200 • Ayse Caglar
16.
17. 18. 19.
20.
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22. 23.
duction of broadcasting of programs on intercommunity relations and immigration” (recommendation h) and to promote the coproduction of films with producers from immigrant communities’ countries of origin, including films dealing with migrants and ethnic minorities (recommendation j). For an excellent study of the challenge immigrants in the EU pose to the European polity, see Aziz (2001). She assesses the role of law in perpetuating the divide between a political community defined in national terms and a transnational economic and social community in the EU. This refers to Europe-specific, direct initiatives of the Council of Europe. In fact, the report “Our Creative Diversity,” resulting from the UNESCO initiative the “World Decade on Cultural Development,” dates back to 1996. This report was followed by three meetings of the International Network on Cultural Policy in 1998 and 1999. See Beale (2002: 850) for a detailed discussion of this development. For example, in the project “Intercultural Dialogue: A Project of the Council of Europe. The Unifying Aspects of Culture,” the aim of cultural diversity is coupled with the aim of fostering coexistence of religious diversity. This report was later published as a book titled “Differing Diversities: Cultural Policy and Cultural Diversity” by Tony Bennett in 2001. From this point of view, the cultural diversity perspective is different from the multiculturalist perspective, which is dedicated to the preservation of a pre-given cultural mosaic that is based on an isomorphism between territory, culture, and ethnicity. For the complex relationship between hybridity and essentialism see Friedman (1997) and Caglar (1997). However, as the cultural diversity perspective, at least in Bennett’s report, succeeds in avoiding any kind of isomorphism between ethnic and cultural diversity, it does not share the problems of hybridity criticized in these works. “The Working Group wishes to stress the importance of recognizing the value of and supporting cultural groups that operate ‘at the margins’ or outside traditional cultural structures” (Civil Forum Marseille 2000: 7). The new cultural framework clearly operates with a broader concept of cultural and artistic activities, including popular music and youth culture. It has to be noted that the cultural policies target the participation of all peoples of Europe, beyond the criterion of citizenship (see Lebon 2002 and Civil Forum Marseille 2000). This aspect of the inclusive formulation of Europe in cultural policies is informed by cultural diversity. The other important aspect of these policies is the notion of culturally inclusive Europe as opposed to “Fortress Europe” (European Commission Working Group 2003: 20). Policies aim to involve those from the neighboring countries who are not included in “formal Europe” (ibid.). It has to be recognized that the concepts of culture, participation, and citizenship with which these policy formulations operate are tuned to the most up-to-date critical positions in the social sciences. It is important to note that France and Canada “tried to pursue a concentrated strategy for a cultural exemption in trade talks” (Beale 2002: 85). In fact, it was first Canada with whom the U.S. failed to have cultural industries incorporated into the Free Trade Agreement in 1988. After this failure,