The Drivers of Fashion

POST-WAR APPAREL DEC 2018

DRIVERS of Fashion MEGHAN BROWNE FASHION IN CONTEXT DESN1375

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

CONTENTS [3]

INTRODUCTION

[4-9]

WORLD EVENTS

[10-11]

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES

[12-13]

DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC EVENTS

[14-15]

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

[16-21]

INFLUENTIAL PEOPLE

[22-23]

MUSIC, CINEMA, ART AND DESIGN

[24]

[2]

CONCLUSION

[25-27]

REFERENCE LIST

[28-29]

FIGURES LIST

WORD COUNT: 2,993 FIGURE 2 - Christian Dior: The New Look

FIGURE 3 - Milkshops in the 1950s

The rapid change of fashion in the 20th century was influenced by factors outside industry control (Dallabona, 2018a, p.23).

1945-1959 saw western countries rebuilding their lives after the devastation of World War Two (MacMillan, 2009). This led to a record number of births, as families formed, contributing to the growth of the economy (History.com, 2018a). A new younger generation came to the forefront of attention in the 50s as teenagers began to rebel against conventions in the “invention of a new American teenager” (University of Rochester, n.d.). This demographic surge influenced developments in music as genres were mixed to create Rock and Roll, described as “the soundtrack for rebellion” (Kot, 2018). Dior’s “New Look” revolutionised post-war fashion as a new confidence was given to women through regaining their natural shape (Baker, 1991, p.37). Although met with a controversial response, this paved the way for the use of war techniques to develop mass production (Cawthorne, 1996, pp.114-118).

[3]

WORLD EVENTS

W

orld War 2 left a mark on the fashion industry that was apparent in post-war trends. Textiles began to diminish, leading to scandalous but necessary changes including reducing consumers’ needs and the production of clothes (Dallabona, 2018a, p.24). Government codes were passed to make the most of commodities, therefore “guarding the raw materials” (Clouting, 2018), for example, skirts were shortened to save fabric, although arousing scandal (Kratz, 2014). This also lead to the invention of the bikini by Louis Reard as it was decided that “10% of fabric could be saved from swimsuits” (Cawthorne, 1996, p.62).

The focus on consumer goods switched to soldiers’ needs, therefore prompting the requirement of rationing; introduced 1st June 1941 (Clouting and Mason, 2018). The government controlled this through the L-85 order and the “no fabric-on-fabric rule” (Baker, 1991, p.12), which presented a restriction in the creativity of garments, as fabrics, components and dyes were limited, therefore sacrificing individuality (Craig, 2012).

To police rationing, coupons were introduced, paired with money, to stop the unnecessary purchasing of clothes (Clouting, 2018). Cawthorne outlined the costs of garments, explaining “18 coupons for a tweed suit, 14 coupons for a coat, 11 coupons for a jacket or a woolen dress, 7 coupons for a skirt and a pair of shoes, 5 coupons for a jumper or a waistcoat and 4 coupons for a blouse” (1996, p.41).

Each adult was given 66 coupons per year, which decreased as the war continued, therefore presenting a deterrent when buying new clothes due to the expense, and encouraged civilians to make clothes last (Cawthorne, 1996, p.41). Due to this lack of coupons, the garments chosen had to be suitable for all occasions, whilst being “practical and stylish” (Clouting and Mason, 2018). This could imply the lack of identity that was created through clothing as limitations posed the need for a conservative look (Cawthorne, 1996, p.13).

[4]

FIGURE 4: The Make-do and Mend scheme

[5]

FIGURE 5: Women in the war effort

“Use it up, Wear it out, Make it do or Do without” (Cawthorne,1996, p.45) In America, embargos were put into place to void imports and trading deals with other countries (Baker, 1991, p.12; Dallabona, 2018a, p.25). International materials weren’t being imported which lead to the development of new fibres using natural sources (Dallabona, 2018a, p.25). This could’ve impacted fashion as luxurious fabrics weren’t available, therefore creating less visually-pleasing garments, making room for a functional and practical style.

FIGURE 6: Women recreating garments

FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

The utility clothing scheme was introduced in 1942 with the aim to eradicate differentiation between high and low-income families (Hamilton-Smith, 2016, p.46; Clouting and Mason, 2018).

Before this, different quality items were the same price in coupons, however the higher-quality clothing required more money, therefore putting people with a low income at a disadvantage (Hamilton-Smith, 2016, p.46). This “standardisation of production” (Hamilton-Smith, 2016, p.46)

[6]

could’ve decreased the need for wasting garments which sported many elaborate components. Another method of reducing waste was makedo-and-mend, introduced by the government to present the re-use of old clothes and materials (Cawthorne, 1996, p.44). New outfits were often fashioned from husbands’ clothes, who were away at war, paving the way to add creativity to trends (Hamilton-Smith, 2016, p.45).

FIGURE 7: Make-do and Mend pattern leaflet FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

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FIGURE 8: Men’s “demob” suit

For men after war, life was expected to return to normal (Baker, 1991, p.48). When demobilised from the services, men were given a ‘demob’ suit as seen in Figure 8 (Cawthorne, 1996, p.97). This was valued at £12, which is equivalent to £450 in current currency, therefore presenting the value of garments (Hamilton-Smith, 2016, p.46).

When men had returned, it was commonplace that pre-war clothes were no longer feasible due to poor fit or because of make-do-and-mend (Hamilton-Smith, 2016, p.46). Styles did not change in menswear due to tailors only being able to reproduce prewar styles because the involvement of everyone in war meant new techniques and structures couldn’t be learned (Baker, 1991, p.21).

For women, it was a return from the workforce to be the stereotypical housewife, as men were prioritised in the search for occupations (Baker, 1991, p.19). The government encouraged women to continue homemaking through schemes, reintroducing them to domestic roles (Baker, 1991, p.19). This brought around a change from overalls and trousers being accepted, to returning to skirts and more feminine silhouettes as deemed more attractive (Worsley, 2011, p.42).

FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

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[9]

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES

T

he war effort involved the work of women in empty occupations such as factories and farms (Baker, 1991, p.17). As barriers fell between genders, women continued to work in industry to fill “the labour shortage of 2 million workers” (Cawthorne, 1996, p.68). This presented the need for functionality in clothing, therefore leading to a more masculine look of full-length trousers and overalls, a trend which juxtaposed the expectations of women (Baker 1991, p.17).

The garment was so scandalous that models refused to wear it when promoting, therefore leading to hiring those of a more promiscuous occupation (Worsley, 2011, p.109).

Discrimination had a huge impact in the 1950s in America, as the Civil Rights Movement began with the Rosa Parks bus boycott after refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man on 1st December 1955 (Anderson, 2000).

The bus boycott began when Parks was jailed, with Martin Luther King Jr at the forefront of the peaceful protest against racial segregation (Mach, 2011; BBC, 2018).

The post-war roles of women lead to femininity, presented in an idealised fashion through the media (Baker, 2006, pp.22-23). There was a vast Segregation also happened in high-schools, need for historically in anti-depressants Little Rock in the 1950s due (Baker, 2006, to the feeling of p.9). When the women being education system enclosed in the was ordered to home, the integrate opposite of the races in schools way that the in 1954, the media presented majority of women as an southern states idealised image Ernst Dichter.

(Baker, 2006, p.28). refused (Baker, of a “doll-like 2006, p.9). When figure” (Baker, 2006, p.28). black children were refused entry to a school in Little Rock in In contrast, as more fashion garments were 1957, federal troops were sent in to escort the invented, it could be implied that women children, therefore making the school available gained more confidence and power. Push up to everyone (Baker, 2006, p.9). bras were highlighted as a trend which, initially, was to show potential husbands Due to the non-violent nature of the protests, their curves and was seen as a way to present fashion was a vital tool in creating a peaceful themselves as perfect for family life (Baker, representation when resisting (Carlos, 2017). It 2006, p.44; Worsley, 2011, p.18). As the was imperative that protesters wore “smart, corsetry industry thrived, celebrities had an respectable clothing” (Carlos, 2017) to create influence on teenagers, giving them a chance an air of compassion for those involved, to sport a mature style, whilst rebelling therefore juxtaposing the stereotype of (Worsley, 2011, p.18). assumed disrupters and controlling the Additionally, the bikini was launched due to messages sent by the Civil Rights Movement the lack of fabric throughout the war and was a scandalous invention because of its (Carlos, 2017). revealing nature (Worsley, 2011, p.109).

“We helped the housewife rediscover that homemaking is more creative than to compete with men.”

FIGURE 9: Rosa Parks - Starter of the bus boycott

“I just wanted to be free like everybody else. I did not want to be continually humiliated over something I had no control over: the colour of my skin.”

Rosa Parks. (Anderson, 2000).

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DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC FACTORS ost-war western societies saw a rise of

P

consumerism, as behaviours prompted the “50s Boom” (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008b) to describe the mass escalation of spending by consumers (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008b). “The economy grew by 37% in the US” (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008b) in the 1950s due to the availability of commodities, positioning citizens to purchase more goods (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008b).

This, therefore, opposed the need for makedo-and-mend as new clothes and textiles were available to consumers, making way for new trends.

FIGURE 10: Teenage girls’ clothing

FIGURE 12: Teenage boys’ style in the 1950s’

However, contrary to previous conditions, the younger generation had the most disposable income therefore gaining “freedom and prominence” (Worsley, 2011, p.114) from the controls of adults as they began rebelling against their parents’ rules (Baker, 2006, p.11; Powers, n.d.). The teen social group had a recognisable style and stance which very much opposed the expectations that parents’ clothing choices would inspire their minors’ (Baker, 2006, p.11; Worsley, 2011, p.114).

Female teenagers preferred a relaxed fit and informal style which connoted their independence from the expected corseted, tight-fitting style (Worsley, 2011, p.114). Their primary clothing styles, shown in Figure 10, were often paired with sweaters and neck scarves (Worsley, 2011, p.114). Sweater girls inspired the young generation by sporting tight jumpers over cone-shaped bras which emphasised the chest, establishing a sexualised way of rebelling (The Sweater Girl Society, n.d.).

[12]

FIGURE 11: Teenage girls’ style in the 1950s’

The teenage boys took inspiration from biker gangs, as they adopted the black leather jacket, paired with jeans and trainers to portray a mature, rougher look (McDowell, 1997, p.120; Worsley, 2011, pp.123-124). Rebels and bikers had a “reputation for violence and drinking” (Worsley, 2011, p.117) which inspired the rebellion of younger males due to the power and sexuality portrayed by their styles (McDowell, 2017, p.120).

[13]

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

FIGURE 14: The first American Express Credit Card

FIGURE 15: Lewis’s department store in the 1950s’ FIGURE 13: Sears’ ready-to-wear catalogue

Mass-production techniques started developing post-war, especially when trying to make high-fashion looks more affordable (Worsley, 2011,p.87). The trickle-down technique, according to Behling’s trickle models, helped to achieve this by trends falling down to lower classes (Dallabona, 2018c, p.50). Designers became under threat as new techniques were developed to enforce cheap trends in mass-market conditions (Robinson, 1976, p.91). As department stores gained popularity through the readyto-wear industry, more styles became available at more appropriate prices, therefore haute couture and high-fashion trends seemed to become more common (Peacock, 1997, p.8; Worsley, 2011, p.87).

The methods of consumer spending became more advanced with the first versions of credit cards being released in 1950 (Baker, 2006, p.6). American Express introduced their card in 1958, which made consumer spending more accessible, therefore possibly, paired with new mass market techniques, making new trends easier to access (MacDonald and Tompkins, 2017; Harford, 2017).

[15]

INFLUENTIAL PEOPLE FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

FIGURE 16: Garment from Dior’s “New Look”

A

big influence on the fashion industry was Dior, when the “Corolla” collection was released, connoting petals and blossoming, soon adopting the name “The New Look”, reflecting its impact on western fashion (Baker, 1991, p.24; Worsley, 2011, p.110).

The New Look highlighted an escape from war trauma for women as they retook their feminine figures through the natural curvaceous lines created with artificial techniques (Ewing, 1979, p.155; Mulvagh, 1992, p.194). The style used generous lengths of fabric to create crinoline-like skirts over hip-pads to give the feminine look which all men desired for their wives (Cawthorne, 1996, p.111; Baker, 2006, p.28). The New Look was met with deep controversy from the

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FIGURE 17: Vogue spread advertising the New Look

public and the government, as many felt it was “mocking rationing” (Worsley, 2011, p.110) as economies could’ve come under threat due to extensive usage of supplies that were recovering (Baker, 1991, p.24).

This backlash reached its peak at a photoshoot in Paris when a model was stripped of her dress by civilians in protest (Cawthorne, 1996, p.114). Although this could be seen as a negative, it pushed the trend positively due to the amount of publicity gained through word-of-mouth, building “enormous public prestige” (Baker, 1991, p.24; Worsley, 2011, p.110). The target market for Dior’s collections was originally the mature woman, however, as teens were in the midst of rebellion and had a high income, this style was followed by them, reinvented through styling, using their attitudes to diverge from elders (Mulvagh, 1992, p.182; Cawthorne, 1996, p.125).

Although impractical for the working woman, the anticipation for adjustment in conventions saw competitively-priced mass-market reproductions of haute couture looks made available for women of different backgrounds, especially in a department store setting (Baker, 1991, p.24; Cawthorne, 1996, p.121).

FIGURE 18: A Corolla collection look

The style was the primary shape until the mid-1950s when Dior produced the last of his designs, making way for prominent new styles (Cawthorne, 1996, p.161; Worsley, 2011).

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FIGURE 19: Marilyn Monroe - “Diamonds are a girls best friend.”

An icon for women was Marilyn Monroe as she was given the title “the sex goddess of the decade” (Baker, 2006, p.26) as her features created a long-lasting impression across western countries (Baker, 2006, p.26). The allure of “elegance, sophistication and sex appeal” (Peacock, 1997, p.7) could’ve inspired women to have more confidence and empower themselves in a time that implied women’s main concern should be men (Baker, 2006, pp.28-29).

Monroe drove upcoming designers to the forefront of the fashion

[18]

industry, especially Pucci, as she promoted an exposed style to suit her shapely figure, which was followed by fans (Johnson, 2011; Warlick, 2012). With her most famous styles depicted in Figure 19 and 20, Marilyn Monroe was the opposition of what was expected of a role model for the younger generation, however she suited the new rebellion portrayed through alcohol, smoking and drugs (Scotti, 2012; Administrator, 2018).

FIGURE 20: Marilyn Monroe - “The Seven Year Itch.”

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FIGURE 23: Marlon Brando - “A Streetcar Named Desire”

FIGURE 22: James Dean - “Rebel without a cause”

When it came to music of the 1950s, Elvis Presley was the “King of Rock and Roll” (Baker, 2006, p.14). As Rock and Roll started to integrate into society, Presley was at the forefront, first attracting listeners in 1954 through his sexualised performances, much to the dismay of parents (Anon, n.d.; Baker, 2006, p.14; Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008a). With teens being his primary fans, the Jailhouse Rock look, seen in Figure 21, became a typical style of the teenage boy, connoting a relaxed, informal style to pair with the fun nature of the genre (Courcey, 2018).

FIGURE 21: Elvis Presley - Jailhouse Rock

James Dean epitomised rebellion, earning the title of the hero of youth through “Rebel without a cause” and his

off-screen aura (Seamons and Cochrane, 2014; Thomas, 2017). As he “reflected the newly-designed teen” (Seamons and Cochrane, 2014), he sported the easy style of a t-shirt and jeans, which the younger generation took inspiration from, to embrace his confidence (Seamons and Cochrane, 2014; Prenter, 2018).

Another influence for men was Marlon Brando who took the t-shirt from being underwear to outerwear (Prendergast, 2017). In “A Streetcar Named Desire”, Brando took on a character that represented rebellion through the exposure of more skin, which redefined masculinity for the era (Prendergast, 2017). In “The Wild One”, bikers gangs appealed to youth culture and affected their styles through the introduction of heavy leather jackets (Sims, 2011, p.43; Prendergast, 2017). American schools outlawed the style to deter rebellious behaviour which backfired, as the jacket made more of an impact in defying rules, therefore increasing its popularity (Prendergast, 2017).

FIGURE 24: Marlon Brando “A Streetcar Named Desire”

FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

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MUSIC, CINEMA, ART AND DESIGN FIGURE 25: Rock and Roll - Elvis Presley

FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

Rock and Roll was at the forefront of music in the mid-1950s and was “the soundtrack for rebellion” (Kot, 2018). The style was tailored to teenage listeners and contributed another factor to the rebellious nature of the teenagers, appalling parents worldwide (Khan Academy, n.d.; Palmer, 1990). Youths developed their own slang between their social groups

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as a result of this genre, which helped celebrate themes of freedom and young emotion (Palmer, 1990; Khan Academy, n.d.). “Rock Around the Clock” summarised teenage revolution by representing the need for independence from elders, posing a threat to morals (Khan Academy, n.d.). This would influence trends as looser clothing would be required for teenagers to

dance and enjoy the music.

Latin dance music influenced the style of young girls as suitable clothing was needed to dance to rhythms such as “samba, cha-cha and mambo” (Buttsy, 2013) although met with controversy (Baker, 2006, p.14). Loose, flowing skirts were needed to create the full impact at dances (Baker, 2006, p.12).

Cinema came under threat from 1945-1959 as the rise in popularity of home entertainment took over (History.com, 2018b). 1950 saw TV licences reach a peak of 400,000 when colour TV started to be developed to override black and white (Dallabona, 2018b, p.50).

This development could’ve created a positive impact on the fashion industry as colour trends could’ve become more readily available when witnessed on TV. Film success came to an end as families moved to more suitable accommodation in the FIGURE 26: Poster for Rock and Roll suburbs after the war (History.com, 2018b). As they were a distance from cinemas, the need for home entertainment grew (History.com, 2018b).

Consumers were exposed to FIGURE 30: many genres of TV Camouflage pattern including “game shows and comedies” (Khan Academy, 2018). The comedies represented a utopian image of the perfect white family with a “housewife, working dad and rebellious children” (Khan Academy, 2018) which inspired consumers to be this perfect family and follow their styles to present a perfect representation (Khan Academy, 2018).

As society was mending from the damage of war, advanced art movements started to make an appearance in western society (Widewalls, 2016).

Due to the looming problem of the Nazi regime, artists began to flee their home countries and made homes in New York to break away (Widewalls, 2016). This meant that many artists were coming together, celebrating styles of art, whilst possibly influencing each other’s fashion choices through traditions from one country and making them available in America and inspiring other artists (Widewalls, 2016).

FIGURE 27: Family watching TV in the 1950s

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CONCLUSION

FIGURE 28: 1950s high-class woman

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Post-war fashion was a chance to experiment with new found freedom in clothing choices after restrictions were lifted. The factors previously discussed represent the era as one of new beginnings in the economy, demographics and entertainment, as well as fashion. The era paved the way for the people of the 1960s to go against the ‘norm’ and venture into new trends, highlighting the impact of post-war fashion (V&A, 2018).

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University of Rochester. (no date). The Rise of Youth Culture in the 1950s. [Online]. [Accessed 17 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.coursera.org/lecture/history-of-rock/the-rise-of-youth-culture-in-the1950s-a0AIu V&A. 2018. An introduction to 1960s fashion. [Online]. [Accessed 29 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/an-introduction-to-1960s-fashion Warlick, H. 2012. 50 years later, Marilyn Monroe still influences fashion and beauty. [Online]. [Accessed 20 November 2018]. Available from: https://newsok.com/article/3696771/50-years-later-marilynmonroe-still-influences-fashion-and-beauty Widewalls. 2016. The Story of 1950s Art. [Online]. [Accessed 21 November 2018]. Available from: https:// www.widewalls.ch/1950s-art/ Worsley, H. 2011. 100 Ideas That Changed Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing.

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FIGURE 30: Camouflage pattern

FIGURE 29: 1950s teenagers

FIGURE LIST

Figure 1: Balkwill, K. 2016. Marilyn Monroe - Icon. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.ctrl-shift.co.uk/?attachment_id=6563 Figure 2: Algoo, J. 2015. In Photos: Dior in the 1940’s. [Online]. [Accessed 29 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/designers/g5139/christian-dior-1940s-photos/?slide=1 Figure 3: Furniss, C. 2016. Then and now: how things have changed for teenage girls since the 1950s.

[Online]. [Accessed 29 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/childrens-bookssite/2016/jan/29/1950s-teenage-girls-how-not-to-disappear-clare-furniss Figure 4: Clouting, L. 2018. 8 facts about clothes rationing in Britain during the Second World War. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/8-facts-aboutclothes-rationing-in-britain-during-the-second-world-war Figure 5: The National WWII Museum. (no date). History At a Glance: Women in World War II. [Online].

[Accessed 2 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/students-teachers/ student-resources/research-starters/women-wwii Figure 6: BBC. 2015. How did WW2 change the way people dressed? [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31719704 Figure 7: British Library. (no date). Make Do and Mend. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2018]. Available from: http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106365.html Figure 8: Clouting, L and Mason, A. 2018. How clothes rationing affected fashion in the second world war. [Online]. [Accessed 2 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-clothesrationing-affected-fashion-in-the-second-world-war Figure 9: Biography. 2018. Rosa Parks Biography. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.biography.com/people/rosa-parks-9433715 Figure 10: Glamour Daze. 2012. The 1950’s Circle Skirt Phenomenon. [Online]. [Accessed 5 December 2018]. Available from: https://glamourdaze.com/2012/07/the-1950s-circle-skirt-phenomenon.html

Figure 16: La Maison Dior. (no date). The New Look, A Legend. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.dior.com/couture/en_gb/the-house-of-dior/the-story-of-dior/ the-new-look-revolution Figure 17: Vogue. 2012. From the Archives: Dior’s New Look in Vogue. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.vogue.com/article/the-new-look-of-dior Figure 18: Young, S. 2018. Christian Dior’s five most iconic looks. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018].

Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/christian-dior-iconic-looks-designsphotos-the-new-look-tulip-john-galliano-maria-grazia-chiuri-a8426886.html Figure 19: Rye, T. 2016. Diamonds are a girl’s best friend ~ Marilyn Monroe (Gentlemen prefer blondes, 1953). [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hEyWqVfY4vo Figure 20: Stevens, M. 2014. Behind-the-Scenes of Marilyn Monroe’s Iconic Flying Skirt (PHOTOS).

[Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.biography.com/news/marilyn-monroe-seven-year-itch-dress-photos Figure 21: Fontenot, R. 2017. Elvis Presley Timeline: 1956. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.thoughtco.com/elvis-presley-timeline-1956-2522542 Figure 22: McCarty, F. (no date). James Dean for ‘The Rebel Without a Cause’, by Floyd McCarty, Warner Brothers, 1955. [Online]. [Accessed 6 December 2018]. Available from: https://lenscloud.net/products/ james-dean-for-the-rebel-without-a-cause-1955 Figure 23: AllPosters. (no date). A Streetcar Named Desire, Marlon Brando 1951. [Online]. [Accessed 7 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.allposters.com/-sp/A-Streetcar-Named-Desire-MarlonBrando-1951-Posters_i13842046_.htm Figure 24: IMDB. (no date). Marlon Brando in The Wild One (1953). [Online]. [Accessed 7 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047677/mediaviewer/rm719601152 Figure 25: Mapes, J and Barnes, S. 2015. Music’s 40 Greatest Style Icons, Ranked. [Online]. [Accessed 8 December 2018]. Available from: http://flavorwire.com/486828/musics-40-biggest-style-icons-ranked/26

Figure 11: Retrowaste. (no date). 1950s Teen Fashion: Styles, Trends & Pictures. [Online]. [Accessed 5 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.retrowaste.com/1950s/fashion-in-the-1950s/1950s-fashion-for-teens-styles-trends-pictures/

Figure 26: iCollector. (no date). 1950’s Rock & Roll collection of 1-sheet posters. [Online]. [Accessed 8 December 2018]. Available from: http://www.icollector.com/1950-s-Rock-Roll-collection-of-8-1-sheetposters-including-Go-Johnny-Go-and-Rock-All-Night_i11535724

Figure 12: Underwood Archives. 2014. Teenage Boys On A Step. [Online]. [Accessed 5 December 2018].

Available from: https://pixels.com/featured/teenage-boys-on-a-step-underwood-archives.html

Figure 27: Ofcom. 2013. The reinvention of the 1950s living room. [Online]. [Accessed 8 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/media/media-releases/2013/thereinvention-of-the-1950s-living-room-2

Figure 13: Dyas, B. 2013. 7 Ways Your Grandmother Dressed Better Than You. [Online]. [Accessed 5 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/grandmother-vintage-fashion_n_3832270

Figure 28: Algoo, J. 2017. In Photos: The Best of 1950s Fashion. [Online]. [Accessed 9 December 2018].

Available from: https://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/g9996928/50s-fashion-trends/?slide=28

Figure 14: Smithsonian National Post Museum. (no date). American Express. [Online]. [Accessed 5 December 2018]. Available from: https://postalmuseum.si.edu/americasmailingindustry/American-Express. html

Figure 29: Driscoll, C. (no date). Modernism, Cinema, Adolescence: Another History for Teen Film. [Online]. [Accessed 9 December 2018]. Available from: http://www.screeningthepast.com/2011/11/modernism-cinema-adolescence-another-history-for-teen-film/

Figure 15: Tuffrey, P. 2015. Remembering Lewis’s: The jewel in Leeds’ retail crown. [Online]. [Accessed 5 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/remembering-lewis-s-the-jewelin-leeds-retail-crown-1-7278266

Figure 30: VectorStock. (no date). Camouflage pattern background seamless vector image. [Online].

[Accessed 29 November 2018]. Available from: https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-vector/camouflage-pattern-background-seamless-vector-10697353

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