Castles and fortified cities. The contributions that new knowledge brings to the notion of authenti by Éditions Loubatières

Through examples from around the world, from Lebanon to Algeria, by way of Greece, Japan and Korea, this conference examines this complex notion of authenticity, as applied to architectural heritage, fortifications and the study of castles. Organised as part of the application by ‘the City of Carcassone and its sentinel mountain castles’ to be added to the UNESCO world heritage list, the event presents conservation models that have been used on other cultural assets. It offers a comparative study of the choices and practices brought into effect on exceptional heritage sites, in particular through the prism of international rules on authenticity. Chaired by Nicolas Faucherre, Professor of History of Art and Medieval Archaeology, University of ’AixMarseilles (France), Representative for the Conference’s Scientific Committee

ISBN 978-2-86266-791-1

Cover photography : Vincent Antech

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29 €

www.loubatieres.fr

Scientific contributions: Philippe Bragard, Professor of History of Architecture and Urban Planning, Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), Icomos Expert for World Heritage, Secretary-General of Icofort; Isik Aydemir, Honorary Dean of the Faculty of Architecture of the Technical University of Yildiz in Istanbul (Turkey); Jean Yasmine, Architect, Doctor of Archaeology, Teaching at the Lebanese University in Beyrouth (Lebanon); Katerina Manousou-Ntella, Historical Monuments Architect at the Ministry of Culture (Greece); Demetrios Athanasoulis, Director of the Ephorate of Antiquities of the Cyclades, Ministry of Greek Culture (Greece); Romuald Casier, Doctoral Student of History of Art and Archaeology, Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium); Lucien Bayrou, Doctor of History of Art, Honorary Architect (France); Marie-Élise Gardel, Doctor of History, Medieval Archaeologist (France); Laure Barthet, Curator of the Saint-Raymond Museum in Toulouse (France); Michel Sabatier, Vice-President of the Grame (Archaeological Research Group for Montségur and the Surrounding Area) (France); Judicaël de la Soudière-Niault, Heritage Architect (France); Lucas Monsaingeon, Architect, Atelier d’architecture Philippe Prost/Aapp (France); Cipriano Marin, Secretary-General of the Unesco Centre in the Canaries (Spain); Juan Antonio Belmonte, Research Professor, Vice-President of the ‘World Heritage And Astronomy’ Iau Cc4, Scientific Advisor for the Application, Canaries Institute of Astrophysics (Spain); José de León Hernández, Application Director, Historical Heritage Inspector, Cabildo of Gran Canaria (Spain); José Guillén Medina, Historical Heritage Inspector, Cabildo of Gran Canaria (Spain); Semina An, Doctoral Student at the History of Techniques and Industrial Archaeology Research Institute of the University of Mining, Freiberg (Germany); Hiroko Yamane, Professor of International Economic Law, Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (Grips) in Tokyo, Special Advisor for Hikone (Japan); Samia Chergui, Lecturer in History of Art, University of Blida (Algeria); Safia Benselama-Messikh, Lecturer in Archaeology, University of Blida (Algeria); Maryline Martin, Ceo of Guedelon (France); Florian Renucci, Project Manager, Guedelon (France); Stéphane Gautier, Head of the Heritage Conservation Department of Vitré (France); Vincent Ory, Doctoral student, University of AixMarseilles (France); Michel Cotte, Professor Emeritus, University of Nantes (France) & Icomos International

Castles and fortified cities

What does the notion of authenticity mean in different countries? What role can be assigned to old military fortresses? Should monuments be restored? If so, what techniques and what materials should be used? Between interpreting, reinventing, freezing at a moment in time, identically rebuilding, etc., points of view and biases vary depending on national cultures, sensitivities and periods.

International colloquium

Castles and fortified cities The contributions that new knowledge brings to the notion of authenticity

Association Mission Patrimoine Mondial

éditions LOUBATIÈRES

08/03/2021 12:11

castles and fortified cities

table of contents part iii

Examples of fortified systems in the Far East

Inaugural session Introduction by the President André Viola

Introduction by Nicolas Faucherre

What should be done with castle and fortress ruins? Reflections on authenticity by Philippe Bragard

Semina An – The current state of conserving and managing on Namhansanseong’s authenticity

144

Hiroko Yamane – Authenticity of Cultural Heritage: Fortified Castles of the Edo Period in Japan and Hikone-jo

156

part i

part iv

The fortifications of the Mediterranean world (1)

The fortifications of the Mediterranean world (2)

Jean Yasmine – Beaufort Castle – Qalaat Ach-Chaqif – Conservation, restoration, reconstruction

Katerina Manousou-Ntella – The monumental ensemble 48 of medieval fortifications in the city of Rhodes Demetrios Athanasoulis – Restoration and Research Projects of the Peloponnesian Castles (2000-2015): An Assessment Romuald Casier – The coastal towers of Corsica (1530-2018): Transformation, restoration, conversion ‘between authenticity and metamorphosis’

Vincent Ory – Architectural heritage and the problem of authenticity in Turkey: the example of the urban wall in Diyarbarkır

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Isik Aydemir – Problems of authenticity regarding the Theodosian walls in Istanbul

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Samia Chergui and Safia Benselama-Messikh – Discovering the authentic first wall of the Citadel in Algiers

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Safia Benselama-Messikh – Reconnaissance of Bordj Hamza – A small Ottoman fort in the Algerian hinterland – Authenticity, between graphic archives and archaeological evidence 202

part ii

part v

Fortifying and controlling a territory

Other examples of the management of sites and fortified systems in France: the authenticity of existing monuments

Nicolas Faucherre – An evolving concept: the authenticity of the walled city of Carcassonne and its ‘five sons’, the sentinel mountain castles

Marie-Élise Gardel – The castles of Lastours (Aude, France): unambiguous functional authenticity

104

Laure Barthet and Michel Sabatier – Montségur and the notion of authenticity

118

Cipriano Marin et al. – Risco Caído and the sacred mountains of Gran Canaria: the value, authenticity and preservation policy of an Amazigh mountain refuge

130

Judicaël de la Soudière-Niault – Haut-Koenigsbourg Castle (Alsace): Return after a century of widely publicised criticism – an indicator of how the notion of authenticity has evolved

214

Lucas Monsaingeon – Case studies on the citadels of Lille and Ajaccio: in favour of a diachronic approach to fortified sites

230

Maryline Martin and Florian Renucci – Guédelon: a contemporary medieval adventure

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Stéphane Gautier – Vitré Castle, between ruin and reconstruction

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Conclusion by Michel Cotte

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part I

The fortifications of the Mediterranean world (1)

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Jean Yasmine – Beaufort Castle – Qalaat Ach-Chaqif – Conservation, restoration, reconstruction

Katerina Manousou-Della – The monumental ensemble of medieval fortifications in the city of Rhodes

Demetrios Athanasoulis – Restoration and Research Projects of the Peloponnesian Castles (2000-2015): An Assessment

Romuald Casier – The coastal towers of Corsica (1530-2018): Transformation, restoration, conversion ‘between authenticity and metamorphosis’

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the fortifications of the mediterranean world (1)

the coastal towers of Corsica (1530-2018): transformation, restoration, conversion ‘between authenticity and metamorphosis’ Romuald CASIER1

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the coastal towers of corsica

Romuald Casier2 the coastal towers of Corsica include ninety defence structures built between 1530 and 1620 for the purpose of countering incessant attacks from Barbary pirates. From the beginning, this serial heritage developed broad architectural diversity, reinforced over the centuries through the expression of strong desires for utility, remembrance or picturesqueness. Today at the heart of vast improvement plans, the coastal towers continue their progressive metamorphosis, seeking to respond to the challenges of our time while conserving their authenticity. For this reason, this architectural corpus offers a vast field of observation, capable of setting out authenticity criteria based on a single model, while encouraging the development of critical analysis via new field experiences.

Setting out authenticity criteria based on a single model Generally speaking, these works, known as Genoese towers, seem to conform to the archetypal layering of a glacis base, a door on a string course, usually a circular body and a parapet with machicolations. However, in spite of this apparent resemblance, each of the towers presents singularities observed in the elements inherent to the work, and consequently designed at the time of construction. It is then interesting to establish a parallelism between the factors responsible for this diversity and the authenticity criteria as defined by the Nara charter in 1994. Indeed, both hold in common the setting out of the four fundamental elements, which are the material, the form, the function and the environment.

1. PhD candidate in art history and archaeology at the University of Louvain (Belgium). 75

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the fortifications of the mediterranean world (1)

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic summary of the geographical and topographical installations of the coastal towers. Drawn up in 2016 by Romuald Casier. (Architectural, urban, landscape and archaeological study of the Genoese towers in Corsica. DRAC. Ajaccio.)

The environment of the Genoese towers is perceived in a different way, depending on whether the work forms part of the natural landscape or holds a strategic position in the territory. Corsica offers a panorama full of contrasts, due to the cut of its coastline and the variety of topographic profiles. Consequently, there are several installation combinations, on the one hand, in the sea, on the seafront or further inland, and on the other hand at the foot, on the side or at the top of the elevation (fig. 1). The possibility of an interconnected defence network allows us to distinguish various relationships with the territory as a whole. If some towers seem to have developed a strictly linear distribution along the coast, others developed a concentric organisation around a citadel, or else a co-visibility that radiates towards inland villages. The function entrusted to the coastal towers also offers a range of cases directly reflected by the architectural and defensive layout of the works (fig. 2). Some towers seem to have developed an ‘active’ type of defence, which attests to behaviours, methods and equipment aiming to eliminate or reduce the effectiveness of an enemy attack

and including the use of weapons. For this military position, it is a matter of being part of a long-term defensive strategy, and even real attacks against invasions from Barbary pirates. Other towers have the characteristics of a ‘passive’ type of defence, that is, exclusively devoted to information, detection and a layout that allows the prevention or delay of any intrusion. These could then be monitoring stations, or even in some cases shelters for navy personnel. More isolated cases reflect a preventive ‘watchtower’ type of defence. In fact, Corsica’s low population in the 16th century meant there were vast deserted stretches, and the installation of relay towers across them could guarantee communication throughout the island, and thereby broaden the field of observation of this architectural corpus. The form of the towers, while conforming to a single archetype, offers an infinite number of variations due to architectural proportions and the contribution of certain architectural details (fig. 3). The general perception of the work is directly brought about by the diameter of the body (15 metres at Campomoro as opposed to 7.40 metres at Diane), the elevation height (14.77 metres at Santa-Maria and 11.27 metres at Olmeta), and also the organisation of openings in one or two storeys of living space. The width of the string course, the console profile and the presence of machicolations or flankers reinforce this physical diversity. The general layout itself is in either a circular or square (about 10% of the corpus) configuration, with no way of identifying any particular geographical or chronological logic in the distribution and diversity of these works. The material, made particularly visible by the natural process of decay of the remains, attests not only to great diversity in the choice of materials, but also in the

Fig. 2. Comparison of the military layouts of the Miomo, Albo and Fautea towers. Maps drawn up in 2014 -18 by Romuald Casier. (Diagnostic studies in the framework of project management. Collectivity of Corsica. Ajaccio.)

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the coastal towers of corsica

Fig. 3. Presentation of the diversity of architectural proportions in 8 coastal towers in Corsica. Drawings resulting from photogrammetrical surveying conducted in 2018 by Romuald Casier and Quentin Burton. (Doctoral studies. Co-supervision between UCL and Aix-Marseille.)

choice of techniques used. The use of shale, sandstone or limestone is in turn broken down by a search for more or less regular masonry, homogeneous or mixed masonry, or walls built according to the dry-stone method or using mortar. The visual diversity, accorded by the material, therefore offers a rich chromatic palette, drawn from the local geological context (fig. 4). For example, the Caldano tower, located in the town of Lumio, was built directly within the operating area of a stone quarry. Many extraction seams in the immediate vicinity of the building attest to this. The perceptible physical appearance of all of the towers today differs from the original condition due to the almost complete loss of the rendering. Our current knowledge does not allow us to confirm the final

colour of this rendering, which would have been obtained by applying three layers of a mixture of lime, sand and crushed pebbles. However, a pragmatic approach could plead in favour of a variety of rendering shades, comparable to those of the structural work stones, not only because of the use of materials available nearby, but also because of the strategic desire to blend the building into its environment. Apart from the original singularity accorded to the towers from the moment their construction began, it seems important to observe the transformations brought to the monuments over time, which link their construction to the present day. The demolitions, reconstructions, Fig. 4. Palette of samples of the materials used in 8 coastal towers. Photos taken in 2018 by Romuald Casier.

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part Ii

Fortifying and controlling a territory Nicolas Faucherre – An evolving concept: the authenticity of the walled city of Carcassonne and its ‘five sons’, the sentinel mountain castles

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Marie-Élise Gardel – The castles of Lastours (Aude, France): unambiguous functional authenticity

104

Laure Barthet and Michel Sabatier – Montségur and the notion of authenticity

118

Cipriano Marin et al. – Risco Caído and the sacred mountains of Gran Canaria: the value, authenticity and preservation policy of an Amazigh mountain refuge

130

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fortifying and controlling a territory

an evolving concept: the authenticity of the walled city of Carcassonne and its ‘five sons’, the sentinel mountain castles Nicolas FAUCHERRE1

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an evolving concept: the authenticity of the walled city of carcassonne and its ‘five sons’

Nicolas Faucherre4 the authenticity of the eight fortresses in eastern Languedoc that we are to consider lies primarily in their conceptual unity. In fact, the selected sites for the ‘City of Carcassonne and its sentinel mountain castles’ application (the title of the World Heritage application as a serial cultural property) form a group of royal fortresses built after the Albigensian Crusade under Capetian direct rule. Built on steep sites, they all apply the principles of active defence and regular ground plans with round flanking towers that were introduced by King Philip Augustus in Ile-de-France and Normandy during the 13th century2. The eight fortresses that make up the serial property therefore present a high degree of homogeneity in their defensive systems and the details of their execution, providing evidence that concurrent construction projects were carried out over three generations — circa 1240-1310 during the reigns of Saint Louis, Philip the Bold and Philip the Fair — by the same teams led by architects directly drawn from the Ile-de-France royal circles3. 5

This authenticity common to all of the sites is what first gives the serial property its strength. As from the Treaty of Corbeil (1258) — which laid down for four centuries, until the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the frontier between France and Aragon, and then Spain —, the design, construction and maintenance of buildings belonging to the king were the responsibility of two royal officers, masters of the king’s works in the senechalsy of Carcassonne, the ‘master mason’ and the ‘master carpenter’, the latter also being in charge of the city’s arsenal, assisted by a ‘clerk of works’ for the administrative tasks.

1. Professor of art history and medieval archaeology, University of Aix-Marseille/LA3M (France). 2. Cf. general introduction. My thanks go to Lucien Bayrou and Marie-Élise Gardel for the fruitful discussions on these monuments that we have had over many years. 3. As Marie-Élise Gardel shows, in these sites, which are often vertiginous and therefore hard to occupy, the conceptual unity lies in “the shield walls or walled spurs, the autonomous keeps protecting entrances or weak points, the numerous flanks added throughout the century and the arrow slits that were perfected — going from the stirrup-shaped slit, to the spade- and then oar-shaped slit —, the smoother flow of traffic along the parapet-walks …”; cf. M.-E. Gardel, La Cité de Carcassonne et ses châteaux sentinelles de montagne : éléments de comparaison (vers 1240-vers 1300), PCR ‘Carcassonne : étude, relevé et datation des fortifications de la Cité de Carcassonne’, 163 p., to be published, Cons. dept. Aude ed. 93

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fortifying and controlling a territory

Fig. 10. The castle of Peyrepertuse seen from the northwest. Photo: Philippe Benoist.

property of the small municipality of Duilhac-sous-Peyrepertuse, which tenaciously supports it, and has justified many consolidation and renovation operations for its visitors in the last fifty years. Its tourism strategy — despite the difficulty of access and the precipices surrounding it on all sides — has developed between making public access, even for the disabled, easier (a lift right up to the castle was refused due to its impact on the landscape), and complying with safety restrictions by adding guardrails and safe steps for access and traffic flow. Belvederes were also created under the development of green tourism,

Fig. 11. Peyrepertuse, old living quarters, undocumented window in the door on the right; photo Lucien Bayrou, circa 1970. Fig. 12. Peyrepertuse, parapet-walk reinstated on a curtain wall; photo Lucien Bayrou.

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an evolving concept: the authenticity of the walled city of carcassonne and its ‘five sons’

which combines nature and culture. In the design of the guardrails, each generation brought its culture and experience: metal joinery up until the end of the 20th century, then wooden assemblies due to the high risk of lightning, but without creating any ambiguity with the original stakes and hoardings, and finally the creation of rubble-stone parapets.

has created a horizontal linearity of the tops, weakening the magic of a jagged ruin, even though it is not made for the public to walk on (fig. 12). On balance, if we are not careful, there is a risk that the site’s authenticity will fade little by little due to these disparate and indiscreet interventions.

The site therefore presents a visible succession of interventions, which reflects the development of the restoration theories implemented over time, but sometimes disturbs the legibility of the construction phases. In this respect, the fruitful excavation of the Notre-Dame chapel justified the stabilisation of masonries and the repointing of claddings, which partially watered-down the visibility of construction phases and the addition of upper storeys, as at the Roc Sant-Jordi But above all, in the 1970s, the ACMH Hermitte created a window in line with the murder hole of the western postern gate of the Old Dungeon, while in the 2000s, the ABF Chauve filled in to midheight the loopholes in the north curtain wall (fig. 11).

Two sources cited by Lucien Bayrou help identify the chronology of the royal construction work, which left no trace of a probable prior occupation. In August 1255, Louis IX gave the order to evacuate and fortify it. In the 1263 inventory, extraction tools are mentioned: “four iron wedges for splitting stone, an iron mallet for breaking stone, five pairs of iron pliers, a pick, (…) a pickaxe”, which suggests that work was in progress. Maintenance work in the outer courtyard is indicated in the 16th century, for both firearms and the garrison in the living quarters.

Since then, the restoration of the parapet-walk flags and consoles, ensuring it comes out onto the courtyard,

At an altitude of 697 m, the castle is an impressive landmark at the entrance to the Fenouillèdes, rising up

Puilaurens

Fig. 13. The castle of Puilaurens seen from the north. Photo: Philippe Benoist.

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part Iii

Examples of fortified systems in the Far East

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Semina An – The current state of conserving and managing on Namhansanseong’s authenticity

144

Hiroko Yamane – Authenticity of Cultural Heritage: Fortified Castles of the Edo Period in Japan and Hikone-jo

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castles and fortified cities

authenticity of cultural heritage: fortified castles of the Edo period in Japan and Hikone-jo Hiroko YAMANE1

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authenticity of cultural heritage: fortified castles of the edo period in japan and hikone-jo

Hiroko Yamane 3 the network of castles of the Edo period was born out of the policy of the Tokugawa government (bakufu) to create and solidify a social order supportive of their political authority, which lasted in peace for the entire Edo period from 1603 to 1868. 1 Approximately 180 guarded castles were newly built or reformed under the Tokugawa initiative and most of them were rapidly established in the first half of the 17th century. A large number of samurais 2 and other inhabitants came to live within a sōgamae, which is the outermost defensive enclosure. A typical Edo ‘castle’ included, within its sōgamae, a central area within the first moat and the jōka, consisting of temples, a residential district for merchants and artisans which were found outside the second moat. Of the 180 cities, about 100 had a wooden keep (tenshu) in the center, surrounded by turrets, palaces of the Lord and gardens. Houses of upper-class samurais were found just outside the center. 4

These guarded castles with jōka effectively ended the medieval strife that had lasted more than a hundred years. Outbreaks of fire or severe storms destroyed many of the keeps during the Edo period, including those in Edo and Osaka. During the Meiji era that followed (1868-1912) and during World War II, many other keeps were destroyed and replaced by modern buildings. Over time, many of the guarded cities established during the Edo period were adapted and modernised to serve as primarily prefectural or military facilities.

1. Special advisor, Hikone City. I am grateful to S. Fukaya and J. Mio, Cultural Properties Department, Hikone Education Board, for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper. The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any organization. 2. Samurais, the warrior classes in Japan originally protected the Emperor and nobles in Kyoto. Gradually, they increased their influence by quelling armed uprisings in the politically divided society and became themselves provincial rulers. Consequently, conflicts among temples, nobles and samurais over land, peasantry and agricultural resources multiplied. 157

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castles and fortified cities

Of the 100 or so wooden keeps constructed during the Edo Period, only 12 have survived destruction through the various historical periods and with different degrees of authenticity into the present day. Among these 12, five are recognised as national treasures, of which one is Hikone3. In Hikone today, the urban layout and buildings that characterise the Edo castles are still tangible and marked by various indices. Hikone exhibits the full range of elements in an Edo castle layout built at the beginning of the 17th century. This paper shows how well particular characteristics of Edo castles are preserved in Hikone, particularly as urban structures and functions which are shown by archaeological monuments and architectural works. Hikone is, however, not without authenticity challenges. Recent developments in the city did not allow the preservation of the entire enclosure of the castle town, the authenticity of which has been altered in many places by recent constructions, particularly for some architectural sites. However, the zoning of the jōka is re-traceable through the moats, stone walls, mounds, and machiwari, or lay-out of roads, which has been preserved and remains recognisable still today. Houses of merchants, artisans and temples contribute to the sense of the original jōka, although the buildings of merchants and artisans are usually not from the early Edo period. We will therefore examine the authenticity of Hikone-jō as a typical Edo castle town not only by the Japanese legal standards based on the Law for Cultural Properties Protection, promulgated in 1950, but also in light of the Nara Document on Authenticity which was elaborated at the Nara Conference, held at Nara, Japan, in November 1994.

Hikone Castle

logistics; zoning; efficient economic land use, particularly of water; and a relatively laissez-faire stance concerning movements of goods. The tenshu (keep) of Hikone-jō (castle)4 is on a hill overlooking Lake Biwa. Lord’s residence are built within the inner block, ‘making good use of the natural land formation of the hill’. The centre of the castle is guarded by turrets and gates, surrounded by moats and outer blocks. Edo castles extended to the whole jōka up to or a little beyond outer blocks. The structure of the castle, its enclosure, ground and public works such as the moats (dry or filled with water) and roads were built primarily for defensive purposes.

The Central Area In the central area within the first moat, the tenshu, turrets, palaces, Lords’ residences were located. The main palace was used primarily for making political decisions. Adjacent to Lords’ residences, cultural facilities such as inner gardens, noh theaters and tea-ceremony houses were found. On the lake side just outside of the inner moat, east of the Lords’ residences, Genkyu-en and Rakuraku-en are found. In the second circle, within the second moat mainly on the south-side of the central area, residences of high-ranking samurais also formed a concentric circle. Between the second and the third moat, residences of lower class samurais and other non-samurai residences (temples, merchants and artisans) were found. Important temples and shrines related to the Ii family or the Hikone castle are found also in the Eastern outskirts of the town area at the foot of Sawayama-jō hills. These characteristics reflect the evolution of Edo castles within the sōgamae during the period in which three warlords attempted to unify the warring, feudal lordships: Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537-1598) and Tokugawa Ieyasu (15421616), who ultimately prevailed.

The structural characteristics of Edo castle towns are the following: the presence of a sōgamae, the outermost enclosure of a fortress to enclose the main population; deliberate and innovative arrangement of the main vertical political road and horizontal roads for distribution

The Tokugawa bakufu tightly controlled the movement and residence of people, but was relatively liberal regarding the flow of goods. The Tokugawa economy was substantially physiocratic. For the practical functioning of the unified Tokugawa economy, transportation of heavy materials, crops and foods through utilisation of natural waterways (rivers, lakes and ocean) was the most effective and the least costly approach.

3. Hikone-jō (castle) was included on the UNESCO tentative listin 1992: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/374/

4. The concept of Hikone-jō (castle) is used as a title of the above listing and includes a broad area surrounding the centre of the castle in a natural setting.

Layout of Hikone Castle

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authenticity of cultural heritage: fortified castles of the edo period in japan and hikone-jo

Fig. 1. Hikone Tenshu, Fig. 2. Nishinomaru Triple Turret, Fig. 3. Tenbin (Scale) Turret, Cultural Properties Management Department, Hikone Education Board.

In the early 1600s, Hikone Castle was one of the first to be built under the Tokugawa bakufu’s authority, almost at the same time as the castles at Zeze, Tamba Sasayama, Himeji and Iga Ueno, for the defence of the Tokugawa family. The construction of Hikone tenshu (keep and probably an authority symbol of the Tokugawa family) started in 1604, soon after the Battle of Sekigahara. Tokugawa Ieyasu granted to Ii Naomasa the Hikone-han (domain) and Sawayama-jō, located in a strategic location dividing the eastern and the western regions of Japan, particularly Osaka, where the Toyotomi family presided until their final defeat in 1615. It was also a strategic location for protecting Kyoto where the Emperor resided. The castle was constructed directly by the bakufu, called tenkahushin, like some twenty other castles. The construction of Hikone tenshu was completed in 1606. Given that military tensions were not entirely subdued before 1615, the castle retained some of the strategic layout that had characterised previous yamajiro (mountain castles) (fig. 1, 2, 3). The course of one of the many rivers running through the Hikone area, the Serigawa, which had nourished

the Matsubara swamps, was altered in order to create a barrier in the South of the town against enemies from Toyotomi family in Osaka. Construction of districts for inhabitants of Hikone started to be built from 1604 and the town was recognized as a jōka by the bakufu in 1641 and 1644. Soon afterwards, the town expanded outward into the villages beyond the sōgamae, areas just outside the third moat where foot soldiers resided. In these villages, merchants paid annual tribute, in contrast to the inner town areas where merchants were exempted from the tribute5. Genkyu-en is the Lord’s landscape garden with a central pond and a circular walking trail. It is situated 5. In the Edo period, the populations of castle towns varied. Large, combined jōka, such as Kanazawa and Sendai, are said to have consisted of around 120,000 residents, and three other prominent cities (Edo, Osaka and Kyoto) had populations of well over 300,000. In Hikone, the population was around 30,000 and the ratio of samurais and merchants/artisans was approximately equal (polulation composition was shown in the donation book dated 1695 for Ohara Benzaiten temple construction), Hikone was thus an average-size provincial castle town. 159

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part Iv

The fortifications of the Mediterranean world (2) Vincent Ory – Architectural heritage and the problem of authenticity in Turkey: the example of the urban wall in Diyarbarkır

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Isik Aydemir – Problems of authenticity regarding 178 the Theodosian walls in Istanbul Samia Chergui and Safia Benselama-Messikh – Discovering the authentic first wall 192 of the Citadel in Algiers Safia Benselama-Messikh – Reconnaissance of Bordj Hamza – A small Ottoman fort in the Algerian hinterland – Authenticity, between graphic archives and archaeological evidence

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problems of authenticity regarding the Theodosian walls in Istanbul Isik AYDEMIR1

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problems of authenticity regarding the theodosian walls in istanbul

Isik Aydemir2

A history and description of the walls The construction of the land walls of Constantinople began in 413 AD, under the orders of Emperor Theodosius II. Within a few years, a massive wall more than 6 km long had been built. Constantinople’s fortification system, currently the largest to have been conserved, successfully defended the capital for over a thousand years. These walls which, in their current form, date back to the middle of the 5th century, have two main sections: the land walls, which are the subject of this paper, and the sea walls (fig. 1). The walls follow the dissymmetrical topographical profile of the historical peninsula and therefore present two opposing sides of unequal importance: the longest side, on the Marmara Sea side, which runs from this sea to the gate of Edirne, the wall’s culminating point (at an altitude of more than 70 m) on the one hand, and the ‘steeper’ Golden Horn side, which runs between the gate previously mentioned and Ayvansaray, on the other (fig. 2). Over the years, they have been remodelled and renovated, with the construction of palaces, in particular, such as the palace of Blachernae (from the 12th century). The defensive system formed by these walls is composed of a main wall that is 4.80 m wide and between 11 and 14 m high, flanked by 96 towers between 50 and 75 m distant from one another, with ten main gates and four postern gates and an outer wall that is 3.85 m wide, also flanked by towers and preceded by a ditch. The masonry is characteristic of the Byzantine period and presents alternate bands of red brick and travertine rubble and dry-laid stone (fig. 3).

Fig. 1. Map taken from ‘Routier de l’Archipel’ by Buandelmonti, around 1420, Robert Mantran, Histoire d’Istanbul, Ligugé Poitiers, 1996.

1. Honorary dean of the Faculty of architecture at the Technical University of Yildiz in Istanbul. 179

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the walls, were ordered by Ahmet 1st between 1722 and 1724. But due to the effects of the weather and the looting of stones, the wall crumbled and even collapsed in some places. Finally, when it was broken through in certain places to make way for the railway in 1870 and then the road networks in 1950 and 1960, the walls gradually deteriorated and were neglected (fig. 4). Since then, thanks to the solidity of the original structure and its various repairs (even if some are disputable), the wall has resisted, overall, and most of the ramparts are still standing. Fig. 4. Akilas Milas, G.Stamatopulos, Kostantinopoli Anazitondas tin Vasilevusa, photos Lisa Evert, Dora Mihaçi, Marıa Fakali, Lusi Bracioti printer, Athens, 1990, p. 36.

Landscape and use of the monument and its surrounding area up to the present day

During the Ottoman period and despite clearing operations carried out on the wall since the 1980s, it still used to shelter inhabitants, most of them illegal, living in widely variable conditions, mainly on the side facing the Golden Horn but also between Edirnekapı and Topkapı in very limited numbers. But this is virtually no longer the case today. Outside the wall and between the main wall and the outer wall facing the sea, extremely/very well cared for vegetable gardens are still to be found (fig. 5). Cultivated with magnificent care, in particular through the use of micro-plots for storing water, these agricultural activities, which date back to Roman times, were listed in an edict of the Theodosian code in 422. (Book VII.8.13). ‘Made a few years after the completion of the monument, this edict provides information on the relationship between the walls and the surrounding landscape. In face, the decree allows private use of the lower storeys of the inner wall. More specifically, these storeys were designed to be used by landowners who could store their tools and farming products nearby. Consequently, soldiers did not have access to these lower storeys. The plot of land across the system of defence had to function as farming land to supply the city with agricultural products. The nature of the landscape around the walls was further reinforced by a Byzantine text known as the Geoponika (12.1) which included sections already composed in the 6th century CE. The text systematically provides information on the plants cultivated at different times of the year or seasonal cycles. For the city of Constantinople, the Geoponika lists a large variety of salad greens, endives, carrots, onions and cabbages, amongst other things. As well as these vegetables, other plants appear that are less frequently used, such as mustard or broccoli rabe. Absent from this are pulses, olives, millet and aubergines, to name but a few. This type of horticulture certainly did exist during the Byzantine era, all along the land walls. According to a study led by Koder and carried out on the Geoponika texts, inside the walls, these orchards covered a surface area of about 2 or 3 square kilometres, with a radius of 2 square kilometres outside the city, totalling an average of 13 square kilometres.’ 3.

3. Dr. A. Ricci, İntangible Cultural Heritage in İstanbul: The Case of the Land Wall’s Byzantine Orchards, Anadolu Medeniyetleri Araştırma Merkezi, Koç Universitesi, 2008. 182

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These gardens offer a wonderful example of ingenuity, and therefore ensure substantial profit for their farmers and for the Greater Istanbul Municipality, which rents the plots of land. Outside the walls, across the ditch, a road network built during the 1950s follows the Theodosian walls from the Marmara sea right up to the Golden Horn. As well as the network of roads, there are large cemetery areas (more than 60 hectares in total). Next to tombs from the Ottoman period, faith-based squares have been established (organised and compartmentalised based on faith). They bring together Ottoman Muslims, Armenians, Orthodox Greeks... And finally, in the section inside the walls, micro-districts have developed against the main wall. The presence of these walls is felt in many places, from the topography of the city to everyday life. As monumental architecture, they are visible from the Marmara sea, from the Golden Horn and from the Thrace countryside; the walls occupy a very important place in the urban landscape and in the architectural historical heritage of the city (fig. 6). Today, they are registered as a world heritage site with UNESCO because, from the point of view of the history of defence systems, they represent the most important and innovative example of medieval fortifications.

The requalification and valorisation of the Theodosian walls The first urban concepts for the protection and valorisation of the walls appeared in 1935 on the master plan of the famous French urban planner, Henri Prost, who had been invited by the founder of the Ataturk Republic. In 1933, following his work on the new capital Ankara, Ataturk became interested in Istanbul, formerly known as Constantinople, and made the decision to transform

Fig. 6. Akilas Milas, G.Stamatopulos, Kostantinopoli Anazitondas tin Vasilevusa, photos Lisa Evert, Dora Mihaçi, Marıa Fakali, Lusi Bracioti printer, Athens, 1990, p. 36.

Fig. 5. Aerial photo of the orchards. Istanbul metropolitan municipality.

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part v

Other examples of the management of sites and fortified systems in France: the authenticity of existing monuments Judicaël de la Soudière-Niault – Haut-Koenigsbourg Castle (Alsace): Return after a century of widely publicised criticism – an indicator of how the notion of authenticity has evolved

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Lucas Monsaingeon – Case studies on the citadels of Lille and Ajaccio: in favour of a diachronic 230 approach to fortified sites

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Maryline Martin and Florian Renucci – Guédelon: a contemporary medieval adventure

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Stéphane Gautier – Vitré Castle, between ruin and reconstruction

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Conclusion by Michel Cotte

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Guédelon : a contemporary medieval adventure Maryline MARTIN1 and Forian RENUCCI2

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Maryline Martin1 and Florian Renucci2 à l’heure où se multiplient des exemples de reconstruction de monuments disparus, l’église Sainte-Croix de Dresde, le Berliner Stadtschloss, château des rois de Prusse à Berlin, l’opéra de la Fenice de Venise, détruit par un incendie en 1996, qui a fait l’objet d’une reconstruction « com’era e dov’era » (comme il était et où il était) et jusqu’au fac-similé numérique reproduisant la grotte Chauvet, pourquoi construire aujourd’hui un château fort du xiiie  siècle ? Est-ce que le projet de Guédelon peut être comparé à un monument historique existant ou à un projet de reconstruction comme celui de la flèche de la basilique de Saint-Denis ? Le chantier de construction du château de Guédelon, après vingt ans de fonctionnement, est un exemple unique de chantier d’archéologie expérimentale dimensionné à l’échelle d’une architecture monumentale. Le projet de Guédelon, par ce qu’il génère des fantasmes associés à l’image culturelle du « château fort » a souvent été perçu comme la création d’un « pastiche », occultant sa vraie nature de laboratoire des savoir-faire traditionnels de la construction, à ciel ouvert. Les documents de référence du Comité du patrimoine mondial ont défini une grille de lecture permettant d’évaluer les attitudes architecturales possibles en termes d’intervention ou de création liées au patrimoine. Un rappel épistémologique de l’archéologie expérimentale permettra de situer Guédelon dans cette typologie des possibilités architecturales. Toutes interrogent directement la notion d’authenticité. Nous présenterons ensuite les fondamentaux du projet de Guédelon avec des exemples de données inédites mises à jour, pour arriver à définir enfin Guédelon pour ce qu’il est, en le différentiant de ce qu’il n’est pas (fig. 1).

1. Guédelon President and CEO. 2. Guédelon contracting authority. 245

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To recreate all of the steps, a lime kiln was built using dry stone against an embankment. In the lower part, a firebox is connected to a circular firing chamber. The dome is formed by limestone stones destined to be calcined, and has a capacity of 4 cubic metres. Feedback from the experiment reveals the challenge of first finding good limestone, marble limestone, for example, did not give satisfactory results, whereas fragments from the cutting of semi-hard limestone gave optimal results. The positioning of the vents in the dome also contributes to the success of the firing. The duration of the firing period is fundamental. For four cubic metres of stone, four days and three consecutive nights are required, i.e. one cubic metre every 24 hours. We also have to stress the advantage of firing with wood that produces a flame, brushwood or softwood, so as to maintain a column of lively flames without having to remove the embers. The extinguishment of the lime, once the kiln has cooled, is spectacular: The blocks of limestone submerged in water have a gradual fusion reaction that reaches boiling point in half an hour. The lime obtained is of exceptional quality. It does not become floury when painted onto coatings.

Fig. 6. Sandstone realignment arrays with scattered chiselled appearance.

Operating methods brought to light by the work site Being economical with stone lies in the choice of the cut appearance.

At the beginning of the work, in 1999, the creation of the chapel tower embankment required full production from the 6 stone cutters in the lodge, for the whole 7-month season. We had used a chiselled finish for the cut stones to obtain a perfectly plane surface. The average production time was two days per stone. This working time, extrapolated across all of the cut stone works on the castle, meant we had to envisage completion not in 25 years but in 50 years or more! A visit of the Dourdan and Ratilly castles, and an analysis of the cut stone cladding of the castles’ escarpments revealed a much less ‘finished’ appearance on the stones using the same tool: the chisel. From then on we adopted for the cut sandstone a ‘scattered chiselled’ appearance, which, from the following year, resulted in the construction of the four embankments of the castle’s south front towers in one season with the same team. The cutting time with the same tools and the same stonecutters had been multiplied by four simply because of the decision by the project manager to change the appearance of the cut stone for economic reasons. This appearance is characterised by oblique or vertical bumpy grooves, or by a surface regularly chipped with small channels. This is rough work that can act as a finish for rustic stones. It is to be found on sandstone realignment arrays and quoins. From then on the extraction marks present on some of the cladding were no longer erased by cutting and we were surprised to find the same marks on the stone cladding at Dourdan and Nesle-en-Dole! The experiment had therefore generated material marks comparable to archaeological traces, allowing us, on the one hand, to identify them, and on the other hand, to propose an economic justification for that choice (fig. 6).

The contribution of marble limestone to the work site’s budget The completion of the ground floor of the lodge between 2002 and 2006 greatly increased the order for smooth-finish cut stones for door, window and chimney rebates. In the face of the development of the evolution of the quarry layers, which were becoming harder and harder, and aware that the choice of sandstone had an impact on the stonecutters’ production, we decided to opt for marble limestone for the first floor double windows. 252

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The completion of the first ribbed vaults in 2002 on the ground floor of the chapel tower had shown the good physical and chemical resistance of marble limestone, combined with ferruginous sandstone. There is a geological outcrop of limestone layers to the south, in the town of Treigny, one hour by horse from Guédelon. The consequence of substituting limestone for sandstone was increased productivity, which went so far as to halve the cutting time for the window jambs. The grooved appearance of the cut stone allowed the chisel marks left by the roughing down step to be ‘erased’ much more quickly than the chiselled appearance of the sandstone. Here again, depending on the architectural functions of the works, a range of appearances was established for the cut limestone. The scattered chiselled finish was economical and gave a rustic look, the grooved finish was functional and all grooved was ostentatious, erasing the impacts of chiselling for ribbing and chimneys. It should be noted that the choice to reserve limestone for cut stone work and sandstone rubble for wall cladding is characteristic of the building cultures in Puisaye villages. The Saint‑Sauveur‑en‑Puisaye and Moutiers-en-Puisaye churches and the fortified priory in Diges, are eloquent examples of the sandstone and limestone combination. The evolution of decisions relating to implementation, which was motivated by consideration of the human factor – on working better while becoming less tired – brought the aesthetics of the castle into line with the substance of local architectures (fig. 7).

Implementation of the ribbed vaults Then many ribbed vaults covering the circular spaces of the Guédelon castle’s towers allowed us to define a proposal for an operating method, which was representative of the vaults present in 13th century castles.

Fig. 7. The programme for the lodge’s double windows.

The first step was the creation of a working drawing of the ribs’ profile on a floor The form of the arch from the spring line, the thickness of the voussoirs, the reach of their joints, the tas-de-charge treatment of the bottom support integrated into the wall cladding, the profile and the height of the corbels are all defined. This working drawing contains all the information required by the stonecutters to carve the ribs, and the carpenters to create the centring that supports the ribs. Fig. 8. left : La clef de voûte est placée sur le cintre. Fig. 9. opposite : The chapel’s ribbed vault.

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Cover photography : Vincent Antech

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Castles and fortified cities

International colloquium

Castles and fortified cities The contributions that new knowledge brings to the notion of authenticity

Association Mission Patrimoine Mondial

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