The front cover artwork features a photograph of the full Earth, published in Progressive Architecture (July 1970), an image of the Roseau Children’s Centre, courtesy of Dudley Thompson (Praire Architects), and a photograph of Maison Lessard, found in the Canadian Centre for Architecture archives (Minimum Cost Housing Group fonds, ARCH273329).
A New Little Magazine The rise of an environmental con-
and international journals and magazines
sciousness in the 1960s and 1970s pro-
and a study of the archives of the Mini-
voked a number of experiments by archi-
mum Cost Housing Group of the McGill
tects, builders, and thinkers that defied
University School of Architecture, seen
conventions and offered spatial solutions
through the lenses of alternative technolo-
to ecological problems. These experi-
gy, vernacular architecture, and ecological
ments were part of a larger counterculture
systems theory.
movement: they challenged the modernist notion of “good design” while responding
This publication, inspired by the
to general anxieties of the time. A new
“little magazines” of the 1960s and 1970s,
feeling of architectural freedom, inspired
engages the knowledge and projects pro-
by back-to-the-land philosophies and do-
duced during the period within the wider
it-yourself approaches, led to the invention
framework of experimental environmen-
of a number of colourful technologies that
tal practices in design and architecture,
can now be re-examined. How effective
with particular emphasis on the work of
were geodesic domes, passive solar walls,
the Minimum Cost Housing Group. The
and mist showers in mediating social and
publication includes essays, timelines, and
environmental problems that were becom-
visuals, as well as an interview with Witold
ing increasingly global in scale?
Rybczynski, director of the Minimum Cost Housing Group between 1973 and 1988.
The Problem Is Still... The Environment is the product of a research residency
This is a new little magazine that
that was conducted between June and
shows that the problem was, and is still,
August 2016 at the Canadian Centre for
the environment.
Architecture in Montreal. The research focuses on a period when designers mobilized methods originating from the counterculture to develop projects that engaged ecological debates and that were disseminated through small publications. The
Lisa Chow, Michèle Curtis, and Geneviève Depelteau, Montreal, August 2016
perspectives presented in this publication result from a review of North American
... THE ENVIRONMENT
1
What Makes an “Operation”? Three Projects, Some Publications, and a Bit of Sulphur
2
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
the economic, environmental, and health
By Lisa Chow
The Ecol House was the first demon-
benefits of this way of life. Although the
stration project in which the MCHG ex-
MCHG was based in North America, the
plored shelter, waste building, water use,
Ecol House was designed as a low-cost
and sanitation in a housing prototype for
dwelling prototype for developing coun-
developing countries. The group designed
tened a small, self-sustainable low-cost
tries, aiming to address needs for housing
the project according to their “12 Ways of
house, built in Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue
and basic services. The first issue in the
Building Ecologically” guidelines.2 Large
near Montreal, as “Ecol.”1 The house was
group’s self-published The Problem Is se-
reserves of elemental sulphur were widely
constructed by the Minimum Cost Hous-
ries outlined their research on this subject,
available as industrial waste across Canada
ing Group (MCHG) of the School of
and was entitled “Prefabricated House
in the 1970s.3 Because sulphur requires
Architecture at McGill University. It was
for Developing Countries.” Later projects
very little energy to melt down and bind
conceived as the first in a three-part series
in the Ecol Operation were designed for
with other materials, and because it does
of built structures that the group designed
developed countries. The Ecol Operation
not require complex processing equipment
in the 1970s, in an initiative named “The
participated in the broader discourse
to transform it for use in construction, the
Ecol Operation.” Ecologically conscious
on ecology and appropriate technology
MCHG saw it as a low-cost and high-po-
designers in the 1970s believed that small-
through materials, sanitation technology,
tential material for housing in Canada
scale, decentralized, energy-efficient, and
and strategies of self-sufficiency. It can be
and in poorer countries. At the same time,
locally controlled technology provided
disputed as to whether Ecol’s projects truly
the Canadian government was interested
the answer to environmental concerns
demonstrated a commitment to ecology,
sulphur construction, and the MCHG re-
in developed countries. E. F. Schumacher’s
appropriate technology, low-cost mate-
ceived support from the Sulphur Institute
Small is Beautiful (1973) and Ivan Illich’s
rials, and a self-build approach, but each
and the Central Mortgage and Housing
Tools for Conviviality (1973) criticized
prototype does demonstrate an evolving
Corporation. The group first conducted
industrialized society and advocated a re-
response to governmental programs and
experiments with sulphur concrete, mixing
turn to popular practical knowledge, citing
economic incentives.
sulphur with different aggregates
In 1972, Buckminster Fuller chris-
Buckminster Fuller was in Montreal in 1972 to give a lecture at Dawson College and was invited by the Minimum Cost Housing Group to visit their newly built Ecol House at the MacDonald Campus of McGill. 1
Minimum Cost Housing Group, “The Ecol Operation: Ecology + Building + Common Sense,” The Problem Is 2 (Montreal, 1973), 9. 3
These twelve points include building with materials that can be recycled rather than discarded at the end of a building’s life, using renewable energy to generate electricity, using solar energy to purify water and for heating. See “The Ecol Operation: Ecology + Building + Common Sense” for a full list. 2
Fig. 1. The Ecol House (1972) was a prototype for a sustainable low-cost house. This photograph was published in “The Ecol Operation: Ecology + Building + Common Sense” (1973) as the cover page.
... THE ENVIRONMENT
3
Fig. 2. The Saddle Lake Project (1973) was a sulphur-concrete community building built on an Indian Reserve. Canadian Centre for Architecture archives, Minimum Cost Housing Group fonds, ARCH273011.
while using various molds.4 They then
The Saddle Lake Project of 1973 was
Maison Lessard was a third applica-
continued with the Ecol House in 1972.
a further application of Ecol in the field. It
tion of Ecol carried out between May 1974
They pre-casted modular sulphur con-
was carried out in response to governmen-
and January 1975. The MCHG had by
crete blocks for the walls, cut sewer pipes
tal interest, with the aim of demonstrating
this point become known through press
for the roof, installed solar stills for an
how, with sulphur, First Nations people
coverage, publications, and association
off-the-grid sanitary unit, and assembled
could meet their own building needs.
with McGill. The project was for summer
a windmill at the MacDonald Campus of
Following the success of the Ecol House,
housing for nuns in Quebec City, and the
McGill in the spring and summer of 1972.
the MCHG was invited and financially
client was interested in sulphur-concrete
The group’s research on materials, sani-
supported by the Department of Northern
construction for a permanent building in
tation, and self-sufficiency informed this
and Indian Affairs to build a pavilion in
a Northern environment. The MCHG built
first project, and the project was in turn an
sulphur concrete at the Saddle Lake Indian
an insulated low-cost four-bedroom house
experimental learning process that would
Reserve in Alberta. In collaboration with a
using sulphur-concrete blocks. The group
inform later prototypes. Members of the
Cree community, the MCHG built a com-
also installed a composting toilet inside
MCHG lived in the house for two summers
munity building composed of four curved
the house as part of their research on san-
after construction. The group published
walls. The group, working with the Cree,
itation, which had begun in 1973 with the
their process in “The Ecol Operation: Ecol-
transferred photographs and images from
publication of “Stop the Five Gallo Flush!”,
ogy + Building + Common Sense,” as the
magazines onto the modular blocks, and
the third issue in The Problem Is. Accord-
second issue in The Problem Is, a series
topped the cylindrical building with
ing to Witold Rybczynski, the composting
that was part of a larger countercultural
a conical galvanized metal roof. Self-
toilet was not very popular with the resi-
press movement. The publication focus-
build construction, rather than ecolo-
dents of the house.8 The MCHG’s primary
es on sulphur concrete, sanitation, and
gy, may have been the MCHG’s primary
motive in the Maison Lessard project was
low-cost materials, mentioning ecology in
interest in this project, and they indeed
to prove further applications of sulphur
the first pages. Six thousand five hundred
found that with modular construction,
construction, and the group was therefore
copies were sold exclusively through mail
self-building by non-specialized workers
focused more on materials than on the
order over three years and three editions.
was possible.
environment.
5
6
7
The Ecol House was also widely covered in local newspapers, university journals, and the architectural press, appearing in the Montreal Star, Architectural Design, and The Canadian Architect. Publication of the project gave the MCHG publicity and momentum.
4
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
The experiments were conducted in the engineering lab at McGill’s Faculty of Engineering. 4
The MCHG collaborated with other research groups at McGill. For example, the solar still was designed and installed by the Brace Research Institute. 5
Minimum Cost Housing Group, “The Ecol Operation: Ecology + Building + Common Sense,” The Problem Is 2 (Montreal, 1973), ii. 6
The Saddle Lake Project was Jon Boon’s thesis project in Minimum Cost Housing Studies at McGill’s School of Architecture, with Witold Rybczynski as advisor. 7
The final phase of the Ecol Operation
Through the Ecol Operation, the
Thereafter, ecology is never mentioned,
was Ecol II, designed for a government
MCHG actively participated in interna-
and the subject is also absent from their
program and intended to reach a wide
tional development research, the appropri-
later publications. But if the group was
audience in order to publicize the MCHG’s
ate technology discourse, the countercul-
not ecological, it was nonetheless focused
work. In response to rapid urban growth,
tural publishing movement, and ecological
on reusing and recycling materials in
the Canadian Urban Demonstration
design. In addition to their own publica-
innovative ways in order to maintain low
Program called for socially sustainable
tions, the MCHG was covered in the
construction and material costs. The name
demonstration projects. The PEI Ark by
architectural press, university journals,
“Minimum Cost Housing Group” was, in
the New Alchemists— a habitable green-
local newspapers, countercultural maga-
this sense, quite well chosen.
house dubbed a “bioshelter”—was built at
zines, environment newsletters, and scien-
Spry Point in the context of this program.
tific journals at national and international
At the same time, the organizers of the
levels. Working in a spirit of experimen-
United Nations Conference on Human
tation and hands-on testing of ideas, the
Settlements, to be held in Vancouver in
MCHG developed many innovative, small-
1976, were welcoming demonstration
scale, and low-cost technologies within
project proposals. Ecol II was approved
the appropriate technology movement.
for the Canadian Urban Demonstration
Although the group was in contact with
Program, but the MCHG received a letter
developing countries, their prototypes
in July 1975 stating that funding for the
were never applied in these contexts, and
program was suspended indefinitely. Ecol
they ultimately did not succeed in their
II would have been a two-storey version
goal of implementing a housing prototype
of Ecol with a Trombe wall, a composting
outside of North America. Despite these
toilet, and a rooftop garden, but it was not
limitations, the Ecol Operation allowed the
planned to be built with sulphur concrete.
MCHG to launch its activities.
9
The project was not realized for the UN conference either, and the Ecol Operation
Oddly, it is possible that the MCHG
ended at this point. The MCHG moved
was not, in fact, ecological at all. In the
on to other projects, working on garbage
first pages of “The Ecol Operation: Ecology
housing and rooftop gardens in the second
+ Building + Common Sense,” the authors
half of the 1970s.
outline “12 Ways of Building Ecologically.”
Witold Rybczynski, interview by Lisa Chow, Michèle Curtis, Geneviève Depelteau and Kim Förster, 5 August 2016. 8
This is the first United Nations Conference on Human Settlements convened by the UN, and it is also known as Habitat I. The purpose of these conferences is to formulate human settlement policies and spatial planning strategies, addressing inequitable economic growth and rapid urbanization. 9
Fig. 3. Maison Lessard was a four-bedroom summer house using sulphur concrete, and included a composting toilet. Canadian Centre for Architecture archives, Minimum Cost Housing Group fonds, ARCH273329.
... THE ENVIRONMENT
5
Notes on the History of Architectural Collaboration with First Nations People
6
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
By Michèle Curtis
The 1960s and 1970s saw a sharp
effects. Cardinal explains that the holistic
today, these articles are appropriative and
philosophy of First Nations and Métis
frame sacred structures as do-it-your-
cultures extends beyond dwellings to
self craft projects. The articles reflect a
embrace the entire experience of living in
general pattern of liberal, reductive use of
a community.2
the forms and functions of First Nations architecture.
rise in environmental consciousness in North America. Sustainable design
The 1951 Indian Act amendment,
3
solutions were at the centre of the debate
followed by Jean Chrétien and Pierre
that resulted, and vernacular architecture,
Trudeau’s controversial White Paper
Nations architecture carried out in the
that is, structures produced not by archi-
policy of 1969 that meant to abolish the
1960s and 1970s are superficial, some
tects but by a community with a specific
act and to fully integrate all First Nations
North American architects did work
heritage and in a specific place, became an
people into Canada, led to social and
closely with First Nations people, gaining
important topic. Although writings such
political turmoil in First Nations commu-
insight into social and political situations,
as Bernard Rudofsky’s Architecture With-
nities.4 Moreover, very little scholarship
environmental conditions, and traditional
out Architects and Paul Oliver’s Shelter
on First Nations architecture had been
vernacular building techniques. McGill
and Society were catalysts for discussion,
produced by the 1960s and 1970s. The
University’s Minimum Cost Housing
vernacular architecture in the contem-
Canadian Whole Earth Almanac’s 1970
Group (MCHG) and the Winnipeg firm
porary sense was already being practiced
issue on shelter featured the article “The
Prairie Architects led low-cost housing
by, among others, Douglas Cardinal, an
Sioux Tipi,” which includes a checklist
and communal building projects on First
architect and philosopher of First Nations
with simplified instructions, and another
Nations reserves in the 1970s. The projects
descent. Vernacular architecture in a
article on sweat lodges, structures in which
helped to improve living conditions on
First Nations context relies on natural
“the expulsion of dirt and germs through
these reserves, led to educational benefits
resources in the immediate surroundings
profuse sweating literally causes the re-
for the communities, and fostered collec-
but has minimal long-term environmental
moval of evil from the body.” Considered
tive involvement.
1
5
“What Is Vernacular Architecture?” Ethno Architecture: Architecture In Color, accessed 10 August 2016, http:// www.vernaculararchitecture.com. 1
Trevor Body and Douglas Cardinal, The Architecture of Douglas Cardinal with Essays by Douglas Cardinal (Edmonton: NeWest Press, 1989). 2
Although most studies of First
The Indian Act only affects First Nations people, not Métis or Inuit. The act outlines governmental obligations to First Nations and determines “status,” a legal recognition of a person’s First Nations heritage that affords certain rights such as the right to live on a reserve. “Indian Act,” The Canadian Encyclopedia, accessed 16 August 2016, http://www. thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-act. 3
“The White Pater 1969,” The Canadian Encyclopedia, accessed 16 August 2016, http://www. thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/ article/the-whitepaper-1969. 4
Canadian Whole Earth Almanac Research Foundation, “Sweat Bathing,” Canadian Whole Earth Almanac, Shelter issue (1970): 35. 5
Fig. 1. Checklist for the do-it-yourself construction of a tipi. This image was published in “The Sioux Tipi” article in the Canadian Whole Earth Almanac Shelter (1970).
... THE ENVIRONMENT
7
In the summer of 1973, three mem-
low costs and investments, along with
a project for a community centre on the
bers of the MCHG—project director Witold
a high degree of collaboration between
Roseau River Reserve, south of Winnipeg,
Rybczynski, research assistant Wajid Ali,
architects, engineers, and the Band.
in collaboration with the Roseau Band.
and Master of Architecture student Jon
Joyce McArthur, a Band member, and
Boon—were approached by the Special
The Saddle Lake pavilion was the
Dorinda Vollmer, a United Church minis-
Assignments Group of the Department of
first trial use of the MCHG’s sulphur
ter, led fundraising efforts for the project,
Indigenous and Northern Affairs to partic-
concrete, an intermediate technology—
which resulted in a total sum of about
ipate in a pilot project on the Saddle Lake
technology suitable for use in develop-
$120,000.10 The main intention of the
First Nations Cree Reserve, near St. Paul,
ing countries, typically based on locally
project for the Roseau Children’s Centre
Alberta. Through this project, the MCHG
available resources and skills—that had
was to provide a low-cost building in order
intended to determine the potential for the
been initially developed in the group’s
to decrease dependence on outside energy
production of small-scale building compo-
Ecol Operation experiment. Jon Boon had
sources, to build using local labor, and to
nents out of their new experimental ma-
particular interest in collaborating with
allow for funds to be invested in program
terial: sulphur concrete. The goal was for
First Nations people; his thesis, “Sulphur
rather than in operating requirements.11
the Cree to adopt the new material and the
as an Intermediate Technology for Hous-
Intermediate technology was included in
MCHG’s building methods to meet their
ing within Community Development” drew
the project in order to provide employ-
own needs. The Saddle Lake Band Council
on precedents such as Inuit “self-help”
ment for the Band members. The design
suggested that the building be a com-
housing co-operatives in Frobisher Bay
of the centre was based on the ancestral
munity food and refreshments pavilion
and Inuvik, where the buildings were con-
earth lodge shelter, the dominant dwelling
in a public space in the lakeside reserve;
structed by the residents themselves using
of Central and Northern Great Plains First
people would be able to watch the work in
local material and traditional techniques
Nations village, and it was built in a circu-
progress and participate. Before construc-
at a low cost.9 With the Saddle Lake proj-
lar, dome shape with timber superstruc-
tion began, two Band members visited the
ect, Boon intended to show how people of
tures mantled by thick layers of earth.12
MCHG in Montreal to learn the construc-
different skills, backgrounds, and beliefs
The project featured sustainable energy
tion procedure and become acquainted
could benefit from collaboration, while im-
techniques such as passive energy gain
with the group members. The Saddle Lake
proving living conditions on First Nations
through site and structure, active energy
project demonstrated how a small factory
reserves.
using wood, solar, and electrical systems,
6
8
could be established to process a raw ma-
and recovery energy systems.
terial, which was abundant in the remote area, at the building site itself.7 It involved
In 1978, Dudley Thompson and Paul Moody of Prairie Architects embarked on
Fig. 2. Construction of the Saddle Lake pavilion (1973). Canadian Centre for Architecture archives, Minimum Cost Housing Group fonds, ARCH273011.
Fig. 3. Minimum Cost Housing Group and members of the Saddle Lake Band (1973). Canadian Centre for Architecture archives, Minimum Cost Housing Group fonds, ARCH273011.
Jon Boon, “Sulphur as an Intermediate Technology for Housing within Community Development” (M.Arch diss., McGill University, 1974).
9
6
8
Minimum Cost Housing Group, “The Saddle Lake Project,” Open House International 13, no. 1 (1988): 12. 7
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
Witold Rybczynski, interview by Lisa Chow, Michèle Curtis, Geneviève Depelteau, and Kim Förster, 5 August 2016. 8
Jon Boon, “Sulphur as an Intermediate Technology for Housing within Community Development” (M.Arch diss., McGill University, 1974).
Anna Olson, “Indians Raise $107,000 and Build Passive Solar Centre,” Canadian Renewable Energy News, April 1979. 10
At an early stage, Dudley Thompson
collaboration between southern Canadi-
committed to working with sustainable
an architects and First Nations people,
design and intermediate technology for
which led to beneficial and progressive
environmentally conscious buildings. After
work in the 1960s and 1970s. The projects
starting his own practice in Winnipeg,
introduced intermediate technology and
Thompson began making connections with
low-cost building solutions, but would not
Band members from the Roseau Reserve
have been successful without the vernacu-
and was shocked at living conditions on
lar architectural practice of First Nations
the reserve.13 He was determined to carry
people. As David Suzuki writes:
out the project for the Roseau Children’s
Fig. 4. A member of the Roseau Band building the Children’s Centre (c. 1978). Courtesy of Dudley Thompson, Prairie Architects.
Centre with traditional techniques and
The environmental subsumes
recycled materials so that the Band could
every aspect of our activities, but
construct the building themselves and
we failed to make the point that
keep the labour money on the reserve.
our lives, health, and livelihoods
Women of the reserve were especially
absolutely depend on the bio-
involved, and they helped decide which
sphere—air, water, soil, sunlight,
functions and accommodations would best
and biodiversity. Without them,
suit the project. (Showers, reading rooms,
we sicken and die. This perspective
a game area, and a kitchen were ultimately
is reflected in spiritual practices
included.) In addition to the project’s
that understand that everything is
collaborative ambitions, the Roseau Chil-
interconnected, as well as tradi-
dren’s Centre had ecological importance:
tional societies that revere “Mother
Thompson and his team received the Low
Earth” as the source of all that
Energy Building Design Award for the
matters in life.16
14
project.15 The architects of the Roseau Children’s Although there is no consistent his-
Centre and the Saddle Lake pavilion
toriography on the topic of First Nations
learned building systems from First Na-
architecture, both the MCHG’s Saddle
tions Bands, creating harmonious environ-
Lake pavilion and Prairie Architects’
ments not only in architecture, but also in
Roseau Children’s Centre are evidence of
the communities.
Dudley Thompson and Paul Moody, “Roseau Children’s Centre: Low Energy Building Design Awards Competition Submission” (1978). 11
“Earth Lodges,” Encyclopedia of Great Plains, accessed 16 August 2016, http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/ encyclopedia/doc/ egp.arc.020.xml. 12
Dudley Thompson, email message to author, 8 August 2016. 13
Dudley Thompson and Paul Moody, “Roseau Children’s Centre.” 14
Paul Cosgrove, Public Works Canada, “Winning Low Energy Building Designs: Existing Buildings—Roseau Children’s Centre Details,” Ottawa, 1980. 15
David Suzuki, “The Fundamental Failure of Environmentalism,” Science Matters, 3 May 2012. 16
Fig. 5. Early timber construction of the Roseau Children’s Centre (c. 1978). Courtesy of Dudley Thompson, Prairie Architects.
... THE ENVIRONMENT
9
1964
1960
1950
1900
Futuro House by Matti Suuronen Trombe Wall Experiment by Felix Trombe Passive solar building design
Carboard Dome by Buckminster Fuller
Drop City by Steve Baer
“Voyage en Orient” by Le Corbusier
New Gourna Village by Hassan Fathy
St by
Villa Moissi by Adolf Loos
Garden Cities Movement by Hebenezer Howard Self-contained communities surrounded by greenbelts Central Park by Frederick Law Olmsted
Theory on plant community
Plan for the Valley by Patrick Geddes
10
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
Sea Ra by Law A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold
1980
1976
1972
1968
Zome House by Steven Baer PEI Ark by the New Alchemists
The Integral Urban House Farallones Institute
The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment by Reyner Banham Garbage Housing by Martin Pawley Earthship House by Michael Reynolds Kelbaugh Solar House by Douglas Kelbaugh
Shelter and Society by Paul Oliver
t-Mary’s Church y Cardinal Douglas
Spinach House by Michael Reynolds House Form and Culture by Amos Rapoport
Creation of ICOMOS Le Conseil international des monuments et des sites
anch (Ecoscore) wrence Halprin
Arcosanti by Paolo Soleri
Suburban community design by Ian McHarg
Take Me to the Mountain by Charles Tapley and Associates
Ira Keller Fountain by Lawrence Halprin
Our Common Future Brundtland Commission Report on Sustainable Development
... THE ENVIRONMENT
11
ECO LOGY Architecture and Ecology in Practice: The Ecosystem Paradigm
12
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
By Geneviève Depelteau
effect on the healthy balance of the planet,
be a culture vessel, a space capsule, a crop
and in order to find solutions, design pro-
field, a pond, or the earth’s biosphere.”3
fessionals turned to biologists and ecologists, who had first pointed to evidence
This holistic approach of looking at the
of these ill effects. Consulting with these
world provided theorists and others well
Earth Jamboree took place in an uninhab-
scientists led architects, designers, and
beyond the field of ecology with a new,
ited valley in California, to celebrate the
planners to reflect on the interconnection
quantitatively measurable, analytical
Whole Earth Catalog’s tenth anniversary.
and organization of living systems and the
method. Landscape architect Ian McHarg
Stewart Brand, pioneer of “do-it-yourself”
application of these systems to the built
is renowned for his application of ecology
and alternative technology, and editor of
environment.
as “the single indispensable basis for land-
On 25 and 27 August 1978, the Whole
the catalogue, invited important people he had collaborated with over the years
scape architecture and regional planning.”4 During the 1950s and 1960s, the
In a 1967 article published in Landscape
to mingle and chat. On the invitation list
prevalence of system theory in science
Architecture, he used health and city plan-
were names such as Lewis Mumford, Luna
contributed to the establishment of
ning to build a parallel with system theory.
Leopold, Howard T. Odum, R. Buckmin-
ecology as a discipline. Among others, the
In his model, any system “going towards
ster Fuller, Witold Rybczynski, and Lloyd
American ecologist brothers Howard T.
simplicity, uniformity, instability with a
Kahn, showing the close relationship
and Eugene Odum wrote prolifically on
low number of species and high entropy is
between ecological theorists and counter-
the recently developed concept of ecosys-
retrogressing; any system moving into that
culture architects whose work had marked
tem, and published numerous books that
direction is moving towards ill health.”5
the 1970s. The epithet biologist was as-
became part of the ecology curriculum in
Based on this principle of equilibrium,
cribed to each person listed—bioarchitect,
the United States. In their early research,
McHarg developed an ecological inven-
biohistorian, dwelling-biologist, and even
the Odum brothers described ecosystems
tory method that worked as a checklist of
minimum cost housing biologist—every-
as closed and self-regulated entities, where
interrelated systems inherent to the re-
one was a biologist of something. But what
all living and non-living organisms inter-
gional identity of a place. Applied with the
could architecture learn from ecological
act in order to reach a state of equilibrium.
method of map overlay, the methodology
theories? And, how did this relationship fit
Once disturbed, feedback mechanisms
that he called “physiographic determin-
within the growing environmental move-
are generated until equilibrium is reached
ism” provided him with a strategy to locate
ment of the 1960s and 1970s?
again. In this paradigm, ecosystems could
places of opportunities, as well as areas for
be understood in broader terms: “We
development with the least ecological con-
might say that ecology is the study of the
sequences. In The Woodlands, a suburban
that arose in North America following
structure and function of nature, if we de-
community development near Houston,
the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent
fine nature as any life-support system (i.e.,
McHarg put his methodology into practice.
Spring in 1962 involved the realization
any ecosystem) functioning within what-
The environmental assessment of The
that human activities had a destructive
ever space we chose to consider whether it
Woodlands determined the final form
1
The environmental consciousness
Invitation for the Whole Earth Jamboree, Canadian Centre for Architecture archives, Minimum Cost Housing Group fonds, AR2016.0046.018. 1
One of the leading textbooks of the time was Eugene P. Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1953). 2
2
Ian McHarg, “The Ecology of the City,” Journal of Architectural Education 17 (1962): 101–103. 4
Ian McHarg, “An Ecological Method for Landscape Architecture,” Landscape Architecture 57, no. 2 (1967): 105–107. 5
Eugene P. Odum, “The New Ecology,” BioScience 14, no. 7 (July 1964): 14–16. 3
Fig. 1. “Where should highways go?” is a comprehensive study by Ian McHarg for the development of highway 1-95, and includes a detailed explanation of the map overlay method. The article and photographs shown above were published in Landscape Architecture (1967).
... THE ENVIRONMENT
13
of the project, in which roads, houses,
their first housing prototype, Ecol I, in
As historian and landscape architect David
and open spaces were entirely designed ac-
1972, using appropriate technologies
Streatfield suggests in a 1972 Landscape
cording to the area’s hydrological system.
popular for small-scale living, such as
Architecture article, groups and architects
passive solar energy, water conservation
such as Fuller and Reyner Banham created
techniques, and recycled waste. However,
technological solutions that “ignore the
tects, less concerned with the specificities
the idea of the Ecol House as an “ecologi-
most fundamental dimension of the prob-
of the region, and motivated by an anti-es-
cally-responsible-building” became clear-
lem, the relationship between man and his
tablishment agenda or by environmental
er two years later in the Ecol Operation
natural environment.”9 Although McHarg’s
concerns, applied ecosystem theory to
Report, which summarized the evolution
practice was to develop the landscape for
the questions of housing and technology
of the project and introduced Ecol II, a
human activities that are harmonious
with the goal of reducing human stress on
prototype designed to be “quantitatively
with nature, his attitude toward human-
earth. The house, understood as a life-sup-
instrumented to measure water utilization,
ity as a “depletive organic system”10 and
port system, engendered a new generation
temperature, incident solar radiation,
cities as a “pathological environment”11
of “bricoleurs”6 seeking self-sufficiency
and power utilization.” Ecol II embodied
clearly demonstrates a separation be-
and a return to the land, and publications
the logic of a closed system that could be
tween humans and nature. The idea of the
such as the Whole Earth Catalog broad-
quantitatively measured. To frame their
ecosystem as a closed system raised some
casted innovative soft technologies that
approach, the MCHG invoked Howard T.
questions during the 1970s, with the inte-
built on the idea of a self-regulated ecosys-
Odum’s principle of competitive ecology
gration of population genetics and biology
tem. This was a rich period for small, inde-
and energy flow, showing the influence of
suggesting “the dynamic and changing
pendent publications discussing ecological
ecological theories. The group continued
nature of communities and ecosystems.”12
topics along with design–build projects.
to develop autonomous and ecological
Population ecology studied the complex
Mainstream architectural magazines
building ideas throughout the 1970s,
relationship of species populations with
increasingly acknowledged ecologically
including research on greenhouses and
their environment, which automatically
driven architecture and the limited-run
composting toilet systems, before taking
integrated human cultures with the rest of
publications that members of this coun-
a shift towards international development
the environment. Some of the most con-
terculture established to disseminate their
and urban planning.
structive critics of system theory in design
A number of counterculture archi-
7
8
came from former students of Ian McHarg
projects. But can an autonomous house be
at the University of Pennsylvania, such as
truly ecological with no connection to a
Anne Whiston Spirn, Michael Hough, and
(MCHG) at McGill University was interest-
specific region? And can ecological plan-
Frederick Steiner, who applied McHarg’s
ed in self-sufficiency for low-cost housing
ning be successful without the complete
systemic approach to planning to the na-
in developing countries. The group built
integration of cities and human activities?
scent field of urban ecology.
The Minimum Cost Housing Group
Witold Rybczynski uses this term to describe counterculture architects. Witold Rybczynski, interview by Lisa Chow, Michle Curtis, Geneviève Depelteau, and Kim Förster, 5 August 2016. 6
Minimum Cost Housing Group, “The Ecol Operation: Ecology + Building + Common Sense,” The Problem Is 2 (Montreal: 1972). 7
8
Fig. 2. Publicity for the Whole Earth Almanac, the Canadian version of the Whole Earth Catalog. This advertisement was published in Progressive Architecture (1970).
14
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
Ibid.
David Streatfield, “Ideas into the Landscape: Leaders Do Not Wait to Be Called,” Landscape Architecture 62, no. 2 (1972): 148–151. 9
Ian McHarg, “The Ecology of the City,” Journal of Architectural Education 17, no. 2 (1962): 101–103. 10
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (Garden City, NJ: Natural History Press, 1969). 11
The new ecological paradigm taking
had been director of the MCHG for about
shape at the end of the 1970s accepted that
four years, came to the conclusion that for
the composition of a community was not
pragmatic observers interested in solving
completely predictable, and that it could
problems, “appropriate technologies have
be transformed by factors outside the
little to offer. It is a movement that is long
ecosystem, including the role of human
on polemic and pitifully short on actual
culture on all natural systems. With this
accomplishment.”15
paradigm, human cultures embodied cities as a natural habitat. While working on
As the Whole Earth Jamboree attend-
The Woodlands with Ian McHarg, Anne
ees were packing their tents and saying
Whiston Spirn wrote, “In fact, nature is
their goodbyes, perhaps some felt the end
a continuum; city and wilderness are its
of an era, as autonomous buildings and
poles,”13 arguing for an understanding of
alternative lifestyles would no longer be
cities as a natural evolution of the human
seen as effective responses to the environ-
ecosystem. Defining the city as an eco-
mental debate. In a period of time when
system called into question the conserva-
the predominant definition of humanity’s
tion strategies and planning boundaries
stewardship of nature shifted from conser-
between cities and regions. This view
vation, to preservation, and to sustainable
of ecology was especially relevant given
development, cybernetic architecture and
that economic and power structures were
ecological planning evolved along with
increasingly attributed to cities: as Michael
changes happening in the field of ecology.
Hough argues, “environmental solutions to
The new ecological paradigm, building on
problems in the larger landscape have their
nature as a continuum, generated a new
roots in cities and must, therefore, also be
dialogue on temporality and the impor-
sought there.”14 In this context, an ecolog-
tance of the site in both architecture and
ical approach based on decentralized and
landscape architecture. As Steward Brand
small-scale autonomous systems praised
would conclude sixteen years later: “A
by the counterculture builders, such as
building is not something you finish. A
solar-heated systems, spray showers, and
building is something you start.”16
Fig. 4. Examples of ecological counterculture magazines published in Methane: Atomic Rooster’s Here (1973).
greenhouses, did not offer viable solutions to the environmental problems that were growing in scale and complexity. In an article published in CoEvolution Quaterly in 1977, Witold Rybczynski, who by this point Robert E. Cook, “Do Landscapes Learn? Ecology’s ‘New Paradigm’ and Design in Landscape Architecture,” in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, ed. Michael Conan (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2000), 115–132. 12
Anne Whiston Spirn, “The Role of Natural Processes in the Design of Cities,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 451 (1980): 98–105. 13
Michael Hough, “The Urban Landscape: The Hidden Frontier,” Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology 15, no. 4 (1983): 9–14. 14
Witold Rybczynski, “Appropriate Technology: The Upper Case Against,” CoEvolution Quaterly (1977). 15
Stewart Brand, How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built (New York: Viking Press, 1994). 16
Fig. 3. Ecol II was a prototype proposed for Habitat Forum 1976 in Vancouver. Unpublished proposal for Ecol Operation (1974). Canadian Centre for Architecture archives, Minimum Cost Housing fonds, ARCH2016.0046.021.
... THE ENVIRONMENT
15
An Interview with Witold Rybczynski
By Lisa Chow, Michèle Curtis, Geneviève Depelteau, and Kim Förster.
Witold Rybczynski is a writer, archi-
Witold Rybczynski est un écrivain,
tect, and emeritus professor at the Univer-
architecte et professeur émérite de l’Uni-
sity of Pennsylvania. For most of the 1970s
versité de Pennsylvanie. Pendant une
and the 1980s, he was involved with the
bonne partie des années 1970 et 1980,
Minimum Cost Housing group (MCHG)
il a été impliqué avec le Minimum Cost
of the School of Architecture at McGill
Housing Group (MCHG) au département
University, first as a student and later as
d’architecture de l’université McGill, tout
the group’s director. We spoke with him
d’abord comme étudiant, ensuite comme
about the work of the MCHG and its po-
directeur. Nous avons discuté avec lui du
sition within a countercultural movement
travail réalisé par le groupe et leur relation
in architecture, which was triggered by a
avec la contreculture, éveillée par une nou-
new environmental consciousness and an
velle conscience environnementale ainsi
interest in problem-solving designs.
qu’un désir de résoudre les problèmes à l’aide du design.
16
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
What was the original intention of
As we understand it, the Ecol House
the MCHG? Did you work within a
was a central project for advancing
Operation this whole world of alternative
certain academic framework?
the goals of the MCHG. When you
technology which we didn’t know about
started the project, did you know
at all—particularly in California but really
that it would evolve into the Ecol
all over the United States and England,
Operation?
and to some extent in France. People were
There was no specific theory here. Theory has become a very popular notion
We discovered when we did the Ecol
doing these solar houses and autonomous
in architecture today, which I don’t necessarily agree with—architecture is much
Oh, no! Again the idea came from
houses and ecological houses, and what
too practical for theories. It was bricolage,
Ortega’s experience working with the UN.
we had done, although it had been aimed
and at the centre of the exploration was
The UN believed very much in demonstra-
at issues in Third World countries, actually
Alvaro Ortega’s experience as a consultant
tion projects. They didn’t have big budgets,
fell into this camp. So part of this shift
at the United Nations. As a consultant, he
so they would build one house in a certain
from demonstration to operation was be-
had been thinking about various complete-
way to demonstrate the idea. You could
cause we discovered this broader world—
ly disconnected things like water issues,
show people how something worked on a
although it was a tiny world—of autono-
sanitation issues, construction materials,
small scale, and then you could communi-
mous ideas.
and particularly sulphur concrete. For
cate that idea in built form rather than just
example, he had this idea of using volcanic
on paper. The name for the Ecol Operation
sulphur, which you find in many moun-
came from Buckminster Fuller. We were
What role did publication play in
tainous countries, as a cheap building
sort of sheepish; we didn’t have a name
disseminating ideas, in comparison
material. He started the Minimum Cost
for it, and he said, “Oh, you have to have
to demonstration?
Housing graduate program to explore
a name.” Fuller was a master of publicity.
some of these things and I ended up being
We said, “Well, maybe something like the
his first student. If there was a theme,
Ecol House.” He went off in a corner and
first. When we discovered to our sur-
it was minimum-cost housing, that is,
thought for a while, and then came back
prise that people were interested, we put
housing for Third World or developing
and he said, “No, it should be the Ecol
more emphasis on publication. The first
countries that would reduce the cost of
Operation.”
The Problem Is booklet had no price tag,
The dissemination certainly came
construction in one way or another. I think
because we didn’t really think that people
the ecological theme was just in the air
would buy it. But by the time of the Ecol
at that time—things like solar energy and
Operation, we were selling copies, and
water distillation sort of came along.
later on we discovered that through the Whole Earth Catalog and other publications people found out about us and wrote to us, so we had a fairly steady number of followers. So yes, it was very much about
“
Theory has become a very popular notion in architecture today, which I don’t necessarily agree with—architecture is much too practical for theories.
”
dissemination. We didn’t have any budget from the university, and that is indeed one reason why we were active in developing publications. It wasn’t a huge amount of money, but it was enough to hire people in the summer and to buy material. I suppose today we would be online and it would all be different; we’d probably reach more people, but in those days that was how you could reach out.
... THE ENVIRONMENT
17
We saw that you had a subscription
but there was a kind of shared interest in
Despite your work in developing
to Rain Magazine, wrote for CoEvo-
technology, because these were interest-
appropriate technology with the
lution Quaterly, and participated
ing technical problems, such as trying to
MCHG, the article that you pub-
in the Whole Earth Jamboree. How
do something with the least resources,
lished in CoEvolution Quarterly in
much was the MCHG’s work influ-
or more efficiently, or with larger appli-
1977, followed by the book Paper
enced by the counterculture move-
cations. I thought about this in my book
Heroes, are critical of appropriate
ment? Were there any figures that
Paper Heroes—people approached it from
technology. What created this shift?
were especially influential?
so many different angles. The California people and the alternative technology
The article that you mentioned was
people were very different from the Small
my first piece of non-academic writing,
bly the largest influence in terms of an
is Beautiful people and from Third World
and I discovered that if you write some-
iconic figure. Some people working in the
countries people, but there was a lot of
thing, you could actually think it through.
counterculture movement were influential
overlap. If you look at something like the
I had just been to an appropriate technol-
because the work they did was interesting,
Whole Earth Catalog, you sort of get a
ogy conference and I wasn’t happy with
innovative, and successful. I’m thinking of
sense of how broadly you could do this.
the way I felt about it. Writing the article
Steve Baer in New Mexico, who did some
That was one of Stewart Brand’s great
was a way of discovering what I really
really beautiful work. The thing about
insights. This culture was very big, and so
thought, and I turned that idea into the
culture is that you don’t know you’re in it
the catalogue covered all sorts of things.
book Paper Heroes, which was a critique
when you’re in it; it’s like fish in water. We
In that sense, Brand was a very import-
of appropriate technology. It was mostly
recognized that there were people around
ant figure. He was not an idealist or an
a critique of the idea that, if you define
the world doing work, not always for the
ideologue, but with the catalogue being so
something as sustainable, then it becomes
same reasons—the motivations varied—
successful, he brought a very big vision.
good and you don’t have to worry about it.
Buckminster Fuller was proba-
I believed that was false. There are many kinds of technology, and the truth is that
“
all technologies can fail. It’s very hard to
The thing about culture is that you don’t
know you’re in it when you’re in it; it’s like fish in water.
”
technology, so you have to go back to the The book was also an attempt to show that there are small technologies that have had
Writing the article was a way of discovering what I really thought, and I turned that idea into the book Paper Heroes, which was a critique of appropriate technology.
”
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
way people use technology changes the traditional long-term cost-benefit effects.
“
18
predict the outcome, partly because the
very bad effects. It pointed out the failures of many of the small technologies, the biggest of which was the Cultural Revolution in China, which of course we now know was a drastic failure. This wasn’t so clear when I was writing the book; people were still pointing to Mao as a great saviour.
In addition to this critique, would
building—at least from the architectural
Looking back at the countercul-
you consider that appropriate tech-
side. Certainly on the Third World side
ture movement and the work of
nologies were successful in mediat-
it was really about economics and social
the MCHG, what are the lessons
ing environmental problems dis-
justice. For instance, Ortega’s interest in
learned?
cussed during this period? And what
sanitation came from the fact that water
about appropriate technology in the
was a big issue. Availability of water, clean
current context of climate change?
water, infrastructure—all this had nothing
I think back on it, it was a very unusual
to do with the environment. It was about
period. In universities today, everybody
economics and health. One thing I didn’t
is jumping on the bandwagon because
gy was successful because it did instill the
like about the CCA show 1973: Sorry, Out
there is money available, but do they have
idea that choosing the right technology is
of Gas was that it implied that a lot of
an idea? Do they have curiosity about
important. This idea of morality connected
this alternative technology had to do with
something, or are they just following the
to technology did catch on, and in some
the gas crisis, which is completely false;
research money? In some ways, the free-
ways sustainability is a direct descendant
it predates the gas crisis. The gas crisis
dom we had is very different from today’s
of appropriate technology. But at the same
was important because it focused public
universities, where research agendas are
time, appropriate technology gives you the
attention. We were suddenly getting calls
much more defined. You probably have
idea that you can build anything, and that
from journalists who realized that these
to see the MCHG as part of that moment
if you put a green roof on it, then you’ve
autonomous houses would be an interest-
when research in architecture was not
done something good, which is ridiculous.
ing story because people were thinking of
usual. You had people like [McGill School
So we didn’t succeed there. And the small
conserving energy. I think with climate
of Architecture Director at the time of the
scale of it did not work out. Appropriate
change and global warming most people
MCHG] John Bland, who still thought that
technology was more about building things
have a defined context, so that certainly is
building things is what architects should
on your own, the rediscovery of crafts and
different.
do, so if you’re doing research it should
In some ways, appropriate technolo-
That’s a hard question because when
result in something practical and useful. As for the counterculture, it sort of disap-
“
This idea of morality connected to technology did catch on, and in some ways sustainability is a direct descendant of appropriate technology.
”
“
In some ways, I suppose, you could say that the most beneficial outcome of the counterculture was simply pointing at problems rather than finding solutions.
”
peared, and that’s because it didn’t make a lot of sense; it didn’t have an agenda. It was more about dissatisfied people who liked the idea of doing something on their own and were interested in technologies. It turns out that if you get extremely skilled people with enough resources pointed at the problem, they can find some very good solutions. In some ways, I suppose, you could say that the most beneficial outcome of the counterculture was simply pointing at problems rather than finding solutions.
... THE ENVIRONMENT
19
Editorial Coordination Andrew Goodhouse Contributors Lisa Chow Michèle Curtis Geneviève Depelteau
We wish to acknowledge the support and guidance of our research director Kim Förster and project coordinator Benjamin Leclair-Paquet. We would like to express our appreciation to the Canadian Centre for Architecture librarians and archivists— Pamela Casey, Renata Guttman, Catherine Jacob, Colin MacWhirter, and Mathieu Pomerleau—as well as Natasha Leeman for their valuable assistance during our research residency. Finally, a special thank you to Witold Rybczynski for his time, and to the Power Corporation of Canada for funding this residency.
20
THE PROBLEM IS STILL ...
The back cover features a mold of a sulphur-concrete block designed by the Minimum Cost Housing Group. This drawing was published in “The Ecol Operation: Ecology + Building + Common Sense� (1973), 49.