ORGANIZED BY AN AMBITIOUS INTERNATIONAL TEAM, MUN@TIU 2018 SEEKS TO BRING YOUNG THINKERS AND THOUGHT LEADERS FROM JAPAN AND AROUND THE WORLD TOGETHER FOR A 3-DAY EVENT THAT REDEFINES YOUR MUN EXPERIENCE.
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CONTENT MESSAGES FROM THE DAIS 5 INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST COMMITTEE 6 AGENDA: WEAPONIZATION OF OUTER SPACE 7 Introduction Weaponization vs. Militarization Historical Background Key Actors ISSUES TO CONSIDER
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PAST ACTIONS
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COMMITTEE STRUCTURE AND POLICIES
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COMMITTEE RULES OF PROCEDURE
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Position Paper Rules of Procedure SAMPLE POSITION PAPER
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ENDNOTE & BIBLIOGRAPHY
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WELCOME TO MUN@TIU 2018 Tokyo International University Model United Nations (TIUMUN) is a varsity club at Tokyo International University, run by a diverse group of international students and works toward the advancement of global youth. MUN@TIU (read “MUN at TIU�) 2018 is the first of many MUN events created by us to facilitate an environment where youth can contribute to their community, build confidence and leadership, practice their skills and rights, and familiarize themselves with global affairs. Above all, we thrive to provide participants with an original experience in Japan by capitalizing on an existing diverse population of MUN@TIU members and participants while creating an inclusive and innovative environment for individuals to communicate and connect with one another.
Our main goal is to organize MUN@TIU as a conference where all participants can not only feel comfortable during interaction with fellow delegates, but also have a chance to overcome their fears as well as learn valuable knowledge and personal skills.
MESSAGES FROM THE DAIS Hello and welcome delegates, My name is Hong Hanh, and I am currently a junior at Tokyo International University, International Relations major. It is my utmost pleasure to be a part of your experience at MUN@TIU 2018. My MUN journey started in Japan at the most amazing conferences with the most humble and earnest people, and I strongly hope that this conference will do the same to you all.
Nguyen Thi Hong Hanh Junior - International Relations Major
The topic of MUN@TIU 2018, Weaponization of Outer Space, stems from our aspiration to think out of the box and challenge ourselves to the unknown. For me, every conference is a chance to learn more about an aspect of life. This time, I hope you learn a little bit more about just how modest this civilization is in this infinite galaxy yet how human beings have managed to transcend the boundaries of the planet Earth with intelligent design. The question in the context of weaponization of outer space is, then, are we taking the Earth for granted? Are we taking peace for granted? Or the outer space, as amazing as it is mysterious, possesses the answer to our questions and is in need of exploration? There is a quote from one of my favorite books Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind that goes: “One of history’s few iron laws is that luxuries tend to become necessities and to spawn new obligations.” Regardless of whether you agree or disagree with this statement, I hope it gives you something to think about, to question and/or answer when forming your position as national leaders. Lastly, don’t forget to have fun and enjoy your time with us because we definitely will with you!
My name is Phan Xuan Dung, an International Relations sophomore at Tokyo International University. It is truly a great honor for me to chair the first TIUMUN Conference, whose topic centers around the Weaponization of the Outer Space.
Phan Xuan Dung Sophomore - International relations Major
Whenever I approach an aspect of politics or international relations, I usually keep myself engaged by scrutinizing the pertaining issues through different lenses, weaving interconnected themes, and utilizing my strength as well as my hobbies. Thereby, no matter how perplexed the examined subject is, I always enjoy the process of discovering the mechanism or principles hidden behind the observable phenomena. This self- generated internal force constantly drives me toward creativity and passion in my pursuit of knowledge. I believe that we are all capable of fostering this impetus. All you need is a suitable catalyst for the reaction to occur. MUN conferences have been providing such motivation for the youth, helping them hone their skills and eventually overcome self-perceived barriers. Yet, MUN is not only an educational platform but also a social one, connecting ambitious individuals who aspire to be global citizens capable of collaborating to solve world issues. We are optimistic that with the captivating theme of outer space, TIUMUN 2018 will be a memorable and inspirational experience. Hopefully, it will provide momentum for your subsequent voyages, the ones that lead you to the unknowns and the mysteries you seek to unravel.
My name is Viet Hung, a 3rd-year student at Tokyo International University, majoring in International Relations. At this year conference, I will serve as Chair of this year committee, DISEC. I am really looking forward to this year conference.
Nguyen Cao Viet Hung
Junior - International Relations Major
TIUMUN 2018 would be extremely meaningful for me personally, since it would be my first time serving as a Chair in Japan. MUN for me is a chance to broaden my knowledge and knowing people who share the same enthusiasm in global issues, and by entering discussions with various perspectives, I would be able to gain a diversified viewpoint of the matter. I also believe in the value of cooperation, only by working together we can find the most comprehensive plan to solve an issue. The Organising Team of TIUMUN and I are working as hard as we possibly can to bring you the most unforgettable experience. I am looking forward to meeting all of the delegates and hope for fruitful discussions of the committee.
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Image: Unsplash/ Daryan Shamkhali
UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY FIRST COMMITTEE THE DISARMAMENT AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY COMMITTEE (DISEC)
The United Nations General Assembly First Committee (also known as the Disarmament and International Security Committee or DISEC) is one of six main committees at the General Assembly of the United Nations and one of the most popular GA-style committees in Model United Nations.
In light of the catastrophic events in Hiroshima and Naga-
by the committee. States can they express their positions
saki, DISEC created its first resolution in 1946 to address
on disarmament-related topics as well as to collaborate
international concerns for the predicaments associated
for compromisation and the betterment of language or
with the discovery of atomic energy and the proliferation
tools used to approach these issues. Thereby, the body
of nuclear weapons. The committee today is concerned
fosters the formulation of common values and principles
with disarmament and security questions pertinent to Ar-
regarding behavioral norms by offering nations the op-
ticle 11 of Chapter IV of the UN Charter: “The General
portunity to reach consensus. Main topics center around
Assembly may consider the general principles of coop-
ensuring global security, curtailing spending on weapons,
eration in the maintenance of international peace and
and reducing arms trade, production, and stockpiles. Fur-
security, including the principles governing disarmament
thermore, DISEC’s work is used in other bodies and fo-
and the regulation of armament.” Annually, the General
rums dealing with disarmament, such as Security Council,
Assembly adopts 40-50 resolutions on disarmament and
the Office of Disarmament, and Conference on Disarma-
non- proliferation.
ment.
All UN member states are entitled to participate in DISEC, where they discuss items relevant to the topics addressed
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AGENDA: WEAPONIZATION OF OUTER SPACE The astronomic definition of outer space encompasses
of reaching orbit around the Earth or proceeding on a
everything beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. Outer space
flight trajectory beyond the confines of that orbit, and
can be subdivided into near-Earth (near), interplanetary
for the purpose of returning to Earth” (A/AC. 105/769,
(outer), and interstellar or meta-galactic (open) space.
5). No agreement has ever been reached and formalized
Most human activity in outer space actually takes place
into law on such matter. Nonetheless, the Treaty on Prin-
in the territory of the Earth’s gravitational field or near
ciples Governing the Activities of States in the Explora-
space. Yet, it is contested where the boundary between
tion and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and
the atmosphere and outer space should lie. The Interna-
Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty) did official
tional Aeronautical Federation at the 1960 conference in
proclaim that the outer space “is not subject to national
Barcelona, Spain put forth recommendations that locate
appropriation”, making it possible for states to freely and
this boundary at the altitude of 100 kilometers above
boundlessly conduct activities from and in outer space.4
sea level. This figure is also used by the World Air Sports
For the purpose of this conference, the dividing line is set
Federation (FAI).2 On the other hand, the Union of So-
at the altitude of 110 kilometers above sea level, yet all
viet Socialist Republics, in its working paper submitted
subdivisions of outer space are concerned.
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at the 30th session of the Committee on the Peaceful Use of Outer Space in 1987, proposed that “any object launched into outer space shall be considered as being in outer space at all stages of its flight after launch at which its altitude above sea level is 110 kilometres or more.3 Space objects of States shall retain the right to fly over the territory of other States at altitudes lower than 110 kilometres above sea level for the purposes
Weaponization vs. Militarization Within the scope of the topic, there are two related con-
pabilities of transiting through outer space or departing
cepts in need of differentiation.
from Earth to attack or destroy targeted objects in outer
The militarization of outer space, on the other hand, can refer to the use of space to support other military operations on ground, sea, and air. What is called the peaceful use of outer space can be quite vague; almost all satellites operating at the moment are used for communication, detection, surveillance, and tracking and are capable of serving military purposes. On the other hand, the weaponization of outer space includes the activities of placement and development of
space. A broad definition of space weapons will limit the use of space-based technological items such as civilianused satellites with military capabilities if such a ban on space-based weapons is implemented; however, a narrow definition of space weapons will outlaw many ASAT systems. As a result, it is essential for nation-states to agree upon a comprehensive definition of space weapons in order to resolve issues concerning the weaponization of outer space.
weapons and military technology in outer space or on the Moon and other celestial bodies.5 With the advancement of technology, weapons are now equipped with the ca-
Historical background WORLD WAR II
STAR WARS
The first succesfully launched
Nickname of the 1983’s Strategic
ballistic missile
Defense Initiative (SDI) by the US.
RES/39/59
Prevention of an arms race in outer space
Germany began the Space Age with the
Initated by President Ronald Reagan, the
Adopted in 1984 by the General Assem-
birth of their V-2 rocket program.
space-based weapon project aimed to
bly, the resolution ended the space arm
protect the US from Soviet ICBM attack.
race between the US and the USSR.
The 20th century marked the beginning of the inven-
humans. They also began projects to intercept one an-
tion of crafts capable of both evil and great things. The
other’s attacks. The US planned to build an anti-Ballistic
Germans began this trend by building V-2 rockets during
Missile (ABM) under the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
World War II. Not long after the war, both the USSR and
under President Ronald Reagan’s regime. Similarly, the
the US began building spacecraft capable of transporting
USSR also had the same idea. This race between the US
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and USSR was called ‘star wars’, and began due to the
both had little to no problem in developing ‘defensive’
fear of becoming a target for a nuclear launch attack. This
means of weaponizing space.’7 Later, the legal document
race was one of the first proof of the weakness of the
RES/39/59 had urged both countries to cease their Arms
Outer Space Law of 1967. Both regimes believed that
race, ending the race for good.8
the creation of weapons in space is acceptable as long as there was no clear sign of aggression. As a consequence,
Now in the 21st Century, the topic of space exploration and space usage became more commonplace. Governments and private entities are capable of bringing man into space. President Donald Trump recently has placed his attention on space exploration by signing a new space policy directive.9 Furthermore, new actors such as China is also setting sights upon embarking into the great dark. However, new threats have also emerged in the 21st century, including new ways to weaponize space. One such way is the development of dual-use technologies that are capable of being used for civilian and military purposes. Commonly known technologies such as the Global Positioning System or GPS would be one of the most evident examples of dual-use technology. As stated by the RAND Corporation:
President Trump showing the newly signed Space Directicve. Image: Reuters
GPS is both a military and a civilian system, as well as a domestic and an international resource. Its multifaceted nature requires a complex balancing of different—and potentially competing—national interests relating to defense, commercial, and foreign policy objectives. With the pace of the development of technology, it is necessary to talk about the newly emerging problems of preventing the weaponization of space. Specifically, the use of conventional weapons or technologies that are capable of being used in both civil and militaristic ways.
KEY ACTORS
NOTE: EVEN THOUGH KEY ACTORS ARE IMPORTANT IN DISCUSSING SPACE ISSUES, THIS SHOULD NOT DETER OTHER STATES TO TRY AND CONTRIBUTE TO THE CONFERENCE.
The United States The United States is probably if not the most prominent country when it comes to space exploration and usage. It is also highly aware of the capabilities of other states to use their vulnerabilities by using space. The nation has contributed significantly to the development of space exploration, being an overseer to the whole International Space Station or ISS operation. Whether this fact is true or not, it is a fact that the United States has tried to ‘weaponize’ space. One such means in the past includes the SDI or the Strategic Defence Initiative initiated by President Ronald Reagan in the 80s. After the ratification of RES/39/59, the United States ceased its efforts to put more defensive measures in space.10 However, recently the United States Have stated that it would like to establish “Peace through strength.” This vision has also encroached itself into the nation’s space policy, with the Department of Defence stating that they will “prioritize investments in resilience, reconstitution, and operations to assure our space capabilities.”11 With its current leadership realizing the possibly asymmetrical threat of a space attack, the United States will try to strengthen their defensive measures. Russia Being a past and current adversary to the United States, Russia is still quite a prominent actor in space exploration and weaponization. Like the United States, Russia (USSR at the time) was also forced to cease its efforts on putting more defensive measures to space by RES/39/59.12 Now, Russia is also one of the most contributive states to the ISS, providing two launching areas namely Baikonur and Vostochny. Currently, ROSCOSMOS or formerly known as the Russian Federal Space Agency is planning to do an expedition to Mars. This expedition is named “ExoMars” and will be done in conjunction with the European Space Agency.13 Other than the exploration of space, Russia has also been trying to weaponize space. It has developed Kinetic weapons such as the Nudol-19 Missile, its own anti-Satellite weapons namely the Sokhon Eshelon. Further, the nation has allegedly used GPS jammers during the Crimean War.14
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China China is a new contender for control over space. Ever since it had launched its first satellite in 1975, China has rapidly developed its space program. In 2003, they were able to launch a manned aircraft into space.15 They are also planning to build their own space station in 2020 with a purpose to develop their Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance capabilities. Like the other countries mentioned above, China has also been alleged to have developed noteworthy space weapons. In 2007, The nation was able to successfully launch its own ASAT, creating space debris in the process. Furthermore, it has also allegedly developed lasers that could hamper satellites and cyber capabilities that attacks major infrastructures such as Satellites owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or NOAA.16 Japan Japan is one of the newer contributors in the overall development of space use. Recently, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency or JAXA’s astronaut Akihiro Koshide was promoted to the rank of Captain of the ISS.17 The nation has also been sending an unmanned spacecraft named Hayabusa, tasked to collect samples of Near-Earth Asteroids.18 Other than the peaceful usage of space, however, Japan had engaged in efforts to weaponize space through the use of technology. For instance, after the ‘Taepodong shock’ in 1998, Japan established an Information Gathering Satellite or IGS to monitor the rogue state.19 AAnother factor that shapes Japanese stance towards space weaponization is the military alliance between the US and Japan. Due to the fear of abandonment, it is willing to expand cooperation with the US especially within the context of the militarization of outer space, becoming a persistent and principal driver for the eventual breach on the prohibition of being proactive within the Collective Self Defense or CSD.20 Europe/ the European Union Europe’s space governing body is the European Space Agency or ESA. Located in Paris, this agency represents 22 member states under the European Union Banner. Its primary function is to execute space programs initiated by the Union and cooperate with other agencies outside Europe. Its main programs are space exploration, with programs including bringing people to space and cooperating in space technology.21 However, their interest has recently begun to expand to strategic and security interests on the use of space by means of collecting strategic and valuable information. For example, the French-led reconnaissance operation Helios whose purpose is “to provide continuous strategic information for the management of nuclear deterrence and for improved awareness of possible major events affecting French policy in nearby zones of interest.”22 In other words, while Europe still emphasizes heavily on the exploration of space as its main space agenda, shifts have begun to happen due to the diversification of actors in space. .
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02/20/2008
The United States sucesfully intercepted a failed satellite. Using a RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 ABM, the United States destroyed a failed reconnaisance satellite fallnig through orbit, claiming that the object posed threat to human lives. However, scientists have long debated the risk of the satellite, arguing that the risk was less than 1% and that the interception cost over 100 million dollar. What do you think was the true motive of this action? (Image: Wikipedia Common)
2016
Russia sucessfully tested a new antisatellite system. For the second time (the first time being 2015), Russian military sucessfully tested the PL-19 Nudol anti-satellite missile at the Plesetsk cosmodrome test launch facility. (Image: Wikipedia Common)
2013
China accused of testing new anti-satellite system According to US Air Force space analyst, this was a kinetic interceptor launched from a rocket that could reach 36,000 km above the earth. (Image: WIRED)
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ISSUES TO CONSIDER Identification
Enforcement
How do we draw the line between
Should there be any enforcement
military and peaceful use of the
mechanism concerning the security
outer space when satellites can
of the outer space?
Implication How do we link this to the broad agenda of disarmament?
function both as a military and civilian tool?
Dual Use of Space Technology One of the conundrums associated with space assets is their dual-use characteristic. According to the European Commission, dual-use objects “are goods, software, and technology that can be used for both civilian and military applications.�23 The borderline between the two are not always clear-cut. Satellites are usually classified into four categories of usage: commercial uses, government uses, military uses, and civil uses. Yet, nearly 15% of the satellites are registered under multiple usages.24
satellites is essential to a myriad of civilian, scientific, and economic purposes as well as military support tasks. For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite-based navigation system, is widely utilized in civilian applications such as but not limited to GPS tracking, social networking, air navigation, and automobiles. However, it should be noted that satellite navigation was originally involved with military activities, particularly the delivery of missiles to their designated targets. With the aid of geospatial guidance, a strike can unleash its lethality precisely whilst avoids causing any inadvertent damages or civilian casual-
In the initial phases of the space age, satellites were launched pri-
ties. Given the advanced technological base and the strong in-
marily to aid and facilitate communications, weather data collec-
centive for sophisticated military tactics, some countries might
tion, and space exploration. Whilst they still perform these pas-
have the urge to weaponize these so-called peaceful satellites.
sive functions, commercial satellites have significantly expanded
David Koplow, the former US Special Counsel for Arms Control
their technical capabilities, catering to the rapid transformation
to the General Counsel of the Department of Defense, explicates
of modern society. The widening range of services offered by
“The clear trend around the world is forever increasing integra-
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tion of military and civilian space programs and assets.�25 This integration obliterates the distinction between military and civilian applications, posing difficult questions regarding the legality of space objects in domestic and international law. Is it still relevant to draw a distinction between civil-used and military-used space devices? If so, should all space-based weapons be banned from outer space?
Anti Satellite Weapons (ASAT) Today, many states possess the capability of launching and monitoring space objects, which is evident in the fact that more than 66 countries have satellites orbiting the Earth.26 he significance of satellites in this day and age makes them potential targets in modern warfare. As a new phase of the space era unfolds, key players of advanced space technology have shifted their interest
During the space race of the Cold War era, the United States
to the development of Anti-satellite weapons or in short ASAT,
and the Soviet Union spent billions of dollars in rocket technol-
systems that are “designed to destroy or damage satellites.�27 Ex-
ogy development programs aimed at actualizing the dream of
isting treaties on outer space activities do not explicitly prohibit
sending humans into space and even eventually to the Moon.
ASAT. However, the act of testing and using anti-satellite weap-
While these projects started out as a peaceful quest for cosmic
ons raise some concerns regarding the freedom to the explora-
knowledge, they were concomitant with the origination of one
tion of outer space mentioned in these treaties as well as gen-
of the most powerful tools used in modern warfare: intercon-
eral international laws, including the United Nations Charter, the
tinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Delegates should keep in mind
customary international law on self-defense, and international
that states who assert that their rockets or satellites are used
environmental law. Nevertheless, no UN guideline or resolution
in a non-violent and non-hostile fashion might implicitly seek to
has specifically addressed the predicaments of ASAT weapons.
advance their ballistic missiles. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that impacts of space technology on various aspects of development are ubiquitous. Therefore, this aforementioned concerns should not hinder international collaboration in space programs for peaceful uses regarding the exploration of space, combating the effects of climate change, the utilization of space science and technology in the achieving sustainable economic and social development. The critical roles of space technologies in these areas are evident in the reports and the works of The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. The question is how can states with different space technology bases, if any, cooperate to promote the peaceful uses of outer space?
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Arms Race in Space Ever since the end of Cold War, the world has been witnessing a period of the absence of major world wars. This is achieved by the relative balance of power between the powerhouses in world politics, especially the balance of possession of nuclear weapons.28 Because of the mutual assured destruction, nuclear countries are more deterred to involve in conflict directly. This temporary peace is also constructed by various non-proliferation treaties and agreements, as well as other actions by the international community to maintain a relatively low number of nuclear weapons on a worldwide scale. These efforts from the international community not only prevented further intense relationships between countries but also it has been deterring countries from engaging in a costly arms race for possession of nuclear
weapons. The invention or deployment of any space weapon
Secondly, as mentioned above, the possession of a space weapon
programme by any country would greatly disrupt this balance of
by a country would greatly disrupt the balance of power between
power. Not only would this poses a great threat to international
the powerhouses in world politics, and as a result, will potentially
security, one of the first issues that this action would trigger is an
lead to an escalated arms race.
extensive arms race between countries.29
Thirdly, and perhaps one of the more obvious side effects of this
An arms race, at this point in time, would have massive impacts
process is that it will result in more space debris. Space debris
on the international political environment. It would, first of all,
refers to any artificial objects in space that are not being moni-
put a great deal of pressure on participants’ economies, as well as
tored from the ground. These “space trashes” vary from expired
halting international economic integration.
Furthermore, a new
satellite to used parts of rocket-launching stages.34 While the
arms race would destabilize the international security settings,
amount of space debris is still relatively small, there have already
and will potentially become a paramount obstacle for interna-
been concerns of a potential “space pollution” in the future with
tional cooperation.
the increasing amount of satellites and rockets launched into
30
31
The needs of preventing this arms race, from even happening, require countries to work together. Further actions by the international community are necessary to, at least, slow down several countries’ unilateral actions toward weaponizing the outer space. Consequences of the Weaponization of Space
space.35 Any attempt of putting weapons in space would certainly accelerate this process of the space gradually becoming a giant wastebasket. These consequences certainly should play an important role in the decision-making process of any government who wants to pursue a space weaponization programme. Besides, any of these
There have been various debates and academic articles on the
threats, no matter how under-debated it might be currently,
cost and the problems of the process of weaponization of space.
can potentially become a disastrous catastrophe in the future if
While there are different perspectives on the issues, most of the
not being treated with the highest level of attention. Respected
scholars agreed on several common drawbacks of this process.
scholars, alongside efforts of lobbying governments to postpone
First of all, they all agreed on the point that a country would
their programs, have already been calling the international com-
need to relocate a sizable amount of money to pursue the weap-
munity to act in order to prevent these consequences from hap-
onization of space. Estimation from the Center for Strategic and
pening.36
Budgetary Assessment suggested that the cost of building and maintaining a functioning space weapon in space would equal the cost of the entire space-related systems that the US is currently developing and operating.32 There have been numerous cases in the history of a country coming up with a plan of putting weapons in space, yet during the construction process had to give up the plan due to leveled cost.33
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Recap In light of the potential consequences both militarily and naturally (e.g. space debris) caused by space weapons and arms race, what should be done to avoid such development? Space is an international realm and not owned by any single state. In the 21st century, space security presents an opportunity for states to either come together and move toward a future of common peace and stability or one of conflicts and arms race. Image: (left) CNBC, (bottom) Wikipedia Common
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PAST ACTIONS
HOW HAS THE UNITED NATIONS APPROACHED THE ISSUE?
In 1966, the Outer Space Treaty, which was considered
by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet
by the Legal Subcommittee – a body of The Committee
Union went into force on October 10, 1967, ratified by
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) disal-
98 States on January 1, 2005, and signed by 27 States.
lowed Member States from placing nuclear weapons or
This treaty no longer prohibited the placement of weap-
any other weapons of mass destruction in the Earth’s or-
ons in space in general, but only nuclear weapons and
bit, establishing them on the moon or any other celestial
weapons of mass destructions (WMDs).37
body, or stationing them in outer space. The treaty signed
In 1971, The Liability Convention was adopted by Gener-
723,221 SEMPER JUSTO
17
al Assembly in (resolution 2777 (XXVI)), and entered into
sures conducted by this group of governmental expert
force in September 1972 stating in Article 7 of the Outer
with the conclusion that “Transparency and confidence-
Space Treaty that a State which launches an object into
building measures can reduce, or even eliminate, misun-
outer space shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation
derstandings, mistrust, and miscalculations with regard to
for damage caused by its space objects on the surface of
the activities and intentions of States in outer space.”42
the Earth or to aircraft, as well as for damage due to its faults in space. Procedures for the settlement of claims for damages are also discussed in the Convention.38
On 2 December 2014, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution A/RES/69/32 [on the report of the First Committee (A/69/438)] with a vote of 126 in
In 1975, Convention on Registration of Objects Launched
favor, four against and 46 abstentions entitled ‘No first
into Outer Space was adopted by was adopted by the
placement of weapons in space. The adoption of Resolu-
General Assembly in 1975 (resolution 3235 (XXIX)) and
tion 69/32 represents an important development in the
went into force on 15 September 1976 which did not
area of space security.43
only provide States with a means to identify space objects but also addressed how States Parties should be responsible for issues concerning their space objects.39 On 3 January 2001, United Nations General Assembly adopted the A/RES/55/32 Resolution on the agenda of “Prevention of an arms race in outer space” with 163 in favor to none against, with three abstentions from the Federated States of Micronesia, Israel and the United
Regarding space matters, UN has adopted a considerable number of resolutions 1. Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities (A/RES/68/50 in 2013) 2. International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space (A/RES/68/75 in 2013) 3. Recommendations on national legislation relevant to
States of America.40
the peaceful exploration and use of outer space (A/
In February 2008, a draft was submitted to the UN to-
RES/68/74 in 2013)
gether by China and Russia, was known as Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects (PPWT).41 On 29 July 2013, Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities A68/189 which was by
4. Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities (A/RES/69/38 In 2014) 5. International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space (A/RES/69/85 in 2014) 6. Transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities (A/RES/70/53 in 2015)
the Secretary-General of the UN contains the study on
7. Matters relating to activities under the United Na-
outer space transparency and confidence-building mea-
tions Programme on Space Applications in 2016 (A/
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RES/70/230 in 2015); International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space (A/RES/70/82 In 2015)
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COMMITTEE STRUCTURE AND POLICIES Committee structure: 1. Dais members: The Dais members consist of the Chair and 2 Co-Chairs. The Dais has complete control of the proceedings and d i rect the flow of debate. 2. Delegates: Each member state or observer state is represented by a single delegate. Delegates are reminded to address their Committee and Dais in accordance with parliamentary procedure (UNA-USA Rules of Procedure is applied in this particular conference). 3. Spectators: A limited number of spectators are allowed in the Committee at certain appropriate time. Spectators cannot raise points, questions, vote, give speeches, and/or interrupt the proceedings of the Committee. Spectators are required to follow the Dais instruction and dress appropriately.
Policies: TIUMUN aims at contributing to the building and strengthening of international youth community as well as promoting solidarity and cooperation among international citizens. Therefore, it is necessary that specific rules are enforced in order to maintain a safe and open environment at all times. Participants who violate any following rules will be subject to suspension or expulsion from all TIUMUN’s events. Therefore, participants are expected to have read and acted according to these rules during the entire conference. 1. All TIUMUN’s events are conducted in English. 2. All participants must dress in formal business wear while meeting. As a general rule, formal business wear requires that participants dress in a suit jacket, slacks (or skirts of appropriate length for women), dress shirt (with a tie for
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men) and dress shoes. If a participant’s attire is deemed inappropriate by TIUMUN staff, the participant will be asked to leave the session and return with appropriate attire. 3. All participants are required to be punctual at all TIUMUN’s formal events. Participants are expected to inform the Dias members in case of anticipated late arrival or early departure. In case of unanticipated circumstances, please notify the Dias members as soon as possible 4. All participants are reminded to converse in a respectful manner with other participants, staff members, and spectators at all times. Delegates are required to address the Dias members and other delegates with parliamentary procedure during formal events. Inappropriate behavior, such as but not limited to, emotional, physical, and sexual harassment, racism, and sexism will not be tolerated at all times. 5. Alcohol, drug use, and smoking are strictly prohibited at the venue of the conference. 6. All participants are responsible for their own belongings at all times. 7. All participants are responsible for their own health condition and its costs.
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COMMITTEE RULES OF PROCEDURE Position Paper A position paper is written from the perspective of the represented country’s government. The maximum length
regarding the matter? Has progress been made? Were there any challenges? •
What is your country’s stance regarding these past actions?
in this particular conference is 2 pages single-spaced (font Times New Roman, size 12). It is highly recommended
Country position and policy:
that a position paper address some if not all the following
•
items and questions: I) Heading: Committee: Topic: Country: Delegate Name: II) Body: Background information: •
The scope/scale/characteristics of the topic
•
Why is this topic important?
•
What are the sub-topics/issues that must be debated and discussed?
Past International Actions: •
What are some of the most important UN resolutions/treaties on this topic?
•
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What have different actors and/or stakeholders done
What are the impacts and/or consequences this matter has on your country?
•
What are some plans and/or policies your country has undertaken to address the topic?
•
What kind of policies would you want the committee to adopt in this particular conference?
Solution proposal: What specific solutions would your country like the UN as well as other countries and actors to adopt? III) Conclusion. *Citation: You are required to cite every source used. The citations can be put in the Bibliography at the end of your position paper or as footnotes.
Rules of Procedure Rules governing Agenda
Debate. Any Delegate wishing to be added to the General Speakers’ List can send a written note to the Dais or raise their placard when the Dais asks if there are any
1. Provisional Agenda:
Delegates wishing to be added to the GSL. Delegates are
The Provisional Agenda of this particular conference is
not allowed on the GSL twice simultaneously. In order
the Weaponsization of Outer Space. 2. Roll Call:
to be removed or re-added to the GSL, delegates must send a written note to the Dais. This GSL is applied for all debate on the Agenda item, except when superseded
At the beginning of each session, the Dais members will
by procedural Motions such as those for Moderated and
conduct Roll Call in English alphabetical order. Member
Unmoderated Caucuses. Should the General Speakers’
States may reply “present” or “present and voting”, where
List elapse, debate shall be considered finished and the
present and voting means the Member States are not en-
Committee will move into closing procedure.
titled to abstention on substantive votes. Observers are required to reply “present”. If a delegate is not present during Roll Call, he/she is not recognized until the Dais members are notified. Notification is done through passing a written note to the Dais stating the attendance status. 3. Setting the Agenda: The first order of business shall be a Motion to set the Agenda. In this particular conference, the Committee has only one topic that will be considered to have been automatically adopted without debate. Rules governing Debate 1. Formal Debate: After the Agenda has been set, the committee will open a continuous General Speakers’ List (GSL) to begin Formal
2. Appeal: An appeal can only be made to procedural decisions, unless it is one that cannot be appealed as stated by the Rules of Procedure and can only appeal a ruling immediately after it has been pronounced. The delegate making the appeal is given 30 seconds to explain its reasons and the Chair may speak in defense of the ruling. Any appeals require a two-third majority to pass. 3. Motion Withdrawal: The proposer of a Motion may withdraw that Motion at any time before voting has commenced. Once voting begins the Motion may not be withdrawn. Any Delegate may reintroduce a Motion thus withdrawn. 4. Moderated Caucus: A Motion for a Moderated Caucus is in order whenever
23
the floor is open prior to closure of debate, and the Dais
floor. A motion to resume debate on a topic previously
has asked for Motions. In a Moderated Caucus,
tabled will require a simple majority to pass and will need
the Committee will temporarily depart from GSL. The delegate motioning is required to briefly explain its purpose and specify a time limit for the caucus, not to exceed 20 minutes including Motion to extend the caucus, as well as a time limit for individual speakers. Any Motions for a Moderated Caucus require a simple majority to pass. The Dais can rule this Motion out of order if they feel that it is not applicable at that point in time. This decision of the Dais is not open to appeal. 5. Unmoderated Caucus: A Motion for an Unmoderated Caucus is in order whenever the floor is open prior to closure of debate, and the Dais has asked for Motions. The delegate motioning is required to briefly explain its purpose and specify a time limit for the caucus, not to exceed 20 minutes including Motion to extend the caucus. Any Motions for an Unmoderated Caucus require a simple majority to pass. The Dais can rule this Motion out of order if they feel that it is not applicable at that point in time. This decision of the Dais is not open to appeal.
2 speakers ‘for’ and 2 ‘against’. 7. Closure of Debate: A Motion for Closure of Debate is in order whenever the floor is open closure of debate, and the Dais has asked for Motions. Delegates may move to close debate on the Agenda, the Topic, or an amendment. The Dais can rule this Motion out of order if they feel that it is not applicable at that point in time. This decision of the Dais is not open to appeal. When moving to closure of debate, the Dais may recognize up to 2 speakers ‘against’ this motion and no speaker ‘for’. Closure of debate requires a twothirds majority to pass. 8. Adjournment and Suspension of Committee: A Motion for Adjournment/Suspension of Committee is in order whenever the floor is open closure of debate, and the Dais has asked for Motions. The Dais can rule this Motion out of order if they are raised in prior to the lapse of three-quarters of the time allotted for the meeting. This decision of the Dais is not open to appeal but will be immediately voted upon and requires a simple majority
6. Tabling and Resuming a Topic:
to pass.
A Motion for Tabling/Resuming a Topic is in order when-
Rules governing Speeches
ever the floor is open closure of debate, and the Dais has asked for Motions. A delegate may motion to immediately end debate on a topic currently on the floor and move on the next item on the agenda if any. Motion to Table the Topic requires a two-thirds majority to pass and 2 speakers ‘for’ and 2 ‘against’. If a topic is tabled, no debate on the tabled topic will be allowed to take place on the
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1. Right to Speak: Delegates must obtain the permission of the Dais in prior to addressing a Committee with the exception of Unmoderated caucuses. The Director may at their discretion call a Delegate to order if his/her speech irrelevant to the subject under discussion; is considered personally offen-
sive to any party; or otherwise infringes upon the sover-
and misleading. Only the speaker’s answers to questions
eignty of a Member State. A representative of an organi-
will count toward the remaining speaking time. Yield to
zation that is neither a member of the United Nations, a
the chair means that the Dais will absorb all of the remain-
United Nations Organization, nor an accredited observer,
ing time. Only 1 yield is allowed per speech. There are no
may address a Committee only with the prior approval of
yields allowed if a delegate is speaking on a procedural
the Director.
matter. Delegates cannot yield if they run out of time.
2. Time Limit on Speeches:
4. Right of Reply:
For the GSL, the Dais will entertain motions to set the
A delegate whose personal or national integrity has been
speaking time, and such motion needs a simple majority
impugned by another delegate’s statement may raise a
to pass. Should the Dais not explicitly state a different
Right of Reply. The Dais will grant the Right of Reply at
speaking time for the GSL, the default time limit is 90
his/her discretion; this decision is not open to appeal.
seconds. When a Delegate exceeds the allotted time, the Dais may call the speaker to order. However, in order to
Points
account for the varying English fluency of conference at-
Delegates may make 4 points:
tendees, the Chair has the discretion to be flexible (within
Point of Inquiry, if delegates have questions for the Chair;
reason) about the time limit to allow a delegate to finish his/her thought. 3. Yields: If a Delegate granted the right to speak on a substantive issue (not during a caucus) has time remaining at the end of his/her speech, the Delegate may yield in one of three ways. Yield to another delegate allows the second del-
Point of Information, if delegates have questions for a delegate after his/her speech; Point of Personal Privilege, if delegates feel personal discomfort; Point of Order, if delegates believe that the Chair has made a procedural mistake.
egate to use the remaining time and elaborate on points
Rules governing Written Proposals
previously mentioned by the first without further yield-
1. Working Paper:
ing. In a double delegation, turning the floor over to a co-delegate of the same delegation is not a yield. Yield to questions allows delegates to ask the delegate who just finished a speech questions. The Dais will call upon delegates who have questions. Follow-up questions will be allowed only at the discretion of the Dais. The Dais can call to order any delegate whose question is rhetorical
Working Papers are intended to aid the Committee in its discussion and formulation of Resolutions and need not be written in Resolution format. Delegates may propose Working Papers for consideration by raising a Motion to Introduce a Working Paper. Working Papers are not official documents and do not require signatories or vote of
25
approval, but do require the approval of the Chair to be
An Amendment is a proposal that adds to, deletes from,
copied and distributed. Delegates should note that the
or revises the operative clauses of a Draft Resolution.
Working Paper is not a necessary precursor to the Draft
Delegates may amend any Draft Resolution that is on the
Resolution; Delegates wishing to introduce entire Draft
Floor. An amendment must be approved by the Chair and
Resolutions may do so directly without trying to first in-
must contain a certain number of signatures, decided by
troduce the Draft Resolution as a Working Paper.
the Chair. Amendments to amendments are out of order;
2. Draft Resolution: A Draft Resolution may be introduced when it receives the approval of the chair. The number of required signatories for a draft resolution is 20% of committee members. This list of of committee members should include both Sponsors and Signatories, each to be listed in alphabetical order. Once a Draft Resolution has been approved,
however, an amended part of a draft resolution may be further amended. A Delegates can raise a “Motion to Introduce an approved Amendment” whenever the floor is open; such motion requires a simple majority to pass. i. Friendly Amendments indicate the support of all the Draft Resolution’s Sponsors and thus will automatically be added to the original Draft without needing a house vote.
copied and distributed, delegates may move to introduce
ii. Unfriendly Amendments do not indicate the support of
the Draft Resolution by raising a “Motion to introduce a
all the Draft Resolution’s Sponsors. General Debate will
Draft Resolution”. Such motion requires a simple majority
be suspended, and the Chair will call on up to 2 speakers
to pass. More than one Draft Resolution may be on the
‘for’ and 2 ‘against’ the Unfriendly Amendment, followed
floor at one time, but only one Resolution will be adopted.
by a substantive two-thirds majority vote for the Amend-
Format for Resolution will be provided later at the confer-
ment to be added to the original Draft Resolution.
ence. 3. Panel of Authors: After a Draft Resolution has been introduced, any of its Sponsors may call for a Panel of Authors to be convened to answer questions raised by the Committee relating to the Draft Resolution. The Dais will decide whether to entertain this Motion and this decision is not open to appeal. If granted, the Dais shall set a time limit of no more than 20 minutes during which members of the Floor may ask
Rules governing Voting: 1. Procedural Vote: Each member of the Committee, including Observers, shall have one vote on a procedural Motion. Abstentions are not in order. Delegates will express their vote by raising their placards, and a simple majority of those present is required unless explicitly stated elsewhere in these Rules.
short questions of the Sponsors for the sole purpose of
2. Substantive Vote:
clarifying the content or meaning of the Resolution.
A substantive vote is voting on draft resolutions and
4. Amendments:
amendments. Each member of the Committee, excluding
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the Observers, shall have one vote. Members may vote Yes, No or Abstain; Members which declared themselves present and voting cannot abstain. In the case of a Roll Call vote, Delegates may also pass, however if they elect to pass on the first call, they are not permitted to abstain on the second call. Delegates may also vote with rights. Awards Similar to many other MUN conferences, MUN@TIU encourages friendly competition for delegates to motivate themselves in pursuit of a successful and constructive conference. Throughout the three-day conference, delegates are evaluated upon certain criteria and those who consistently epitomize the diplomatic spirit of MUN will be honored with awards. List of awards, however, are to be revealed at the end of the conference.
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Sample Position Paper Committee: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Topic: Food Economy Country: Republic of Columbia Delegate: Nguyen Thi Phuong Thanh, Tokyo International University Position Paper for the FAO As our president Juan Manuel Santos stated that Colombia with the advantage of having a rich amount of energy, biodiversity, water and land can greatly contribute to the increase of food production in the world, the Republic of Colombia embraces the opportunity of being here today to discuss the topic of Food Economy and Global Market before the United Nations of Food and Agriculture (FAO)’s agenda. As the third most populous country in Latin America, of which economic growth has been hampered by a decades-long conflict that has threatened infrastructure, displaced populations and generated large debts, the Republic of Colombia would like to express our great concern for the topic of Food Economy and Global market. Our nation strongly believes that consistently sound economic policies and promotion of free trade agreements would mutually benefit our country and partner countries in terms of economic development. Hence, the Republic of Colombia as a proud member of the United Nations (UN) will do its utmost to act multilaterally on the basis of the commonly shared principles of the UN, supporting Food Security issues regarding the SDGs concerning Food related issues. Being the world’s second largest coffee and cut flowers exporter, Colombia’s agricultural sector accounts for 7.1% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as well as provides one fifth of nationwide jobs. The Republic of Colombia, over the years has made concerted effort to strengthen relationships in global market with our trading partners including the U.S, Panama and the European Union (EU) in terms of exporting a variety of agricultural commodities from coffee, cut flower to banana and sugar.While Colombia is considered a middle-income country, since 21 million Colombians are poor and 6 million people still live below the level of extreme poverty according to WPF 2012, the Republic of Colombia shares the international concern about improving food economy and global market and strongly supports Sustainable Development Goal 8 to promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for all. Although real GDP growth of Colombia averaged 4.7% for the past decade, a number of problems regarding national insecurity, inadequate infrastructure and nacor-trafficking incurred national growth to fall to 2.0% in 2016. In early 2016, Colombia suffered from El Nino weather pattern at the most threatening level on IDEAM scale which caused extreme drought, high temperature and forest fire. The disruption to farming and severe damages to livestock and crops
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brought by El Nino at that time along with 40-day truckers strike at the same time resulted in a drastic rise in the price of food and oil, with inflation to a high of nearly 9% in July 2016. At that time, immediate actions taken by President Juan Manuel Santos included providing subsidiaries on animal feed and finance to agricultural sector as well as signing a tax reform bill in December 2016 aimed at offsetting lost revenue from the drop of oil prices successfully saved the country from the Double-crisis. As a country that has been directly affected by the El Nino weather pattern, the Republic of Colombia highly appreciates the assistance of FAO through the establishment of Food Chain Crisis Management Framework (FCC) which helps prevent emergencies, improve preparedness and effective response when crisis related to plant pests, animal diseases and food safety threats occur; the adoptions of the Economics and Policy Innovations for Climate-Smart Agriculture (EPIC) program which supports the transition to Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) by using sound economic and policy analysis. Our nation would also like to highlight the efforts of the countries that have signed Free Trade Agreements for the purpose of promoting free trade between countries through the reduction of trade barriers in the form tariffs or trade quotas. The Republic of Colombia has adopted a number of methods and plans with a view to boosting the country’s food economy including the creation of National Livestock fund in 1993 which has generated resources to tackle five major issues: sanitation, commercialization, research and development (R&D), training, and promotion of consumption; the participation in Inter-American Coffee Agreement of 1940 and the International Coffee Agreement of 1963 which have enabled international coffee prices to increase; and the establishment of Colombian National Development Plan 2014-2018 “All for a new country” which reflects the will of our government to build a peaceful, equitable and educated Colombia with great emphasis placed on sustainable economic development. As a founding member of the Pacific Alliance and a proud member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the Republic of Colombia recommends all member states to not only strengthen economic partnerships within regional bloc but also expand relationships with countries from different parts of the world for the learning of various ways to combat food economy and global market related issues. Our nation would also want to negotiate with other countries to achieve export diversification and fair trade through the lower rate of tariffs and trade quota. Moreover, the Republic of Colombia urges all member states to establish National Action Plan to ensure all economic activities and corporate social responsibility are conducted on the basis of UN Guiding Principle on Business and Human Right: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework. Our nation is willing to share our expertise in this area with all states as well as welcomes any constructive ideas on how to enhance our food economy’s performance wishing to address the issue in a productive and comprehensive manner.
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Endnotes 1. Alexei Arbatov, and Vladimir Dvorkin, “Outer Space: Weapons, Diplomacy, and Security,” Project Muse, 2011, https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/1223713 2. Sanz Fernández de Córdoba, “100 km Altitude Boundary For Astronautics,” FAI Astronautic Records Commission (ICARE), https://www.fai.org/page/icare-boundary 3. A/AC.105/L.168, Compromise Proposal on the Question Related To the Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space, General Assembly 30 4. A/RES/21/2222, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, General Assembly 21 5. Harsh Vasani, “How China Is Weaponizing Outer Space,” The Diplomat, January 19, 2017, https://thediplomat. com/2017/01/how-china-is-weaponizing-outer-space/ 6. A Brief History of Space Exploration. Aerospace. 7. George Bernhardt et al. “Star Wars versus Star Laws: Does SDI Conform to Outer Space Law; the Reagan Legacy and the Strategic Defense Initiative: Note 8. 39/59 The Prevention of an arms race in outer space, General Assembly 2 9. New Space Policy Directive Calls for Human Expansion Across Solar System. NASA. 10. General Assembly, 2 11. Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy. US Department of Defense, 6 12. General Assembly, 2 13. Elizabeth Howell. Roscosmos: Russia’s Space Agency 14. Todd Harrison et. al. Space Threat Assessment 2018. Center for Strategic and International Studies 15 15. A brief history of China in space. The Telegraph. 16. Harrison et. al 17. JAXA Astronaut Akihiko Hoshide Selected as ISS Expedition crew member and assuming the post of Commander. JAXA 18. JAXA. About Asteroid Explorer “HAYABUSA” Muses-C 19. Paul Kallender and C.W. Hughes, Hiding in Plain Sight? Japan’s Militarization of Space and Challenges to the Yoshida Doctrine, Asian Security. 20. Xavier Pasco. “A European Approach to Space Security.” American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2009 21. ESA’s PURPOSE. European Space Agency 22. Xavier Pasco. 2009 23. “European Commission Directorate-General for Trade.” Social Protection Statistics - Unemployment Benefits Statistics Explained. Accessed May 31, 2018. http://ec.europa.eu/trade/import-and-export-rules/export-from-eu/ dual-use-controls/index_en.htm. 24. “How Many Satellites Are Orbiting the Earth in 2017?” Pixalytics Ltd. March 28, 2018. Accessed May 31, 2018. https://www.pixalytics.com/sats-orbiting-earth-2017/. 25. David. A. Koplow, “ASAT-isfaction: Customary International Law and the Regulation of Anti-Satellite Weapons.” Michigan Journal of International Law 30 (2009): 1194
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26. “How Many Satellites Are Orbiting the Earth in 2017?” 27. Chatterjee, Promit. “Legality of Anti-Satellites Under the Space Law Regime.” Astropolitics 12, no. 1 (2014): 2745. doi:10.1080/14777622.2014.891558. 28. Michel Horowitz, “The Spread of Nuclear Weapons and International Conflict: Does Experience Matter?”, Belfer Center, https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/uploads/Horowitz_The_Spread_of_Nuclear_ Weapons.pdf 29. Jeff Daniels, “Space arms race as Russia, China emerge as ‘rapidly growing threats’ to US”, CNBC, https://www. cnbc.com/2017/03/29/space-arms-race-as-russia-china-emerge-as-rapidly-growing-threats-to-us.html 30. Blake Stillwell, “Air Force ‘rods from god’ could hit with the force of a nuclear weapon - with no fallout”, BusinessInsiderUK, http://uk.businessinsider.com/air-force-rods-from-god-kinetic-weapon-hit-with-nuclear-weaponforce-2017-9 31. Laurent Barthelemy, “In space, the looming threat of a new arm race”, Phys.org, https://phys.org/news/201610-space-looming-threat-arms.html 32. Theresa Hitchens, “Space Weapons of the Future”, Scientific American, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/space-weapons-of-the-future/ 33. Blake Stillwell. 34. Karl Tate, “Space Junk Explained: How orbital debris threaten future of spaceflight”, Space.com, https://www. space.com/23039-space-junk-explained-orbital-debris-infographic.html 35. Sharon Weinberger, “Space junk: why it is time to clean up the skies”, BBC, http://www.bbc.com/future/ story/20120518-danger-space-junk-alert 36. Joanne Wheeler, “Space debris: the legal issues”, Royal Aeronautical Society, https://www.aerosociety.com/news/ space-debris-the-legal-issues/ 37. UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (UNOOSA). 38. UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (UNOOSA). 39. UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (UNOOSA). 40. UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. 55/32. Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (UNOOSA). 41. Michael Listner and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. The 2014 PPWT: A New Draft but with the Same and Different Problems. The Space Review: Is Space Exploration worth the Cost? 42. United Nations. Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities (United Nations). 43. United Nations. Disarmament Committee Approves Drafts on No First Placement of Arms in Outer Space, Ban on New Types of Mass Destruction Weapons | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases (United Nations).
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Bibliography “A Brief History of Space Exploration.” Aerospace. URL: http://www.aerospace.org/education/stem-outreach/spaceprimer/a-brief-history-of-space-exploration/ “About Asteroid Explorer “HAYABUSA” Muses-C.” JAXA. URL: http://global.jaxa.jp/projects/sat/muses_c/ Barthelemy, Laurent. “In space, the looming threat of a new arm race”. Phys.org. October 2016. https://phys.org/ news/2016-10-space-looming-threat-arms.html Bernhardt, George, Sandra M. Gresko, Thomas M. Merry. “Star Wars versus Star Laws: Does SDI Conform to Outer Space Law; the Reagan Legacy and the Strategic Defense Initiative: Note.” Journal of Legislation Vol 15: Iss. 2, Article 14. 1989 . https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1319&context=jleg Chatterjee, Promit. “Legality of Anti-Satellites Under the Space Law Regime.” Astropolitics 12, no. 1 (2014): 27-45. do i:10.1080/14777622.2014.891558. Daniels, Jeff. “Space arms race as Russia, China emerge as ‘rapidly growing threats’ to US”. CNBC. https://www.cnbc. com/2017/03/29/space-arms-race-as-russia-china-emerge-as-rapidly-growing-threats-tous.html “European Commission Directorate-General for Trade.” Social Protection Statistics - Unemployment Benefits - Statistics Explained. Accessed May 31, 2018. http://ec.europa.eu/trade/import-and-export-rules/export-from-eu/ dual-use-controls/index_en.htm General Assembly “39/59 The prevention of arms race in outer space”, 2. URL: http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ ARES_39_59E.pdf Harrison, Todd, Kaitlyn Johnson, Thomas G. Roberts. “Space Threat Assessment 2018.” Center for Strategic and International Studies. 2018 URL: https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/180412_Harrison_SpaceThreatAssessment_FULL_WEB.pdf?0YxNhtucgT6o6g5I7yqeBaL7CB6mBZEu Hitchens, Theresa . “Space Weapons of the Future”. Scientific American. February 2008. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/space-weapons-of-the-future/ Howell, Elizabeth. “Roscosmos: Russia’s Space Agency. Space.com. January 29 2018. URL: https://www.space. com/22724-roscosmos.html “How Many Satellites Are Orbiting the Earth in 2017?” Pixalytics Ltd. March 28, 2018. Accessed May 31, 2018. https://www.pixalytics.com/sats-orbiting-earth-2017/. Horowitz, Michel. “The Spread of Nuclear Weapons and International Conflict: Does Experience Matter?”. Belfer Center. https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/uploads/Horowitz_The_Spread_of_Nuclear_Weapons.pdf “JAXA Astronaut Akihiko Hoshide Selected as ISS Expedition crew member and assuming the post of Commander.” JAXA. March 2 2018. URL: http://global.jaxa.jp/press/2018/03/20180302_hoshide.html Joanne, Wheeler. “Space debris: the legal issues”. Royal Aeronautical Society. January 2014. https://www.aerosociety. com/news/space-debris-the-legal-issues/ Kallender, Paul. Christopher W. Hughes. “Hiding in Plain Sight? Japan’s Militarization of Space and Challenges to the Yoshida Doctrine.” Asian Security. May 5 2018. URL: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/hughes/researchandpublications/articles/hiding_in_plain_sight_japan_s_militarization_of_space_and_challenges_to_the_ yoshida_doctrine.pdf Koplow, D A.. “ASAT-isfaction: Customary International Law and the Regulation of Anti-Satellite Weapons.” Michigan Journal of International Law 30 (2009): 1187-1272.
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Listner, Michael, and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. “The 2014 PPWT: A New Draft but with the Same and Different Problems.” The Space Review: Is Space Exploration worth the Cost? Accessed June 01, 2018. http://www. thespacereview.com/article/2575/1. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. “Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects(Draft).” Promote Friendship Between Our People and Work Together to Build a Bright Future. Accessed June 01, 2018. http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/jks_665232/kjfywj_665252/t1165762.shtml. “New Space Policy Directive Calls for Human Expansion Across Solar System.” NASA. December 12, 2017. URL: https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-space-policy-directive-calls-for-human-expansion-across-solarsystem Pasco, Xavier. “A European Approach to Space Security.” American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2009. URL: https:// www.amacad.org/publications/spaceEurope.pdf Weinberger, Sharon. “Space junk: why it is time to clean up the skies”. BBC. May 2012. http://www.bbc.com/future/ story/20120518-danger-space-junk-alert “Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy.” US Department of Defense, 6. 2018 URL: https://www.defense. gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf Stillwell, Blake. “Air Force ‘rods from god’ could hit with the force of a nuclear weapon — with no fallout”. Business Insider. April 2018. http://www.businessinsider.com/air-force-rods-from-god-kinetic-weapon-hit-with-nuclearweapon-force-2017-9 Tate, Karl. “Space Junk Explained: How orbital debris threaten future of spaceflight”. October 2013. Space.com. UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.” UNOOSA. Accessed June 1, 2018. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html. UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.” UNOOSA. Accessed June 1, 2018. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. “Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space.” UNOOSA. Accessed June 1, 2018. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/ introregistration-convention.ml UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs. “55/32. Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space.” UNOOSA. Accessed June 1, 2018. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_55_32E.pdf. United Nations. “Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities.” United Nations. Accessed June 01, 2018. http://undocs.org/en/A/68/189. United Nations. “Disarmament Committee Approves Drafts on No First Placement of Arms in Outer Space, Ban on New Types of Mass Destruction Weapons | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases.” United Nations. Accessed June 01, 2018. https://www.un.org/press/en/2014/gadis3514.doc.htm.
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MUN@TIU 2018 BACKGROUND GUIDE CREATED BY TIUMUN ACADEMIC. DESIGNED BY TIUMUN CREATIVE. 2018 TOKYO INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY MODEL UNITED NATIONS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.