAND USES WHICH MAY BENElT INDIVIDUALS BUT GIVE RISE TO COST FOR THE URBAN SOCIETY AS A WHOLE 4HE DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE IS TO COME UP WITH STRATEGIES THAT PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT TO MEET THE NEEDS OF THE PRESENT GENERATIONS AND IMPROVE THEIR QUALITY OF LIFE WITHOUT COMPROMISING THE ABILITY OF FUTURE GENERATIONS TO MEET THEIR OWN NEEDS
%NVIRONMENTAL 3USTAINABILITY #ITIES HAVE BEEN DEMONIZED AS THE MAIN CAUSE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND AT THE SAME TIME MOOTED AS THE BEST OPTION FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 4HIS IS BECAUSE CITIES HAVE MUCH LESS IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT THAN SIMILAR POPULA TIONS WOULD IF SPREAD IN SMALLER RURAL OR SUB URBAN SETTLEMENTS 3INCE CITIES USE SPACE INTENSIVELY THEY NEED FEWER INFRASTRUCTURES PER RESIDENT E G SEWERAGE WATER PIPING OR TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE 4HEY ALSO USE LESS LAND AREA THAN RURAL SETTLEMENTS )N MOST COUNTRIES URBAN AREAS TAKE UP LESS THAN ONE PER CENT OF NATIONAL TERRITORY WHILST ACCOMMODATING SIGNIlCANT PROPORTION IF NOT THE MAJORITY OF ITS PEOPLE )N ADDITION CITIES CAN BE BETTER DESIGNED FOR RECYCLING AND EFlCIENT RESOURCE USE BECAUSE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TAKE PLACE IN PROXIMITY #ITIES ARE ACCUSED OF PROmIGATE CONSUMPTION OF RESOURCES AND EXCESSIVE PRODUCTION OF WASTE 4HE CONCEPT OF hECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTv I E THE LAND REQUIRED TO SUPPLY A POPULATION WITH FOOD
TIMBER AND TO ABSORB THEIR #/ OUTPUT IS FREQUENTLY USED TO DEMONSTRATE THAT CITIES ESPECIALLY IN THE .ORTH MAKE AN IMPACT ON DISPROPORTIONATELY LARGE AREAS OF LAND
'REEN AND "ROWN !GENDAS %ITHER WAY WHETHER THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF CITIES IS TO BE REDUCED OR THE POTENTIAL OF CITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IS TO BE OPTIMIZED THE ENVIRONMENT IS A MAJOR CHAL LENGE FOR URBAN MANAGERS AND URBAN RESIDENTS ALIKE #ITIES ARE VITAL IN TACKLING BOTH THE hGREENv AND hBROWNv AGENDAS 4HE GREEN AGENDA ADDRESSES ISSUES THAT HAVE LONG TERM GLOBAL IMPACTS E G THE LOSS OF PRISTINE ECOSYSTEM THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY THE DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER OR GLOBAL WARMING 4HESE ARE ISSUES REQUIRING GLOBAL COOPERATION THAT AN INDIVIDUAL COUNTRY OR CITY CANNOT DEAL WITH ON ITS OWN 4HE BROWN AGENDA RELATES TO THOSE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES THAT HAVE AN IMMEDIATE LOCAL IMPACT E G AIR AND WATER POLLUTION OR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 4HE BROWN AGENDA HAS IMMEDIATE DEMONSTRABLE EFFECTS ON URBAN POPULATION (IGH LEVEL ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRA DATION RAISES VARIOUS ISSUES FROM QUALITY OF LIFE TO ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE 4HE SCOPE FOR CITY GOVERNMENTS TO HAVE A DIRECT IMPACT ON THESE ISSUES IS STRAIGHTFORWARD 5RBAN MANAGERS THUS HAVE A CRITICAL ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY IN CLEANING CITY ENVIRONMENT
$ETERIORATION OF THE 5RBAN %NVIRONMENT 4HE DETERIORATION IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS SHARPLY IN EVIDENCE THROUGHOUT MOST URBAN AREAS IN !FRICA !S MORE OF THE URBAN POPULATION WAS FORCED INTO UNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS ON THE OUTSKIRTS OF LARGE CITIES OR INTO MORE CROWDED LIVING SPACE IN AN ALREADY DETERIORATING HOUSING STOCK IN THE MORE ESTABLISHED HIGH DENSITY AREAS AS LOWER PROPORTION OF THE POPULATION HAD DIRECT ACCESS TO CLEAN PIPED WATER REGULAR GAR BAGE DISPOSAL AND GOOD HEALTH SERVICES THE QUALITY OF LIFE FOR THE VAST MAJORITY OF THE POPULATION DETERIORATED DURING THE S 4HE RAPID URBAN EXPANSION OF THE LAST DECADES ALTHOUGH IT HAS GREATLY INCREASED THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS HAS ALSO INCREASED THE PRESSURE ON THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ON SURROUNDING REGIONS AND THEIR NATURAL RESOURCES )T HAS CRE ATED IMMENSE AND GROWING PROBLEMS OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION LAND DEGRADATION TRAF lC CONGESTION AND NOISE POLLUTION )N SOME COUNTRIES AS LITTLE AS PER CENT OF SEWAGE IS TREATED WHILE FROM TO PER CENT OF URBAN SOLID WASTE IS LEFT UNCOLLECTED 5.#(3 (ABITAT AND THE 7ORLD "ANK ! .EW &OCUS ON !ID FOR 5RBAN $EVELOPMENT .OVEMBER #LEARLY THE ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS WHICH !FRICAN COUNTRIES FACE VARY WITH THEIR STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR ECONOMIES AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT POLICIES 3OME PROBLEMS ARE CLEARLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE LACK OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INADEQUATE SANITATION AND CLEAN WATER INDOOR AIR POLLUTION FROM BIOMASS BURNING AND MANY TYPES OF LAND DEGRADATION HAVE POVERTY AS THEIR ROOT CAUSE "REAKING THE CYCLE OF POVERTY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION WILL REQUIRE FURTHER ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 9ET WITHOUT RAPID ECONOMIC GROWTH !FRICAN COUNTRIES WILL NOT HAVE THE NECESSARY RESOURCES TO PROVIDE BASIC SERVICES FOR PEOPLE LIVING IN POVERTY AND FOR ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE OR TO ABATE AND MITIGATE ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE AND POLLUTION 7ITHOUT ECONOMIC GROWTH THERE WILL BE NO INCREASED IN EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES NOR REDUC TION IN THE LEVEL OF POVERTY 3UCH NEW GROWTH WILL HAVE TO BE GENERATED IN !FRICA IN SUCH A WAY THAT IT SHOULD NOT RESULT IN FURTHER ENVIRONMENTAL DECLINE AND IN A RAPID DRAWING DOWN AND MISUSE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
%NVIRONMENTAL AND %COSYSTEM )MPACTS OF (UMAN 3ETTLEMENTS 4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT AND ECOSYSTEM CARRYING CAPACITIES IS RECEIVING MORE ATTENTION AMONG DECISION MAKERS PLANNERS AND ENVI RONMENTALISTS )T IS RECOGNIZED THAT THE INCREASE OF THE POPULATION AND HUMAN SETTLE MENT EXPANSION IS PUTTING TREMENDOUS PRESSURE ON ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES IN URBAN AGGLOMERATIONS )N CITIES ENVIRONMENT DEGRADATION TAKE PLACE THROUGH AIR POLLUTION AS A RESULT OF INCREASED CARS ON THE ROADS AND ROTTING UNCOLLECTED GARBAGE REDUCED WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY DUE TO EXCESSIVE USE AND CONTAMINATION LAND DEGRADATION AND RESHAPING RESULTING FROM THE NEED TO ACCOMMODATE THE GROWING URBAN POPULATION 5RBANIZATION IS LARGELY ASSOCIATED WITH INTENSIVE DOMESTIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION WHICH IS DETRIMENTAL TO ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES AS THESE ARE BEING DESTROYED TO PRODUCE THE
NEEDED ENERGY AND TO THE GLOBAL ECOSYSTEM AS THE RESULT OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION ARIS ING FROM THE USE OF THAT ENERGY &UELWOOD IS ONE IMPORTANT FORESTRY PRODUCT MANY HOUSEHOLDS IN THE POOREST AND DRIEST !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE DEPENDENT ON FOR ENERGY BUT OTHER IMPORTANT FOREST DERIVATIVES LIKE FOOD PRODUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS FOR URBAN HOUSING ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO DEFOR ESTATION WHICH HAS A NUMBER OF ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS -OST CITIES IN !FRICA ARE CURRENTLY MORE RESOURCE CONSERVING THAN CITIES IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 0ER CAPITA CONSUMPTION LEVELS ARE MUCH LOWER AND MANY ITEMS OF WASTE
WHICH HAVE SOURCE VALUE ARE RECLAIMED FOR REUSE OR ARE RECYCLED 0EOPLE LIVING IN POV ERTY GENERALLY DRIVE THIS PROCESS 4HOUSAND OF HOUSEHOLDS DEPEND FOR THEIR SURVIVAL ON A MEAGER INCOME DERIVED FROM SELLING MATERIALS OBTAINED BY COLLECTING AND RECYCLING HOUSEHOLD WASTE OR OTHER GARBAGE $ESPITE CONSIDERABLE EFFORTS IN IMPROVING WATER SUPPLY IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES ABOUT PER CENT OF !FRICA S TOTAL POPULATION HAS ACCESS TO SAFE WATER AND THE AVERAGE WATER USE PER CAPITA IS ABOUT M PER ANNUM 7ATER AS A BASIC HUMAN NEED IS FAR FROM BEING ADEQUATELY ACCESSIBLE TO MANY URBAN HOUSEHOLDS IN MANY COUNTRIES IN !FRICA .ORTHERN !FRICA HAS THE LARGEST POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO SAFE WATER PER CENT WITH AN AVERAGE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF M SOUTHERN !FRICA PER CENT WESTERN !FRICA PER CENT EASTERN !FRICA PER CENT AND CENTRAL !FRICA PER CENT 7ORLD "ANK
!CCORDING TO THE 5.$0 (UMAN $EVELOPMENT 2EPORT SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF WATER AND COMMERCIAL ENERGY IN REPRESENTED RESPECTIVELY PER CENT AND PER CENT OF THE PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF THE SAME RESOURCES IN INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES (OWEVER IT CANNOT BE ASSUMED THAT THIS RELATIVELY LOW LEVEL OF PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION WILL REMAIN UNCHANGED ESPECIALLY IF POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES ARE SUCCESSFUL AND DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS IN THE DECADES AHEAD 4HIS UNDER SCORES THE URGENCY OF MAPPING OUT SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN DEVELOP MENT STRATEGIES
3OLID AND (AZARDOUS 7ASTE (UMAN SETTLEMENTS IN !FRICA ESPECIALLY THE CITIES ARE CONFRONTED WITH THE PERENNIAL PROBLEM OF WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL #ITIES ARE PLACES FOR HIGH RATES OF CONSUMP TION OF RESOURCES CONSEQUENTLY THEY ARE ALSO PLACES OF HIGH RATES OF GENERATION OF SOLID
LIQUID AND GASEOUS WASTE 3OLID WASTE DISPOSAL IS A MAJOR PROBLEM WITH INDISCRIMINATE DUMPING BY ROADSIDES
UNDER BRIDGES AND ON VACANT LANDS SOMETIMES SITUATED OVER AQUIFERS AND NEAR MARKETS AND OTHER PUBLIC PLACES )N !CCRA -ETROPOLITAN !REA !-! ABOUT TONS OR PER CENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IS COLLECTED DAILY MOST OF IT IS USED FOR LANDlLL WITH ABOUT PER CENT BEING COMPOSTED /NLY PER CENT OF THE POPULATION BENElTS FROM HOUSE TO HOUSE COLLEC TION THE OVERWHELMING MAJORITY USES COMMUNAL DISPOSAL SITES OR BURIES OR BURNS THEIR
WASTES %NVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS INCLUDE AIR AND ODOR POLLUTION FROM OPEN BURNING OF UNCOLLECTED GARBAGE ODOR AND DISEASE VECTORS STEMMING FROM UNCOLLECTED RUBBISH IN POOR NEIGHBORHOODS ALTHOUGH ALL THESE PROBLEMS HAVE BEEN SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCED IN RECENT YEARS WITH IMPROVED COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL SERVICES "ECAUSE OF THEIR POOR INFRASTRUCTURE BASE LIMITED RESOURCES AND LACK OF PROPER URBAN MANAGEMENT CITIES IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO SET UP ADEQUATE SYSTEMS FOR THE COLLECTION OF DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE )NDEED ONE COMMON CHARACTERISTIC OF !FRICAN CITIES IS THE DIRTINESS OF THEIR STREETS 7HETHER WALKING OR DRIVING IN !BIDJAN #ยนTE D )VOIRE .AIROBI +ENYA OR $AKAR 3ENEGAL BIG HEAPS OF UNCOLLECTED AND ROT TING GARBAGE ARE OBVIOUSLY VISIBLE )F IN (ARARE AND "ULAWAYO :IMBABWE DOMESTIC WASTE COLLECTION COVERAGE HAS REMAINED ABOVE PER CENT ALTHOUGH IN THE EMERGING URBAN CENTERS IN COMMUNAL LANDS DUE TO lNANCIAL CONSTRAINTS COVERAGE RANGES FROM TO PER CENT &EW !FRICAN URBAN RESIDENTS HAVE ACCESS TO SEWAGE AND DOMESTIC WASTE COLLECTION SYS TEMS WHICH MAKES URBAN AGGLOMERATIONS CONSTANTLY HEALTH HAZARDS 3LUM AND SQUAT TER SETTLEMENTS ARE THE MOST EXPOSED TO HEALTH HAZARDS BECAUSE OF CONGESTION LACK OF PIPED WATER AND POOR SANITATION SERVICES IN THESE AREAS 7ATER AND AIR BORNE DISEASE ARE THEREFORE VERY FREQUENT AMONG THE URBAN POOR
8 4(% %.6)2/.-%.4 !.$ (5-!. (%!,4( )NTRODUCTION &OR A HUMAN BEING TO MAINTAIN GOOD HEALTH CLEAN WATER FOOD AND A CLEAN ENVIRONMENT ARE SOME OF THE MOST BASIC REQUIREMENTS 4HE CONTINUED AVAILABILITY OF THESE IS UNDER CONSTANT SERIOUS THREAT !CCORDING TO A REPORT ON ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND HUMAN HEALTH IN THE COUNTRIES OF !FRICA THE #ARIBBEAN AND THE 0ACIlC !#0 THE !FRICAN !#0 COUNTRIES ACCOUNT FOR ONLY AN ESTIMATED PER CENT OF THE WORLD S POPULATION "UT THEY SHOULDER PER CENT OF THE GLOBAL DISEASE BURDEN ABOUT ONE THIRD OF WHICH ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 0OVERTY HAS EARNED RECOGNITION AS BOTH A CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEG RADATION IN !FRICA )T IS ALSO A MAJOR FACTOR IN THE MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY PROlLES OF THE !FRICAN POPULATION 5NTIL RECENTLY THE ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASE BURDEN OF THE POOR WAS DIRECTLY ATTRIBUTED TO WATER SANITATION AND MALNUTRITION )T IS BECOMING INCREAS INGLY CLEAR HOWEVER THAT A SET OF COMPLEX AND INTERRELATED ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IS INVOLVED IN DETERMINING THE STATE OF HUMAN HEALTH
)MPLICATIONS OF %NVIRONMENTAL #HANGE ON (UMAN (EALTH 4HE 7ORLD (EALTH /RGANIZATION 7(/ UNDERTOOK AN EXPERT ASSESSMENT OF THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ITS ROOT CAUSES AND THE SPECIlC CONSEQUENCES FOR HUMAN HEALTH AS ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THE lVE YEAR FOLLOW UP TO THE %ARTH 3UMMIT 4HE REPORT CONCLUDED THAT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WERE ASSOCIATED WITH ALMOST A QUARTER OF THE TOTAL GLOBAL BURDEN OF DISEASE /THER RECENT WORKS ON THE IMPACTS OF A CHANGING ENVIRON MENT ON HUMAN HEALTH HAVE ELUCIDATED DISCERNIBLE AND PREDICTABLE PATTERNS ON THE DIS TRIBUTION OF DISEASES 4HE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS OF THE GREATEST CONCERN TO !FRICA ARE WATER AND AIR QUALITY TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
$ETERIORATING 7ATER 1UALITY
'ROUND AND SURFACE WATER RESOURCES IN MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE BECOMING INCREAS INGLY CONTAMINATED WITH MICROBES AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 4HE MOST COMMON DIS EASE CAUSING MICROBES FOUND IN WATER INCLUDE BACTERIA VIRUSES AND PROTOZOA 4HE INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS INCLUDE HEAVY METALS AND POSITIVE IONS SUCH AS ALUMINIUM
ARSENIC LEAD MERCURY CALCIUM MAGNESIUM ANTIMONY ZINC AND COPPER 4HE MAIN DIRECT CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION EMANATING FROM OUTmOWS FROM FACTORIES RElNERIES AND WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS INTO URBAN WATER SUPPLIES 4HE MAIN INDIRECT SOURCES OF CON TAMINATION INCLUDE INlLTRATION OF FERTILISERS AND PESTICIDES INTO SOILS AND GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS -ICROBES CAUSE A VARIETY OF WATERBORNE DISEASES INCLUDING CHOLERA TYPHOID POLIOMY ELITIS HEPATITIS AND VARIOUS GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS )NFANTS AND CHILDREN ARE PAR TICULARLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO WATERBORNE INFECTIONS SINCE THEY DRINK MORE WATER THAN ADULTS RELATIVE TO THEIR SIZE AND ARE ALSO LESS RESISTANT !CCORDING TO THE 7(/ SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA EXPERIENCED AN INCREASE IN WATER SUPPLY COVERAGE FROM PER CENT TO PER CENT BETWEEN AND 3ANITATION COVERAGE INCREASED FROM PER CENT TO PER
CENT DURING THE SAME PERIOD 4HIS PROGRESS HAS STAGNATED THEREAFTER AND MORE !FRICAN PEOPLE WERE LACKING SAFE DRINKING WATER IN THAN WAS THE CASE IN $ETERIORATING !IR 1UALITY !LTHOUGH THE DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH ARE BEST KNOWN IN %UROPE AND .ORTH !MERICA IT IS BECOMING AN INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM IN !FRICA 2APID URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALISATION HAVE INCREASED REGIONAL CONCERNS WITH REGARD TO EMISSIONS OF SULPHUR AND NITROGEN OXIDES ! MAJOR AND GROW ING SOURCE OF SULPHUR AND NITROGEN POLLUTION ACROSS !FRICA IS THE COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS IN THE POWER GENERATION AND SMELTING INDUSTRIES 4HE BURNING OF VEGETATION RELEASES PARTICULATE MATTER CARBON MONOXIDE NITROGEN OXIDES SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS INTO THE ATMOSPHERE )N !FRICA FOREST lRES INCREASE THE RISK OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS A MAJOR KILLER OF YOUNG CHILDREN -ANY !FRICAN CITIES HAVE STARTED EXPERIENCING SERIOUS POLLUTION RELATED HEALTH PROB LEMS 5RBAN AIR USUALLY CONTAINS COMPLEX MIXTURES OF AIR POLLUTANTS 4HE MAJOR HEALTH IMPACTS OF POLLUTANTS SUCH AS NITROGEN DIOXIDE ARE AN INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS IN CHILDREN AND REDUCED AIR PASSAGE RESPONSIVENESS AMONG ASTHMATIC PATIENTS 3ULPHUR DIOXIDE IS OFTEN A LOCAL POLLUTANT BUT CAN ALSO BE SUBJECT TO LONG RANGE TRANSPORT PROCESSES )N 3OUTH !FRICA ONE OF THE MOST INDUSTRIALIZED COUN TRIES ON THE CONTINENT IMPACTS OF ACID RAIN HAVE ALREADY BEEN REPORTED ON FORESTS CROPS AND SURFACE WATERS 4OXIC 3UBSTANCES 4HE PRODUCTION USE TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION OF MANY SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IS NOW WIDELY RECOGNISED AS A GLOBAL THREAT TO HUMAN HEALTH )NDUSTRIES CONTINUE TO PRODUCE AND RELEASE THOUSANDS OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS EVERY YEAR IN MOST CASES WITH NONE OR VERY LITTLE TESTING OR UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR IMPACTS ON PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 4HE WORST TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT TODAY FALL IN THE GROUP KNOWN AS PERSIS TENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 0/0S )N GENERAL THESE ARE EXTREMELY POISONOUS EVEN IN SMALL QUANTITIES "ECAUSE THEY ARE ABLE TO TRAVEL LONG DISTANCES IN THE AIR THEY POSE SERIOUS DANGER TO PEOPLE LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE IN PLACES FAR AWAY FROM THE LOCATIONS OF THEIR PRODUCTION OR RELEASE .ATURAL PROCESSES THAT ALLOW THEM TO PERSIST AND BIOACCUMULATE IN THE FOOD CHAINS WHEN RELEASED INTO THE ENVIRONMENT ALSO CANNOT EASILY BREAK THEM DOWN 7HEN BREAKDOWN DOES OCCUR IT CREATES CHEMICALS THAT ARE EVEN MORE HAZARDOUS THAN THE ORIGINAL SUBSTANCES 0/0S ENCOMPASS MANY DIFFERENT AND VARIED GROUPS OF MAN MADE CHEMICALS 0/0S
WHICH ARE ALL ORGANOCHLORINES HAVE ALREADY BEEN HIGHLIGHTED BY NATIONAL AND INTERNA TIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AS BEING CHEMICALS OF CLEAR CONCERN TO HUMAN HEALTH $IOXIN A BY PRODUCT FROM COMBUSTION PROCESSES INVOLVING CHLORINE IS ONE OF THE MOST POISON OUS 0/0S KNOWN TO SCIENCE %XPOSURE TO 0/0S HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH A WIDE RANGE OF IMPACTS ON HEALTH IN HUMANS AND WILDLIFE %FFECTS INCLUDE CARCINOGENICITY TOXICITY TO THE REPRODUCTIVE NER VOUS AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT /F GREATEST
CONCERN IN !FRICA ARE THE ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES INCLUDING ALDRIN DIELDRIN ENDRIN
$$4 CHLORDANE MIREX TOXAPHENE AND HEPTACHLOR !LTHOUGH THE MAJORITY OF THESE ARE BANNED OR RESTRICTED IN MANY COUNTRIES SOME LIKE $$4 ARE STILL WIDELY USED IN !FRICAN COUNTRIES PARTICULARLY FOR MOSQUITO CONTROL #LIMATE #HANGE 'LOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IS LIKELY TO HAVE WIDE RANGING AND MOSTLY ADVERSE IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH WITH SIGNIlCANT LOSS OF LIFE 4HE DIRECT HEALTH EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ARE EXPECTED TO INCLUDE INCREASES IN MORTALITY AND ILLNESS DUE TO AN ANTICIPATED INCREASE IN THE INTENSITY AND DURATION OF HOT PERIODS 4HE INDIRECT EFFECTS WOULD INCLUDE "OX %XAMPLES OF THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE ON HUMAN HEALTH IN !FRICA #LIMATIC IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH MAY BE DIRECT OR INDIRECT $IRECT IMPACTS INCLUDE VARIATIONS IN PHYSICAL COMFORT TENSION HEAT AND COLD STRESS SUNBURN
SUNSTROKE SKIN CANCER FROSTBITE AND POSSIBLY CATARACTS $IRECT IMPACTS ALSO INCLUDE DEATH AND INJURY FROM mOODS STORMS AND OTHER EXTREMES OF WEATHER 0OLLUTION AND POLLEN LEVELS ARE AFFECTED BY CLIMATE AND HAVE BEEN RELATED TO EYE DISEASES RICKETS ASTHMA AND OTHER RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS AND ALLERGIES 4HROUGH ITS INmUENCE ON BIOLOGICAL DISEASE AGENTS CLIMATE VARIABILITY HAS A MAJOR INDIRECT IMPACT ON DISEASE EMERGENCE AND VECTOR REPRODUCTION AND ALTERS HOST AND VECTOR HABITATS !N )NTERGOVERNMENTAL 0ANEL ON #LIMATE #HANGE )0## REPORT PUBLISHED IN &EBRUARY PREDICTED AN INCREASE IN DISEASE AS A RESULT OF HEAVY MONSOON LIKE RAINS AND HIGHER TEMPERATURES WHICH FAVOUR THE BREEDING OF DISEASE CARRY ING MOSQUITOES ALLOWING THEM TO THRIVE IN HIGHER ALTITUDES 0!.! HTTP ALLAFRICA COM STORIES &OR EXAMPLE MALARIA CASES HAVE INCREASED BY PERCENT IN RECENT YEARS IN 2WANDA WHICH IS MAINLY HIGHLANDS !BOUT PERCENT OF THE RISE IN MALARIA CASES WERE LINKED TO CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL
WHICH IMPROVES BREEDING CONDITIONS FOR MALARIA CARRYING MOSQUITOES ! SIMILAR LINK HAS ALSO BEEN ESTABLISHED IN :IMBABWE !CCORDING TO THE 7(/ PERCENT OF THE WORLDWIDE PREVALENCE OF MALARIA CASES ESTIMATED TO BE MILLION EACH YEAR ARE IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA 3IMILARLY THE VAST MAJORITY OF THE ONE MILLION DEATHS EACH YEAR OCCUR AMONG CHILDREN IN !FRICA 4HE ECONOMIC COST OF THE DISEASE EXCEEDS 53 BILLION ACCORDING TO A ESTIMATE )N ADDITION TO THE MALARIAL PARASITE MOSQUITOES TRANSMIT MANY VIRUSES WHICH ARE KNOWN TO INFECT HUMANS 4HESE INCLUDE DENGUE FEVER YELLOW FEVER AND SEVERE SOMETIMES FATAL ENCEPHALITIS AND HAEMORRHAGIC FEVER #HOLERA WHICH IS TRANSMITTED BY WATER OR FOOD COULD AGGRAVATE PROBLEMS IN MANY PARTS OF !FRICA $URING THE %L .INO EXCESSIVE mOODING CAUSED CHOLERA EPIDEMICS IN $JIBOUTI 3OMALIA +ENYA 4ANZANIA AND -OZAMBIQUE !PART FROM CHOLERA THERE WERE INCREASES IN 2IFT 6ALLEY FEVER HTTP WWW WMO ORG CLIMATE WMO STATEMENT $URING THE mOODS OUTBREAKS OF MALARIA AND CHOLERA SPREAD IN -OZAMBICAN REFUGEE CAMPS AND IN 7AJIR $ISTRICT OF +ENYA 4HE DISEASE CLAIMED SEVERAL HUNDREDS OF LIVES HTTP WWW CNN COM WORLD AFRICA 4HE OUTBREAKS WERE ATTRIBUTED TO CONTAMINATED WATER MILK AND FOOD
EXACERBATED BY THE ONSET OF THE LONG RAINY SEASON
INCREASES IN THE POTENTIAL FOR TRANSMISSION OF VECTOR BORNE INFECTIOUS DISEASES SUCH AS MALARIA DENGUE FEVER YELLOW FEVER AND SOME VIRAL ENCEPHALITIS RESULTING FROM EXTEN SIONS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND BREEDING SEASON FOR THEIR VECTORS BOX 3OME INCREASES IN NON VECTOR BORNE INFECTIOUS DISEASES SUCH AS SALMONELLOSIS CHOLERA AND GIARDIASIS COULD ALSO RESULT FROM THE PREDICTED ELEVATED TEMPERATURES AND INCREASED mOODING #LIMATE CHANGE IS ALSO EXPECTED TO RESULT IN LIMITATIONS ON FRESHWATER SUP PLIES AND NUTRITIOUS FOOD AS WELL AS INCREASED AIR POLLUTION ALL OF WHICH WILL HAVE NEGA TIVE CONSEQUENCES ON HUMAN HEALTH 4HE MOST PROFOUND EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON VECTOR BORNE DISEASES WILL CERTAINLY OCCUR WHERE THE DISEASES ARE NEWLY INTRODUCED AT THE EDGES OF THE VECTOR RANGE 4HESE ARE THE AREAS WHERE PEOPLE HAVE LITTLE OR NO RESISTANCE TO SUCH DISEASES )N !FRICA
THIS WILL OFTEN BE AT HIGHER ELEVATIONS THAT WERE FORMERLY TOO COLD TO SUPPORT THESE DIS EASES
%NVIRONMENTAL #HANGE AND )NCIDENCE OF $ISEASE IN !FRICA 4HE DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN DISEASES REmECTS CLEAR PATTERNS OF DRASTIC ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE AS MANY RELY ON ANIMALS OR WATER FOR TRANSMISSION ! RECENT REPORT OF THE 7(/ SHOWED THAT UP TO NEW DISEASES HAVE EMERGED ON THE SURFACE OF THE %ARTH SINCE $ISEASES ONCE THOUGHT TO BE UNDER CONTROL OR ERADICATED HAVE ALSO REAPPEARED 4HE INCIDENCE OF DRUG RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS HAS INCREASED TREMENDOUSLY IN !FRICA EXACERBATED BY ()6 !)$3 )T IS NOW REPORTED TO CAUSE UP TO THREE MILLION DEATHS WORLDWIDE ANNUALLY #HILDHOOD DISEASES LIKE DIPHTHERIA WHOOPING COUGH AND MEASLES ARE ALSO ON THE RISE ON THE CONTINENT -ALARIA SCHISTOSOMIASIS DENGUE FEVER
YELLOW FEVER CHOLERA AND A NUMBER OF RODENT BORNE VIRUSES ARE ALSO APPEARING WITH INCREASED FREQUENCY IN PLACES WHERE THEY DID NOT EXIST BEFORE 4HE INCIDENCE OF MALARIA PROVIDES A GOOD EXAMPLE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENVI RONMENTAL CHANGE AND DISEASE PREVALENCE IN !FRICA -ALARIA HAS PLAYED A SIGNIlCANT ROLE IN THE HISTORY OF THE CONTINENT WHERE IT HELPED WARD OFF FOREIGN COLONISERS WHO LACKED THE NATURAL DEFENCES FOUND IN LOCAL PEOPLE SUCH AS THE PRESENCE OF SICKLE CELLS IN THE BLOOD !S A RESULT IT HELPED DETER DEEP PENETRATION OF THE CONTINENT UNTIL THE LATTER PART OF THE TH CENTURY -EASURES TO CONTROL MALARIA INCLUDED WIDESPREAD CHANGES TO THE ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS BUSH CLEARANCE AND SWAMP DRAINAGE 4HERE WAS A SURGE IN THE APPLICATION OF INSECTI CIDES "Y THE S THERE WERE DRAMATIC DROPS IN THE INCIDENCE OF THE DISEASE $WIN DLING INVESTMENTS IN PUBLIC HEALTH PROGRAMMES COUPLED WITH GROWING INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE AND PREVALENT ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE CONTRIBUTED TO A WIDESPREAD RESURGENCE OF THE DISEASE SO THAT BY THE LATE S LARGE EPIDEMICS WERE BEGINNING TO RECUR ALL OVER !FRICA 4HESE WERE OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH WARM AND WET PERIODS #HANGES HAVE ALSO OCCURRED IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE DISEASE AND IT IS NOW FOUND AT INCREASINGLY HIGHER ELEVATIONS IN THE HIGHLANDS OF %ASTERN AND #ENTRAL !FRICA WHERE POPULATIONS HAD NOT BEEN EXPOSED PREVIOUSLY )N 2WANDA RECORD HIGH
TEMPERATURES AND RAINFALL IN BROUGHT MALARIA INTO THE HIGHLANDS -ORE THAN PEOPLE DIED IN ONE MALARIA EPIDEMIC IN THE HIGHLANDS OF -ADAGASCAR IN
WHILE THE DISEASE CLAIMED THE LIVES OF HUNDREDS OF PEOPLE IN THE +ENYAN HIGHLANDS IN 4HESE EXPANSIONS THREATEN SOME LARGE CITIES SUCH AS .AIROBI IN +ENYA AND (ARARE IN :IMBABWE BOTH OF WHICH CURRENTLY LIE JUST OUTSIDE OF THE MALARIA RANGE
5RBANIZATION AND (UMAN (EALTH )N MANY !FRICAN CITIES SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT OFTEN CONSUMES AS MUCH AS TO PER CENT OF MUNICIPAL REVENUES AND IT OFTEN SUFFERS MORE THAN OTHER MUNICIPAL SERVICES WHEN BUDGET ALLOCATION AND CUTS ARE MADE 4HE AGENCIES RESPON SIBLE FOR THE COLLECTION OF DISPOSAL OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE ARE OFTEN UNDERSTAFFED AND UNDER FUNDED /NLY PER CENT OF !FRICA S TOTAL POPULATION HAS ACCESS TO SANITATION 4HE AVERAGE ANNUAL PUBLIC HEALTH EXPENDITURE PER CAPITA IN !FRICA IN WAS ABOUT 53 4HESE STATISTICS INDICATE THE POOR STATE OF SANITATION AND PUBLIC HEALTH SER VICES INCLUDING REFUSE AND SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL IN MOST COUNTRIES IN !FRICA .ORTH !FRICA HAS THE LARGEST POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO SANITATION PER CENT SOUTHERN !FRICA PER CENT EASTERN !FRICA PER CENT WESTERN !FRICA PER CENT AND CENTRAL !FRICA PER CENT 5.#(3 ! SAFE AND HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT IMPLIES PROVISIONS TO PROTECT AGAINST SUBSTANCES OR PATHOGENS THAT CAN DAMAGE HUMAN HEALTH AND TO ENSURE THE SUPPLY OF NATURAL RESOURCES ESSENTIAL FOR HEALTH SUCH AS AIR AND WATER 4HE LARGER AND MORE DENSE THE SETTLEMENT
THE MORE IMPORTANT SUCH PROVISIONS BECOME )T IS DIFlCULT TO ESTABLISH PRECISE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HEALTH PROBLEMS HOUSING AND LIVING ENVIRONMENT BECAUSE OF THE MANY FACTORS THAT INmUENCE AN INDIVIDUAL S HEALTH STATUS (OWEVER THERE ARE THREE ASPECTS OF THE HOUSE WORK PLACE ENVIRONMENT WHICH MAKE SUBSTANTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO VERY HIGH LEVELS ILL HEALTH DISABLEMENT AND PREMA TURE DEATH AMONG POOR GROUPS THESE ARE THE LACK OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES TO MINI MIZE THE QUANTITY OF DANGEROUS POLLUTANTS OR PATHOGENS IN THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT LACK OF SERVICES ESSENTIAL FOR GOOD HEALTH AND CROWDED CRAMPED HOUSING CONDITIONS !LTHOUGH OFlCIAL lGURES SUGGEST THAT PEOPLE IN URBAN AREAS ARE BETTER SERVED THAN THOSE IN RURAL SETTLEMENTS PUBLIC PROVISION TO REMOVE AND DISPOSE OF HUMAN EXCRETA IS USU ALLY NOT BETTER IN POOR URBAN NEIGHBOURHOODS THAN IN RURAL AREAS AND THE HEALTH PROB LEMS ARE USUALLY THE MOST SERIOUS IN URBAN AREAS BECAUSE HIGH POPULATION DENSITIES MAKES IT DIFlCULT TO PROTECT PEOPLE FROM CONTACT WITH EXCRETA -OST POOR GROUPS LIVE IN CROWDED CRAMPED CONDITIONS MEANING THAT DISEASES SUCH AS TUBERCULOSIS AND MEN INGITIS ARE EASILY TRANSMITTED FROM ON PERSON TO ANOTHER (OUSEHOLD ACCIDENTS ARE ALSO COMMON AND WHERE OPEN lRE OR RELATIVELY INEFlCIENT STOVES ARE USED FOR COOKING AND OR HEATING FUMES CAN CAUSE SERIOUS RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS FOR INHABITANTS 4HE IMPACT ON THOSE SPENDING MOST TIME IN THE HOUSE USUALLY WOMEN AND CHILDREN
IS PARTICULARLY SERIOUS )N A WORLD INCREASINGLY DOMINATED BY MARKET FORCES THE SOLU TION TO THE hNEEDS SATISFACTIONv COMPONENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DEPENDS ON THE ABILITY OF NATIONAL ECONOMIES TO ACCELERATE ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY TO SEE THAT THIS PRODUCTIVITY OCCURS IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE INCOMES OF THE LEAST PRIVILEGES GROUPS ARE
SUFlCIENT TO SATISFY THE DEMAND FOR INCREASINGLY COSTLY ESSENTIAL NEEDS WITHOUT PUTTING SO MUCH PRESSURE ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES .EXUS OF 0OVERTY %NVIRONMENT AND (EALTH !S THE PHYSICAL AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT IN AND AROUND CITIES DETERIORATES THE MOST AFFECTED ARE THE URBAN PEOPLE LIVING IN POVERTY WHOSE SUBSTANDARD LIVING ENVIRONMENT DOES NOT PROTECT THEM FROM HUMAN AND OTHER WASTES AND FROM POLLUTION OF ALL TYPES &OR THE PEOPLE LIVING IN POVERTY THE MOST IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES ARE ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER SANITATION AND SAFE HOUSING 4HE PEOPLE LIVING IN POVERTY ARE BOTH VIC TIMS AND AGENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE "ECAUSE THEY LACK RESOURCES AND TECHNOL OGY LAND HUNGRY FARMERS RESORT TO CULTIVATING EROSION PRONE HILLSIDES AND MOVING INTO TROPICAL FOREST AREAS WHERE CROP YIELDS ON CLEARED lELDS USUALLY DROP SHARPLY AFTER JUST FEW YEARS !GRICULTURAL STAGNATION IN SUB 3AHARAN !FRICA IS A PARTICULARLY CLEAR EXAMPLE OF THE MUTUALLY REINFORCING NEXUS OF POVERTY POPULATION GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE ,OW AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY CAUSED MAINLY BY POOR INCENTIVES AND POOR PROVISION OF SERVICES HAS DELAYED THE DEVELOPMENT TRANSITION AND ENCOURAGED LAND DEGRADATION AND DETERIORATION WHICH IN TURN LOWERED PRODUCTIVITY 4HE POOR ESPECIALLY POOR WOMEN TEND TO HAVE ACCESS ONLY TO THE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRAGILE RESOURCES THEY OFTEN SUFFER HIGH PRODUCTIVITY DECLINES BECAUSE OF SOIL DEGRADATION OR THE LOSS OF TREE COVER "ECAUSE THEY ARE POOR THEY MAY HAVE LITTLE RESOURCE BUT TO EXTRACT WHAT THEY CAN FROM THE RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO THEM 4HE HIGH FERTILITY RATES OF POOR HOUSEHOLDS FURTHER STRAIN THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE (OWEVER THE MOST DISTURBING MISCONCEPTION IS THE TENDENCY TO CONSIDER THE PEOPLE LIVING IN POVERTY AS THE CULPRITS RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION RATHER THAN ITS VICTIMS -UCH HAS BEEN SEEN ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE CAUSED BY OVER GRAZ ING OF HERDS BELONGING TO PASTORAL POPULATION BY EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS AND VEGETATION TO OBTAIN FUELWOOD BY OCCUPATION OF ECOLOGICALLY VULNERABLE LANDS FOR AGRICULTURAL OR PERI URBAN SETTLEMENT BY SPONTANEOUS SETTLEMENTS WHICH POLLUTE WATER SOURCES AND BY OVERCROWDED AND UNSANITARY SETTLEMENTS WHICH MULTIPLY HEALTH RISKS PARTICULARLY FOR WOMEN AND CHILDREN !LL THESE PROBLEMS ARE REAL AND THEIR AGGREGATE IMPACT CAN BE CONSIDERABLE BUT WHAT IS OFTEN NOT REALIZED HOWEVER IS THAT THEY ARE THE RESULTS OF A LACK OF CHOICE
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8) 2%#/--%.$!4)/.3 4HE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA IS UNDERGOING DIFFERENT TYPES OF DETERIORATION )N ORDER TO CORRECT THE CONTINUING DISASTROUS TREND !FRICAN COUNTRIES MUST ADDRESS THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE DETERIORATION )N THIS REGARD ACTION MUST BE TAKING IN FOUR MAJOR AREAS 4HESE ARE s s s s
4RANSFORMING THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR TO MAKE IT MORE PRODUCTIVE 3AFEGUARDING AND SUSTAINABLY UTILIZING THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE 0URSUING ACCELERATED SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT TO PROVIDE BASIC NEEDS AND ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AND 2EDUCING THE HIGH RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH
'OVERNMENTS SHOULD TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE VARIOUS MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN ADDRESSING ISSUES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THEIR RESPECTIVE COUN TRIES 3ECTORAL RECOMMENDATIONS ARE PROVIDED BELOW )
4O CONTROL AND REVERSE LAND DEGRADATION COUNTRIES SHOULD
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$EVELOP LAND USE POLICIES BASED ON LAND SUITABILITY FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF UTILIZA TION AND NEEDS OF THE COUNTRY $EVELOP INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS FOR MONITORING SUPERVISING AND COORDINATING THE CONSERVATION OF THE COUNTRY S LAND RESOURCES )MPLEMENT EDUCATION TRAINING AND EXTENSION PROGRAMMES ON SOIL DEGRADATION AND ITS PREVENTION %STABLISH LINKS BETWEEN ADMINISTRATORS AND LAND USERS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SOIL POLICIES 3TRIVE TO CREATE SOCIO ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE TO RATIO NAL LAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION AND #ONDUCT RESEARCH INTO SOLUTIONS OF SOIL DEGRADATION PROBLEMS
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#OUNTRIES SHOULD PURSUE ACTIONS NECESSARY TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITY IN !FRICA 3UGGESTED ACTIONS SHOULD INCLUDE
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!SSISTING COMMUNITIES AND FARMERS ASSOCIATIONS TO DEVELOP LEGAL AUTHORITY AND STRENGTHEN ADMINISTRATIVE AND TECHNICAL COMPETENCE FOR ALL AGRICULTURAL PRODUC TIVE ACTIVITIES E G CONTRACTING LOANS INITIATING AND IMPLEMENTING PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS !SSISTING COMMUNITIES TO DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN COMMUNITY BASED CREDIT ASSO CIATIONS AND TRAINING SYSTEMS )NVESTING IN RESEARCH IN THE AREAS OF HIGH YIELDING CROPS POST HARVEST TECHNOLO GIES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 5NDERTAKE RESEARCH TO SECURE WATER SUPPLY FOR AGRICULTURE BY ESTABLISHING SMALL SCALE IRRIGATION FACILITIES AND IMPROVING LOCAL WATER MANAGEMENT )NCREASE INVESTMENT IN RURAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS AND OTHER SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE SUCH AS SCHOOLS AND HEALTH FACILITIES AND FOSTER LOCAL PARTICIPATION IN AND CONTROL OVER RURAL INSTITUTIONS AND
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5NDERTAKE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON DISEASE RESISTANT AND DROUGHT TOLERANT CROP VARIETIES AND LIVESTOCK BREEDS AND ON TECHNOLOGIES TO STOP AND REVERSE THE RAPID DEGRADATION OF SOIL FERTILITY
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&OLLOWING INITIATIVES THAT HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN IN THE AREAS OF BIODIVERSITY FORESTRY AND LAND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT THE FOLLOWING ACTIONS ARE BEING RECOMMENDED
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#OUNTRIES SHOULD FORMULATE AND PURSUE POLICIES THAT AIM TO GIVE INCENTIVES TO PUBLIC AND PRIVATE AGENTS TO CONSERVE AND INVEST IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES #OUNTRIES SHOULD PREPARE AND IMPLEMENT NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGIES AND ACTION PLANS AIMED AT PROTECTING ENDANGERED SPECIES
#OUNTRIES SHOULD ESTABLISH INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS TO MONITOR RESOURCE USE
WITH A VIEW TO BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN CONSERVATION EFFORTS AND ACCESS TO RESOURCES 5NDERTAKE RESEARCH INTO THE USE OF BIO CONTROL AGENTS TO ATTACK INVASIVE SPECIES #OUNTRIES SHOULD INTEGRATE NATURAL RESOURCES INTO THEIR CONVENTIONAL ACCOUNTS
AND BUILD CAPACITY IN NATURAL RESOURCES ACCOUNTING 4HE LINKAGES AND SYNERGIES AMONG MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS SHOULD BE EXPLOITED THROUGH TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMMES AND #OUNTRIES SHOULD HARMONIZE RELEVANT POLICIES AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS AT NATIONAL SUB REGIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS SO AS TO ENCOURAGE CONSISTENCY IN THE USE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF CROSS BORDER NATURAL RESOURCES
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4O PROMOTE THE CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES COUNTRIES SHOULD
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3TRENGTHEN AND HARMONIZE NATIONAL LEGISLATION ON THE WATER SECTOR TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE PRINCIPLES OF )NTEGRATED 7ATER 2ESOURCES -ANAGEMENT )72- !T THE REGIONAL AND BASIN LEVELS CO ORDINATE EFFORTS SO AS TO ENSURE THE ADOPTION OF )72- AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OR STRENGTHENING OF REGIONAL WATER COORDINATION UNITS AND BASIN AUTHORITIES 0ROMOTE PUBLIC PARTICIPATION EDUCATION AND SENSITISATION PROGRAMMES IN ALL WATER AGREEMENTS TARGETING ALL STAKEHOLDERS 0ROMOTE INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND COLLABORATION IN ORDER TO ESTABLISH AND STRENGTHEN MONITORING SYSTEMS FOR WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 4AKE ADVANTAGE OF OPPORTUNITIES AVAILABLE UNDER THE 'LOBAL 7ATER 0ARTNERSHIP 0ROGRAMME TO BUILD AND ENHANCE CAPACITIES AND SKILLS IN THE )72- 7ETLAND CONSERVATION SHOULD FORM AN INTEGRAL PART OF )72- STRATEGY $EVELOP OR STRENGTHEN ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS TO PROMOTE EQUITY EFlCIENCY AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF WATER RECOGNIZING THAT IT IS A lNITE ECONOMIC ASSET %NCOURAGE PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES $EVELOP WATER RESOURCES AS A STIMULANT FOR SOCIO ECONOMIC GROWTH AND 0ROVIDE ACCESS TO SAFE WATER AND SANITATION TO ALL SO AS TO REDUCE THE DISEASE BURDEN IN !FRICA
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4O REVERSE THE DEGRADATION AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF !FRICA S MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS COUNTRIES SHOULD
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!DOPT HOLISTIC AND COORDINATED APPROACHES TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE COASTAL ZONE AND MARINE RESOURCES THUS ENSURING A MORE SYSTEMATIC PLANNING AND COOR DINATED DEVELOPMENT OF THESE RESOURCES "UILD RESEARCH AND MONITORING CAPABILITIES AND ESTABLISH OR IMPROVE FACILITIES FOR DATA ACQUISITION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION IN ORDER TO IMPROVE THE AVAILABILITY OF RELEVANT DATA AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION FOR EFFECTIVE POLICY FORMULATION AND PLANNING $EVELOP CAPACITY FOR RESOURCE MOBILISATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL PROGRAMMES TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE lNANCIAL TECHNICAL AND HUMAN RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS OF THE CONTINENT %NCOURAGE COLLABORATION BETWEEN GOVERNMENTS THE PRIVATE SECTOR AND CIVIL SOCI ETY AT LARGE RAISING AWARENESS ON INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT AND PRESERVATION OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES AND )MPLEMENT THE !FRICAN !CTION 0LAN AND 3TRATEGY FOR THE $EVELOPMENT AND 0RO TECTION OF THE #OASTAL AND -ARINE %NVIRONMENT IN 3UB 3AHARAN !FRICA ADOPTED IN #APE 4OWN
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4O MINIMIZE THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL WARMING AND NATURAL DISASTERS COUNTRIES SHOULD
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$EVELOP NATIONAL AND REGIONAL CAPACITIES TO BE ABLE TO ASSESS CHANGES IN WEATHER AND CLIMATE PATTERNS TO PREDICT THE CONTINUOUS mUCTUATIONS IN RISK AND VULNER ABILITY TO COMMUNITIES AND TO DEVELOP ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES THAT WILL INCREASE COM MUNITY RESILIENCE $EVELOP DROUGHT AND DISASTER MITIGATION STRATEGIES AT LOCAL NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS 4HE CAPACITY OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES TO PLAN DEVELOP AND MANAGE THEIR OWN DROUGHT RESPONSE STRATEGIES SHOULD BE STRENGTHENED BY DEVELOPING DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION PROGRAMMES IN ORDER TO ENSURE RAPID RESPONSES $EVELOP STRENGTHEN DROUGHT MONITORING CENTRES TO ENSURE PROVISION OF TIMELY WARNINGS AND GUIDANCE TO DECISION MAKERS AND FARMERS 0ROMOTE MUTUALLY REINFORCING COLLABORATION AT THE NATIONAL SUB REGIONAL REGIONAL AND GLOBAL LEVELS AMONG THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS I E 5.&### 5NITED .ATIONS #ONVENTION TO #OMBAT $ESERTIlCATION 5.##$ AND #ONVENTION ON "IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY #"$ GIVEN THE STRONG INTERCONNECTIONS AMONG THEM 0ROMOTE MEASURES AIMED AT PREVENTING AND MANAGING BUSHlRES INCLUDING ENACT MENT OF ANTI BUSHlRE LEGISLATION SETTING UP BUSH lRE MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES
EMBARKING ON EDUCATION AND SENSITISATION CAMPAIGNS AND INSTITUTING TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMMES FOR PROFESSIONALS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND %STABLISH EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS TO ALERT GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL COM MUNITIES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BUSHlRES FOR APPROPRIATE AND TIMELY INTERVEN TIONS
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6)) 4HE FOLLOWING RECOMMENDATIONS ARE MADE WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE s
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#OUNTRIES THAT HAVE RECENTLY ENACTED ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND ACTION PLANS SHOULD EMBARK ON THEIR IMPLEMENTATION IMMEDIATELY WHILE THOSE THAT HAVE NOT YET ENACTED EFFECTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION SHOULD DO SO AND AIM TO START IMPLEMENTING THEM %NVIRONMENTAL PROVISIONS SHOULD BE INTEGRATED INTO NATIONAL CONSTITUTIONS #OUNTRIES SHOULD ESTABLISH APPROPRIATE ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES AND PRIORITIES AND EMPLOY THESE TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEVELOP MENTAL CONTEXTS TO WHICH THEY APPLY .ATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE SYSTEMS THAT INCLUDE STATE CIVIL SOCIETY PART NERSHIPS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES SHOULD BE ADOPTED BY 0OLICIES ADMINISTRATIVE AND JUDICIAL MECHANISMS FOR DEALING WITH PUBLIC AND PRI VATE CONDUCT THAT MAY HAVE NEGATIVE IMPACTS ON THE INTEGRITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT SHOULD BE ESTABLISHED AT THE NATIONAL SUB REGIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS AND 'OVERNMENTS SHOULD FURTHER STRENGTHEN MECHANISMS FOR STAKEHOLDER CONSULTA TIONS AND TO FACILITATE AND ENCOURAGE PUBLIC AWARENESS AND PARTICIPATION
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