Technology and the Law of War

14 above and beyond ‘spying’ which falls outside the laws of armed conflict.

15 Supra 5

16 Smith, H, 2022, “Clausewitz’s definition of war and its limits’, Military Strategy Magazine, Volume 8 Issue 1.

17 International Committee of the Red Cross, Chemical and Biological Weapons, https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/ weapons/chemical-biological-weapons [accessed on 6 June 2022]

18 Bickerton, I & Hagan, K, 2008, “The US and the unintended consequences of war: I want you for U.S. Army nearest recruiting station”, History Today Ltd, https://www. thefreelibrary.com/The+US+and+the+unintended+conseq uences+of+war%3a+I+want+you+for+U.S....-a0173229240 [accessd on 6 June 2022]

19 Wikipedia contributors, 2022, ‘Petya and NotPetya’, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 27 May 2022, 00:16 UTC, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petya_ and_NotPetya&oldid=1090033619 [accessed 6 June 2022]

20 Melzer, N, 2009, Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law, International Committee of the Red Cross, 0990/002, May 2009, https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/ files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf [accessed on 6 June 2022] see also Singer, T, 2022, “Scenario 18: Legal status of cyber operators during armed conflict”, CCDOE Wiki, 15 February 2022, https://cyberlaw.ccdcoe.org/wiki/Scenario_18:_Legal_ status_of_cyber_operators_during_armed_conflict [accessed on 6 June 2022]

21 For further discussion on attribution in a cyber context see Hill, A, 2019 “The Ultimate Challenge: Attribution for Cyber Operations”, Wright Flyer Paper No. 70, Air University Press, Muir S. Fairchild Research Information Center, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, December 2019, https:// www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/AUPress/Papers/ WF_70_HILL_THE_ULTIMATE_CHALLENGE_ATTRIBUTION_ FOR_CYBER_OPERATIONS.PDF [accessed on 6 June 22] or Carter, R and Enoizi, J 2021, “Mapping a path to cyber attribution consensus” The Geneva Association, IFTRIP March 2021, https://www.genevaassociation.org/sites/default/files/ research-topics-document-type/pdf_public/cyber-attribution_ web_final.pdf [accessed on 6 June 22]

References

Bickerton, I & Hagan, K, 2008, “The US and the unintended consequences of war: I want you for U.S. Army nearest recruiting station”, History Today Ltd, https://www. thefreelibrary.com/The+US+and+the+unintended+conseq uences+of+war%3a+I+want+you+for+U.S....-a0173229240 [accessd on 6 June 2022]

Carter, R and Enoizi, J 2021, “Mapping a path to cyber attribution consensus” The Geneva Association, IFTRIP March 2021, https://www.genevaassociation.org/sites/default/files/ research-topics-document-type/pdf_public/cyber-attribution_ web_final.pdf [accessed on 6 June 22]

Dutton, P & Payne, M, 2022, “Attribution to Russia of malicious cyber activity against Ukraine”, Joint Media Release, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government, 21 February 2022, https://www. internationalcybertech.gov.au/Attribution-to-Russia-ofmalicious-cyber-activity-against-Ukraine [accessd on 6 June 2022]

European Commission, 2022 “Declaration for the Future of Internet”, 28 April 2022, https://digital-strategy.ec.europa. eu/en/library/declaration-future-internet [accessd on 6 June 2022]

Greenberg, A, 2018 “The Untold Story of NotPetya, the Most Devastating Cyberattack in History: Crippled ports. Paralyzed corporations. Frozen government agencies. How a single piece of code crashed the world.” 22 August 2018, https:// www.wired.com/story/notpetya-cyberattack-ukraine-russiacode-crashed-the-world/ [accessed on 6 June 22]

Hill, A, 2019 “The Ultimate Challenge: Attribution for Cyber Operations”, Wright Flyer Paper No. 70, Air University Press, Muir S. Fairchild Research Information Center, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, December 2019, https://www. airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/AUPress/Papers/WF_70_HILL_ THE_ULTIMATE_CHALLENGE_ATTRIBUTION_FOR_CYBER_ OPERATIONS.PDF [accessed on 6 June 22]

International Committee of the Red Cross, Chemical and Biological Weapons, https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/ weapons/chemical-biological-weapons [accessed on 6 June 2022]

International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva Conventions and their Commentaries, https://www.icrc.org/ en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/geneva-conventions [accessed on 6 June 2022]

International Committee of the Red Cross, Additional Protocols I & II https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/ documents/misc/additional-protocols-1977.htm [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Kapetas, A. 2022, “Russia may be winning the Ukraine information war outside the West”, The Strategist, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 8 April 2022, https://www. aspistrategist.org.au/russia-may-be-winning-the-ukraine- information-war-outside-the-west/ [accessed on 15 May 2022]

Kelton, M, Troath, F, & Rogers, Z. 2019, “Cyber threats go beyond hackers and scams but to democracy itself: As awareness of digital vulnerabilities grows, fostering resilience against exploitation across open societies is key.” The Interpreter, The Lowy Institue, 23 July 2019, https://www. lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/cyber-threats-go-beyondhackers-and-scams-democracy-itself [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Lehm, A. 2013, “Cyber-attacks in the context of international humanitarian law”, University of Oslow, 25 November 2013, https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30902682.pdf [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Ling, J. 2022, “Ukraine’s Digital Battle With Russia Isn’t Going as Expected

Even the head of the country’s online offensive is surprised by the successes—although they’re not without controversy.” Wired, 29 April 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/ukrainerussia-digital-battle/ [accessed on 4 June 2022]

Lovett, E. 2015, “The Law of Armed Conflict as it applies to CyberSpace”, Cyberpoint Speaker Series, Baltimore Maryland, 26 August 2015, https://youtu.be/sAaIIk7VecI [accessed on 6 June 2022]

National Case Law, International Committee of the Red Cross https://casebook.icrc.org/glossary/national-case-law [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Melzer, N, 2009, Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law, International Committee of the Red Cross, 0990/002, May 2009, https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/ icrc-002-0990.pdf [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Schmidt, M. 2022, “Russian cyber operations and Ukraine: the legal framework”, , Articles of War, Lieber Institute, West Point, 16 January 2022, https://lieber.westpoint.edu/russiancyber-operations-ukraine-legal-framework/ [accessed on 5 June 2022]

Seebeck, L. 2022, “Ukraine: This isn’t the information war you were looking for: But watch a change in tempo for cyber operations as the on-the-ground military situation trends towards stalemate”, The Interpreter, The Lowy Institute, 1 April 2022, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/ ukraine-isn-t-information-war-you-were-looking [accessed on 5 June 2022]

Shackelforda, S. 2010, “State responsibility for cyber attacks: competing standards for a growing problem”, Conference on Cyber Conflict Proceedings 2010 C. Czosseck and K. Podins (Eds.) CCD COE Publications, 2010, Tallinn, Estonia, https://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2018/10/Shackelford-StateResponsibility-for-Cyber-Attacks-Competing-Standards-fora-Growing-Problem.pdf [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Singer, T, 2022, “Scenario 18: Legal status of cyber operators during armed conflict”, CCDOE Wiki, 15 February 2022, https://cyberlaw.ccdcoe.org/wiki/Scenario_18:_Legal_status_ of_cyber_operators_during_armed_conflict [accessed on 6 June 2022]

Smith, H, 2022, “Clausewitz’s definition of war and its limits’, Military Strategy Magazine, Volume 8 Issue 1. United Nations Ad Hoc Committee to Elaborate a Comprehensive International Convention on Countering the Use of Information and Communications Technologies for Criminal Purposes, https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/ cybercrime/ad_hoc_committee/home [accessed on 6 June 22]

United Nations Charter, 24 October 1945, https://www.un.org/ en/about-us/un-charter/full-text [accessed on 6 June 2022]

United Nations General Assembly, 2021, Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security, 14 July 2021, Chapter IV, p17 https://documentsdds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N21/075/86/PDF/N2107586. pdf?OpenElement [accessed on 23 May 22]

United Nations, 2001, “Draft articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, with commentaries”, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, vol. II, Part Two, https://legal.un.org/ ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/9_6_2001.pdf [accessed on 23 May 22]

Väljataga, A, ‘Cyber vigilantism in support of Ukraine: a legal analysis’, CCDOE, March 2022, https://ccdcoe.org/ uploads/2022/04/Cyber-vigilantism-in-support-of-Ukrainepub.pdf [accessed on 5 June 2022]

Wikipedia contributors, 2022, “Anonymous (hacker group),”Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 4 June 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anonymous_ (hacker_group)&oldid=1091501907 [accessed 6 June 2022]

Wikipedia contributors, 2022, ‘Petya and NotPetya’, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 27 May 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petya_and_ NotPetya&oldid=1090033619 [accessed 6 June 2022]

Wikipedia contributors, 2022, ‘Russo-Ukrainian War’, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 1 June 2022, https:// en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russo-Ukrainian_ War&oldid=1091026877 [accessed 6 June 2022]