Strokes

s trokes The History of Chinese Calligraphy

Michelle Yuan

This edition published in 2014

Published in 2014 by The MCY Works

Copyright Š 2014 Michelle Yuan

Michelle Yuan has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this Work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Binded by Key Printing & Binding

ISBN 3 5 7 10 9 2 8 1 19 14

To the best supporters, the best team, and the best family.

Jay, Joyce, and Rachel Yuan

Contents

foreward

preface

part 1 in bloom The Changing World 17 Modern Masters 29

part 2 the inner soul The Roots The Family

51 65

part 3 within the paper The Ingredients 97 The Technique 107

index

125

bibliography

129

Foreward

although many societies have a tradition of creating beautiful calligraphy, few can rival what the chinese have achieved with their splendid brushes. Chinese calligraphy has a history of more than three thousand years.

During that time, calligraphers have perfected the same strokes and essential configurations of the characters, the nature of each defined by an inimitable structure and subsequently molded into a characteristic style or “image” by its master practitioners. As a result of this long history, specific methods and principles, as well as standards of judgment on all aspects of the art have accumulated to form a rich visual and written legacy.

Each calligrapher must absorb and command this tradition, then transcend it, before he can achieve a “personal” style. Indeed, “to create one’s own style,” while at the same time having derived it from the art of the ancient masters, has been the criterion of greatness through the centuries. For the student and twentieth-century viewer, it is also essential to have knowledge of the background and history of the art for his appreciation to be more than superficial.

In this regard, a comment should be made about the general belief that “Chinese calligraphy is an abstract art.” While Chinese calligraphy does exhibit abstract qualities, it is not “abstract” to a calligrapher or to one who knows the conventions. Because the written language is still fundamentally ideographic—with a

given” sequence of forms—the freedom of the calligrapher lies essentially in his mastery of the brush, in the beauty and energy of the strokes he produces, and in the compositional sensitivity he develops. Within the limitations of the conventions, the aesthetic potentials are infinite.

in china, only two arts are considered fine arts—calligraphy and painting—and the only tool employed by these sister arts is the Chinese brush, whose scope is truly unlimited. The key, therefore, to understanding Chinese art lies in a knowledge of Chinese brushwork.

There are many treatises, books, and manuals on brushwork that have not been translated from the original Chinese. Many of them are either very scholarly or theoretical in approach and leave one with the impression of ”viewing flowers though a mist.” Others try to teach painting in “three easy lessons.” And, too often, in these Chinese works, when a subtle quality is discussed, one meets the comment, “It can only be perceived; it cannot be explained.”

To understand Chinese art, it is necessary to appreciate the historical factors which molded Chinese philosophy and Chinese culture. I have summarized this type of material and stressed those events or influences which had a profound effect on Chinese art. I have also included material on the various calligraphic styles,.

The aesthetic background of the art of brushwork is delineated in terms of form, line,

space-consciousness and composition, anda full discussion is to be found of the criteria by which Chinese art is critically judged. The “flavor” or dominant expression of each major period and style of Chinese art is noted.

Among the major techniques discussed and illustrated, one will find how to fold and wield the brush properly, how to coordinate the position and moving angles of the brush, and the role of moisture, pressure, and speed. The major strokes are all dissected: center brush, side brush, dry brush, split brush, slip brush, pulling brush, as well as the turning, folding and rolling of the brush. This was done in order to help Westerners see Chinese art with a deeper understanding, as if through the eyes of an Oriental.

Preface

in china the art of calligraphy has never been interpreted as simply a means of giving tangible form to spoken words. The graphic patterns that make up written characters are seen as images of the human mind at work, striving to discern order in the phenomenal world and to impose meaning on a chaotic flow of perceptions and feelings. Brushed on paper or silk, cast on bronze, or engraved on stone, calligraphy, known in Chinese as shu-fa, or “the way of writing,” possesses the power to evoke the forces of nature, to promote social and ideological values, and to assert the creativity of individual artists.

Chinese myths explaining the origins of writing attribute to the ancient sage Ts’ang Chieh superhuman powers of discernment that enabled him to perceive in natural phenomena—bird tracks, markings on tortoise shells, and heavenly constellations—the patterns on which he based the earliest forms of written characters. However fanciful these myths may be, they echo fundamental truths born out by archaeological evidence. The earliest known writing in China appears on oracle bones of tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used by the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600-1100 B.C.) kings in divinatory rituals through which they communicated with spirits. In the characters carved on oracle bones, the bond between religious or magical power and early forms of writing by mythic accounts was made concrete.

In addition to these oracle bones, inscriptions cast on ritual bronze vessels show that Chinese writings began as pictographic representations of forms in nature as well as of man-made objects. As the script evolved, however, the characters became more schematic and abstract. By the Han dynasty (206 B.C.—A.D. 220), the pictographic origins of Chinese writing remained detectable in only a small number of characters,

nomena in nature and Chinese writing endured in the panoply of metaphor through which critics and theorists have described calligraphy.

Written with the flexible animal hair brush, the principal tool of both Chinese calligraphy and painting, brush strokes do not represent forms in nature directly, but they evoke kinetic forces, capable of myriad transformations, that animate nature itself.

and even these are almost completely unrecognizable without special study. The limited capacity of pictographic writing to represent words for complex ideas or abstract concepts also demanded the invention of other types of characters. The most common combine elements known as radicals, which signify broad categories of meaning, and phonetic elements, which indicate pronunciation. For example, all words having to do with trees or with objects commonly made of wood—such as “pine” (sung 松), “forest” (sen 森), and “table” (chuo 桌)—include the radical derived from the pictographic representation of a tree 木. Characters that have similar pronunciations, such as “sympathy” (t’ung 恫 ), “tube” (t’ung 筒), and “copper” (t’ung 铜), share the same phonetic element but have different radicals that point to their various meanings. Graphs of this type constitute about 90 percent of all extant characters.

The early representational forms of characters were transformed beyond recognition into schematic designs, but the bond between phe-

Although calligraphy originated in observation of the phenomenal world and achieves thrilling aesthetic effects by calling to mind the forces of nature, writing calligraphy, like rituals or other highly conventionalized human acts, is governed by and perpetuates hierarchical rules and traditions. Submission to these rules begins as soon as a young calligrapher takes up the brush, undergoing rigorous training and mastering the received forms of characters in order to produce legible written communication. And just as rules of syntax and grammar govern the production of texts, rules of composition and stroke order govern the writing of individual characters. In each act of writing, these age-old conventions reassert their power.

The decision to write in one of the historical script types—seal, clerical, standard, running, or cursive—further ensures the continuity of earlier traditions.

Paradoxically, while calligraphy is an art governed by rules that assert its continuity as a cultural practice, it is also the art thought

to embody more directly and more vividly than any other the unique physical presence and the creative personality of the individual writer. The prevalence in calligraphy criticism of language drawn from human physiology and medicine points to the essential link between writing and the human body. Good calligraphy has “bone,” “muscle,” and “flesh.” Concentrated in the strokes of calligraphy are the impulses

popular publications, calligraphy clubs, local and national competitions, and exhibitions. Although many contemporary scholars correctly warn against seeing unity and continuity in the history of Chinese art, where in fact diversity and transformation are equally apparent, the modern fluorescence of calligraphy depends on the same bonds between those who write and those who read, between tradition and innova-

that animate the writer’s body, arm, hand, wrist, and fingers, transmitted by the brush to the writing surface. This physical manifestation of the writer’s presence parallels the revelation of character, temperament, and mood, as well as the scholarly and artistic cultivation that calligraphy is thought to embody. At the same time that calligraphy preserves and continues ancient protocols of writing, it is also an expressive vehicle of nearly unlimited flexibility that challenges calligraphers to invent distinctive new styles of their own.

All calligraphy, as written communication, consist of words, phrases, and sentences, and each act of writing fixes a text in a visual form that determines the way it is perceived by a reader. The visual effect of a poem transcribed in the tangled strokes of cursive script differs greatly from the version of the same text written in the carefully spaced, orderly characters of standard script.

Calligraphy continues to flourish in China today, promoted by both scholarly and

tion, between past and present.

part one

in bloom

ch. 1

the changing world “十 年 樹 木 , 百 年 樹 人” It takes ten years to grow trees but a hundred years to rear people.

The Changing World

in 1949 calligraphy could be seen everywhere.

Not only were the streets full of it, many houses were as well. Within a private house there was usually an ancestor alter flanked by calligraphic scrolls and plaques, and the larger reception or living rooms would be decorated with hanging scrolls of calligraphy and paintings. Palaces and temples were bedecked with huge pieces of calligraphy indicating the names of pavilions and gates. There were far more examples of large-scale script to be seen in a Chinese city than there were shop signs and advertising billboards in a Western one. Moreover, nearly all of this script was still handwritten or reproduced by carving (fig 1.1).

The Chinese have always regarded the ability to write good calligraphy as the mark of a well-disciplined, educated, and cultivated person. Not only did educated people write with a brush, but they would spend hours every day practicing their calligraphy. This offered an acceptable form of therapy in a society that provided few outlets for frustration or anger.

When Mao Zedong came to power in 1949, both he and several of his colleagues were already widely known as enthusiastic calligraphers. Despite the rigor of the times, most of them managed to amass large collections of fine calligraphy, either as purchase they had made in antique shops (where such pieces could be bought cheaply) or as gifts received from people wishing to curry favor.

the changing world

Before the Cultural Revolution began in 1966, these Party leaders would often write out for their friends traditional poems covering a wide range of subjects, or they might compose poems of their own, which were usually about the pleasures of nature or visits to famous cultural sites.

Within the central bureaucracy the standard of calligraphy was high and writing was nearly always done with a brush. The secretary-general of Mao’s Secretariat, Chen Bingchen, was a fine stylist who would not tolerate poor brushwork from his subordinates. The Chinese text of the ‘Sino-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship’ signed by Mao and Stalin in Moscow in 1950 (fig. 1.2), for example, was not typewritten, but was handwritten by Chen with a brush. In

18 | 19

these circumstances it is hardly surprising that there was a strong impetus for many of the less well-educated people within the Party to aspire to understand calligraphy and write well.

The interest of China’s new leaders in calligraphy might have boded well for the future of the art, had Mao not also been the most revolutionary ruler to which China had every been subjected. From the outset Mao believed that the culture surrounding calligraphy was synonymous with the elitist and conservative traditions of Old China which he and many of the rank-and-file members of the Party wished to eradicate.

When he came to power, Mao knew that he had won control of a country yin which only about fifteen per cent of the population could

figure 1.1 (previous page) Streets of China figure 1.2 (above) ‘Sino-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship’ signed by Mao and Stalin

read anything more than simple texts. This high level of illiteracy was in impediment to the modernization of China. The situation was all the more serious because Mandarin Chinese was not widely understood at that time, and local dialects were so different that people were often unable to understand others who lived elsewhere in their own province. Mao recognized that the written language would have to

At this stages, these changes did not affect the large number of distinguished scholar calligraphers. Some were teaching in universities or pursuing research in cultural institutes, while others were working in retirement or in their spare time.

Although these scholar-calligraphers continued to produce impressive works of art, the political hostility towards the elitist nature of

play a key role in unifying the country.

In the end, Mao decided that Chinese characters had to be retained, as they were such an integral element of the country’s culture and history. He was, however, willing to support a compromise whereby the teaching of the spoken language would be facilitated by the adoption of romanization, while the written language would be made easier to write by simplifying those commonly used characters that were composed of many strokes.

The nationalization of private businesses soon changed the look of China’s cities and towns. Most of the old colorful calligraphic name boards and banners were replaced by smaller, less flamboyant ones. Not only was there a slump in the demand for commercial calligraphy, but wealthier people who had previously purchased calligraphy for their own pleasure either fled abroad or were unwilling to buy for fear of political repercussions. Those who had earned their living by producing calligraphy were soon impoverished.

their art made them cautious about the ideas they expressed. They were no longer willing to display publicly their favorite poems, regardless of whether they were their own or had been written by other poets. Indeed, many decided that it was better to be seen writing only poems or slogans in praise of ‘New China’, or the words of the ‘Socialist Internationale’.

Despite these constraints, Mao wanted no one to be in any doubt that he continued to regard calligraphy as an art form, although not necessarily a high-profile one. When the minister of culture, Zheng Zhenduo, declared in the early 1950’s that calligraphy was just a script, Mao responded quickly. In the late 1950s and early 1960s Mao agreed to the establishment of calligraphy research associations in both Beijing and Shanghai. More importantly, he allowed the Party’s youth league to arrange for distinguished calligraphers to teach young enthusiasts as its own ‘Youth Palaces’.

the changing world

making their mark The new Chinese government’s restoration of the country’s dilapidated major monuments provided opportunities for a number of calligraphers, as many of their inscriptions had to be replaced. It was not only professional calligraphers who had written the large name plaques for palaces, temples, and monuments; emperors had done so too.

Mao did more of this kind of work than any former ruler. Little of Mao’s calligraphy was visible in public places in the early years of his new regime.

By the late 1950s, however it was to be seen on several of the capital’s prominent new monuments and public buildings, most notably the Martyrs’ Memorial, focal point of the newly enlarged Tianamen Square, completed in 1958 (fig. 1.3).

Mao’s calligraphy was greatly prized and much solicited. By displaying an original piece of his work, one not only laid claim to some personal link with the Chairman, but by the same token gained some protection from the seemingly endless political campaigns and intrigues.

Despite the high regard in which Mao was held by his colleagues, they never invited him to provide the calligraphic titles for such institutions as ‘The Chinese Communist Party’, “The People’s Republic of China’, ‘The State Council’ or the building on Tianamen Square known as

20 | 21

figure 1.3 Martyr’s Memorial at Tianamen Square

‘The Great Hall of the People’. It seems they felt that no individual should ever have the right to personalize these great institutions.

political calligraphy The modernization of China itself soon began to pose a long-term threat to the art of calligraphy. In the early 1950s the use of the fountain pen became fashionable for city officials. When teams from the Writers’ Union were sent to help promote literacy in rural areas in 1956, a cartoon showed them not only with calligraphic brushes, but also pens.

courtyard at Rong Bao Zhai, a 300-year old shop in Beijing where leading artists met.

At first, people were reluctant to express their views. After a few months, however, the initial trickle of opinions had swelled to a torrent of criticism, mostly expressed in the form of ‘big-character posters’. These were written out with a brush in large characters, on sheets of paper the size of a newspaper, or bigger. The

The political atmosphere in China became somewhat more relaxed in 1956 when Mao declared that the time had come to let the people put forward their honest views about the performance of the new regime. This period became known as the ‘Hundred Flowers Movement’, a name taken from an ancient couplet (fig. 1.4). In keeping with the spirit of the time, Guo Moruo wrote out this couplet, together with a more socialist one. The two couplets were engraved on wooden pillars in the private

large brushes gave the people a power that the small fountain could not, especially in a society where they did not have easy access either to the media or to printing presses.

The Party was shocked by the vehemence of the criticism it received. It responded swiftly by rounding up the critics and condemning them as ‘Rightists’. Most were then either thrown out of their jobs or sent to the countryside for ‘reform through labor’. Many professors of Chinese classics and Chinese literature lost their posts, even if they had not been unduly critical of the Party. Not surprisingly, few students now chose to study these subjects. As a result, China began to cut itself from the extraordinarily rich heritage of classical poetry that had nourished the art of calligraphy for more than two thousand years.

In the late 1950s calligraphy began to assume an even greater importance for Mao. As his colleagues sought to marginalize his role, he began to prepare his counterattack. Both Mao’s poetry and his calligraphy played key roles in this pro-

the changing world

cess. In 1962 the appearance of his poem Mount Liupan took people by surprise. It had been created in a new and dramatic form of wild cursive calligraphy that he had been practicing in private for the previous year (fig. 1.5). More than ever before, people now felt that Mao’s distinctive style of calligraphy showed him to be a truly great leader. Over the next three years he published further poems in this style.

From the very beginning of the Cultural Revolution the Red Guards, under the careful guidance of Mao’s henchmen, made use of big-character posters to vilify Mao’s opponents.

Then, on August 5 1966, Mao called upon the Red Guards to ‘Bombard the Headquarters’ of

22 | 23

the Party. This exhortation was widely promoted by an illustration of Mao holding a large brush, colored blood-red in some version, accompanied by the words: ‘My first big-character poser’ (fig 1.6).

The violence that followed Mao’s call to action soon ran out of control. Across the country tens of millions of posters were pasted up. They exhibited the largest collection of lies and slanders ever publicly displayed in history.

Despite the revolutionary chaos that raged, Mao’s entourage still managed to uphold many of the standards of Old China.

After two chaotic years of Cultural Revolution, large numbers of Red Guards were sent

figure 1.4 (left) Cartoon reflecting the belief of many artists and writers in the ‘Hundred Flowers Movement’ figure 1.5 (above) Mao’s poem Mount Liupan figure 1.6 (below) ‘Bombard the Headquarters’

from the cities to the countryside to ‘learn from laboring together with the masses’. Most of them felt isolated and dejected from home, and resented the fact that they were unable to continue their education. To allay their misery, many of them began to study calligraphy. To avoid criticism, however they would practice writing out the Thoughts of Chairman Mao from booklets of the type mentioned.

As the turmoil and violence lessened at the beginning of the 1970s, China sought to improve its ties with those countries that shared a hostility towards its arch-enemy, the Soviet Union. Later that same year, China made another important diplomatic breakthrough, this time with Japan.

Mao died in September 1976 having inflicted grievous damage on China. His collectivization of agriculture and the ill-conceived dash to boost industrial production during the Great Leap Forward of 1958-60 had transformed poor harvests into a terrible famine that had killed millions. Then his ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’ had shattered many of the achievements of New China. Tens of thousands of good citizens had been murdered or driven to suicide, and millions had suffered at the hands of the mob. Living standards had again fallen, and the Party had come close to destroying itself.

china in bloom After a decade of turbulence, China needed to heal the wounds which the Cultural Revolution had inflicted on society and get the economy moving once again. In the late 1970s Deng Xiaoping, who had suffered badly at Mao’s hands during the Cultural Revolution, re-emerged as China’s preeminent leader. He soon forged ahead with bold new policies aimed at promoting economic reform and the opening-up of China’s relations with the outside world.

Alongside the reforms and the relaxation of restrictions, there was an upsurge of activity in painting and calligraphy. For the first time since the early 1960s, books about Western art could be purchased in China. There were exhibitions of Western art in Beijing and Shanghai, and dozens of Chinese artists were allowed to travel overseas. Wester styles of painting were avidly copied, and paintings of female nudes were seen in China for the first time since the 1940s.

Calligraphy soon became more popular than ever before. Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, many people had turned to calligraphy in the hope of finding solace in the calm repetition of its exercises. Then, in 1981, the authorities took the lead in setting up a Chinese Calligraphers’ Association, the first such nationwide body ever to be established in the country.

Within a few years, hundreds of thousands of calligraphy enthusiasts had enrolled for the Association’s provincial activities across the

the changing world

country, with the top few thousand belonging to the body at national level. Calligraphy exhibitions and competitions soon became fashionable at all levels; some were devoted to the works of children, others to those of university students, retired officials and senior citizens.

Several people who have become well known in the world of calligraphy first came to prominence through the awards they won in these

Japanese approach to calligraphy was rather superficial. They therefore preferred to draw on what they saw as the uniquely Chinese elements of calligraphy in their efforts to revitalize it.

By the mid-1980s certain artists wanted to push calligraphy much further forward than the Japanese had done. Most of them were not calligraphers by training, nor were they young, but they all felt that the time had come for change.

competitions—for example, Wang Dongling.

However, the impact of the Cultural Revolution on calligraphy was all too apparent. Among the young there was an overall absence of good technique, scant knowledge of the classics, and certainly no ability to write clever variants of classical poems. One positive note was that some of the young adults who had learnt to write big-character posters during the Cultural Revolution had developed a much freer style than could be achieved by the older, classically trained calligraphers.

At this time Japanese calligraphers became highly influential. It had been exhibited in China in 1957, 1958, 1962, and 1978, but it was not until the 1980s that many Chinese calligraphers were able to visit Japan and see for themselves how the Japanese had transformed the art during the post-war period. Several leading Chinese artists adopted the Japanese style of concentrating more on visual aesthetics than on constant, but a number of others, including those in the Modernist movement, felt that the

The Modernist movement began to emerge.

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cross-currents in chinese culture The Tianamen Square protests that took place in 1989 highlighted the influence that modern media was already having influence in China.

While many demonstrators proclaimed their views on calligraphic banners, others felt that their point could be made more effectively through the use of symbols.

Following the suppression of the demonstrations on June 4th 1989, there was a political clampdown. Economic reform came to a standstill and China’s links with the outside world were sharply curtailed. This reaction was relatively short lived when Deng Xiaoping called for his policies to be relaunched in 1992.

His economic reforms attracted investment from overseas and China’s economy began to flouris. Foreign consumer goods, often backed by slick Western advertising, started to flood into the country. Not surprisingly, a by-product of this economic boom was a new lease of life .

In some respects, New China began to look more and more like Old China. New civic infrastructure projects, commercial buildings, companies, hotels, shops, restaurants, magazines television programs all needed name plaques or titles. Most of them were provided by calligraphers, but a large number were produced by national or local political leaders who had played a role in the development of these

Since the early 1990s personal freedom in China has increased. A growing number of issues are discussed openly in public and people vent their feelings more freely in private. Within the confines of Beijing nightclubs, young women wearing miniskirts and studded leather collars sing songs that a renowned for their biting critiques of life in modern China. Many calligraphers express their views with equal im-

new projects or businesses.

The market for calligraphy has also been fueled by an increase in the number of new private buyers—some acquiring the calligraphy for themselves and others purchasing pieces as gifts for their contacts in business or government. A notable amount of calligraphy has also been bought by visitors to China. The combination of tenured positions in art colleges and the ability to sell their works in a relatively buoyant market has enabled some of China’s best calligraphers to enjoy comfortable lifestyles.

By the mid-1990s the calligraphy of many people in China had been seriously afflicted by what one might call the ‘curse of the ball-point pen’. To make matters worse, that of the younger generation was rapidly being impaired by the widespread use of computers. Handwritten calligraphy was also in decline in the commercial sector. More and more of the pieces created for shop signs were produced by computer and not by the brush. At the same time, the use of Western-style graphics, images and logos increased.

pact, but they do so to a different audience, by selecting quotes from the respected classics and then exploiting the rich ambiguities inherent in the Chinese language.

Not all calligraphy, of course is concerned with social commentary or existential meditation. Indeed, calligraphers often aim to transport their audience along the beautiful traces of their brushwork into the serenity of elegant language, or, by the use of more dramatic effects, to excite the senses.

calligraphy in the 21st century In the past twenty-five years China has been transformed. So, too, has Chinese calligraphy: while it remains a means of communication, it is now seen primarily as an art form. Over the next fifty years the pressures driving change in China will be just as great as in the recent past. The interplay of economic reform, social change and political development will be complex. No one will know what will emerge.

But within these broad changes are signs of the

the changing world

factors likely to affect the future development of calligraphy.

One of the most important is the severeness of the link between it and the ruling elite. People at the top no longer feel that their position requires them to excel at calligraphy Indeed, it will be a pleasant surprise if one of China’s future leaders does display a marked flair for calligraphy.

a doctorate in calligraphy. In addition, there are now numerous magazines and newspapers dealing with both traditional and modern calligraphy. Foreigners in China are also beginning to take more of an interest in learning Chinese calligraphy.

However, the cultural climate in China is less conducive to artistic expression than that in North America or Europe. Some spectacles are

Already there is the end of another important tradition—that of the literati—as writers and poets on the one hand and calligraphers on the other have gone their separate ways. As standards of education continue to rise there will be greater literacy, but as education increasingly revolves around science, technology and economics, there will be fewer people who are truly knowledgeable about classical Chinese culture. Another major problem is that people who write mainly by means of a keyboard soon forget how to write characters with a pen, let alone a brush.

Conversely, there are still many young people in China who aspire to write well with a brush, and the present relaxed atmosphere is encouraging the development of artistic talent.

At several art colleges (ex. The Youth Palaces) calligraphy is now recognized as a subject in its own write and not merely as a branch of art in general. Both at the National Academy of Fine Arts in Hangzhou and the Central Academy of Art in Beijing it is now possible to study for

acceptable, while others are not. As Gu Gan has often said, “Chinese characters are abstract. Calligraphy, from the earliest times, has been grounded in abstract art.”

Calligraphy is a vehicle that facilitates the creation of art which is not only deeply rooted in Chinese culture, but is also capable of striking a sympathetic chord with Western viewers.

Given the developments of the past quarter of a century, there is every reason to expect that there will be some further outstanding calligraphy coming out of China in the future.

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ch. 2

modern masters “傅 領 進 門， 修 行 在 個 人” Teachers open the door. You enter by yourself.

Gu Gan: abstract with a splash of old the revitalization of calligraphy Gu Gan was born in 1942 into a prosperous family in Hunan province in central China.

When he was only three, his father, an officer in the Nationalist Army, was killed while fighting the Japanese. Even so, Gu Gan enjoyed a stable and fairly happy early childhood, growing up in the family home in a hillside village not far from the provincial capital of Changsha.

Following the Communist takeover of China in 1949, Gu Gan’s family became desperately short of money. However, with the help of friends in the Communist Party his mother was able to move to Beijing, where she found work.

Gu Gan’s considerable aptitude for painting led to his admission at the age of twenty to China’s Central Academy of Fine Arts. But after he had spent two years there, poor health forced him to abandon his studies in Chinese painting.

When he recovered, he was assigned to work in the cultural bureau of the Beijing Municipal Government.

Normally, Gu Gan would turn to painting when he wished to relax, but now the stress of daily life was so great that he could not achieve the calm he needed in order to be creative.

Instead, he turned to calligraphy. It was a move taken not as an alternative route to self-expression, but as a means of achieving a measure of comfort and escape through the repeated and disciplined practice of this art.

Through studying Western art Gu Gan came to believe that there were a number of ways in which Chinese calligraphy could be revitalized.

From the outset he showed a keen interest in the different effects that could be created from the use of wet or dry brushes and varying densities of ink. By the late 1970s he had begun to adopt a more radical approach to calligraphy, which led to his becoming the prime mover in the Modernist school of Chinese calligraphy.

He started by experimenting with changes in the outer shape of individual characters by elongating or widening them into new forms.

His next step was to take characters apart, spreading their constituent elements across compositions. More radically still, he would write each of these elements in a different script: for example, one in seal script, another in running, and a third in standard. Yet another innovation was his use of colored ink—a dramatic change in an art which traditionally had always been executed in black ink.

The layers of meaning in Gu Gan’s work are created in many different ways. Usually, the title focuses attention on the main subject or theme.

It is often also used as an integral part of the composition, be it a single word or phrase taken from a poem or song. Gu Gan frequently uses pictograms or oracle-bone script to remind the reader the depth of Chinese history and culture.

modern masters

His decision as to which script to use tends to be linked to the message he intends to convey.

further into the roots Gu Gan produced works on Buddhist themes throughout the 1990s. At one level these paintings are quite abstract in that the few characters they contain are difficult to decipher. In most cases, however, the ‘text’ he uses echoes the title of the piece. The highly innovative use of seals bearing images of Buddha and other Buddhist symbols further strengthens the visual message.

Gu Gan is interested in the concept of the ‘heart’ in its widest sense. The Chinese word for ‘heart’ is as rich in meaning as its English counterpart. For Gu Gan, a good rapport between hearts is one of the secrets of harmony and happiness. In his many works on the theme of the heart he has used a wide variety of calligraphic styles and colors to create very different compositions and moods. Sometimes the heart is drawn in thick, dark ink to illustrate strength and commitment. In other instances, the strokes of the heart are in grey ‘overnight’ ink, with an inner ‘bone’ and outer ‘flesh’ to show that the heart has both strength and softness.

a new art form Over a period of less than twenty years, Gu Gan’s art has evolved tremendously. The ideas contained within it have become both deeper

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and more subtle. He has enhanced the richness of his brush technique by introducing into his works a number of non-traditional materials such as cloth, board, and special papers. He now uses acrylic colors, which attain a high level of saturation.

Over the years Gu Gan has succeeded in molding calligraphy and painting into a distinctly new form of art. He has blended together both ancient and modern styles and both Chinese and Western concepts, binding these mixtures with sensitive thoughts about the relationship between man and nature. Few can rival the deep grounding in the Chinese classical tradition that Gu Gan combines with an intimate knowledge of Western abstract art— attributes that enable him to create abstract art with meaning.

page 31

‘Opening Up’ (1995) Gu Gan makes the point that China has nothing to fear from broadening its associationg with other countries page 34

The Age of Red and Gold completes Gu Gan’s trilogy on the theme of modern China

exposure Born in 1945, Wang originally intended to be a painter. He entered the department of fine arts at the teachers’ college in Nanjing, the capital of his home province of Jiangsu, when he was just seventeen years old. Rather unusual for the time, the course in which he was enrolled devoted a considerable amount of time to calligraphy. In retrospect, Wang feels that this was his first step on the road to becoming a calligrapher.

The college was closed soon after the Cultural Revolution began in the summer of 1966.

Wang was first sent to work in a printing works and then transferred to the local cultural and educational office, which had been charged with promoting mass education through art.

Wherever he went, Wang took his brushes and paper with him.

This habit soon landed him in trouble, as the content of his calligraphy was still based on classical Chinese poems. He was criticized for being ‘feudal, capitalist and revisionist in outlook’. But because he was young and quick to acknowledge his ‘mistakes’, he escaped punishment. Wang believes that his experience of writing posters amid the fervor of the Cultural Revolution released him from the tight discipline imposed in the calligraphy classes art college. For the first time, he felt a real sense of artistic freedom.

At the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, Wang returned briefly to his college to collect his degree. By then he was determined to pursue a career as a calligrapher. He enrolled at the Academy in 1979, being a student under the calligrapher-scholar Sha Menghai. Wang came to share his belief that the essence of art is the projection of personality in the artist.

During his early years at the Academy, Wang was strongly influenced but the works of one of the great masters of the past, Xu Wei (1521-93).

As China began to open up in the early 1980s, Western art became better known. Books were published on many leading Western artists, and in addition Wang was able to learn a great deal about modern art from foreign students to whom he taught calligraphy at the Academy.

As the 1980s progressed, Wang began to feel that he had the mission to try to revitalize the art of calligraphy. He knew of recent developments in the work of the Modernist school. He felt that Chinese calligraphy had become too inward-looking. Even though it was deeply rooted in Chinese culture, few people recognized it as a fine art. Wang proposed not only that calligraphy should be regarded as a fine art in its own right, but that as such it should be treated as an integral part of the whole spectrum of the arts, throughout both China and the West.

Wang remains committed to pursuing the task set by his mentor, to work outside the

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limits of tradition in order to find ways of expressing one’s own feelings. In doing this, he hopes to broaden the parameters of traditional Chinese calligraphy. One of the basic aspects of the art that Wang has developed most productively is his control of brush and ink. Obviously, what the writes exists in two dimensions, but by varying the density of the ink and the speed of his brush strokes, he is able to create charac-

Europe his work has made its biggest impact on German artists, who particularly admire his powerful brushwork and his use of black ink, in its many varied shades, on white paper. Over the past decade he has had ten solo exhibitions in the United States.

To a greater degree than that of any other leading Chinese calligrapher, Wang’s work continues to span the full range of artistic ex-

ters that give an impression of death—indeed, they seem almost sculptural in form, with the strokes weaving in and out of one another. The textures of his ink are full of fascinating effects that go far beyond what has previously been achieved in Chinese painting, let alone calligraphy. Few can rival the range of tones and effects he manages to achieve. His work, however, is never simply a virtuoso performance of ink and brush; it is always deeply rooted in Chinese culture.

Owing to their scale, Wang’s larger pieces cannot be done on a table in the traditional manner. Most often, he works on paper placed directly on the floor, achieving his huge characters by standing on the paper and using a brush as big as a kitchen mop.

pression. He has unquestionably made a major contribution to revitalizing Chinese calligraphy and creating an art that can be appreciated by viewers all over the world.

ambitions of the present Since 1983 Wang’s works have been exhibited in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, the United States, Canada, Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Sweden, even Zaire. In

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Wang’s dramatic representation of the inverse relationship between ‘feeling’ and ‘passion’ page 40

His largest work on Daoism. The dramatic character is wu, representing the concept of ‘nothingness’ that lies at the heart of this ancient Chinese philosophy.

Wang Nanming: Balls of Criticism

Wang was born in 1962 in Shanghai, the home town of both is parents. Despite their relatively privileged background, Wang’s parents did not suffer badly during the Cultural Revolution, largely because his father was a revered veteran of the war in Korea.

Ever since childhood, Wang has loved calligraphy but hated all the rules surrounding the subject. At the Law Academy he was lucky enough to have as his professor of classical Chinese Hong Peimo, a scholar in his forties who was already an exceptional calligrapher. It was Hong who first encouraged Wang to delve further into the styles of calligraphy that most interested him.

One of his most common themes ties into his interest in deconstruction. Gu Gan had already advocated taking characters apart so that their constituent elements could be displayed in a more painterly manner on paper. But Wang was more convinced by the argument of French philosopher and critic Jacques Derrida that conventional structures need to be broken down and completely recomposed.

Wang quickly came to see his discarded balls of paper (his crumpled up dissatisfaction with a piece of work) as symbolic of the various contradictions surrounding calligraphy itself. In his view, as well as being an elegant traditional

system of writing and the basis of an evocative form of modern art, calligraphy could be regarded as representing the darker side of Chinese history. He felt that over the centuries its purpose had been perverted in that it had been deployed as a mechanism for social control. Not only had the complexity of its scripts limited the spread of education n and so blocked routes to privilege, but a cult of respect for calligraphic skills had been encouraged which ensured that the young deferred to their elders and the illiterate to the educated.

By screwing up a sheet of his work and throwing it away, an artist or writer clearly demonstrates his rejection of it. And in the Chinese language, as in English and others, the word ‘balls’ is a common expletive and forceful statement of rejection. In the balls of paper that Wang now adopted as the hallmark of his art, he felt he had found the perfect graphic symbol for his rejection of the worst aspects of Chinese culture.

Wang still likes to use strings of balls in his installations to convey an impression of tears lamentation or falling raindrops that will slowly erode even the hardest stone. By the mid-1990s he was also piling up balls in ways which, at times, made them look like tombs in the Chinese countryside. He has since gone on to construct works in which the use of thousands of balls magnifies his theme of rejection.

Towards the end of the decade Wang began

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making his balls of calligraphy into objects in the shape of chairs, sofas, tables, stools, televisions and paintings hanging on a wall.

Although the hundred of balls from which each object is formed are all different, the overriding impression is that they are all made from the same material. This is Wang’s way of protesting against what he sees as the banality of modern China’s mass culture.

promotion For several years now, Wang Nanming has been actively promising Avant-Garde calligraphy and art. He was probably the first person in China to act as an independent and professional planner for art exhibitions and workshops. Wang has been successful in building up a number of fruitful long-term relationships with overseas organizations.

Wang has been active, too, as a writer and a critic. Since 1992 he has been editor-in-chief of Art Forum, a contemporary art journal published in Taiwan.

Wang;s works have been widely exhibited both at home and overseas. In addition to staging five solo exhibitions in China, he has participated in many other in China’s three major cities: Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. In Europe, his works featuring balls of calligraphy were first seen in Barcelona at the 1995 exhibition ‘China: 15 Years of Vanguard Art.’ Wang’s independence of mind has enabled

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him to develop a very personal style of art that makes a serious statement about the life in China today. The balls that convey his message combine simplicity of form with depth of meaning, with the result that his works can be understood by Chinese and Westerners alike.

Although he has constructed many objects from his balls, as yet none of these has been a bridge—but in many ways his work has indeed built a bridge between the East and West. It has opened up a route by which foreigners are made to think more deeply about issues concerning modern-day China.

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Furniture made from the balls of calligraphy. Wang is making his protest against the banality of mass production; Shufa balls closeup

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Wang’s sculptural calligraphy exhibition titled Combination: Balls of Characters

part two

the inner soul

ch. 3

the roots “好 記 性 不 如 爛 筆 頭” The palest ink is better than the best memory

The Aesthetic Roots of Chinese Calligraphy

although in the far east, aesthetics has not been an independent discipline, its study in China can be traced back to 600 B.C., as Confucius was deeply involved in searching for as well as elucidating a philosophy of aesthetics.

Materials in this field are abundant, albeit scattered, in classics, poems, and inscriptions on the paintings of various periods in history.

Aesthetics standards, of course, are rooted in the cultural and philosophical tenets of a people. In China, the major influences have been Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism, particularly the Ch’an sect of Chinese Buddhism, which was established in the T’ang dynasty (7th century).

the roots

taoism Lao Tze (birth c. 571 B.C.), the founder of the Taoist philosophy, was a contemporary of Confucious. He believed that the desires and ambitions of man were the cause for the social and turmoil so prevalent in his age. He preached the virtue of withdrawal and non-action, that is non-interference in the affairs of others, both on te part of indivudals and states. He urged conduct which is not motivated by self-interest or the pursuit of fame, wealth, position, and tasks of grandiose scale, concepts which were mebraced by many of the scholar-painters.

Deities and spirits had no place in his scheme of things, for from experience he was convinced that “Heaven and earth are not kind.

They treat everything as straw dogs.”1 His view of the cosmos, instead, was that Tao* and Ch’i, the existent form of Tao, are the vital life forces in all things natural. From Yin and Yang, the complementary positive and negative forces, whose union is essential for creation, sprang the heavens, earth, man and all things natural in the universe. Ch’i is the force which harmonizes Yin and Yang. All things have their own particular qualities, and their own particular characteristics, all from Tao. Everything natural acts spontaneously, effortlessly. The way of the pine is not the way of a willow; the way of a falcon is not the way of a blue jay.

These concepts were later translated into fundamental principles of brushwork, where

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their embodiment in painting and calligraphy make the works an affirmation, as it were, of these philosophic precepts. For the viewer, a mystical experience is the desired result.

Since the term Tao is so abstract and difficult to define, La Tze used another word, wu meaning void, to elucidate his philosophy of nature.

Tao is Wu. He gave three examples to explain the function of space, or voids: “Thirty spokes support the hub of a wheel; because of the space within the hub, the car is able to move. Vessels may be made of clay; it is the space inside that makes them useful. Build a room with a door and windows; it is the space through the door and windows which is useful.”

This concept of the reality of empty space is to be seen reflected in both calligraphy and painting.

Lao Tze stressed simplicity, a tenet which greatly influenced Chinese life. Consequently, simplification becomes a standard of art. An artists is content with simple themes; he strives for the simple approach, economy of line and color. Subdued color becomes an aesthetic standard. In subject matter, landscape and other nature themes become more important than figure or form, for in the Taoist thinking man’s place in the great scheme of the universe is rather insignificant. In a nature painting, man will occupy a modest space.

confucianism Confucius (551-479 B.C.) took an entirely different attitude towards the chaotic world of that time. Unlike the withdrawing scholars, he advocated and himself took an active part in the service of his country, seeking ways for the salvation of China.

No teachings have influenced China’s culture more than those of Confucius. They became texts for study. They are reflected on tomb sculptures and monuments, and in paintings of all periods. They goverend China’s mores down to the twentieth century.

He placed his emphasis on high ethical standards, with duty the path to a harmonious life. A strict, well-defined code governed man’s own conduct, his relationship to his family and ancenstors, to other individuals, and to his sovereign. Sincerity in thought and in action was stressed; this could be achieved only through education and knowledge.

Confucius, of course, worshipped the sages of the old, and he edited the classics and poetry of ancient times. He made a compilation of the rites and music. in his school, art had a dual purpose, to develop men of culture and high moral standards, whose tastes in aesthetic appreciation would be refined, but equally important the arts were utilized to illustrated the need for order and harmony in life. His devotion to the ways of the past produced a formalism which permeated all facets of life, and

which governed, too, the arts of painting and calligraphy. In accordance with the spirit within the Confucian school, beginners are to follow established rules. A tyro, of course, will not lose his way, for he has definite rules to guide him, but it is not a climate which fosters a search for originality.

buddhism When, in the reign of the Eastern Han Ming Ti (58-75 A.D.), the Buddhist religion was introduced into China, with it came Buddhist art, painting and sculpture. During the Southern and Northern dynasties (3rd-6th century), since the new religion offered comfort in the belief of reincarnation of the soul, it was readily welcomed by the mass of people who were suffering greatly as a result of the constant wars between the states. The religious images at the temples and the rock caves, as at Tun Huang, Yun Kung, and Lung Men, greatly influenced Chinese art, which during the succeeding 600 years stressed Buddhist principles.

However, the most significant influence on the future development of Chinese art, perhaps, was the establishment in the 7th century of Ch’an Tsung (called Zen by the Japanese), which, in fact, is a form of Chinese Buddhism.

The special characteristic of this Buddhist sect is the emphasis laid on sudden enlightenment, which is to be obtained through meditation.

This kind of enlightenment, or inspiration, is

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quite beyond expanation; it cannot be put into words as the comprehension rests in one’s heart.

Many artists and scholar sbecame followers of this Chinese Buddhist faith.

In On Ch’an, Chu Lin Pa Hsian, an expert in Ch’an study, discussed the basic philosophy of Ch’an; he said: “The slogan of Ch’an is: A discipline outside the Buddhist faith; without scriptures of any kind; concentration on one’s heart; discovering one’s character and reaching the goal of Ch’an.” Thus, through the mind’s eye one can clearly perceive one’s hearts and soul; this is the path to enlightenment.

The Ch’an practice, through intuition and search for man’s nature and soul, greatly influenced the development of Chinese philosophy and art. The famous philosophers of the Sung period (10th-13th cent.) were mostly influenced by the Ch’an approach, such as Chu Hsi and many others. With respect to art, the monk-artists, such as Liang Kai (early 13th cent.), were masters of the Ch’an school. Both Ba Da Shan Jen and Shih T’ao were believers in Ch’an Tsung.

The Ch’an school of art is marked by the following features: (a) Black is the predominant color used. (b) extremely simple strokes are emplyed. (c) the expression of the work, whether it be a landscape or a still-life, lies beyond the mere rendering of the form; in other words, it should be contemplative rather than decorative in order to reflect the intuitive faculty. The widely reproduced Six Persimmons by the monk

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Mu Hsi of the early 13th century, is a good example of Ch’an art. (fig. 3.1). It’s subtlety of modeling is often remarked upon. The thick and thin brushstrokes that model the lightest of the persimmons make it seem to float in contrast to the dark one next to it.

figure 3.1

Six Persimmons by Mu Hsi; early 13th century

The Aesthetic Components

form In visual art, form comes first, for it is shape that gives the onlooker the basic sense of an object, such as tall, short, fat or slender, etc.

Distinct impressions of certain forms are generated between the object and the viewer.

What is form? In its everyday sense, form is the shape and the structure of anything. On the whole, this is a sufficient explanation; however, in art, since form is one of the major means of expressing and conveying sentiments and ideas, an additional essential element should be included in its definition, that is, aesthetic quality.

Thus the form that the artists creates will be an artistic form, which, in itself, will possess the power to convey a certain mood, be it comic, tragic, etc.

In China, before the advent of modern science, it was believed that the universe moved in a circular orbit, and that the shape of the earth was an immense square with the sides running east, south, west and north. In the humanities, the Confucian school stressed the rules of proper conduct, from sitting up straight to acting in strict accordance with the code of ethics. From childhood, Chinese are urged to develop in their conduct and in their character a combination of “the round and square,� namely, to be round and smooth in dealing with people, yet, at the same time, to be strict in self-discipline.

Thus, the shapes of the circle and square are deeply rooted in Chinese consciousness.

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The manifestations of the concept of combining the circle and square are reflected in many art forms. One such illustration is The Temple of Heaven in Peking (fig. 3.2), which conveys a feeling of dignity, sacredness, and the fullness of life. The general arrow shape pointing towards heaven arouses the sense of religious worship.

Since one cannot help being influenced by what one sees and hears, the forms one creates in art will inevitably be based upon one’s experience.

The forms conceived and established in Chinese art—calligraphy and painting—are both directly or indirectly influenced by nature.

Many Chinese brush strokes parallel forms observed in nature—the dot that looks like a “falling stone,” a “tiger’s claw,” an “eagle’s beak,” etc.; The stroke which resembles a “nail-head,” a “rat’s tail,” an “axe-cut,” etc. Chinese painting, as is well known, became recognized for its landscapes, which encompassed the poetically serene as well as the gaunt and grotesque, and also for its near-worship of even the smallest living creatures, the insects of the grasses and ponds. The aesthetic criterion in such works is not a facsimile of form, but rather an abstraction of its vital essence endowed by nature, its Tao or Ch’i.

In Chinese calligraphy, each word has a standard, accepted form. However, each character can take on a different appearance and expression, depending on the unique personality and

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figure 3.2

The Temple of Heaven in Peking

figure 3.3 Examples of Greater and Lesser Chuan styles (a) Right Stone Drum (b) Left Lesser Chuan

figure 3.5 examples of dots

figure 3.4 Examples of the word “to teach” in Tsao style. (a) top by Chang Hsu (b) bottom by Hwai Su

disposition of the individual artist. Art forms catch the viewer’s attention by their shape and structure, and they convey their message by their posture as well as the movement they indicate. In figure 3.3, there are two different styles of Chuan, Greater and Lesser Chuan. The Stone Drum form gives an impression of being heavy, calm, and exuding a warm feeling, whereas the Lesser Chuan impresses the onlooker in a quit different way—harsh, severe, and aloof, a reflection of the political climate of the age. Figure 3.4 shows the character “to teach” as written by the famous calligraphers Chang Hsu and Hwai Su of the 7th century. Although both wrote with lightning speed and individualized the form by means of distortion and exaggeration, Chang impresses the viewer by his heavy, carefree, and galloping manner while Monk Hwai Su achieves an entirely different expression, lighter and more controlled. Both, of course, give varying ways of how their personality reflects in the work.

line Line is an outstanding, obvious, definite form.

It attracts the viewer’s and will guide them on a tour of its wanderings.

Line is the major component of Chinese calligraphy. Lines define form, suggest space, connote surface, indicate movement. Even a dot may serve the same function as line.

In calligraphy, it is obvious that the characters are all composed of dots and lines. Dots are not circular in shape as in the West but vary in thickness, and their “tails” indicate direction of movement in the structure of the character (fig. 3.5). The gesturing creates the “one-breath” effect.

The first requirement for a good line or dot is to possess Li, vigorous strength. The so-called bone structure must be embedded in a line, so that it will appear solid and strong, as in the lines shown in the Greater and Lesser Chuan style of writing (fig. 3.3). When the artist draws this kind of line, he must do it one stroke, without hesitation, maintaining an even pressure and speed; he thereby injects tension between

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(a) the character

figure 3.7 (a) left lines with bone structure (b) right lines without bone structure

the two ends, as if the lines were being pulled

body and energetic movement, a product of Li

taut (fig. 3.7). The lines shown in figure 3.7b, in comparison with those in 3.7a, though they are equally strong, have considerably less impact of tension, which shows how important full “bone structure” is to a line.

According to its natural structure, a bamboo tree looks quite stiff and smooth on the surface, as illustrated in figure 3.7. However, in an artistic approach, this form must be dramatized so as to make it more interesting. To make the bamboo seem stronger and more forceful, it is necessary to give the straight lines a “bone structure.” Figure 3.7 suffices to show the difference in impact between the two presentations.

Li is not the only means of injecting life into an art work. Another even more important element is Ch’i—the atmospheric, one-breath performance. Actually, Li and Ch’i are like “body and soul”—inseparable. Let us take a dancer, for example. Li represents his strong body; Ch’i stands for his movements, the action which goes on and on, never chopped off, never halted.

Thus, the whole dance is a result of a strong

and Ch’i.

The character pi, which means “must,” in figure 3.8 is completed with both Li and Ch’i.

From stroke 1 to the final stroke 5, the whole action of writing is executed in one breath.

Though each stroke stands by itself, the Ch’i between the strokes is uninterrupted. The Ch’i actually serves as an invisible string to hold the five pieces together. Therefore, this character pi is alive.

Calligraphy does reflect of the artist’s mood and frame of mind at the moment of writing, as does a rendition by a pianist. Unless the writing is done in one sitting, there is great possibility of losing the Ch’i, or the coherence of the work.

For, upon the resumption, the mod is likely to have changed remarkably. In figure 3.9, the three words, wan li ching, or “the feeling of ten thousand miles.” sow the one-breath feeling, for each column was written in one sitting, without interruption. However, each column was written at different times of the day. Figure 3.9a was written in the morning, 3.9b was written

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(b) the sequence of its strokes

(c) the flow of the strokes figure 3.8 The illustration of “Ch’i” and “Li” qualities of the character “Pi”

at noon, and appears to be more energetic, 3.9c was written in the late evening, and looks a bit hesitating and weary. In order to avoid a broken Ch’i, a painting or calligraphy must be finished in one breath, or, at least, in one concentration.

space-consciousness Man’s feeling of space, it is believed, is an intuitive activity, and the psychological consciousness of space is constructed by the universal faculties of perception, such as the seeing and feeling. In viewing a Shang bronze, one can discern its monumental and solid quality. One can feel, also, the external and internal space for an architectural structure. Every art form produces a type of space-consciousness. What triggers the spirit of space-consciousness (k’ung chian kan) in Chinese art? The answer lies within the unique expression of Chinese calligraphy.

Chinese calligraphy is a rhythmic art. Unlike the Western word, which is a combination of many letters, a Chinese character is composed of different shapes and lines and dots, with each combination occupying a unit of space on paper. This unit of form is an arrangement where all parts, left, right, top, bottom, and the four corners, are perfectly balanced and echo each other — an architectural structure.

If a piece of calligraphy is well done, it should be a work of fine art creating the impression of space and depth. If each column is properly composed, one may see the har-

monious unity, just as one sees the continuous movement of the wave on a lake or the swaying of branches and leaves in a tree before a wind.

So, such a piece of calligraphy becomes a stream of life, a fugue, or a dance. As as been noted above, in the T’ang dynasty (7th cent.)

The great calligrapher Chang Hsu derived his Mad Grass style of writing, which is a vigorous script, from watching the word dance performed by Lady Kung Sun. And, in this same period, the famous painter Wu Tao-Tze improved his art of painting after he viewed a military dance by General P’ei Wan. There is, indeed, a feeling of space aroused by parallel movements in the arts of music, dance, and calligraphy. The Ch’i expressed in calligraphy is an essential means of creating the atmosphere of space, for space is the stage upon which all action and movement take place.

The Chinese attitude towards the cosmos is not a state of opposition. They have never tried to conquer nature. They love nature. People who blend themselves with nature will live with it harmoniously.

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figure 3.9 from left to right: (a) morning (b) noon (c) evening

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The Aesthetic Standard & Style

brushwork and ink Although Westerners in the past did not recognize black as a color, in China, black ink, known as Mo, has been considered the best color, as it offers infinite gradations of color tone.

Since black ink must perform the function of the whole color spectrum, the ink must be “alive,� that is, the ink must show effective tonal variations. No solid ink should be used in any part of a painting in order to avoid a static area.

Since Chinese ink is a highly transparent dye, the ink work must be clear and clean so as to avoid either an opaque or muddy appearance.

In evaluating brushwork, the Chinese look for economy of stroke. No greater portion of the brush should be utilized than is necessary to achieve the shape and texture desired. If one stroke is sufficient to gain an effort, one should be enough. With any unnecessary stroke, you lose freshness and spontaneity; the result looks overworked. A strong line inevitably suggests an inner, flowing movement. There must be movement throughout a composition, achieved through the turnings and foldings of the brush.

The brushwork cannot be static.

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The styles of calligraphy may well be divided into three categories: Kuan Ko, Shu Chia, and Wen Shu, which means respectively, academic or official, professional, and secretarial.

kuan ko or academic style Kuan refers to institution, and ko indicates an office or a studio where artists work. The term Kuan Ko actually means official-writers who generally belonged to the Academy, Han Lin Yuan, composed of erudite scholars who passed the final Civil Service examination of the Palace.

All Han Lin Yuan members were high ranking officials and also excellent calligraphers. Their duties were to draft and write documents for the Emperor. Their works, usually in the form of a couplet, were in great demand. The special characteristic of this style centers around the qualities of skillful brushwork, rich in color of the ink, and perfect balance in composition.

The general expression is very dignified.

shu chia or professional style In the Yuan (1260-1368) and Ch’ing (1644-1912) periods of foreign rule, many scholars and artist tried to find in the realm of art the political freedom which they had lost. They enjoyed this newly found artistic freedom because they were not bound by any rules of the Court.

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Many calligraphers who refused to tailer their style to commercial or Court needs and who preferred to work independently strove to develop their own styles. These are the professional artists of the past and the present, whose calligraphy falls into the category of fine art.

Generally, each artist specializes in particular, traditional style but amends its characteristics in his own fashion, and the style in fact identifies him. For example, in the twentieth century, Tung Tsuo-Pin specialized in Shell and Bone.

wen shu or secretarial style Today, as in the past, competent calligraphers are to be found in offices and secretaries, inscribing the correspondence and official documents of business, and they are frequenly called upon to prepare citations and other ceremonial pieces for celebrations, anniversaries, condolences, etc. Commercial advertisers, printers, publishers, etc., also need well qualified calligraphers. The type of calligraphy involved is usually very neat, stylized, and quite decorative for the sake of popular appeal.

ch. 6

the family “一 個 蘿 蔔 一 個 坑 兒 ” One radish, one hole.

Each has his own task, and nobody is dispensable.

Seal Script (chuan -shu)

篆 书

during the second half of the Ch’ing dynasty, due to the influence of archaeological studies and epigraphy—the study of bronze and stone inscriptions (chin shih hsueh)—many more calligraphers devoted themselves to the serious practice of writing seal and clerical scripts. The importance of this revival for seal and clerical scripts, and the stele inscriptions of the Six Dynasties period has been recognized by modern historians of calligraphy. However, the development of these scripts during the Sung, Yuan, Ming, and early Ch’in has been neglected. After the Ch’in and Han periods, when seal and clerical script gave way to the early forms of cursive, running, and standard scripts for daily writing, the archaic forms continued to be practiced by scholars and calligraphers.

There are a number of good works extant today in seal and clerical scripts to illustrate this fact.

seal script (chuan-shu) The seal script referred to be “lesser seal” script (hsiao-chuan), which first appeared in the Ch’in period (221-207 B.C.). Its development marked a final stage in the evolution of Chinese archaic scripts, from the early “shell and bone” type (chia ku wen) through “greater seal” script (da chuan), to the standardization of the earlier forms, or “lesser seal” script. Characters were no longer written large or small according to their complexity, but were spaced to fit an imaginary square. The strokes were of relatively even

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thickness, and the characters, uniform in size, were arranged in more orderly columns.

Until the chin shih hsueh movement of the mid-Ch’in, when calligraphers who practiced seal script spoke of chuan-shu they meant the so-called “lesser seal”. Pre-Ch’in calligraphers derived their forms for seal script from such intermediary sources as the Shuo-wen chieh tzu (ca. A.D. 100), the first comprehensive dictionary of etymology, compiled by Hsu Shen, and the stone stele inscriptions of Li Yang-ping of the T’ang dynasty. The main difference between pre-Ch’in and mid-Ch’in calligraphers, then, was that the latter went directly back to the Ch’in dynasty inscriptions, and, in addition, expanded their range of sources to include Han and Six Dynasties stele inscriptions and title heads (pei-e). It was the breadth, variety, and historicity of these “newer” sources that enabled the mid-Ch’ing calligraphers to break out of the older conventions of the seal script practiced by earlier masters.

figure 6.0a Small seal script evolved from great seal script in 221 B.C.E.

seal script of the ch’in dynasty Li Ssu (d. 208 B.C.), chief minister to Ch’in Shih-huang, the first emperor of China, is credited with unifying seal script. The I-shan-pei (219 B.C.), is his most famous attributed work, but its importance is diminished by the fact that the original stele was destroyed before the eighth century, the extant one being a re-carving based on a tenth-century copy, dated 219

figure 6.1 Li Ssu (d. 208 B.C.) Lang-yeh-t’ai

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B.C. (fig. 6.1), is believed to be the only genuine work by Li Ssu. Figure 6.2 is a print from a Ch’in bronze vessel, an oval shaped standard measuring utensil. The writing is Lesser Chuan, whose chief characteristic is an oblong, slim, curvilinear structure, highly decorative. Under the Ch’in dictatorship, the law was extremely severe, and this feature is reflected in the writing. The orderliness of the composition creates a very formal impression; in fact, the size of the words is quite uniform, with each word fitted exactly into even-sized spaces. Strict discipline is evident. Although the brushwork technique is outstanding, it lacks any free expression. Since the calligrapher had to be painstaking in the execution of this highly artificial writing, Lesser chuan did not last very long, and was soon replaced by the Li Style. However, Lesser Chuan became popular as a style for seal engraving, and is used even today for this purpose.

The beauty and unique contribution of Lesser Chuan lie in its exquisite rendering of center brush strokes, the most important technique for an artist to master, for it is these strokes which depict the strength and vigor of linear shape. Since Lesser Chuan lines are slim and long, the spirit and quality of these lines can be clearly seen.

seal script of the early ming dynasty The main achievement of the Ming dynasty was its running and cursive scripts. Before discussing the achievements of Li Tung-yang (14471516), the predominant figure of Ming seal script, some of his precursors should be briefly considered.

Chin Yu-tzu (1368-1431) was a Hanlin scholar and one of a group, including Yang Shih-ch’i, Ch’ien I, and Hsieh Chin, all of whom served as high counselors under the Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsuan-te Emperors. Chin’s extant works are rare, but among them is a title-piece in a conventional seal-style to an epitaph written by Shen Tu (1357-1434).

Ch’eng Nan-yun (active ca. 1403-36) was summoned to the court of the Yung-lo Emperor because of his skill as a calligrapher. One of his several extant works in seal script is the frontispiece to Fang Ts’ung-i’s “Cloudy Mountains” (fig.

6.3), in which Ch’eng emphasized the design potential of the script, arranging curcing lines and empty spaces symmetrically. The thickness of the strokes is even, and their smooth rounded ends required masterful control. On the whole, Ch’eng’s style is memorably for its elegant and decorative, if slightly static, quality.

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figure 6.0b (page 96; top) Stone slab with twelve small seal characters figure 6.3 (page 96; bottom) Ch’eng Nan-yun’s piece “Cloudy Mountains.” fig. 7.2 (above) Lesser Chuan style from Ch’in bronze. 7.9 inches; with handle, width and height respectively 31 cm x 16 cm.

Clerical Script (li-shu)

隸 書

the development of clerical script before the mid-Ch’ing pei-hsueh movement generally parallels that of seal script. Derived from “lesser-seal” script, it reached its height in the Eastern Han period (A.D. 25-220); it subsequently, the Chinese writing system underwent further formal changes, evolving toward the early k’ai-shu, or standard script form. As the new script became more convenient to use, it supplanted clerical script for daily usage. Thus, after the Han, clerical script suffered a gradual decline, becoming an archaic form practiced by a relatively small number of calligraphers.

Clerical script represented a major turning point in the evolution of Chinese script which led directly into the modern forms. From seal to clerical script, the main changes took place in brushwork and structure: an even-pressured, contained stroke yielded to modulated, flaring brush movements, and curves were supplanted by straight lines and angles. This marked the beginning of a realization of the brush’s potential for expressive movement and articulated forms.

figure 6.6 Li Ch’i; ritual vessels tablet. Considered to be the best example of Li style extant

The big advantage of the clerical script is the speed of its execution. First used by the common people, it soon became the popular vehicle for everyone. Unlike the rectangular, vertical shape of the Lesser Chuan style, the Clerical style is horizontal (fig. 6.4-6.5).

Starting with the clerical style, full-fledged brushwork comes into evidence. There are round, square, wedged shapes, triangular and hooked strokes, which is the first evidence of the use of the folding or rolling side brush. The side of the brush is being used from the very tip to the heel; a wide range of pressure is utilized, which causes change in the rhythm of the stroke; the turning of the brush in completing a stroke gives a continuous flow to that line and contributes to the harmonious movement within the composition. The use of these techniques injects a liveliness into the brushwork.

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When the “civil examination system� was established during the Han dynasty, good penmanship became a requisite; this and the fact that it was part of one of the six arts taught at the Confucius School, greatly stimulated the art of calligraphy. Many fine calligraphers emerged, such as Hsu Shen (58-149), Tsuei Yuen (77-142), Chang Chih (?-193), and others. The most celebrated of these was Tsai Yung, who, at the request of emperor Ling-Ti, undertook a very ambitious commission to write a series of Confucian classics on stone, which were subsequently engraved by a team of craftsmen. With the passing of time the original stone tablets were gradually lost, and only a few fragments are extant today (fig. 6.4). The series of clerical stone inscriptions served as textbooks for students, and that is probably why the writing is so even and regular, instead of artistic.

figure 6.4 Hsi Ping Stone Textbook.

Total of 64 pieces of stone tablets written in Li style by Tsai Yung (132-192). The illustration on the left was a section of the Book of Odes.

In the first half of the Han period (c. 2cd and 1st cent. B.C.), the clerical style was commonly used, but it was still evolving, evident from the fact that some of the earlier examples retain some Chuan flavor. However, the popular Ba Fen form of the clerical style gained wider acceptance (fig. 6.5). This style is marked by the strokes stretching to the sides, both to the left and right, known as “Number 8” strokes. It

The lines are strong but not stuff. Each character, skillfully constructed, is self-contained, yet its structure contributes to the total harmony.

There is subtle variation in the components of the characters, particularly in the shapes which are identical in form; thus, the symmetry is not rigid, creating a great feeling of movement. The expression of the brushwork looks extremely free; however, the complete order is maintained.

is obvious that it takes much less time to write than the previous Chuan. It is indeed a very sophisticated and beautiful style.

Among all the fine examples of Clerical style, the Ritual Vessels Tablet (fig. 6.6) has been considered the best. The brushwork is so superb that it led the famous calligrapher Kuo TsungChang of the Ming dynasty to question whether it had been done by human hands, praise which has been echoed by scholars and artists throughout the ages.

As one examines this piece, written on stone, one is struck by its excellence. It possess all the qualities a fine piece of calligraphy should have.

There is no crowding, either in the structure of the characters or in their position within the column. They indeed seem “comfortable” and “loose” in their niches. Despite this airy feeling, the composition is tight, with an excellent horizontal and vertical order, yet an order which is not mechanically rigid.

With the accomplishment of this piece, it is safe to say that the art of brushwork had been firmly established. Also, calligraphy as an art had reached a high plateau. As the clerical style spread throughout the Han empire for a period of 400 years, both the Greater and Lesser Chuan receded. The clerical style became the most influential style in Chinese calligraphy.

figure 6.5 Kung Chou Stone Tablet. Ba Fen style, a form of Li writing.

figure 6.0c Spring Couplet in Clerical style

Cursive Script (tsao-shu)

� 書

the evolution of Chinese script has been toward ever simpler and more expedient forms of writing. This process best characterizes the rise and early development of cursive script (tsao-shu). In the later phase of its development interest in the aesthetic potential of cursive as a medium for freer artistic expression became apparent. From the fourth century onward, cursive writing was chief means by which master calligraphers expressed their individuality. Each new generation was able to capture the spirit and energy of its age through the cursive medium, regardless of the rise and fall of the other scripts, a tribute to its efficacy and longevity as a script type.

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definitions Several traditional theories about the origin of cursive script exist; those supported by archaeological evidence date it to the late Ch’in (221-207 B.C.) and early Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) periods. It is important to remember that cursive script arose with clerical during this time, and that both scripts underwent concurrent evolutionary changes.

There are three stages to the evolution of tsao-shu: (a) chang-tsao, “draft-cursive”, the earliest form of cursive (b) chin-tsao, “modern” cursive, or simply “cursive”, which developed by the second century A.D.; (c) k’uang-tsao, “mad” or “wild” cursive, a later type introduced in the eighth century A.D.

draft-cursive (chang-tsao) Draft-cursive was widely practiced by the Eastern Han period (A.D. 25-220) and answered the need for a quicker, simplified form of the then-current clerical (li-shu) script. Although the basic brushwork was derived from clerical, draft-cursive stressed the action to he brush tip, abbreviating or linking several strokes into one or two movements. Some strokes emphasized a “flared” or “wave-like” flick of the brush characteristic of clerical methods. Developed out of practical needs, the simplified forms and new

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symbols of draft-cursive were introduced as substitutes for the older, more complex forms in use, and constituted, in fact, an informal shorthand.

“modern” cursive (chin-tsao) By the late Han and Wei periods, when formal writing had developed from clerical to early variants of standard and running script, draft-cursive underwent further change. The flared, wave-like strokes, brief repetitive rhythms, occasional stroke linkages, and emphasis of dots over lines gradually evolved into more sustained and carefully articulated brush movements. Connections between two or more characteristics in a vertical column also developed. These changes led to the second cursive form chin-tsao, or “modern cursive,” most probably derived from a combination of draft-curisve, the contemporary running, and early standard strokes, abbreviated and linked together.

Traditionally, Chang Chih (ca. A.D. 150) is credited with the invention of “modern cursive.”

By the Tsin period evidence of these scripts were being practiced for more than utilitarian writing needs may be seen in the work of the leading artists of the time: Wang Hsi-chih (303?-361?), his son Hsien-chih (344-388). General Wang Hsi-Chih created a continuous manner of writing, that is, he wrote a whole column of script without lifting his brush, producing a

kind of spiral, word by word, from top to bottom. This technique gives an undisturbed onebreath feeling to the entire composition (fig.

6.7). The Duck Head Pill Note and Mid-Autumn Note are considered his masterpieces in tsao style. His influence upon the later development of Chinese art was most significant. In this respect, the development of cursive script as a generic type was revolutionary in the history of calligraphy because it offered a new horizon of aesthetic potential for the brush.

“wild” cursive (k’uang tsao) The artistic possibilities of cursive writing would be more fully demonstrated several centuries later in the T’ang period (618-907) with the introduction of the third form, k’uangtsao, “wild” or “mad” cursive. During the reign of the Emperor Hsuan-tsung (r. 712-756),

literature and art flourished and a new type of cursive writing began to evolve in the hands of scholars and calligraphers. The writing of Wang Hsien-chih was considered the prototype and inspiration for this script style. Its highest achievement was reached by Chang Hsu (ca. 700-750). Chang was a highly emotional person. He once watched the performance of Kung-Sun Ta-Niang, a female sword-dancer, and claimed he experienced a deep inspiration, from which his skill at wielding the brush had much improved. As in Figure 6.8, the rising and falling rhythm of his calligraphy can, indeed, be compared with the movement of dancing. The brush to him is like the wood in General Pei’s hand; both arouse an emotional sensation. In his works, Chang Hsu is entirely absorbed in his own emotional drama, forgetting all about established rules. In the Stomach Ache Note

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(fig. 6.8) he did not care about the structure of the characters, but instead used distortion and exaggeration to the utmost degree so as to satisfy his own thirst for an emotional outlet. Chang Hsu was well known for his wine drinking. He usually performed after a good drinking. When he was sober, he sometimes could not identify some of the words he had written. Notice the two columns in figure 6.8 there is one word on the left and five on the right. Although these two columns seems to be leaning and falling over, they stand comfortably together and complement each other. The word Han on the left is more than five times larger than any word on the other side. In his time, no other artist dared to break established rules and go as far as Chang did. Chang certainly had mastered all the rules so well that he could improvise his own. Figure 6.9 is an example of

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another famous artist’s work, the Holy Mother Album by the monk artist, and Chang Hsu’s follower, Huai-su (ca. 735-800?). Huai-su’s nickname, “wild monk” (k’uang-seng), later became attached to this highly expressive style (fig. 6.9).

However, he held himself under great restraint when he wrote the Holy Mother Album.

The chief difference between these two masters’ work lies in the fact that Chang Hsu stressed the joints of the strokes more and hesitated longer at each turning point, while Hwai Su seldom made stops at the turns. Instead, he kept going at an even rhythm, a kind of swirling and rotating movement.

Among the famous Ming calligraphers, ChuYuen-Ming was the most popular. The artist was the most influential figure next to Chao Meng-Fu of the Yuan dynasty. His favorite style was mad cursive. His style of writing won him

figure 6.7 (page 104; left) (a)left Duck Head Pill Note (b)right Mid-autumn Note figure. 6.8 (page 104; right) Stomach Ache Note.

Part of a note by Chang Hsu. Typical example of his famous “Mad Grass” style” fig. 6.9 (left) Holy Mother Album. Part of the album written by Hwai Su. Represnts formular tsai style. fig. 6.10 (right) Mad grass style by Chu Yuen-Ming figure 6.11 Li Po’s Drinking Wine under Moonlight Poem. An example of the Tsao style of writing by Tung Ch’iChang. figure 6.0d Happy New Year in cursive script

great fame (fig. 6.10). Here, we are conscious of his natural, carefree handling of the brush. He was not bound by any traditional rules. Notice the motion of the lines, and the completion of the piece in one breath; there was no hesitation in the execution. One line runs into another, a constant flow. Because of the high speed of the brush, there is much split brush, giving a dry textural effect and these dry, undefined parts of

Wan Li period (1573-1620), the most celebrated artist was Tung Ch’i-Chang. He was a well read scholar and a popular art critic. The Second Emperor of the Ch’ing dynasty, Kang Hsi, was an admirer of his work, actually a great promoter of his art. The example shown in figure 6.11, a mad cursive style, shows the typical manner in which he wrote. His style reveals good literary taste, which reflects his scholarly interests.

the lines are highly suggestive, creating much artistic interest and offering ample room for the imagination of the onlooker.

By the latter part of the Ming dynasty, the

Since he was a favorite of the government, his calligraphy became idolized.

Compared to prior cursive styles, “wild” cursive had more connections between strokes and between characters in a column. The resultant shapes were often extreme and exaggerated and appear to have been written rapidly and in a state of exhilaration. Freest and most eccentric of all writing styles, “wild” cursive was developed for purely artistic reasons and represented the extreme of calligraphic self-expression.

Running Script (hsing-shu)

行 書

stylistically running script combines the legibility of standard script with the artistic freedom of cursive. The components of each character tend to be linked together and partially simplified; however, strokes are not eliminated, nor is a new symbol substituted, as in cursive writing.

Running script is believed to be a simplification of the early standard forms; but it is also accurate to recognize the origin of both running and standard in clerical script. Only after the Han dynasty did running and standard develop into stabilized and independent script types. Liu Te-shen of the Eastern Han period (A.D. 25-220) is traditionally credited with the invention of running script, but its most famous early proponents were Chung Yu (151-230) of the Wei, and Wang Hsi-chih (303?-361?) and Wang Hsien-chih (344-388) of the Tsin period.

The running, running-standard, and standard styles of these early masters formed the core of the important Yuan and Ming “revivals of antiquity” which so revitalized later calligraphy.

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As with cursive, the development of running script, freer and more informal than the early seal and clerical types, greatly expanded the scope of artistic possibilities for calligraphers.

After the Tsin, the T’ang period witnessed the rise of two calligraphic extremes: the strict mature standard and the free “wild” cursive.

During the Sung, the major development took place in running script, even though cursive

emblematic of high state of Sung dynasty culture in general.

The concept of handwriting as a mirror of human personality was understood in the Han period and honored as part of an aesthetic in the Tsin period. But with the Sung masters, the degree of individuality was commensurate with their stature as men of letters and signified a departure in both style and substance from the

and mixtures of both were also common.

The Four Great Masters of the Northern Sung, Ts’ai Hsiang (1012-67), Su Shih (10361101), Huang T’ing-chien (1045-1105), and Mi Fu (1051-1107) all wrote in cursive and standard scripts, but their special achievement was in running script. This new form was called sungk’ai, a form of hsing-k’ai (“informal regular” or “running standard” script).

The Sung masters’ uniquely individual styles were of far-ranging importance in the history of calligraphy. Their running styles were truly “personal”—expressive of their complex personalities as poets, statesmen, connoisseurs and critics. Indeed, their achievements were

aristocratic styles of the Two Wangs, which depended on privileged family tradition and the pure artistic cultivation of calligraphy. The Sung masters initiated a trend toward more personal—even idiosyncratic—styles, which, in reflecting one’s character rather than one’s class, established a new standard within reach of all scholars. Calligraphy became a more democratic art.

Works by the Four Masters are rare. There are no examples by Ts’ai Hsiang or Su Shih in Western collections.

figure 6.12 Scroll for Chang Ta-t’ung

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huang t’ing-chien (1045-1105)

6.13a

6.13b

Huang T’ing chien wrote this work Scroll for Chang Ta-t’ung, dated 1100 (fig. 6.12), for his nephew who had traveled to Jungchou, Szechuan, with his mother to visit Huang in exile.

It is one of five famous scrolls which Huang executed in large-sized running script and represents the summit of his career as a calligrapher. While Huang’s dated works span a period of twenty years, his monumental writings were written under the hardship of political exile, some seven years before his death.

Huang was a decade younger than the famous poet-statesman-calligrapher Su Shih, and became close to Su’s notice through his poetry.

They became close friends. Su once playfully commented on Huang’s calligraphy, saying that it was sometimes too thin, resembling “snakes dangling from treetops.” The metaphor capture the tense natural poise and stroke energy of Huang’s distinctive hand.

Two key brush methods characterize his personal style: using a “suspended wrist and arm” (hsuan-wan) while writing, and “implying full strength during the execution of each stroke” (pi-chung yung-li). They account for such personal stylistic features as elongated strokes extending from a central structure and an asymmetrical balance of individual characters, often with he internal lines organized in opposition or parallel arrangement. This asymmetry also governed his columnar spacing,

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figure 6.14 Mi Fu’s Sailing on the Wu River

where characters were shifted from side to side or upward into neighboring spaces. This spacing was derived from his experiments in cursive and from the influence of Huai-su’s style. The rounded, substantial brush lines of his cursive writing also appear in his running script.

Huang T’ing-chien’s running style was among the most personally expressive in the history of calligraphy. Without being strange or eccentric, he extended the boundary of orthodox literati taste. His legacy to succeeding generations was a spirit of independence which became the mainstay of Southern Sung calligraphers.

mi fu (1051-1107) Since the Tsin period, when the aesthetic appreciation of calligraphy reached an early height, the personal letter Three Letters (fig. 6.13) was a chief vehicle for calligraphic expression. When composing a letter the calligrapher, aware of

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its aesthetic as well as communicative functions, took pride in both its artistic and literary presentation. Although by the T’ang and Sung periods other formats, such as the hand scroll, gained in popularity, the letter retained its traditional importance and continued to be regarded as a work of art.

Running script was the type most commonly used in letters. Essentially the freehand or daily script of every calligrapher, it revealed his training in the styles of the old masters.

The three letters by Mi Fu are not dated and key phrases in the texts provide their titles.

“Abundant Harvest” (sui-feng t’ieh) (fig. 6.13a) is the most serious in tone. Mi Fu, in office during a successful harvest, addresses a colleague who has just assumed an official post and advises him on how to govern his new district. The second letter, “Escaping Summer Heat” (t’aoshu t’ieh) (fig. 6.13b), speaks of retreating to the mountain during the oppressive heat. “Hasty Reply before Guests” (tui-k’o ts’ao-ts’ao) (fig.

6.13c) is a reply to a friend’s letter sent to Mi by a messenger who arrived while Mi was entertaining some guests. He brushed a quick response, and not surprisingly, this is the least “finished” of the three, freest and most cursive.

In the view of the wide range of styles found in Mi’s oeuvre, the style of the three letters is strikingly consistent, especially when compared to larger and more exuberant works, such as his

His sensitive brush differs fundamentally from the inner weight and power of Huang T’ing-chien’s. The characteristics of each artist remain consistent through variations in script and character size.

“Sailing on the Wu River” (fig. 6.14). The letters are written in a modest hand, with the characters balanced in slight asymmetry. The brush is wielded with relatively even pressure, using predominantly brush tip action and fine motions.

The tall characters are compactly constructed; the verticals characteristically arch inward at the apex. All three letters evidence Mi’s study of the Tsin and T’ang masters and his specific attention to brushwork.

Brushwork mirrors the artistic personality, and Mi Fu and Huang T’ing-chien offer a striking contrast. While Huang T’ing-chien’s brush pace is slow and steady, Mi’s brush moves alternately fast and slow, changing quickly in rhythmic bursts. Although Huang’s brushwork is self-contained and introspective, his compositions stretch and tangle. Inversely, Mi’s compositions are contained, but his brushwork has an extroverted and expansive enthusiasm expressed through a series of movements which are supple yet firm, crisp yet soft.

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figure 6.0e Huang Tingjian (1045-1105 CE) Poems by Hanshan and the Hermit Pang Yun

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Standard Script (k’ai-shu)

楷 書

standard script was the last of the formal script types in the evolutionary sequence. It developed from clerical script around the end of the Han dynasty, but it was not until the Sui (581-618) and early T’ang periods (618-906) that the various generically related types stabilized into the configuration known as “standard” script.

K’ai means “standard” and “formal”; it is also called chen which means “precise” and “neat,” like print, or cheng, which means “straight” or “upright.” In its expression, K’ai is dignified, highly restrained. It is the formal script one would use to write to his superior, head of government, and so on. K’ai has a beauty of orderly design and an aura of tranquility.

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Technically, standard script combined the most advanced brush techniques of the different script types which had developed in the intervening years. Formal changes could be seen in specific strokes, such as the right and left descending diagonal strokes and the right and left hook strokes. Standard script entailed extra movements, pauses, and changes of brush direction, as well as variations in pressure and

This expression of his work reveals a somewhat serious attitude.

The most outstanding calligrapher of China was Wang Hsi-Chih, who was also known as General Wang (307-365). He represents the summit of the art of Chinese calligraphy. He was a master of all the new styles: clerical, cursive, and standard.

The Canons of Longevity (fig. 6.18) was one of

speed. Some technical innovations were derived from running and cursive scripts which link, or tend to link, succeeding strokes; a tall rectangular structure was the outcome of the downward movement of the characters in the column.

Utilizing the newest methods, standard script was also the most legible and convenient form of writing.

Under the Wei regime (c. 3rd cent.), Chung Yu was considered to be the leading calligrapher and the first master of K’ai; many artists adopted his style of writing and his influence was great. In one of his works (fig. 6.15), one can discern at a glance that here is a style entirely different from clerical script or Ba Fen. The shape of each word is neither elongated nor horizontally stretched; it is more square in its composition. There is infinite variety in the brush strokes,. The size of the characters is not regulated. The vertical lines in the second column on the right are not mechanically parallel, and shows a lively, free-hand spirit.

his masterpieces. The characters, as shown, are small-approximately the actual size of the original writing. This style, called the Lesser Chuan, is used today for the writing of documents, examinations, official reports, and the like. It is a standard style of writing. Wang’s writing is effortless. The characters are well spaced and seem comfortable in their arrangement; each word, even each stroke, is very natural and shows no hesitation or laboriousness.

figure 6.15

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Cold Snow Note by Chung Yu. This work represents the earliest example of Standard style.

In the cliff writing shown in figure 6.16, one seems to see two giants standing solemnly on top of a hill with their chests out and their eyes gazing straight ahead. Since the brush strokes reveal a feeling of fleshy roundness, the tool he used must have been a soft kind of fur, most likely goat hair. A special mark which identifies Yen’s distinctive style is the Cheh stroke (the “axe”, which usually goes to the “four o’clock” po-

figure 6.17 Hsuan Mi Pagoda Tablet. Liu Kung-Ch’uang’s art of calligraphy

Besides General Wang, who in China was called the “first prophet” of calligraphy, there was Yen Ch’en-Ch’ing (709-785), who was considered the “second prophet” and whose influence on the future development of calligraphy was equally significant as Wang’s.

In the Confucian Chinese culture, an artist’s popularity and success rested not only on his skill but also on his moral standards and his righteous conduct. Yen Ch’en-Ch’ing held many high offices. In his retirement, at the age of seventy-six, he went to deal with a rebellious group, and met death in the performance of his duty. His style of writing reflects perfectly his righteous personality.

sition, as seen in the fourth word on the left in figure 6.16. The calligrapher must reach the end of the stroke with a momentary hesitation and form a heel; then, lifting the brush, and using the tip only, finish the tapered end of the whole stroke. The timing involved in the execution of this stroke is crucial; only an accomplished calligrapher can handle the technique.

There was another famous calligrapher named Liu Kung-Ch’uan who enjoyed almost equal prestige with Yen and whose style of writing was imitated by many. His lines are clear cut, the bone structure so obvious, one can very easily study the calligraphic framework of the characters, and, thus, his works are widely used in schools in the teaching of penmanship.

When people mention the K’ai style, Liu is often coupled with Yen. In comparing Liu’s work, in figure 6.17, one can see reflected the difference in the personality between Yen and Liu; the disciplined Yen versus the energetic and freer Liu. Liu’s special trait is the harsh bony lines, whereas Yen’s style

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consists of well-fleshed ones. Yen stressed both square and round shapes in his structure of the characters, but Liu imparted some contrasting effects, such as variations in the size of the words within the vertical and horizontal orders.

Besides Yen of the middle T’ang (c. 8th cent.) and Liu of the Late T’ang (c. 9th cent.), there were three masters of the early T’ang (c. 7th cent.) who should not be neglected: Yu ShihNan, O-Yang Hsuen, and Chu Swei-Liang.

Yu Shih-Nan (558-638) followed the traditional school; he was a devotee of the two Wangs, the General and his seventh son, Wang Hsian-Chih. He studied the art of calligraphy under the well known monk, Chih Yung, who was the seventh-generation descendant of General Wang. Yu had a very vast knowledge of calligraphy and fertile talents. A representative piece, Confucius Temple Tablet, shown in figure 6.19, was executed when he was in his seventies.

A gentle and serene expression is demonstrated.

O-Yang Hsuen had also gained prominence before the T’ang time. At first he was an adherent of the Wang school, but finally developed his own style, which has been widely copied.

The identity of personal style is a combination of Li and Ba Fen flavor. His popular work was the Chiu Cheng Kung Li Ch’uan Ming, shown in figure 6.20, which he wrote at the age of seventy-six. His style is solid and suave—elegant, gentle, and beautiful.

Chu Swei-Liang (596-658) was a disciple of

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figure 6.16 Yen Ch’en-Ch’ing’s style of calligraphy. On the left, a part of Ma-Koo Immortal’s Temple.

O-Yang Hsuen. He had assisted the Emperor Tai Tsung in selecting many of General Wang’s works for the palace collection; this provided him excellent opportunity to study Wang’s writing at first hand, and it is undoubtedly why there is so much of Wang’s influence in his work.

Although K’ai developed as the most used script in formal writing, such as publications, official reports and correspondence, legal contracts, etc., it has maintained a niche in the artistic calligraphic domain.

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figure 6.18 Hwang Ting Ching [Canons of Longetivity]. Example is a precise copy of Wang Hsi-Chih’s handwriting made by the T’ang master, Chu Swei-Liang.

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figure 6.19 Confucius Temple Tablet.

Yu Shih-Nan wrote this masterpiece in Standard style at the age of 70

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figure 6.20 Chiu cheng Kung Li Ch’uan Ming O-Yang Hsuen wrote this in standard style as well

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part three

within the paper

ch. 4

the ingredients “青 出 於 藍 而 勝 於 藍” Indigo blue is obtained from the indigo plant, but such color is bluer than the plant itself comes forth.

The Tools

the tools used in Chinese art are neither numerous nor complicated. The principal ones are the so-called “four gems of the study,� namely, the brush, the paper, the ink and the inkstone.

the brush The major tool is the brush (pi). Its invention dates back several millenia. Because of its flexibility, one can produce in one stroke the form of various objects.

The principal material for the brush head is animal fur. In fact, any animal fur can be used, but the most common are weasel, deer, rabbit, and goat. Some are hard furs, others, soft. therefore, brushes are generally calssified into two major categories: Chian Hao (hard-type furs) and Jou Hao (soft-type furs). The former, such as weasel, have more elasticity; the latter, such as goat, are softer and therefore weaker in their spring. Needless to say, the strong-fur brushes offer more support in making a firm line, as a steel pen would. However, many professional artists favor goat-hair brushes, for the mere reason that a softer-fur brush, though harder to control, offers more possibilities in the variations of the strokes. Non-artists may favor goat-hair for its inexpensiveness. Above all, the softer brush creates accidental effects of brushwork, thus adding much interest to the quality of the lines.

the ingredients

Manufacturers of brushes can be found everywhere in China. The most famous place is Hu Chow in the Che-Kiang province, near the famous Lake Tai Hu, not far from Shanghai.

The brushes produced there are noted for their excellent quality.

Only the fur from healthy animals should be used, and the longer the hair, the more desireable. Clusters of fur with hair of equal length are

been cut to receive the flat brush end; this is gluid in with molten rosin. Too much rosin can cause the bamboo to crack; too little, and the brush will not stay securely. The holder should be stiff, straight, and with little defect in texture.

The brush head is finally given a protective glue coating and fitted with a cap.

The most commonly used brushes fal into two major categories: those used for writing

used to make cone-shaped brushes in varying sizes. These hairs must be carefully degreased so as to hold ink and water and are blended with plant fibers, usually hemp, to obtain the desired degree of softness. The fibers are also used to hold the bristles together when the brush is saturated with water or ink.

The clusters are combed (with a shorttoothed, longhandled comb, about 1�x10�, made either of wood or buffalo horn), washed thoroughly, and trimmed to eliminate all hair which is not uniform. A suitable number of these clusters are selected and treated with an adhesive to form the rounded brush head, and give it its conical shape. The root ends are cut flat. Each fur cone is encased with a thin layer of pure fur to give it a decorative sheath.

A brush head is thoroughly dried (first on a bed of charcoal ashes, then, tied onto weighted strings, air-dried) and inserted into a holder, its handle (usually bamboo but at times wood, horn, ivory, or even porcelain) in which an indentation about a quarter-of-an-inch has

larger characters are called Da-Kai Pi, and the smaller ones, for letters and documents, are known as Hsiao-Kai Pi. However, there are extra large ones for large sign writing and extra fine ones for such painstaking work as Kung Pi. When using a new brush, its protective glue coating must be thoroughly washed out in lukewarm water and the bristles gently loosened. The cover which comes with a new brush will not fit the head once the protective coating is washed out, and should be discarded. After each use, the brush should be washed thoroughly and hung to air dry, or wrapped in a bamboo mat.

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the paper In general, Chinese paper can be divided into two major categories: raw (untreated) and mature. The former is soft and very absorbent, somewhat like blotting paper. The best and most commonly used for calligraphy is Hsuan paper, produced in the city of Hsuan, An-Hwei province.

There are many kinds of Hsuan paper. The very thin type is called Dan Hsuan, or single-layer Hsuan paper. It is extremely porous and absorbent,a nd on it the ink runs fast and bleeds quickly. It is hard to control, yet experts love the “sensitivity” of this paper. It was the favorite paper of such masters as Wu Ch’angShuo and Ch’i Pai-Shih. The double layer type is called Chia Hsuan. It is equally absorbant, but the water or ink does not run as fast, and therefore, the ink is more easily controlled.

The half-raw and half-treated type is called Chu-Chuei. This is a half mature paper. “Mature” paper has been given a special kind of treatment; usually a certain amount of alum is

added to seal somewhat the porous texture of the paper, so that it will be less absorbent. Yu Ban Hsuan, or jade slab paper, is well soaked in the alum substance and consequently slow in reacting to water or ink. It does urn or bleed, but very slowly. Another kind of commercially treated Hsuan paper is Hu Pi Hsuan, or Tiger skin, which is dyed an orange color with a tigerskin-like pattern. It is used for writing couplets for social occasions, such as birthdays, or the opening of an art show.

Apart from Hsuan paper, which is considered orthodox, other kinds of paper are used.

Among the popular ones are Mao Bian paper, which is made of straw or grass, and Chu paper,

the ingredients

or bamboo paper, chiefly from the bamboo plant. These two are generally half treated with alu. Kao-Li paper, or Korean paper, has a heavy hemp mixture and is quite strong, almost like parchment. Although its common uses are for kites or covering windows in lieu of glass, for it holds in the heat well, some artists occasionally use it for both writing and painting. This Kao-Li paper is very similar to the Japanese hemp paper, which is a popular art supply in Japan. This paper, if treated with alumb, will become ahrd and will not absorb water like Western paper.

the ink In Chinese traditional art, water color has been the formal medium for both calligraphy and painting. Oil has never been used as a base in mixing pigments, except the vermillion ink for seals. Even in the cave linen frescoes, as in Tun Huang, opaque colors were used, somewhat like egg tempera, but they were all prepared in glue (undoubtedly fro animals) and water.

Chinese ink, which dates back to archaic times, is made from the soot of burnt wood.

The most famous ink is made of the pine in the Yellow Mountain area, in An-Hwei province, known as the Pine Smoke of Yellow Mountain.

The ink is prepared by first burning the pine, then grinding the soot of the smoke, purifying it, and the resulting fine powder is mixed with animal glue. It is then molded into various shapes, either in the cylindric or in the more

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popular rectangular block bar. The ink sticks are often decorated with landscape designs in rich colors, such as turquoise blue and green, gold, and silver. The ink also comes in other shapes, such as hexagonal, round, oblong, etc. For the purpose of collection or use for special gifts, one can have the ink made to order in whatever shape and pattern one desires, and with special inscriptions molded on the bar. Popular inks often bear brand names. Among the most popular are “Dragon Gate,” “Lavender Jade Light,” etc.

Ink sticks vary a good deal in size. Some weigh one “catty” (16 ounces), and are ten inches high and one-and-a-half inches in diameter, made for the use of professional artists. For everyday use two or four ounce bars are sufficient.

page 68 Assortment of brushes page 69 Rice paper page 70 Ink page 71 Inkstone and Ink stick

The superiority of Chinese ink lies in its delicate, fine, and smooth color tone. It is transparent. It is water-proof, i.e., once it i used on the paper it becomes permanent and will last for centuries without fading. The ink on early scripts and paintings excavated from the Chu tomb in Ch’ang Sha has remained unchanged, although dating back as far as the 5th century B.C. The color of the ink in teh widely reproduced painting.

the inkstone The inkstone, or inkwell, is made of natural rock. The most common shape is rectagular or round, with a circular indentation, a well in which to grind the ink. The size varies a great deal. For ordinary use, people choose the small ones, with a grinding well about four inches in

diameter. Calligraphers need larger ones, for they need more freshly gorund ink.

The quality of the stone is important. If the stone is too fine, its surface will be too smooth and it would take too much time to grind enough ink paste. If it is too coarse, then, the surface would be too rough to produce an ink that is fine enough and therefore suitable for brushwork. The stone commonly used is somewhat like slate or silkstone. In China, ancient tiles, particularly those of the Han period, are treasured as excellent material for making inkstones. The well-known Twan Yan, a special kind of fine stone, is produced in quarries in Tuan-Hsi, Kao Yao in Kwang Tung province. Its color is liver-red. There are olive-green spots in the stone, which are called the “eyes� and considered invaluable. The edges of an inkstone are,

the ingredients

as a rule, decorated with all sorts of carvings, such as locusts, fish, dragon, and lotus flowers, done by expert carvers.

Scholars and artists all treasure their inkstone. Good inkstones are usually kept in exquisite boxes of ebony or redwood; they look highly decorative on the desk and are well worth the close care and admiration of connoisseurs.

bottom of the inkstone will get smaller all the time, and it will take longer to reach the proper consistency.

If too much pressure is used, the paste will be too coarse; if the pressure is too light, it may take a long time to get the proper paste. Experience will show the correct pressure.

Grinding ink is salutary. It calms one down; one can plan the composition, or even enjoy the

grinding the ink

reading of some poems; and it warms up the wrist. If the hand swirls too fast, the ink may splatter, and the paste will not be even. Therefore, “not too fast, not too slow; not too heavy, and not too light� is the secret.

Chinese ink is water soluble. One must prepare the ink paste just before starting to write. The paste is made by grinding the ink stick in some water against the inkstone. The amount of water depends on how much paste is needed. For example, for writing a short note, a few drops of water and a minute of grinding will be sufficient. For calligraphy, usually one needs more ink; therefore, five or mroe cubic centimeters of water are required, which normally will take five or ten minutes longer to reach the proper thickness. During the grinding, one can see that the paste is gradually getting thick to the consistency of syrup. When it leaves a dry trace on the bottom of the inkstone, as the ink stick is circling the bottom of the well, the paste is ready for use.

It is a good habit to hold the ink bar low, so as to have a firm and steady grip on it, and to keep the ink stick perpendicular and flat against the stone while grinding, otherwise the contacting surface between the ink stick and the

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page 72 grinding the ink page 73 setup of calligraphy tools

In addition to the “Four Gems of the Study� there are several other items which are considered indespensable to an artist:

brush holder and rest The container to hold the brushes is commonly cylindrical in shape, often tumbler-like, about seven inches high, sometimes made of porcelain but more often bamboo or pottery.

In offices, where small brushes are in common use, the holder is a frame, usually white brass, about four inches high, with five or six open caps in which the brush handles are inserted.

The brush rest is often in a mountain-peak shape, generally of porcelain.

the paper weight There are several kinds of paper weights, round, square, and ruler-like, to hold the rice paper in place. Some are made of fine wood with jade-carvings set in, some are ivory; however, the most popular kind is brass or bronze, at times with a design carved or etched on them.

table cloth Since the paper used for writing is an absorbent type, the ink often filters through and wets and sticks to the desk. Therefore, a cloth must be used under the paper, which will alow the ink to run and spread freely, but at the same time, keep the table neat. The best material for this purpose is black felt, or any woolen cloth.

water cistern Mostly made of porcelain, the cistern, about four inches in diameter, holds the water used in grinding the ink. It is usually accompanied by a small brass spoon.

brush washer The ordinary size of the brush water is about eight inches in diameter, and two inches high.

The general shape is of a flat cylinder. Normally made of porcelain, it is used for washing the brushes during writing.

the ingredients

page 75 collection of brushes

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ch. 5

the technique

“欲 速 則 不 達” More haste, less speed.

The Strokes

figure 5.2 Correct method

figure 5.1 Incorrect method

holding the brush To achieve good calligraphic lines, it is important to hold the brush correctly. In learning to write, school childern were usually taught to hold the brush between the thumb and the fingers, witht he index finger raised into the position of “7,” the “goose head” position. The trouble with this method is that when the goose head is formed, the rest of the fingers will automatically squeeze tightly and thus the whole hand will close into a fist. Once the small finger touches the center of the palm, as shown in figure 5.1, the hold is too tight. In this position, the brush cannot move freely.

It must be recognized that in any kind of performance, such as swimming, playing tennis, piano, one cannot be tight. On the contrary, all the muscles must be relaxed. The natural way is best. Therefore, instead of holding the brush tightly, limiting its movement, the correct way is to loosen all the muscles of the hand and the forearm, and take a position as shown in figure 5.2, whereby the palm is so hollow that the brush may turn around in a circle of at least eight to ten inches in diameter. Since there is not a wide angle formed between the hand and the forearm, one’s arm does not get tired nor the fingers cramped.

When one is taught to hold the brush tightly, as tightly as possible, to make strong lines, the person is likely to develop the bad habit of moving the brush stiffly; his lines are likely to be

the technique

stereotyped. When one feels tired holding the brush, this is a warning that the grip is wrong.

The brush should be held mainly by thumb, index, and middle finger. The ring finger may touch the right side of the brush; however, the little finger is not useful, and the best thing to do is to let it join the ring finger naturally. Never should it touch the brush, otherwise it will break the coordination of the grip.

In the correct holding position, there should not be any “window” formed between the fingers holding the brush, usually a result of muscle tension. Figure 5.2 shows a complete relaxed position, but the fingers are jointed together so as to ensure a girm and well balanced holding. When the brush is held correctly, the hand, arm—the entire body—are all relaxed.

A good line is the result not of a tight grip but of properly holding and wielding the brush, the coordination of pressure, speed, and all the other factors involved.

body movement with the brush Since painting and writing, like dancing, are a kind of physical performance, the body movement in wielding the brush is also significant.

In walking, the left foot is balanced by the right arm and vice versa—this is known as contrary body movement. In ballroom dancing the opposite shoulder does the balance of the foot.

In wielding the brush, the principle of contrary body movement also prevails.

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If one were to draw a line from left to right across the paper, one should not just move the hand that holds the brush; instead, the shoulder should start the movement by leading the arm, and the arm should lead the hand. When painting in a standing position, one should feel the gradual shifting of body weight form the left foot to the right leg. At the beginning of the line, the right shoulder should balance the brush at the left side; in the middle of the line both brush and body are in equal balance; from the middle to the end of the line, the left shoulder should gradually serve as a brake and, at the same time, balance the brush on the right. The whole body is actually doing the painting, not just the fingers. Coordination of the whole body is necessary ot ensure a good line

must avoid too dry a brush. Therefore, the controlling of water and ink in the brush is the first concern of an artist before starting his stroke.

Water serves as a lubricant to the hairs in the brush. Every hair can move freely in plenty of water; if the brush is too dry, then, all the hairs in the brush are crowded and thus result in much friction when in motion. figure 5.3 Examples of lines resulting from different brush speeds

pressure

three principles of brushwork moisture The brush should be washed and retian a suitable moistness before one dips it into the ink and starts to use it. The amount of moisture depends on how wet an effect one wants to produce on the paper. This is a crucial factor when using Hsuan paper, or rice paper, for it is very absorbent. Water color, or ink, odes drip or run; therefore, the paper must be laid flat on the table, with two paper weights to hold it in a taut positio. If the brush is to wet, the ink will bleed too much; on the other hand, too little water will give a dry brush or a split brush result, and unless this kind of textural effect is wanted, one

Pressure is the amount of force the artist employs in pressing the brush down on the paper, whether doing center-brush or side-brush strokes. The heavier the pressure, the wider the line. The control of pressure is the most difficult skill to master, and is considered an art in itself.

The difficulty lies in the fact that it is not easy to restore elasticity to the bristles once pressure has been applied to them. The harder the pressure, the more difficult for the brush to spring back to its original resilient strength.

How to control the pressure of the brush, to maintain elasticity during the pressing-downs and raising-ups in moving the brush, is indeed a major technique in Chinese art. This takes arduous labor and long practice before full control is ganed, especially the changing of pressure while doing one stroke, such as light-heavylight, or vice versa.

the technique

(c) Straight way

(b) Slant way

speed Speed of the brush is just as important as pressure. Speed affects the flow of the ink, the texture of a line; it determines whether a line is solid or flimsy; it creates the feeling of motion within a line (fig. 5.3) For a firm, strong line, a fairly fast, consistent speed must be used; otherwise. a lower speed. If the brush moves too fast, the result will be too dry and fuzzy. On the other and, if the speed is too slow, not only will the line show a kind of hesitation, but it may also run or bleed too much, when such an effect is not being sought.

(a) Cross way

figure 5.5 Three basic moving angles

the brush in relation to the surface

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fig. 5.4 Position angles

figure 5.6 The control of both moving angles and position angles (a) top incorrect (b) middle even lines (c) bottom tapered lines

two major angles of the brush position angle Position angle refers to the angle of the brush in relation to the painting surface, the paper.

When one uses center brush to draw a line, the brush is kept in perpendicular position. As one tilts the brush, thus narrowing the position angle, a wider line is obtained, for there is more contact between the brush and the paper. In such titlted positions, the side of the brush is doing the painting. The lower the brush, the wider the line. If the brush is lowered to a ten

degree angle, one can get the use of almost the full side so that, if the brush is two inches long, the line will nearly be two inches wide. (fig. 5.4)

moving angle Only when the brush is in a tilted position (side brush) does the moving angle come into play.

Assuming a two-inch brush is given normal pressure and held at a 45 degree position angle, about one inch of the side of the brush is touching the paper. But one can get a one-inch line only if the brush is moved at a 90 degree angle in relation to the direction of the line, hereaf-

the technique

figure 5.7 The control of pressure (a) top wrong (b) bottom correct

ter to be called the “line of direction” (fig. 5.5).

For example, if the line of direction is directly north, the brush must move at a 90 degree angle to that line to get a one-inch line.

If the brush is held so that it parallels the line of direction, the width of the stroke will be much smaller; it will only be as wide as the width of the brush. Here, the brush is moving “straight away” in relation to the line of direction. This is an especially useful technique in painting branches.

If the brush crosses the line of direction at a slant, then the line will be about three-quarters of an inch wide. If one were to make even the slightest change, say to a 65 degree position, the resulting line would be noticeably different.

The principle is that the lower the position angle of the brush, the wider the line; the sharper the moving angl, the narrower the line. See Figures 5.6 and 5.7

figure 5.8 How to make a bone-like line

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the principal brush strokes center brush (chung feng) Center brush is the foundation of Chinese art, for it is the tip of the brush that produces the greatest linear effect. A center-brush line is hard-edged on both sides; therefore, it looks clear-cut, neat, and striking.

The expresion of a healthy line is not confined merely to the outward appearance of a line; in fact, the built-in bone structure within the line is even more significant. This structure is primarily shown in center brush work. However, some bone-like effect can also be achieved by side brush. From a study of the Greater Chuan and Lesser Chuan lines, to achieve the “bone treatment of line” lies on the two ends of the line. The ends should be rounded, not pointed. In order to make this kind of end, a “hidden tip.” actually a folding of the tip in the brush, has to be used, as demonstrated in Figure 5.8.

With the brush held upright, start from a, and in order to get the effect of a solid inner support, move the brush in the opposite direction to that which the line will finally take.

While gradually incresasing the presure, paint to b, halt, no longer than a quarter of a second, fold the brush, and withoutdelay move it in the opposite direction. Maintaining an even pressure and spead, paint to c; as soon as the brush reaches c, flip back the brush, upward, at

about a forty-five degree angle, to do, actually a backlash.

To execute the line correctly calls for patience in perfecting the technique. Since there is a momentary but definite stop at each end of the line, at which time extra ink is deposited on the paper, this naturally results in two knobshaped ends, and the whole line looks like a piece of bone.

pulling brush (tuo pi) To make thin lines in the manner of center brush, “pulling brush” is a very practical technique. In pulling brush, one lets the brush itself, as it were, draw the line. Actually, it is the weight of the brush which supplies the even pressure; the artist need only lead the brush in the desired direction (fig. 5.9). The secret is not to control the brush as in center brush with your fingers but to hold the brush very lightly, just enough to keep it dropping out of your hand. Then, just head the brush in the direction desired. The top of the brush handle should always be ahead of the brush and headed in the direction in while the brush is moving. Varying the position angles will vary the thickness of the line; the higher the position, the thinner line.

the technique

figure 5.9 Pulling brush (a) top high position angle (b) middle medium line (c) bottom low position;

point rush (chien pi) To make the most fine lines of a character, the answer is to make a small brush out of a larger one.

First, immerse the brush in your water, touching the bottom of the container; hold the brush in a slanted position and bounce it with some pressure against the bottom of the container in order to force out the air from the brush head. While bouncing, rotate the brush handle slightly to the right and left. When the brush is pulled out of the water, the brush head will hold to a point. Let the water drip from the bruh. To eliminate remaining water in the head, wipe one side of the brush against the rim of the container.

Only a third of the brush is moveable; the rest of the head has become “wooden,� since all the hairs are without their lubricating water and are almost glued together by the friction. It is

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the only live part of the brush (fig. 5.10). Since the brush head is curved, the brush and handle are not in a straight line. Therefore, to secure the very fine center brush lines, be sure the tip is perpendicular to the paper; the handle will be in a tilted position.

side brush (piang feng) Side brush is a most useful process, but its technique is not as simple as merely utilizing the side of the brush, for there must be constant adjustment of the two angles as well as pressure to achieve a desired result.

dry brush (ku pi) A brush with scant moisture is used to achieve dry texture within a line. The line may be fairly dry, or very dry, depending on the effect the artist wants.

figure 5.10 Point brush

split brush (po pi)

figure 5.11 dry brush example

In calligraphy, many artists like to use this technique to enrich the textual effect. Figure 5.11 is an example of running script. The dry lines suggest a mature and straightforward expression. Generally, a dry texture in calligraphy indicates a deep feeling, like the thoughts of a person mellowed by age and experience.

In using dry brush, no matter how dry the brush is, the line must be kept quite clear. IT will be muddy if one tries to go back over the line. In order to maintain the clarity of the line, the speed must be kept very low; otherwise the line quality will be feather, lacking an expression of strength.

Split brush may be considered as kind of dry brush. This kind of brush stroke usually serves to privde a certain dry textural effect in calligraphy.

Split brush is achieved by a forced twist of the brush, where the bristles, instead of holding to one point, are parted into many points. The brush is divided into smaller brushes. The advantage of split brush is that many lines or dots can be achieved by a single stroke.

To obtain a split brush, one should first get rid of most of the water contained in the brush; then, push the side of the brush with some pressure against the edge of the ink stone or any other hard surface. While the brush is in close contact with the hard surface, twist it slighty to the left and move the brush downward; this forces the brush to open, and form a comb-like brush (fig. 5.12). It will stay that way, and one can keep this split state as long as the water and ink in the brush are adequate. Too little ink makes the brush too dry to obtain a sufficient image on paper; if too wet, the brush may spring back, and the split state is broken.

In calligraphy, especially the tsao style, because of the exhausted ink in the brush or a fast turning, split brush often occurs, adding to the textural effect. In calligraphy, the term Fei Pai or “flying white� is employed. It suggests the feeling of inner space within a split brush line.

the technique

the shape of split brush

split brush diagram

painting straight away, a wide line

painting crosswise, a narrow line

turning and folding with a split brush

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the role of the seal

figure 5.13 Balancing-foot seal

A seal plays an important role in the composition of a painting or calligraphy. It does not serve merely as a personal identity, but is an integral part of a work of art.

The function of a seal is to provide balance in a composition, and adds additional interest by its own intrinsic merit. Its style should be harmonious with the lines of the calligraphy or painting.

A seal enriches the content of a work.

Although its size is small, it provides beautiful lines. The design of a seal can be compared to that of a miniature painting. Every tiny space must be thought out carefully. Every dot is crucial in the harmonious oneness of the design.

When a seal is in the lower left of the composition, it serves as a balance to the writing on the upper right (fig. 5.13). This is called a “balancing-foot” steal— a compositional seal.

Improper use of seals can damage an art work. Figure 5.14 is an inscription by Wang Yuan-Ch’i of the 17th century. His style of writing is rather delicate; therefore, the seals he used are slender to match his calligraphy suitably.

Above his signature, there are two seals by crtics who expressed their approval of the art work, called “connoisseur” or “appreciation” seals. On the left side, there are four other seals, which are collectors’ seals. The two on top are not appropriate, as they block the picture space, and look intrusive.

the technique

Seal-carving is another form of writing. No line, once done, allows for any re-touching, otherwise, the line becomes muddy, just as when one goes over his own signature. Every Chinese artist tries to get his personal seal or seals engraved by a good hand, a famous hand if possible.

figure 5.14 Calligraphy by Wang Yuan-Ch’i

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page 90 (top) Seal stamp with ink (bottom) seal stones page 91 (right) seals stamped out (left) ink pad

index & bibliography

Index

A Abundant Harvest 83 Aesthetic 52, 56, 62 Art Forum 45 B Ba Da Shan Jen 55 Ba Fen 72, 87, 89 brush 9, 11, 12, 18, 19, 22, 23, 26, 27, 33, 37, 57, 62, 68, 70, 71, 75, 76, 78, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 98, 99, 104, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117 brushwork 9, 19, 26, 37, 53, 62, 63, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 84, 98, 102, 110 Buddhism 52, 54 C calligraphy 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 36, 37, 44, 45, 53, 54, 57, 58, 60, 63, 66, 71, 72, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 99, 101, 103, 116, 118 center brush 9, 68, 112, 114, 115 Chang Chih 71, 75 Chang Hsu 58, 60, 76, 77 chang-tsao 75 Ch’an Tsung 54, 55 Ch’an Tsung. 55 Chen Bingchen 19 Ch’eng Nan-yun 69 Ch’i 53, 57, 59, 60, 70, 77, 78, 100, 118, 119 Chia Hsuan 100 Chian Hao 98 china 9, 10, 24

Chinese 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 36, 37, 44, 45, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 66, 70, 72, 74, 76, 87, 88, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 110, 114, 119, 129

Escaping Summer Heat 83 F family 5, 32, 54, 65, 66, 74, 76, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92

Ch’ing 63, 66, 67, 70, 78, 88, 89 chin shih hsueh 66, 67

form 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 20, 22, 23, 26, 33, 37, 44, 45, 53,

chin-tsao 75

54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 70, 72, 75, 76, 81,

Chin Yu-tzu 69

87, 88, 98, 99, 109, 116, 119

Chiu Cheng Kung Li Ch’uan Ming 89

Four Gems of the Study 104

Chu-Chuei 100

Four Great Masters of the Northern Sung 81

Chu Hsi 55 Chu Lin Pa Hsian 55

G

Chung Yu 80, 87

General P’ei Wan 60

Chu Swei-Liang 89, 91

goose head 108

Chu-Yuen-Ming 77

Gu Gan 27, 32, 33, 44

Clerical Script 70 Cloudy Mountains 69

H

Confucianism 52

Han dynasty 11, 71, 80, 86

Confucius 52, 54, 71, 89, 92

Han Ming Ti 54

Confucius School 71

Hasty Reply before Guests 83

Confucius Temple Tablet 89, 92

Holy Mother Album 77

Cultural Revolution 19, 23, 24, 25, 36, 44

Hong Peimo 44

Cursive Script 74

Hsuan paper 99, 100, 110

D Dan Hsuan 100 dry brush 9, 110, 115, 116 Duck Head Pill Note 76, 77 E Eastern Han 54, 70, 75, 80 Emperor Hsuan-tsung 76

Hsu Shen 67, 71 huang t’ing-chien 82 Hundred Flowers Movement 22, 23 I ingredients 97, 98, 100, 102, 104 ink 32, 33, 37, 51, 62, 63, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 110, 111, 114, 116, 121 inkstone 98, 102, 103

inscriptions 11, 21, 52, 66, 67, 71, 101

Mid-Autumn Note 76

I-shan-pei 67

mi fu 83 Ming 54, 66, 69, 72, 77, 78, 80, 89, 93

J

Ming dynasty 69, 72, 78

Jou Hao 98

Mo 62 Modernist 25, 32, 36

K

moisture 9, 110, 115

k’uang-tsao 75, 76

Mount Liupan 23

kuan ko 63

moving angle 112

k’ung chian kan 60

Mu Hsi 55

Kuo Tsung-Chang 72 L

O On Ch’an 55

Lao Tze 53 Lesser Chuan 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 72, 87, 114 Liang Kai 55 line 9, 53, 58, 59, 62, 71, 78, 98, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,

O-Yang Hsuen 89, 90, 93 P paper 7, 10, 22, 36, 37, 44, 60, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116

114, 115, 116, 117, 119 Ling-Ti 71

pi 59, 82, 98, 114, 115, 116

Li Ssu 67, 68

point rush 115

literati 27

position angle 112, 113, 115

Li Tung-yang 69

pressure 9, 58, 71, 84, 87, 103, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116

Liu Kung-Ch’uan 88 Liu Te-shen 80

prophet 88

Li Yang-ping 67

pulling brush 9, 114

M

R

Mad Grass 60, 77

Red Guards 23

Mao Bian 100

Ritual Vessels Tablet 72

Mao Zedong 18

Rong Bao Zhai 22

Martyrs’ Memorial 21

roots 33, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62

masters 8, 29, 32, 36, 55, 67, 77, 80, 81, 83, 84, 89, 100

Running Script 80

S

three principles of brushwork 110

Sailing on the Wu River 83, 84 Scroll for Chang Ta-t’ung 81, 82 seal 11, 32, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 81, 100, 118, 119, 121 Seal Script 66 Sha Menghai 36 Shang dynasty 10 Shen Tu 69 Shih T’ao 55 Shu Chia 63 side brush 9, 71, 112, 114, 115 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship 19 Six Dynasties 66, 67 Six Persimmons 55 space-consciousness 9, 60 Speed 111 split brush 9, 78, 110, 116, 117 Stalin 19 Standard Script 86 Stomach Ache Note 76, 77 Stone Drum 57, 58

Tianamen Square 21, 25 Tools 98 Tsai Yung 71 Tung Ch’i-Chang 77, 78 Tung Tsuo-Pin 63 Twan Yan 102 W Wang Dongling 25, 36 Wang Hsi-Chih 75, 87, 91 Wang Nanming 44, 45 Wang Yuan-Ch’i 118, 119 Wan Li 78 wan li ching 59 Wei regime 87 Wen Shu 63 Writers’ Union 21 X Xu Wei 36

Sung 55

Y

T

Yen Ch’en-Ch’ing 88, 89

T’ang 52, 60, 67, 76, 81, 83, 84, 86, 89, 91 taoism 53 technique 25, 33, 68, 76, 88, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118 The Canons of Longevity 87 the changing world 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26 The Great Hall of the People 21 Three Letters 83

Youth Palaces 20, 27 Yuan 3, 4, 5, 63, 66, 77, 80, 118, 119, 130 Yu Shih-Nan 89, 92 Z Zheng Zhenduo 20

acknowledgements

A tremendous thank you to Key Printing and Binding for being such great and easy people to work with.

A shout out to my good friends, Faisal, Lesa, Dax, and Cory for getting me motivated and for the good laughs this semester.

My mother who is always a huge support system and helped me survive while I was working on this book by literally bringing me food.

My sister for always encouraging me and supporting me.

My father; distance cannot break the amount of love I have for you.

Everyone who had already provided sources and inspiration for me to look for and bounce ideas off of. Thank you!

select bibliography

Many of these images used for this book were found from Flickr. I would like to acknowledge these Flickr user accounts: Boyd Bailey, ivan chinese5art, Taylor-Priceand-Rhodes, 刘必荣, Crystal Tseng, Kris Krüg, Maryellen McFadden, Rex David, Joshua Hough, John S Y Lee, bud-

dhadog, Bob, Brent Miller, W&M Swem Library, Benjamin Wong, and lacily. I thank you guys tremendously for letting me download your photos.

Barrass, Gordon S. The Art of Calligraphy in Modern China.

Berkeley: University of

California, 2002. Print.

Fu, Shen. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.

New Haven, CT: Yale UP,

1980. Print.

Harrist, Robert E., and Wen Fong. The Embodied Image:

Chinese Calligraphy from the John B. Elliott

Collection. Princeton, NJ: Art Museum,

Princeton University in Association

with Harry N. Abrams, 1999. Print.

Kwo, Da-Wei. Chinese Brushwork: Its History, Aesthetics,

and Techniques. Montclair,

NJ: Allanheld & Schram, 1981. Print.

C

The typefaces used in this book

Minion Pro

Adobe Caslon Pro

Minion Pro is an Adobe Original typeface designed by Rob-

William Caslon released his first typefaces in 1722. Caslon’s

ert Slimbach. It is inspired by classical, old style typefaces

types were based on seventeenth-century Dutch old style

of the late Renaissance, a period of elegant, beautiful, and

designs. The first printings of the American Declaration of

highly readable type designs. It combines the aesthetic and

Independence and the Constitution were set in Caslon. For

functional qualities that make text type highly readable

her Caslon revival, designer Carol Twombly studied spec-

with the versatility of OpenType digital technology. Minion

imen pages printed by William Caslon between 1734 and

Pro is ideal for uses ranging from limited-edition books to

1770. Adobe Caslon Pro is the right choice for magazines,

newsletters to packaging.

journals, book publishing, and corporate communications.

Printed and bound by Key Printing and Binding, Oakland CA Green Copy, Oakland CA

Designed by Michelle Yuan