Volume 1 Issue 2

LAUREL

JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES

Laurel Team

Hallie Xu Editor in Chief Derek Days Editor in Chief Luke Lin Vice EIC Leo Lin Editor Richard Conlon Editor Milly Chen Editor Joanna Yao Editor Tammy Wang Design Chief Hamilton Xie Digital Content

Aileen Huang, Andy Zheng, Erik Liu, Jake Wang, Jenny Qu, Peishan Huang, Sandra Liu, Thomas Guo

4

1

ISTHERESUCHATHINGASACOMMONGOOD

ResearchPaper

PengzheLin

3

Liberalism can befoundtoaffirm infrequentlyandinsofttones thecommongood,butthistraditionstrucka death blow to the vitality of common good long ago. It is not surprising, then, that “care” has become a buzz word in political philosophy 1 This paper attempts to show the appeal for a more traditional notionofthe common good by contrasting it with the major contours of liberalism It will be argued that the notion of the commongoodarisesoutofamoresensibleunderstandingofhumanexistencethanliberalismcanenvision.This paper will (1) establish a definition of the “common good,” (2) highlight the defects of liberalism, and (3) list thesalientfeaturesthatthenotionofthecommongoodprovidesforpoliticalphilosophy

I.DefiningtheCommonGood

What it is It will be helpful to look at each term inisolation ie goodandcommon Mostfundamentallyagood“isthat which all desire.”2 Thomas Aquinas lists three types of good: the honorable, useful, and pleasurable.3 An honorable good eg, truth, justice, andfriendship isdesiredasanendinitself Possessionofthesegoodsare thought to improve the possessor Ausefulgoodisdesiredasameantoanothergood Allpleasurablegoodsare desirable as they satisfy the senses; however, pleasures may not be good for us if they are not in accord with reason.4 This account of the Good is committed to twolargerideas:(1)humanbehaviorshouldbegovernedby reason and (2) that what we “all desire” is human flourishing 5 Something is good as it is oriented to human flourishing

A good is common:(a) if all humans need it to flourish, (b) ifitcanreallyonlybeacquiredbycollectedhuman effort, and (c) if it is accessible to the general population 6 Examples of the common good whether material,

AnnetteBaier,“TheNeedforMorethanJustice,”CanadianJournalofPhilosophy,17:sup,1987 VirginiaHeld (ed, Justice and Care Essential Readings in Feminist Ethics (Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1995),p.48.

2 KevinKnighted, The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas (NewAdvent,2007)PrimaSecundæPartis, 5.

KevinKnighted, The Summa Theologiæ of St Thomas Aquinas, PrimaSecundæPartis,34,article6.

Ibid.PrimaSecundæPartis,34,article2,a.2. Foranexampleofpleasurecontrareason,wecantakean examplefromaddiction Doingdrugsispleasurableandsoughtoutbytheaddictbecauseitfeelsgood,butas addictionisnotbehavioraccordingtorightreason,itisnot allthingsconsidered goodforus

5 Ibid PrimaPars,5,article6,a3

6 MaximilianJaede, The concept of the Common Good, (PSRPWorkingPaperNo.8)GlobalJusticeAcademy, UniversityofEdinburgh,(2017)

cultural or institutional are legion but to just list a few: national defense system, public schools, police and firestations,andsocialsecurity

In addition to these more common items, thetraditiontypicallydefines common in“commongood”intermsof honorable goods in particular, friendship Friendship strikes us, as it did Aristotle, as essential to living a happy life. Friendship is often found necessary for life itself given human vulnerabilities. The common good that is friendship is not, of course, the same as personal friendship, but we are encouraged to see our fellow citizens as “civic friends”7 The affirmation of civic friendship is supported by Aristotle’s historical reconstruction oftheoriginsofthecity state Thecity stateemergences as a type of community whichoriginates in the original community of the family.8 People first collect as family units, then tribes, and finally as city states

One can notice within the tradition a shifting back and forth from the singular “common good” to plural “common goods” 9 This movement, however, does not reflect a lack of critical attention nor conceptual confusion but a deep cultural commitment to the connection of the one and the many This relationship, while hierarchical, is not to be conceivedofascompetitive Itisbestexemplifiedbythehierarchical,non competitive relationshipbetweenafatherandason.

What it is not

The pre modern tradition does not conceive of the common good as aggregative. The whole(thatissociety)is not the mere someofitsparts Therefore,workingforthecommongoodisworking directly forthehealthofthe whole which is an honorable good; the traditional notion strongly resists positing an “invisible hand” which assures us that exclusively individualist enterprises are sufficient to improve the good of the whole. The traditional view of the common good avoids calculating a “greatest amount of good for thegreatestnumberof people” Justice whether communitive or distributive demands equality for all 10 Honorable goods are incommensurable and non reducible to pleasurable and useful goods; concepts ofweighing,aggregationetalia arequantitativeandnotapropostothecommongood.

Rights exist in the classical common good tradition, but they are not defined in the essentially individualist, autonomy based, libertarian fashion that governs rights talk today 11 Instead, they are “corollaries of justice, which is the constant aim of giving every man his due.”12 It should be pointed out that in advocating the classical natural rights tradition, one is notcommittedtorejectvariousenumeratedrightsassertedinmodernity The formulation of rights theories and rights recognition are historically conditioned, and many classical theorists today are notably modern in their sensibilities on what to affirm or not affirm with respect to human rights.13 There is no reason why, in many cases, two different moral accounts of why X is a rightcannotagree that Xisaright

https://wwwpoliticalsettlementsorg/wpcontent/uploads/2017/05/201705 WP8 Jaede Concept of the Common Goodpdf

7 JBudziszewski,“TheFlavorsoftheCommonGood.AConversationwithJBudziszewski,”TheCommon Project,1:12:31,April1st,2021 https://wwwyoutubecom/watch?v=XZ5AlD0ofDc

9 MaximilianJaede, The concept of the Common Good 8Aristotle,JonathanBarnestranslates Aristotle's Politics (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1905)1252a24 1253a39

10 EtienneGilson, The Christian Philosophy of St Thomas Aquinas (NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDame press,1994) Page311 12

12 AdrianVermeule, Common Good Constitutionalism(Cambridge:PolityPress,2022)page4 11 MaximilianJaede, The Concept of the Common Good.

13RobertGeorge, Making Men Moral: Civil Liberties and Public Morality (Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995) AlasdairMacintyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDamePress, 2007) PatrickDeneen, Why Liberalism failed (NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2018).

We cannot failtonote,however,thattheclassicaltraditioncanneveragreewiththeregnantviewthatindividual rightscantrumpcollectiveinterest 14 Theviewofthecommongoodexpressedhereisthatthereisnoconceptual 14 AdrianVermeule, Common Good Constitutionalism Page6

incompatibility between the individual and the community Rights are justified, enumerated and secured whether individual or collective rights againsttyrannicalgovernments byanappealtotheprinciple: Ifsomethingisgood/badforthesociety,thenitisalsogood/badfortheindividualandviceversa.15

II. TheDefectsofLiberalism

The historical scholarship ofLeoStraussmakesplainhowliberalismrejectstheclassicalnotionthatindividuals reachtheirperfectioninandthroughsociety,thatsocietyispriortotheindividual. Alltherightsofthestateasa whole are derivative from rights which belong properly to the individual Liberalism insists that the primary moralfactisrightsnotduty 16

These notions are directly connected to the idea that there is a “state of nature” which precedes civil society Social contract theories couple the idea of a primitive state with that ofconsent Theessenceofthearguments belowareintendedtobegeneralenoughtoaddressmostsocialcontracttheorists

(1) The theory is abstract and deformative

There never is a historical era in which we fail to see men living in society There is no way to think psychologically of human beings as essentially independent. It seems ratherthatintersubjectivityisessentialto subjectivity This mythology skews the historical record and misrepresents human existence; as such it is a harmfulideologythatfetishizesindividuality 17

(2) Living in society is not based on consensus

The most obvious fact of human existence is that we do not choose thepowerfullyformativeworldintowhich we areborn Inpositingan“originalstate,”socialcontracttheoristsignoretheintractablefactthatourworldisa given, thinking of individuals as creators rather than as receivers. Proponents of social contract theories often insist that a person is free to stay or leave whatever society one finds oneself in and that to remain is a tacit consent 18 Such a tacit consent, however,hardlyrisestotheexplicitlevelofwhatwetypicallymeanbyconsent, nordowehaveameaningfulconsentifwedonothavearealisticalternative.19

16 LeoStrauss,“NaturalRightandHistory”(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1950) Page180 184 15 Ibid Page4

17 ChristopherW.Morrised, The Social Contract Theorists: Critical Essays on Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau (Cambridge:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,1998)

18 ChristopherW Morrised, The Social Contract Theorists: Critical Essays on Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau

19 RonaldDworkin, Law’s Empire (Cambridge:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1986).The difficultiesofimmigrationforsomanyexcludedefactoanalternativetotheircountryoforigin Furthermore,as Dworkinnotes,apersoncanleaveonesovereigntojoinanother,butnoonehasthechoicetobefreefrom sovereignsaltogether.

20

CelesteFriend,“SocialContractTheory,” The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://ieputmedu/soc cont/#H2

21

VirginiaHeld,“RationalityandReasonableCooperation,” Social Research,1977 Page708 44

(3) The universal claims of social contract theory are historically locatable The liberal individual is believed to be the representation of “an abstract, generalized model of humanity writ large.”20 However, the “original individual” bears a striking resemblance to an individual that belongs to a particular time and place 21 The individual reflected in the original state is nothing more than the modern European bourgeois who emerged fromadecayingfeudalism Theproblemhereisthatsocialcontracttheorists unwittingly base their supposed universal political philosophy on concept of “man” which is a historically sexist,racist,andexploitative 22 22

VirginiaHeld, Feminist Morality: Transforming Culture, Society, and Politics (Chicago:TheUniversityof ChicagoPress,1993).Liberalismis,onceagain,patentlyfalseandgivesanideologicaljustificationfor oppression

Anette Baier describes this tradition as constrained only by a “minimal formal commongood”designedwitha working legal apparatus that only enforces contracts and protects individuals from interference 23 As such, liberalism does little to protect the vulnerable or enable citizens to acquire the capabilities necessary for flourishing 24

It may be claimed that liberalism opens space for the commongoodbyprotectingcivilsociety,butourcounter argument is that liberalism (1) provides noaccountnormotivationforciviccare,(2)fatallyignoresthe de facto role that governments take in shaping the mores of a people, (3) and in turn teaches what it insistson ie an acquisitive philosophy.25 It is noteworthy that liberalisms well documented collusion with capitalism, industrialism, and the administrative state has weakened those sites of civic society the family and religion whichliberalismreliesonetopromotethecommongood

Third:WhattheNotionoftheCommonGoodProvides

Theclassicalnotionofthecommongoodgenerateswhatliberalism per se cannot:

(1) Non Privatized moral reasoning:

Aristotle suggests that we should reason about the political“Other” ie,nonfamilymembersorpeoplewithin our circle of personal friends in terms of civic friendship Thinking in termsoffriendshipforethicalguidance involves giving a certain subset oftheinterestsofanotherpersonastatusinone’sreasoningthatisanalogousto the status that one gives to one’s own interests in moralreasoning 26 Ifwethinkofthecivicfriendasa“second self” then we have the political vision for the socialstructuresthatarenecessaryforthepotentialflourishingof all.

(2) Care:

Society needs more than just coerced behavior; caring is essential to societal and human flourishing The extension of law and government can only address a limited portion of human need. While societiescantryto legislate Good Samaritan laws, they are hardly enforceable 27 These laws simply show the need societies have for Good Samaritans; a functional concept of the common good in a society’s publicdiscourseisanattemptto formcitizensintobecomingGoodSamaritans.

(3) Robust justification for a public discourse

The Communitarians argue persuasively that secular rationalism cannot replace religion or thecommunityasa foundation for morality.28 Their position, as ours, points to the centrality of communities for the generation of values; this position has a certain historicism and constructivism presentwithinit Ratherthanseeingthishasa defeater, communitarians oftenleveragethisfacttochampiondialogue Thepeople,itissaid,possessthepower

23

AnnetteBaier,“TheNeedforMorethanJustice,”CanadianJournalofPhilosophy,17:sup,1987 Page52

24

AnnetteBaier,“TheNeedforMorethanJustice,”Page52

25 “if[aperson]wouldgiveusNutsforapieceofMetal,pleasedwithitscolor;orexchangehisSheepfor Shells,orWoolforasparklingPebble,oraDiamond,andkeepthosebyhimallhisLife,heinvadednotthe Rightofothers, he might heap up as much of these durable things as he pleased; the exceeding of the bounds of his just Property not lying in the largeness of his Possession,buttheperishingofanythinguselesslyinit.”John Locke, The Second Treaties of Government (NewYork: NewAmericanLibrary,1963) Section46,page342

26 W D RossAristotle,andLesleyBrown, The Nicomachean ethics (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009) 1166a1 33.

27 CecileFabre, Whose Body Is It Anyway (Oxford:OxfordPress,2006) Page40 43 “GoodSamaritanLaw,”LegalDictionary,Accessdate:June28th,2022 https://legaldictionary.net/good samaritan law/ManyEuropeancountrieshaveGoodSamaritansLaws.Fabre givesthecasebystanderwitnessingachilddrowningwhocouldbesavedwithlittleornorisktothebystander GoodSamaritanlawsinsistthatthebystanderislegalobligedtoattempttosavethechild

28Macintyre,Alasdair After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDamePress, 2007)

CharlesTaylor, Secular Age (Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2007). PatrickDeneen, Why Liberalism failed (NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2018)

to shape their values, so public dialogue provides a place where people can discuss the world they want to construct

Discourse is not offered as a panacea; publicdiscoursemaynotresolvemanyissues Insuchcases,weyieldto the coercive power of the state exercised through a legitimate proceduralism; public discourse in such a scenario, however, is not ineffectual for the process is itself educative. Healthy public debate civilizes a republic

Conclusion

Aristotle’s historical depiction of the formation of human societies is more compelling than that which liberalism conceives Liberalism’s benign neglect or denial by reduction of the notion of valuable goods does not fit our deepest moral intuitions The common good exists because we are political animals We know the existence of the common good through knowing things more valuable than the self. The mythology of liberalism is false and unsustainable The common good does not ask us to give up cherished human rights; rather, it offers a robust, non theological grounding ofthem Weaffirmthatcommongoodasinescapabletothe facts.

Bibliography

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Budziszewski,J.“TheFlavoursoftheCommonGood.AConversationwithJBudziszewski.” TheCommonProject,1:12:31 April1st,2021 https://wwwyoutubecom/watch?v=XZ5AlD0ofDc

Deneen,Patrick Why Liberalism failed NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2018

Dworkin,Ronald Law’s Empire Cambridge:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,1986

Edwards,Michaeled. The Oxford Handbook of Civil Society. Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 2011

Etzioni,Amitai.“CommonGood.”TheEncyclopediaofPoliticalThought(2015). https://icpsgwuedu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs1736/f/downloads/Common%20GoodEtzionipdf

Friend,Celeste “SocialContractTheory” The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/soc cont/#H2

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Hadas,Edward “WhatistheCommonGood?AConversationwithEdwardHadas”The CommonProject,1:15:47 May17th,2021 https://wwwyoutubecom/watch?v=e zvpCtUl0Q

Hampton,Jean Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,1986

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MacIntyre,Alasdair After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory NotreDame:UniversityofNotre DamePress,2007.

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ISMENTALILLNESSULTIMATELYPHYSICAL? DISCUSSIONOFSOCIALSTIGMATIZATIONOF MENTALILLNESSPATIENTS

ResearchPaper

SherlockGan

Introduction

Thereisafuneralintheirbrains "Whentheyallwereseated,aservice,likeadrum,keptbeating,beating,till theyfelttheirmindwasgoingnumb Justthen,aplankinreasonbroke,andtheyfelldownanddownandhita worldateveryplungeandfinishedknowingthen”(Dickinson,1861) AsEmilyDickinsonwasableto demonstrateinherwriting,depression,makingpatients’worldsdevoidofcolor,hasmade270millionpeople hopelessinthisvividreality(WorldHealthOrganization[WHO],2021) Beyondthat,thereareintotal970 millionpeoplesufferingfromavarietyofmentaldisorders(WHO,2022) Throughouthistory,debatesaboutthe natureofmentalillnesshavebeenpassionatelyaddressed,butmodernpsychiatristshaveexploreditsbiological indicatorsthroughclinicalandcommunitystudiesandawidevarietyofneurobiologicalmodels Discrepancies betweenthenormalhumanbody'sfunctionalitiesandthoseofaffectedindividualsserveasbiologicalindicators toaccountformentalillnesses Inthisessay,Iwillreasonthatanymentalillnesswillultimatelybephysical;in fact,allformsofmentaldiseasescanbeclassifiedasmedicalillnessesandshouldbetreatedwithoutprejudice bysociety Insteadofstigmatizingmentalillnesspatients,peopleshouldraisetheirawarenessaboutperceiving mentaldisordersfairlythroughamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofthesedisorders

BiologicalIndication

Patientswhohavementaldisordersfeelliketheyaresufferinginternally,likeabattletakingplaceinside themselves However,mentaldisordersarenotasinvisibleastheyareusuallyperceived,eventhoughbutthe substantialchangesinpatients'bodiescanbeclearlymeasuredthroughmedicalapproaches Nevertheless, regardlessofhowadvancedtoday'spsychiatryis,therearediscrepanciesindiagnosesformentaldisorders. Accordingtoonestudy,theaveragerateofmisdiagnosisorundetectedmajormentalillnesseswas8264percent (Vermanietal,2011) Currently,thecriteriaoftheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisordersare partiallybasedonthepatients'subjectiveassessmentsoftheseverityandrecurrenceoftheirsymptoms (AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2013) Giventheprevalenceofmentalailmentsaroundtheglobe,the enhancementofassessingandscreeningmethodsofmentaldisordersthatarebasedonphysicaltraitsisprimary Tothisend,biologicalindicationsinthepatients'bodieswouldbeidealforreflectingtheirconditionsphysically

andfactually Despitetheexistenceofhighlyheterogeneousmentaldisorders,clinicaldiagnosisandobservation developmentarestilldependentonparticularbiologicalindicators Forexample,thestudyofgutmicrobiomes hasrevealedmanyconditionsinpsychiatry depression,bipolardisorder,schizophrenia,autism,etc have manifestedsignificantdifferencesinthecompositionofmicrobesinthegut(Butleretal,2019) Althougha handfulofcase controlstudieshaveconcludedthattherewasnoidentifiablesignatureinconditionslike depression,onelarge scalestudyfoundthatCoprococcusandDialister,twobacterialgenera,werecurtainedin patientswithdepression(Valles Colomeretal,2019) Later,researcherstransplantedfecalmicrobesfroma depressedpatientinmice;theybegantodisplaydepressive relatedsymptoms(Kellyetal,2016) Thisseriesof experimentsdiscloseastrongcorrelationbetweenthegutbiomeandthestageofmentalillness

Inadditiontogutmicrobiomes,patientswithdifferentlevelsofnervegrowthfactor(NGF)alsoshowcase variousscalesofmentaldisorders.Forinstance,astudyshowedthatamongschizophrenicpatientsand depressedpatients,thelevelofNGFisdiscerniblylowercomparedwithhealthycontrolgroups(Xiongetal, 2011) Later,aresearchgrouppresentedmorecompellingevidenceregardingtherelationbetweenNGFand mentaldisorders.Theyselectedtwohundredeighty sixsubjectstodrawbloodtotestserumNGFlevels. ResultsfromthetestmadeNGFastrongcandidatefordenotingthepresenceofmentaldisorders:increased NGFserumlevelswereobservedinobsessive compulsivedisorderpatients(2425pg/mLvs 2125pg/mL)and anxietydisorderpatients(22.25pg/mLvs.17.81pg/mL)(MartinsSallesetal.,2016).Thus,anassociation betweenfunctionalityandserumlevelsofNGFinpatientsindicatesarelevantroleofNGFindiagnosingmental disorders

Admittedly,thebiologicalmarkersformentaldisordersvarybasedonthephasesofmentalillness Still,the biologicalmechanismscancontributesubstantialimplicationstothedevelopmentofmentalillnessdiagnosisfor sufferingpatients.Forinstance,theHPA(Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal)axis,whichtakeschargeof respondingtoexternalstress,doesnotfunctionproperlyindepression(Strawbridgeetal,2015) Asaresult, cytokinelevelsincreasedwithinflammationprocesses,whichcanresultinmodifyingtheneuronsstructurally andfunctionally,andultimatelyleadingtodepression(Iwataetal.,2013).Neurotrophicfactors,asImentioned above,likebrain derivedneurotrophicfactors(BDNFFN)regulateplasticityinbraintissue,suggestingaltered BDNFBDFNconcentrationinthehumanbraincancausecertainmentalillnesses(Jiang&Salton,2013) Thereby,mentaldisorderscanbeclassifiedasphysicalailmentsforthevaryingphysicalvaluesincluding hormones,brainchemicals,andmicrobebiomes.Thesebiologicalmarkersprovideanexpandedwayfor physicianstoassesspatients'mentalconditionsandcanberevolutionarytoimplementinreality

EmotionsandOtherPhysicalSymptoms

Physicalmanifestationsofmentalillnesscouldalsovaryfromphysicalbehaviorsderivedfromintenseemotions tocorporalaching,allassevereasotherphysicalillnesses AccordingtoAntonioR Damasio,"Emotionsare purelyphysicalsignalsofthebodyreactingtoexternalstimuli”(Lenzen,2005) However,mentalillnessisnot onlyamooddisorderbutgoesbeyondourtypicalnotionsofemotions:itimpactshowthepatientsbehaveinthe worldphysically Astudyconductedin1983showedapotentcorrelationbetweenhopelessness,measuredby Beck'sHopelessnessScale,anddepressedpatients(Nekanda Trepkaetal,1983) Likesinkingintoadeep,dark holewithnowayout,depressedpatientsregularlythinktheyarepowerlessandcannotcompetewiththecruel reality,andthuslayontheirbedallday,feelingextremelyfatigued.Whenitcomestodailyhabits,patientswill alsodreadperformingtheirpreviousfavoriteactivities Depressedpatientsnolongerhavetheenergytoperform theirhobbies Moreover,anotherstudyfoundthatdepressivesymptomsareassociatedwithrelational uncertaintyandposechallengesforcouplesregardingsexualintimacy(Delaney,2018).Immobilityandfatigue arepatients’silentresistancetotheworld Inaddition,bipolarpatientswouldbehaveimpulsively,scream,walk aroundrestlessly,andtalkfasterthanusualduringtheirhypomanicormanicperiodtoreleasetheiragitations butsleeptoomuchorlittleattheirdepressionperiodtoalignwithdepressedpatients("Recognizingthesignsof bipolardisorder,"2015).Asaresult,mentaldisordersresultinphysicalbehaviorsandsymptomsasresponses andoutletsofpatients’emotions

Inadditiontothemindsetofpatients,theyoftensufferinphysiologicalpurgatory Astudysuggeststhat40%of depressedadultshaveinsomniaandhypersomniasymptoms,impairingqualityoflifeandcontributingtorisks forsuicide(Nuttetal.,2008).Considerthecaseofadepressedpatientwhohasnotsleptproperlyformonths:he willdevelopproblemswithirritation,losefocus,andbecomelanguid Bodyachinglikemigrainesisanother commonsymptomofvariousmentaldisorders Conditionslikedepression,dysthymia,bipolardisorder,panic attacks,agoraphobia,andsimplephobiaaresignificantlyandpositivelyassociatedwithmigraineoccurrence (Ratcliffeetal,2009) Experiencingdecreasedappetitelikewiseensuesindepressedpatients,markingthe directionofappetiteasaneasilymeasuredbehavioralattribute(Simmonsetal,2018) Asaresult,theexistence ofphysicaldysfunctioninmentaldisorderpatientsindicatesthatmentaldisorderscanhavephysical consequences.

Culminatingtogether,thecombinationofsentimentandphysiologicaleffectscouldinflictpredilectiontowards irrevocableandmosthorriblephysicalmanifestation:suicide Arecentstudypresentedacandidatefactor, anxietysensitivity,toassessthelinkagetosuicidalideationandrisk Accordingtotheresearch,thefatal projectionfromthedarkestsideofapatient'sheartisshockinglyhigh.Among14,002subjects,themeanrateis 24%forsuicidalideationand35%forsuicidalrisk(Stanleyetal,2018) Inaddition,accordingtotheCentrefor SuicidePrevention,atleast50%ofallsuicidesarefromdepressedpatients(CentreofSuicidePrevention, 2021).Promptedbyaffectivementaldisorderslikeanxietyanddepression,suicidebecomesthefatalandfinal physicalmanifestationofthepatients Overall,mentaldisorderscanbeshownphysicallythroughdistorted emotionsinwardlyanddysregulatedreactionsoutwardly,towhichthecombinationcandeveloptheirreversible physicalconsequence self destruction

Conclusion

Withnoexception,allmentalillnessesareultimatelyphysical Idemonstratethatmentalillnesshasabiological indicationandbehavioralmanifestationintermsofsentimentalandphysiological,suggestingthephysical aspectsofmentaldiscords.Basedonbiologicalmarkersandbehavioralpatterns,mentalillnessesshouldbe viewedbythepublicinthesamemannerasmedicalconditions However,thepublicperceptionofaffected individualsisquitethecontrary MentaldisorderPpatientswithMentaldisorderaremorelikelytoexperience discriminationinhousing,employment,andhomelessnessthantheircounterpartswhodonothaveamental illness(Corbièreetal.,2011).Inaddition,mostadultswanttodistancethemselvesfromindividualswithmental illnesseslikeschizophrenia,depression,alcoholdependence,etc,comparedtopeoplewithoutthesemedical conditions(Martinetal,2007) Suchprejudiceswouldprofoundlyofferaffectedindividualsabiasedsocial viewandlargelyshapehowaffectedindividualsperceivethemselves.Therefore,negativejudgmentsfrom othersareoftenincorporatedintotheself concept,resultinginself deprecationandinstigatingsocial stigmatization aviciouscycle Withtoday'smagnitudeofsocialmediaandthepress,theimagesofmental illnesshavebeenexcessivelyexaggeratedandperverted,accentuatingdangerousness,criminality,and unpredictability;sensationalizedreportsfrommainstreammediaimpairself esteem,andhelp seekingintention, medicationadherence,andrecoveryofaffectedpatientsprofoundly Meanwhile,giventheadventofthemedia, itiseasierthanevertousethemediatocombatpublicprejudicesandalleviatetensionbetweenpatientswith mentaldisordersandthegeneralpublic.

AnotherstudyimplementedanEntertainment Educationstrategyamong165participants.Observinga true to lifeandempatheticmovieportrayalobtainedthepromisingresultsofincreasedknowledgeofmental illnessandreducedmentalhealthstigma Inaddition,multiplecontactswithpeoplelivingwithmentalillness shouldbefacilitatedsincealargenumberofpositiveinteractionsreducestigmamoreeffectivelythanone encounter(Corrigan,2011) Inordertomitigatesocialstigmatization,medialiteracyandreal timeencounters betweenmentalhealthpatientsarevital Thepublicneedstounderstandthemfirsttoacceptthem Seeing mentalillnessasphysicalisthefirststeptoequalizingthenotionofviewinganaffectedindividualasusual;the generalpublicneedstoenhancetheiracquaintancewithpatientswithmentalillnesstoembracethemfully. Thus,Ichampionenhancingcurrentstreamsofknowledgeaboutmentaldisordersthroughmediaandother

approachessothattheyhelpusgainmoreofacomprehensiveviewandenableustobeempatheticabout patients'sufferings

Toconclude,allmentalillnessesareultimatelyphysicalillnesses Ascertainedbysoundbiologicaland behavioralevidence,Icontendthatthenatureofmentaldiscordsisphysical.Patientsarestillsufferingfrom biasedperceptionsofmentalillnesses Infact,becomingawareofpatientswithmentalillnessinsocietyand helpingtovoicethemisconceptionsisvaluable,asitofferspeoplewhosufferfrommentalillnessescompassion andcomfortforthebettermentoftheirfutureratherthanmerelyrecognizingitsphysicalaspects.

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DOLEADERSMAKEEVENTSORDOEVENTSMAKE LEADERS?

ResearchPaper ShiXiang

Introduction

Assessing causality in historical events does not always yield clearly “right” or “wrong” answers Forthisreason, historians continue to debate the motivating factors behind historicalevents Thesameistruewhenitcomestothe relationshipbetweenleadersandevents.Generallyspeaking,whetherleadersmakeeventsoreventsmakeleadersis an unsolvableproblem.Agencydependsonwhichsideoftheequationplaysamoresignificantroleineachspecific case Some people have innate leadership abilities When these traits are manifest, leaders are capable of shaping important events However, for some, the native inclination toward leadershipislatentandwillemergeonlyunder the right circumstances. Therefore, rather than assert that the causal relationship between events and leaders advances always in the same direction, it is more reasonable to state that leaders can sometimes make events and that events can sometimes make leaders This essay intends to provide two examples, the stories of George WashingtonandVolodymyrZelensky,whichprovethattherelationshipbetweenleadersandeventsisreciprocal.

Definition

Before this essay further defends its claim, the definitions of “leadership” and “events'' need to be clarified In “Understanding Leadership” from Harvard Business Review, leadership is defined as “the accomplishment of a goal through thedirectionofhumanassistants.”1 Leadershipcanalsobedefinedas“makingsound andsometimes difficult decisions, creating and articulating a clear vision, establishing achievable goals and providing followers

1W.C.HPrentice,“UnderstandingLeadership,” Harvard Business Review,January,2004, https://hbrorg/2004/01/understanding leadership

with the knowledge and tools necessary to achieve those goals Leaders are found and required in mostaspectsof society, from business to politics to region to community based organizations”2 For this paper, thetermeventwill refer simply to a momentous incident that has either worldwide influence ornationalimpact.Inordertodetermine if events are the result of direct human intervention or if events of significance construct the personality of those who participate in them, clear definitions are required Withthesedefinitionsestablished,itispossibletoshowthat the two terms are neither synonymous nor related in only one direction. Leadersandeventsrequireeachother,but theirinterdependencemeansthattheycanbothserveastheproductandoutcomeoftheother.

LeadersMakeEvents:GeorgeWashington

U.S. President and “Founding Father”George Washington exemplifies a leader who “made” events. He was instrumental to the victory of the American Revolution, drafted the United States Constitution, became the first US president, influenced American foreign policy for several presidents who followed, and established the precedent of two Presidential terms 3 Washington’s resolution, courage, and devotion to army and country made him an indispensable leader and manufactureroffatefuleventsinU.S.history.Thesekeycharacteristicsthatwere instrumentaltotherolesheplayedweredevelopedbeforehebecameanappointedleader

George Washington became a triumphant military leaderthankstothevaluesandbeliefsinculcatedinhimviahis upbringing GeorgeWashingtonhadbeeninstilledwiththeideaofbecomingasuccessfulmilitaryleaderunderthe influenceofhisbrother,LawrenceWashington.

Lawrencewasavictoriousmajorandgeneral,andhisaccomplishmentsstimulatedGeorgeWashingtontopursuea military career, which he did, eventually attaining a position of rank in the British Army 4 In addition, George Washington held a beliefthatthemeaningofhislifewastomakecontributionstothecountryandtheworld 5This belief compelled himtoalwaysbedecisiveanddedicatedtoprovinghisvalueinanevent.Hewasanaturalleader whowasdrivenmorebyhispersonalbeliefsthanbythecircumstancesthatsurroundedhim

2 “Leadership,”TechTarget,accessedJune20,2022, https://wwwtechtargetcom/searchcio/definition/leadership

3 “GeorgeWashington,”Britannica,lastmodifiedFebruary 18,2022,https://www.britannica com/biography/George Washington

4 Rhodehamel,JohnH., George Washington: The Wonder of the Age (NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2017), chap 2,https://discovery ebsco comemmawillardidmoclcorg/linkprocessor/plink?id=adbf5f47 57da 3d48 b22a 40d1059b86ab.

Persistence and devotion are common traits among leaders, and Washington became a well known militaryleader when his persistence and devotion tothearmywererevealedafterleadingthecoloniestovictoryduringtheFrench and Indian War’s Battle of Monongahela. Before theBattleofMonongahelaevenstarted,approachingtheForksof Ohio, British troops suffered from the harsh environment Rattlesnakes, dirty water, and diseases killed some soldiers George Washington contracted severedysentery,whichlefthimfeverishanddelirious,butbecausehewas dedicated to the cause of the war, he did not let himself rest in his tent. He repeatedly argued with his doctor and proved that he was strong enough to partake in the battle. Even though he was too weak to mount a horse, he insisted on returning to the lead division to participate in the capture of Fort Duquesne 6Duringthisbattle,British troops were initially led by General Edward Braddock, who planned to capture Fort Duquesne andgaincontrolof the Ohio Country. Yet, General Braddock was seriously injured in battle and died during the retreat, so George 6 Ibid 5 Ibid

Washingtontookoverthearmy,launchinghisleadershipcareer

Washington innately possessed transcendent faculties, which enabled him to serve as leader and oversee the development ofevents Heprovedthatleadersmakeevents However,overgeneralizingtheexampleofGeorge Washington and trying to fit every event into a theory that leaders always make events is unwarranted. VolodymyrZelensky’sriseisanexampleofeventsmakingleadersaswell

EventsMakeLeaders:VolodymyrZelensky

Volodymyr Zelensky, a famous comedian and actor before being elected President of Ukraine, did not innately possess leadership abilities as potent as George Washington’s, but was thrust into a leadership role by three concomitant events: the illusion that Zelensky’s movie Servant of the People brought to the Ukrainian public, a scarcityofsuitablepresidentialcandidatesinUkraine,andtheemergenceoftheRusso UkrainianWar

Reflecting on the actual problem of corruption in Ukraine and proposing an anti corruption political stance, Servant of the People becameapopularandinfluentialmovie,andtriggeredZelensky’spresidencybycreatingan illusion to the public that Zelensky himself would be the honest and upright president that the country needed 7The corruption in Ukraine has been a perennial and systemic problem starting in 1991 when Ukraine became independent. The problem was not merely afewlawlesspractitionersinawell constructedpoliticalsystem,buta lot of corrupt officers who maneuvered the rules to their advantage 8 Business and politics stopped from progression, laws were not respected, andnearlyalltransactionsbetweenciviliansandbetweengovernmentscost unwarranted rents.9 However, Vasily Petrovich Goloborodko,themaincharacterplayedbyZelenskyin Servant of the People, is completely distinct from contemporary corrupt national leaders He is a president who strongly opposes corruption and objects to “the extravagant lifestyles of political elites, andtheircallousdisregardforthe problems of ordinary Ukrainians.”10 This anti corruption political stance of the character extensively won audiences’ hearts because the public had long desired to have such an honest and upright president to save the countryfromcorruption ThismoviealsoconstructedanillusionthatVolodymyrZelenskywouldbeapresidentas dutiful as the one he portrayed in the movie;thesimultaneityofZelensky’spresidentialcampaignandtherelease of Servant of the People made it difficult for audiences to differentiate Zelensky from his perfect presidential character 11TheoutcomewasthatZelenskywon73%ofvotesinthe2019presidentialelection

7

AshleyFettersMaloy,“WhatZelensky’sTVshow‘Servant ofthePeople’revealsabouthim,andUkraine,” last modifiedMarch22,2022,https://www.washingtonpost.com/arts entert ainment/2022/03/22/servant of the people zelensky netflix show/

8 “FightingaCultureofCorruptioninUkraine,”CarnegieEurope,lastmodifiedApril18,2016, https://carnegieendowmentorg/files/Fighting a Culture of Corruption in Ukraine deWaalpdf

9 Ibid.

10

AshleyFettersMaloy,“WhatZelensky’sTVshow‘Servant ofthePeople’revealsabouthim,andUkraine,” last modifiedMarch22,2022,https://wwwwashingtonpostcom/arts enter tainment/2022/03/22/servant of the people zelensky netflix show/

Zelensky did not have sufficient political experience, but he was still voted to be the president in 2019 because voters preferred him to theothercandidates.Tobemoreprecise,thepublicwasdisappointedinPetroPoroshenko due to his failure to follow through on his 10 bold promises. For example, Poroshenko said“[t]heAnti Terrorist Operation cannot and will not last 2 3 months It has to and will last hours We will see the efficiency of the anti terroristoperationverysoon,”butAnti TerroristsOperationlastedfor8monthswithnogreatcontributionsto 11 Ibid

the country 12Voters preferred Zelensky to Poroshenko because they were less disappointed in Zelensky,whodid nothaveapoliticalhistory

After Volodymyr Zelensky became president in 2019, he was not immediately successful In fact, from 2019 onward, his popularity in Ukraine steadily declined. As a peace time president, Zelensky was unable to achieve much of what he had promised Nor could he retain public enthusiasm For example, in the 2019 election, he promised to end the war against Russia that controlled the Donbas region during his presidential term, but this promise has not been fulfilled because of unsuccessful negotiations with Putin, which is unacceptable for many Ukrainians 13Zelensky also promised to break corruption, “[b]ut a year later,criticssayneitherhashappened or at least not to the extent promised”14 Great dissatisfaction among Ukrainians wascausedbyinsignificantreturns on those promises.15 However, when Russia invaded Ukraine on February, 24, 2022, Zelensky was transformed almost immediately into a leader of world importance He frequently held discussions with foreign countriesfor military aid and sanctions on Russia 16 Embodying the bold spirit of Ukrainian pride and defiance, Zelensky became a heroic figure Prime minister Justin Trudeau commended Zelesnky’s leadership and the courage of Ukrainians in securing their country. He said, “[i]t was a true inspiration to see people step up to defend their lives,defendtheircommunity,defendabrightfutureforthemselvesandtheirfamiliesinthecountrytheylove’”17 This transformation from a mediocre present to an inspiring national leader was the product of material circumstances.Zelenskydidnotmakehistory.Historymadehim.

Conclusion

Leadersaresometimesbornandsometimesmade ThebraveandgenerousGeorgeWashingtonpossessed outstandingleadershipabilitiesbeforebecomingatransformationalleaderwhowouldaffectmajoreventsinU.S. history,suchastheestablishmentofanindependentAmerica VolodymyrZelenskywasinitiallyacomedian,but wasmadealeaderbyevents,suchasthereleaseofthemovie Servant of the People andhisleadershipinthewar withRussia;yet,Ukraine'seagernessforatrustworthypresidentalsotriggeredZelensky’spresidency.Indubitably, thesetwoleaderscandemonstratethatsometimesleadersmakeeventsandsometimeseventsmakeleaders

Shcherbinina,November14,2014,https://euromaidanpresscom/2014/11/ 14/poroshenkos top 10 promises he didnt keep/

13

“Zelenskiy'sFirstYear:HePromisedSweepingChanges How'sHeDoing?,”RadioFreeEuropeRadioLiberty,last modifiedApril25,2020,https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiys first year he promised sweeping changes how s he doing /30576329html

14

“Zelenskiy'sFirstYear:HePromisedSweepingChanges. How'sHeDoing?,”RadioFreeEuropeRadioLiberty,last modifiedApril25,2020,https://wwwrferlorg/a/zelenskiys first year he promised sweeping changes how s he doing /30576329.html.

15

“Zelenskiy'sFirstYear:HePromisedSweepingChanges How'sHeDoing?,”RadioFreeEuropeRadioLiberty,last modifiedApril25,2020,https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiys first year he promised sweeping changes how s he doing /30576329html

16 EllenKnickmeyer,“WhatdidUkrainePresidentZelenskyaskforduringhiscallwithCongress?”,lastmodified March16,2022,https://wwwpbsorg/newshour/politics/what did ukraine president zelensky ask for during his call with u s congress

17 MurrayBrewsterandChristianPaas Lang,“TrudeausaysCanadabacksUkraineinseekingjusticeforPutin's 'heinouswarcrimes',”lastmodifiedMay9,2022,https://wwwcbcca/news/ politics/trudeau ukraine visit 1.6445929.

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Brewster,Murray,andChristianPaas Lang.“TrudeausaysCanadabacksUkraineinseekingjusticeforPutin's 'heinouswarcrimes'”LastmodifiedMay9,2022 https://wwwcbc ca/news/ politics/trudeau ukraine visit 1.6445929.

Britannica “GeorgeWashington”LastmodifiedFebruary18,2022 https://wwwbritannica com/biography/George Washington

History.“FrenchandIndianWar.”AccessedJune9,2022. https://www.history.com/topics/ native american history/french and indian war

Knickmeyer,Ellen.“WhatdidUkrainePresidentZelenskyaskforduringhiscallwithCongress?”Last modifiedMarch16,2022 https://wwwpbsorg/newshour/politics/ what did ukraine president zelensky ask for during his call with u s congress.

Maloy,Ashley “WhatZelensky’sTVshow‘Servantof thePeople’revealsabouthim,andUkraine”Last modifiedMarch22,2022 https://wwwwashingtonpostcom/arts entertainment/2022/03/22/servant of the people zelensky netflix show/

MountVernon “BattleoftheMonongahela”AccessedJune9,2022 https://wwwmountvernon org/library/digitalhistory/digital encyclopedia/article/battle of the monongahela/?gclid=C jwKCAjwzeqVBhAoEiwAOrEmzfWMXW0qQMIrKTz7w4VEap3yzULcm1hjSNPtm0q iYMAobrgqY5J2PhoCQaAQAvD BwE

Prentice,WCH “UnderstandingLeadership” Harvard Business Review,January,2004 https:// hbrorg/2004/01/understanding leadership

RadioFreeEuropeRadioLiberty “Zelenskiy'sFirstYear: HePromisedSweepingChanges How'sHeDoing?”Last modifiedApril25,2020. https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiys first year he promised sweeping changes how s he doing /30576329html

Rhodehamel,JohnH. George Washington : The Wonder of the Age.NewHaven:YaleUniversity Press,2017. https://discovery ebsco comemmawillardidmoclcorg/linkprocessor/plink?id =adbf5f47 57da 3d48 b22a 40d1059b86ab.

TechTarget “Leadership”AccessedJune20,2022 https://wwwtechtargetcom/searchcio/ definition/leadership

Wikipedia.“BattleoftheMonongahela.”AccessedJune9,2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Battle of the Monongahela

Wikipedia.“FrenchandIndianWar.”AccessedJune9,2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ French and Indian War

Wikipedia “GeorgeWashington”AccessedJune8,2022 https://enwikipediaorg/wiki/George Washington

Wikipedia.“VolodymyrZelenskyy.”AccessedJune10,2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Volodymyr Zelenskyy

Wisse,RuthrR.“ZelenskytheJewishHero.”Commentary,May1,2022.https://discovery

ebsco comemmawillardidmoclcorg/linkprocessor/plink?id=d51c491c 5554 38ac 8c15 6eaf04ac8e72

Холмогорова,Вера,andАндрейЛысиков.“10promisesPoroshenko’sdidn’tkeep.”Translated byMariya Shcherbinina LastmodifiedNovember14,2014 https://euromaidanpress com/2014/11/ 14/poroshenkos top 10 promises he didnt keep/.

COVID-19DATAANALYSISINASTATIONARYTIME SERIES

ResearchPaper

JoannaYao

ABSTRACT

This paper starts with a general discussion regarding the spread of COVID 19. This research carries out multiple lines of code of time series models using data sets from different countries and analyzes patterns in the virus’s proliferation to make future forecasts. The results demonstrate that the AR time series model has the capability to predict the number of COVID 19 cases. This statistical forecast can be helpful for current and future resources allocationandepidemicprevention,aswellasepidemiologicaldiseasestudy.

I.INTRODUCTION

11:Background:

The coronavirus SARS CoV2 proliferated globally; as of September 2021, countries such as the United States, India, and the United Kingdom have been impacted severely, most noticeably in densely populatedcities Through respiratory droplets from sneezing and coughing, the virus typically incubates for five tosevendaysatamaximum of fourteen days and causes initial symptoms such as fever, cough, nasal congestion, and fatigue More symptoms following infection progression include severe chest symptoms and viral pneumonia, accompanied by decreased oxygensaturation,lymphopenia,andelevatedinflammatorymarkers

COVID 19 was first detected inWuhan,Chinainlate2019 AsofMarch1,2020,79968patientsinChinaand71691

1 CostasA VarotsosandVladimirF Krapivin,"A NewModelfortheSpreadofCOVID 19andtheImprovementof Safety," ScienceDirect,lastmodified2020,

patients outside of China have been diagnosed with the virus, and as of November of 2021, 248 million people globally have had COVID 19, with a littleover5milliondeaths Medicalprofessionalsconsiderpatientsolderthan2 sixtyyearsoldathigherrisk andinFebruary2020,estimatedanaveragefatalityrateofapproximately22%, which 3 4 depends on factors such as age and immunity. Aside from posing as an international public health danger, COVID 19 has also impacted other aspects of society, including education, legal proceedings, and work life this research itself has been conducted virtually due to the pandemic. The pandemic has been an offset to the sense of normalcy; hence, this research’s objective is to determine data that may help public health services to keep the pandemic’sspreadtoaminimum.

1.2:ResearchObjectives:

This research analyzes the number of COVID 19 cases in various countries and their progression based on the number of forecasted cases in 2020. By focusing specifically on New Jersey and Shanghai, mathematical analysis can potentially developmodels,whichcanforecastthenumberofcasesinacertainamountofdays.Withsuchtools, government officials would be able to estimate the severity of COVID 19 in the future and implement necessary protective procedures or medical supply distributions to maintain the spread of the virus to a minimum and assist marginalized and underprivileged communities, as well as analyze the progression of the virus’s proliferation visually.

II.METHODOLOGY

2.1:DatasetOverview:

Thetrainingdatasetconsistsofsixcolumns:ForecastID,province/state,countryregion,dateofrecord,confirmed cases,andfatalities Eachrowlistsauniqueidentifier,thespecificregionofthecountry(ifapplicable),thecountry itself(whichisorganizedinalphabeticalorder),andthenumberofconfirmedcasesandfatalitiesonthatday.As timepasses,thenumberofCOVID 19casesclearlyincreaseswithtime.Thisresearchappliesthetrainingdatasetto creatingandtraininganinitialmodelforforecastingCOVID 19cases.

Thevalidationdatasetrecordsdataforfourcolumns:ForecastID,province/state,countryregion,anddateof record,eachrowwithauniqueidentifierforeveryday,correlatingwiththedatafromthetrainingdataset.Using

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0925753520303593#.

2 DavidBaudetal.,"RealEstimatesofMortalityfollowingCOVID 19Infection," The Lancet Infectious Diseases 20, no.7(2020):[Page#],https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473 3099(20)30195 X.

3 GrazianoOnder,GiovanniRezza,andSilvioBrusaferro,"Case fatalityRateandCharacteristicsofPatientsDyingin RelationtoCOVID 19inItaly," The Journal of the American Medical Association 323,no 18(2020):[Page#], https://doiorg/101001/jama20204683

4 ThirumalaisamyP.VelevanandChristianG.Meyer, "TheCOVID 19Epidemic," National Center for Biotechnology Information,lastmodifiedFebruary16,2020, https://wwwncbinlmnihgov/pmc/articles/PMC7169770/

thevalidationsetfine tunesthemodeltohandlefuturedata Fromwhatwecansee,astimepasses,thenumberof forecastedcasesincreases

The testing dataset displays three columns recording the number of forecasted COVID 19 cases, the number of confirmed cases,andthenumberoffatalities Byrunningthistestdatathroughthemodel,wecanseehowaccurate thepredictedoutputsare

Shown is the data visualization plot of the training set comparing the increase of confirmed cases and fatalities globally. The number of confirmed cases increased much faster than the number of fatalities. Particularly, after mid Marchof2020,thenumberofconfirmedcasesspikedrapidly.

Below, dotted visualizationoftheprogressionofconfirmedcases in several different countries from the training set ispresented. As shown with the steep sloped pink line representingtheU.S, there is a far moresignificantincreaseinconfirmedCOVID 19 cases. Earlier in 2020, in February, the number of confirmed cases in China seemedtoincreasequiteabitbeforelevelingoff for the duration of March to May. Towards the latter half of March, however, the United States especially experiencedafar more severe increase in confirmed cases, correlating with the visual above The number of confirmed cases in countries including Italy, Iran, South Korea and Germany also appear to increase sharply,though less than US, around the end of March, which could explain how the number of confirmed casesgloballyproliferatedaroundthatperiodoftime

The last visualization exhibited is a bar graph comparingthenumberofconfirmed cases and fatalities in several countries Both the number of confirmed cases and the number of fatalities in the The US were significantly higher than those of othercountries

23:TimeSeriesModelsandPredictions

This research will construct ARIMA models (autoregressive integrated moving average) to forecast the number of COVID 19 cases, which can be made stationary by differencing. An ARMA model is acombinationoftheaspects of AR (autoregressive) models, which utilize previous data values to predict future values, and MA (moving average) models,whichremainsconstantlystationary,andalongsideintegration. Thistypeofmodelismostsuitable5 since it is a general class of forecasting models that can be transformed to be stationary through differencing, logging,ordeflating.

Focusing on New Jersey, United States,andShanghai,China,theresearchaimstopredictthenumberofCOVID 19 cases in those regions in the future By focusing on regions in two different continents, the research also hopes to investigatetheinevitableeffectsofdifferentpopulationdensitiesonthelocalproliferationofCOVID 19

III.IMPLEMENTATION

31:ModelConstruction

Via R Studio, two separate models were generated for Shanghai, China andNewJersey,UnitedStates.Thedatasets were first cleaned up to ensure each row had a “providence” name just for consistency. Afterwards, the model to forecast COVID 19 cases in Shanghai was created with the Arima() function of the training dataset to forecast the number of confirmed COVID 19 cases in 43 days,whichwasrootedfromApril2nd,2020.Specifically,anARIMA model with the coefficients of (1, 0, 0) were used to formulate the model. Afterwards, with theprint()function,the program printed out the results of the formula in a table similar to that of the dataset’s format, except the output produced the predictions that resulted from the ARIMA model. Below, the first view rows of these predictions are shown:

Fig.4: The first 6 rows of the predictions generated by the ARIMA model for Shanghai, China, and New Jersey, United States (respectively) starting April 2nd, 2020 This was generated by the head(result) function

5 RobertNau,"LectureNotesonForecasting,"lecture,lastmodified2014,accessedOctober8,2021, https://peopledukeedu/~rnau/Slides on ARIMA models Robert Naupdf

IV:RESULTS

41:ModelLimitations:

While these models demonstrate reasonable accuracy, they are restricted. The model parameters are targeted for a specific region or country. This research only designed them for two regions in two different countries, which is rather small scaled compared to the rest of the world The data produced would not apply for other countries and therefore would not be useful for government officials of other nations to use to enforce disease control or regulations in their own regions Factors that vary between regions such as population density of certaincitiesand the number of vaccines available per country are why a model based on data from one country cannot apply to another

Secondly, the research constructedthemodelsbasedondatafromJanuary2020 Themodelsarenotfullyup to date, and since the pandemic is not yet over, there is not much data processed for more recent days The number of COVID 19 caseswouldbecomeunpredictablewithoutthemostrecentdata,butmoretime seriesconstructioncanbe done The COVID 19 pandemic is also quite similar to the SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) pandemicin terms of origin, having rooted from a coronavirus, and the statistics between these two pandemics could be compared, though it is noted that these two pandemics occurred at different times and that scientific research, technology, and communications has advanced over the decade, accounting for thedifferencesinthemortalityrates and spreads of these diseases. Especially with the rising of the Omicron variant, which is more transmissible, data fromearly2020failstotakethatincreaseinproliferationintoconsideration,deemingthemodelsaslessup to date.

43:PotentialModelApplications:

This research shows that ARIMA models can generate useful dataaboutthepotentialCOVID 19casecountandthe fatalities. With a method of generating predictable data, governments can potentially collaborate with statistic and epidemiological professionals internationally to generate large databases providing information about the future of the virus’s proliferation in certain regions Healthcare officials can also use the calculated predictions as means to determine which nations have the fastest COVID 19 proliferation rates or fatality rates, keeping international organizations such as World Health Organization (WHO) and the REd Cross informed and possibly ready to take action if needed Furthermore, if governments choose to make these databases public, citizens can remain well informedregardingcontrolprotocolandsafetyandcanmakenecessaryarrangements

The predictions estimated by the models are also useful to estimate the amount of vaccines/medical supplies

needed for certain locations For instance, in Burundi, the minister of health had approved the first order of COVID 19 vaccines to bedistributedinlateJulyfollowingariseinthespreadofinfectiousvariants Datasuch 6 as the predicted number of COVID 19 cases generated by the model can forecast the virus’s proliferation and can even be applied to new variants, such as the Omicron variant. Thisvarianthasalreadyspreadtomorethan six U.S. states, and such models can be applied in different locations so that authorities can identify areasthat aremostthreatenedandimplementanynecessarymeasures.

V:CONCLUSION

The number of COVID 19 cases per region may vary since China and New Jersey, two different regions, show different numbers of COVID 19 cases Since thatisthecase,itmaybehardertopredictthenumberofcasesinall of the regions holistically Hence, creating two separate forecasts for two separate regions would provide authoritiesineachofthoseareaswithmorepreciseinformation

While the models are reasonably accurate and can be used for data collection, revisions are imperative As the Omicron variant becomes more prevalent and is said to be more easily transmissible,newdatashouldbeaddedto create newmodelsthatcanpredictthenumberofconfirmedcasesrelativetotheproliferationrateatthetime Since many universities and other public institutions are already going remote, it is a crucial time for this model to be consideredasameanstoplanaheadforanotherpotentialperiodofquarantine

6 AssociatedPress,"Burundi,inReversal,SaysItWillAcceptCOVID 19Vaccines,"US News,lastmodifiedJuly 29, 2021,accessedDecember25,2021, https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2021 07 29/burundi in reversal says it will accept covid 19 vaccines.

WorkCited

AssociatedPress."Burundi,inReversal,SaysItWillAcceptCOVID 19Vaccines."U.S.News.Last modifiedJuly29,2021.AccessedDecember25,2021. https://wwwusnewscom/news/world/articles/2021 07 29/burundi in reversal says it will accept covi d 19 vaccines.

Baud,David,XiaolongQi,KarinNielsen Saines,DidierMusso,LéoPomar,andGuillaumeFavre "Real EstimatesofMortalityfollowingCOVID 19Infection." The Lancet Infectious Diseases 20,no.7 (2020):773.https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473 3099(20)30195 X.

"COVID 19DashboardbytheCenterforSystemsScienceandEngineering(CSSE)atJohnsHopkins University(JHU)."Infographic.JohnsHopkinsUniversity&Medicine.2021. https://coronavirusjhuedu/maphtml

Nau,Robert."LectureNotesonForecasting."Lecture.Lastmodified2014.AccessedOctober8, 2021.https://people.duke.edu/~rnau/Slides on ARIMA models Robert Nau.pdf.

Onder,Graziano,GiovanniRezza,andSilvioBrusaferro "Case fatalityRateandCharacteristicsofPatients DyinginRelationtoCOVID 19inItaly." The Journal of the American Medical Association 323, no.18(2020):1775 76.https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4683.

Varotsos,CostasA.,andVladimirF.Krapivin."ANewModelfortheSpreadofCOVID 19andthe ImprovementofSafety." ScienceDirect.Lastmodified2020. https://wwwsciencedirectcom/science/article/abs/pii/S0925753520303593#

Velevan,ThirumalaisamyP,andChristianG Meyer "TheCOVID 19Epidemic" National Center for Biotechnology Information. LastmodifiedFebruary16,2020. https://wwwncbinlmnihgov/pmc/articles/PMC7169770/

THEEVOLUTIONOFINFANTRYINTHE20THCENTURY ResearchPaper

RichardConlon

In thedarknessofnight,agroupofheavilyarmedwarriorscrawloutofadownedhelicopter1.Carryingsixtypounds of expensive, military issued equipment they rush toward a gate leading into a compound.“Iamgoingexplosive,” an operator says over his high tech radio system Alltheothermenknowexactlywhathemeans Soonafteralarge explosionrocksthePakistanicountryside Thehighly trainedUSnavySEALteamhastrainedandoperatedtogether for years. They approach the guest house of the compound and attempt to breach the door with a sledgehammer. When that fails they choose to use explosive breaching charges Suddenly Kalashnikov rounds slam through the glass above the door The operators quickly return fire and kill the man instantly After clearing the house the operators hastily transition to the main target house. As they make their way to the thirddeckorfloorofthehouse they passablood soakedbodyonthestaircaseandcontinueupwards Theyenteraroomwiththepointman,thefirst person in a stack of assaulters, and hear him quickly dispatch another occupant Astheyentertheynoticethebody of a man through thegreentintoftheirquad tubenightvisiongogglesorNVGs.TheSEALsfireseveralroundsout oftheirH&K416carbinesintothebodyoftheman.

Hours later United States President Obama makes an emergency speech He announces the death of Osama Bin Laden, the man responsible for the death of almost three thousand Americans on September 11th, 20012 . In a raid conducted by the United States Navy’s eliteDEVGRUcommandounitin2011theysuccessfullyutilizedairmobile and commando tactics to accomplish a mission and change history How did the infantrymen of the 20th century evolve into this well coordinated, supplied, and trained team of elite commandos? Before the well rehearsed and complex tactics demonstrated by these commandos and developed during the 20th century, warfare consisted primarily of 1st generation tactics and 2nd generation tactics3 Warfare was different During the American Civil War, most of the fighting took place in fields and forests, not in urban towns and cities. Fighting consisted of two lines, one of blue and one of gray marching in an organized pattern toward eachotherbeforefiringintoeachother with muzzleloaders Artilleryandfirearmshadalimitedrange,andfightingoccurredinaverysmallarea,notacross entire fronts. Armies marched into each other and engaged in hand to hand fighting. AttheBattleofGettysburgin 1863 during the American Civil War the North and Southcollectivelysustainedthousandsofcasualtiesinlessthan an hour during the disastrous Pickett’s Charge4 Marching in parade fashion, as infantry had for decades, the Confederate forces advanced on the dug in Union infantry and artillery Modern caplock riflesandcannonsloaded with canister shots erupted into the Confederate forces. Following the AmericanCivilWar,Infantrytacticsbecame

increasingly different In 1873 the USArmyadoptedthemodel1873SpringfieldBreechloadingRiflewhich,unlike its predecessors, loaded from the breech instead of the muzzle 5 Then in 1886,theFrenchmilitaryadoptedthefirst military smokelesspowderfirearm.Soonafterallmilitarieswereeagertogetthisnewcartridge.In1893,theFrench adopted the modern bolt action rifle design that wouldendurethroughtheSecondWorldWar 6 Bythe20thcentury, nearly everymilitarywasusingsmokelesspowder,andbolt actionrifles Whilethe19thcenturyfeaturedsignificant innovationsintermsofinfantryweaponrythe20thcenturybuiltuponthoseinnovationslikeneverbeforeseen.

In the early 20th century, prior to the Great War, nation’smilitarieswereonlybeginningtoadapttothisnewageof warfare Many infantrymen adopted new rifles and new uniforms in a modern style The equipment of the infantryman evolved with technology through the 20th century. Soldiers adopted bolt action rifles, then semi automatic rifles, and finally the select fire intermediate cartridge assault rifles and carbines of today Their uniforms evolved as well The Great War saw the end of bright colored uniforms in the wardrobes of infantrymen and most would adopt green, gray, or tan drab uniforms. Camouflage became prevalent during the Second World War and load bearing equipment soon followed The end of the 20th century saw the small scale adoption of bullet resistant clothing and more modular load bearing systems It was not only infantrymen’s personal kit that changedbuttheirmethodsofsupport,tactics,andmissionchangedaswell.

The early 20th century saw the first use of motorized vehicles forthetransportofsoldiers WWIevolveduponthis by ushering in thetanks Intheinter warperiod,militariesacrosstheworldsoughttoexpandupontheirmechanized and later airborne infantry. By the start of World War II, mechanized and airborne infantry were standard in the armies of both the Axis and Allied Powers In thelateyearsofWWII,anewformoftransportationwasdeveloped The helicopter revolutionized infantry and created anewgenerationofairmobileinfantrymen ThewarsinVietnam and Rhodesia saw early and widespread use of the helicopter in both a transport and attack configuration. Helicopters became staples in the hangers of everymajormilitarypowerinthelate20thcenturyandsawheavyuse bythemilitariesofNATO,theEasternBloc,andthedevelopingworld

The tactics of infantrymen changeddrasticallyinthe20thcentury TheGreatWarsawaneedfortrenchraiderswith unique skill sets and equipment to achieve a different mission than their conventional counterparts During WWII sabotage, acquisition of enemy technology, and reconnaissancequicklybecamethemissionequaltotheconquering of territory. Both the Axis and Allies used new Commando or Special Operations infantry who used advanced training andequipmenttoaccomplishthisnewmission FollowingWWIItheconflictsinthewakeofdecolonization saw an increased need for these Special Operations Forces Vietnam and Rhodesia both used long range reconnaissance infantry and other Special Operations infantrymen with increased usage. The late 20thcenturysaw these new operators become the mainstay of low intensity conflicts with increased operational tempos and deployments However,ConventionalInfantrymenwerenotleftbehind

Decolonization and the many conflicts tied to it saw a new mission set emerge forinfantrymen Theirmissionwas no longerlimitedtosearchanddestroyandaprimarynewcomponentoftheirmissionwaspeacekeepingoperations Infantry now had to act as peacekeepers and de facto police in these new low intensity conflicts. Decolonization also created the enemy of these “peacekeepers” with the increased emergence of insurgent infantry. These infantrymen did not have access to the advanced equipment and training that the “peacekeepers” did Instead,they had to rely on improvised and stolen equipment Typically, this infantry worenouniformsandhadlittleinsigniaor markings. 4th generation warfare, which emerged during decolonization, had a profound effect on theinfantrymen ofthelate20thcentury

By the end of the 20th century Infantry had evolved to utilize new equipment, methods of transportation and support, tactics, and mission set The consequences of these four categories caused infantry to become more effective throughout the 20th century and into the contemporary world Since 1900, infantry has evolved into a competent, well equipped, well supported, and mission oriented military branch becauseofthesefourcategoriesof

evolution This can be seen in the conflicts perpetuated by the century’s most powerful nations like the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union These nations’ conflicts, such as WWI, WWII, Vietnam, Afghanistan, andRhodesia,amongothers,demonstratetheinfantry’snewplaceinmodernwarfareandforeignpolicy.

WhatTheyCarried

The 20th century saw significant developments in regard to infantry equipment Infantrymen carried more weight and in more innovative ways They had a more diversifiedrangeofweaponsandtheuniformsandequipmenttogo with them. The infantry of the early 20th century and that of the late were extremelyfarapartintheirpersonalkit. FollowingtheFrenchadoptionofthe1886Lebel,mostmajorworldpowersadoptedasimilarbolt action,smokeless cartridge firing rifle In 1888, the German military adopted the 1888 Mauser Commission rifle In 1892, the American military adoptedtheKrag Jorgensonrifle.Finallyin1903,theBritishadoptedtheLee EnfieldMk1rifle7 . By the Great War, all participating powers had adopted a smokeless, bolt actionrifleastheirprimaryinfantryrifle World War I saw the first major clash of infantry forces in decades, discounting the Russo Japanese War By1914 most nations fielded machine guns andmodernformsofartillery.ThestandardBritishinfantryman’skitintheearly days of the war consisted of new forms of web load bearing equipment, roughly 250 rounds of ammunition, and around 60lbs of totalweight Theweightwouldincreasethroughoutthewarbecauseofthefieldingoflightmachine guns,weatherconditions,steelhelmets,andsandbags8

Following WWI, the interwar period saw military technology develop slowly, especially in terms of infantry equipment One development, however, was instrumental in infantry kit through the 21st century That piece of equipment was the radio. WhiletheradiowasdevelopedpriortoWWIitdidnotseeextensiveuseintheconflict.In the Interwar period, the technology of radio was expanded upon in the military realm andbecameastaplepieceof kit for the average infantry platoon Radio allowed infantrymentocommunicatealmostinstantlywithseaborneand airborne elements while before that had been unthinkable. This increased the capacity for joint operations like littoral assaults, seen in OperationNeptune,andincreasedassaulttempo,seenintheGermanstrategyofBlitzkrieg9 While many new ways of strategic thinking were developedduringtheInterwarYears,manyincorporatingthenew technology displayed so prominently during the first WWI, the development ofinfantrytechnologyitselfstalled.It is important to note that infantry technology refers to individual kits carried by the infantry soldier during the performance of his normal wartime duties, not technology created in support of infantry like airplanes or armored vehicles(whichsawextensivedevelopment)

The start of the SecondWorldWarsawcontinueduseofbolt actionriflesamonginfantrymenbutthedistributionof auto loading rifles and submachine guns was greatly increased Learning from the First World War, British infantrymen were equipped with a steel “Brodie” style helmet and frequently carriedagasmask.Theywerearmed with an 8 lbs 10 1⁄2 oz SMLE rifle, an evolution of the Lee Enfield Mk1 German infantrymen were armed with similar equipment, a steel helmet, gas mask, and bolt action rifle aswell10 Americaninfantrymen,upontheUnited States’ entry into the war, were armed originally with the Springfield 1903 riflealthoughitquicklybecamephased out by the semi automatic M1 Garand. The rifle was the first auto loading rifle to be issued en masse to infantrymen Itheld8cartridgesof30 06andwasgas operated WhiletheGarandwasthemostwidelyissued,other nations also fielded auto loading rifles such as the Soviet SVT38 and theNaziGewehr41/43 USforceswerealso issued withtheM1ThompsonSubmachineGun.Thesewereissuedtocommissionedandnoncommissionedofficers among other infantrymen andprovedespeciallyusefulinfightinginurbanandjungleenvironments TheThompson began to be phased out in 1944 and was replaced with the M3 submachine gun,colloquiallyknownasthe“Grease Gun.” This new submachine gun waslightweight,easytouse,andmostimportantlycheap.Anewinventionarising out of the Great Warwasthesquadautomaticweapon ExamplesofsquadautomaticweaponsduringWWIIinclude the British Bren gun and the American Browning Automatic Rifle, or BAR The BAR was first used in WWI but saw extensive use during the Second World War11 . The British Bren gun, an example of a light machine gun, was

able to be operated by one man12 It was able to be used similarly to the American BAR In order to carry the ammunition required for these new weapons, infantrymen frequently used load bearing equipment This new equipment attempted to adequately hold around 60lbs of kit including an infantryman’s ammunition,food,clothes, andothernecessities

A key weapon developed during the Second World War was not created by the allied powers but instead by the ordnance departments of Nazi Germany. The Mp44, also known as the StG 44 or Sturmgewehr 44 was the first “assault” rifle The term assault rifle has generally been described as an intermediate cartridge, magazine fed, and select fire rifle13 The Sturmgewehr 44 wasariflechamberedinthe792x33mm kurz whichwasdevelopedin1940 It was first used in the Mk 42, later the MP 43, and finally the StG 4414 . The StG 44, along with the M1 Garand, were instrumental in the widespread adoption of assault rifles among the infantry oftheworldpowers,particularly those involvedinthestrugglebetweenCommunismandCapitalism FollowingWWIIthefirstmajorpowertoadopt an assault rifle was the Soviet Union withtheAvtomatKalashnikov,orAK 47.TheKalashnikov,asitsknown,was adopted by the Soviet armed forces in 194915 , and since its family of firearms has accounted for about ⅕ of the world’s500millionfirearms16

While Soviet Russia began to fully incorporate its new assault rifle, NATO countries sought to standardize their countries' weapon systems NATO began its search for a new rifle by experimenting with the German792x33mm Kurz used intheSturmgewehr44 WhilethisforecasttheeventualdirectionofNATOittookadetourbecauseofthe United States’ desire for a full power rifle cartridge. The United States proposed its newly created 7.62x51mm cartridge, also known as 308 Winchester The US implied they would adopt the Fabrique Nationale Fusil AutomatiqueLéger,knownastheFNFAL,ifBritainadoptedaversionoftheFALin 308Winchester Britaincaved to American pressure and adopted the cartridge while the US waited and then adopted its homebuilt M14 rifle in 1959 The FN FAL would eventually become adopted by over 90 countries, including Great Britain,andwouldbe christened “The Right Arm of The Free World” because of its usage by countries in conflict with communist ideologies around the world17 . The American M14 rifle, used heavily in the early years of the Vietnam War,wasa battle rifle developed by Springfield Armory The rifle was acontinuationoftheWWIIM1Garand Itwasmadeto replace rifles, submachine guns, and even automatic rifles, as seen in the BAR The M14 would meet its first real test of combat in Vietnam. Like the M1 Garand, it wasacapablebattlerifle.Theproblem,however,wasthatbattle rifles were not the best weaponforthejunglesofVietnamnormoderncombatingeneral.Just6yearsaftertheM14 was adopted, it began to be replaced by theArmaliteAR 15,designatedtheM16 TheM16,liketheSovietAK 47, was an assault rifle as opposed to a battle rifle It was chambered in 556mm NATO, a smaller yet highervelocity cartridge. The M16 was lighter, its ammunition was lighter, and it was easier and cheaper to manufacture18 . These new assault rifles became staples of the intense, close quarters fighting seen in the jungles of Vietnam and were necessitiesinthechaoticurbanfightingfeaturedprominentlyinthelate 20thcentury

In addition to the M14 and the M16, Vietnam saw a major shift in the equipment oftheinfantry Infantrymennow carried new load bearing equipment and a new squad automatic weapons and squad grenade launchers Inorderto carry their new ammunition and other equipment, American soldiers and marinesinVietnamwereequippedwitha new load bearing system. The M1956 ILCE was held up with suspenders and included a set of two ammunition pouches, a first aid pouch, one or two canteen covers,awrappedponcho,e toolcarrier,bayonetwithscabbard,and the M1961 canvas field pack The field pack, colloquially knownasthe“butt”packtypicallyheldaninfantryman's food rations and other general purpose equipment the infantryman decided to bring along. The United States and othernationsperiodicallyimprovedtheirload bearingequipmentthroughouttherestofthe20thcentury

American units also fielded new squad automatic weapons, to replace the BAR, and a new grenade launcher, to replace the previously used rifle grenade The new squad automaticweapon,namedtheM60,wasausefuladdition to the kit of the infantryman Unlike the BAR’s 20 round magazine of 30 06, itfeaturedabelt fedsystemoffiring and was chambered in the new 7.62mm NATO cartridge. It was a more modern weapon and its design heavily

influences the contemporary squad automatic weapons of today Infantrymen also fielded the new M79 Grenade Launcher, a new type of weapon that fired the 40mm grenade round It served as a primary weapon for certain infantrymen and was greatly used in the dense jungles of Vietnam. It could be usedtofireeitherhigh explosiveor smoke rounds19 The equipment developed in the Vietnam era evolved little until the late 20th century Between Vietnam and the late 20th century, more countries adopted assault rifles, new squad weapon systems, and load bearingsystems. The last two decades of the 20thcenturyalsosawthedevelopmentandwidespreaduseofcamouflage,nightvision, and new body armor systems In 1981, the United States adopted its M81 Woodland pattern as its primary camouflage pattern; most large militaries in other parts of the world also adopted similarcamouflagepatterns The M81 would become the standard camouflage in the form of the BDU or Battle Dress Uniform. Another major development was the adoption of night vision and the dissemination of the technology throughout the ranks ofthe infantry The United States Armybeganitsexperimentationandsubsequentissueofnightvisiontechnologiesinthe 1990s.20 TheUnitedStatesMilitary,aswellasotherwesternpowers,adoptedstandard issuebodyarmor.TheUnited States adopted its PASGT body armor for its infantrymen For example, in the US invasion of Grenada, the 82nd Airborne Division used the new PASGT body armor system, including new kevlar helmets and bodyarmor 21 This body armor system would continue to be used into the early 2000s and nationssuchastheUnitedKingdomwould adopt similar systems. The 20th century saw an unprecedented evolution in the personal equipment of the infantrymen For the first time,infantrymenwereequippedwithbolt actionrifles,load bearingequipment,machine guns, and grenades Infantry moved on to autoloading rifles, then to early assault and battlerifles Finally,infantry arrived at the all too familiar equipmentofanassaultrifle,camouflageuniform,bodyarmor,andnightvisionofthe modern era Infantry’s evolution in the 20th century mirroredthatoftheevolutionoftechnology Newtechnologies like plastic molding, night vision, and kevlar allowed theinfantrytoprogresspastits19th centurycounterpartsand intotheeraofmodernity.

Throughout the 20th century technological innovation boomed. Innovations such as automobiles, airplanes, and helicopters, among others, had an enormous impact on how infantry operated and what was now possible through the use of infantry Infantrymen in the 19th century were left to their own two feet for transport and if they were lucky a train to transport them most of the way In the late 19th century and early 20th century, a new form of transport became available, automobiles. The automobile allowed people to move around much easier and was designed to be less expensive than the previous method of transportation: the horse One of the first tests of these new technologies wastheUSPunitiveExpeditionagainstPanchoVilla Theexpeditionusedthenewmotorvehicles developed such as trucks and motorcycles to great advantage. Supply trucks became part of the massive supply chain that extended into Mexico after the initial incursion Transportation trucks alsohelpedferrytroopsacrossthe ever expanding battlefield Motorcycles helped carry dispatches to tactical commanders and their subordinates 22 These vehicles, while remaining novel in the grand scheme of the US Army, introduced new methods of transportation and communication that would become a staple of armies across the world. The Pancho Villa also introduced a brand new and radically different form of transportation to the US Military, the airplane Despite its initial invention in 1903 by the Wright brothers,theairplanesoonfounduseinthemilitaryspherewiththeongoing conflict in Europe and the Pancho Villa Expedition. ItsdeploymentwasthefirstmajorusebytheUnitedStatesand used the entire inventory of the US Army’s operational aircraft Unlike airplane use in Europe that experimented with bombing and air air combat, the airplanes used inthePanchoVillaExpeditionwerelimitedtoreconnaissance, courier, and supply duties. This made airplanes a particular advantage for the US Army infantrymen deployed in Mexico as it allowed tactical commanders to more easily communicate with strategic and operational command, gave aerial reconnaissance information to the ground units, and allowed easier resupply of units on the outer stretches of the incursion intoMexico.PerhapsmoreimportantlythePanchoVillaExpedition,alongwiththewarin

Mobility:SteelandFlight

Europe, gave US commanders and strategic leaders new insight into the possibilities of military aviation and allowed an expansion of the US military’s aviation program during the initial entry into World War One and the Interwar years. Another innovation developed specifically for military application was thearmoredvehicle,known as the tank The first tanks were developed by the British military in 1916 The Mark I, as it was designated, was designed as a way to break the brutalstalemateofthetrenchwarfareofWWI ItsawitsfirstactioninSeptemberof 1916 and this small battle test allowed for the creationofadedicatedTankCorpsandthemassproductionoftanks.

By the Spring of 1917, the British had developed the Mark IV tank and deployed it to France. Tanks were used effectivelyattheBattleofCambraiwheretheywereusedinmasswithinfantrysupport

With the development of tanks came the introduction of joint operations between the Tank Corps and the infantry. The infantrymen had to develop new tactics and procedures to effectively move and assaultwiththetanks Instead of the previous movement of the extended line, the infantrymen now used the tactics of close column to use the tanks as cover when advancing. In general, tanks allowed infantry to make more efficient and manpower effective penetration efforts against entrenched positions The Battle of Cambrai also changed American perspectives about the useoftanksinwarfare TheUSArmysoughttocreateitsowntankcorpsin1918andsuppliedthemwithBritish and French tanks. The Germans, despite experimenting with tanks, did not come around to the idea until the InterwaryearswhentheconceptofBlitzkrieg,knownas‘lightningwar’wascreated.23

Following WWI, the Interwar years saw new military schools develop, specifically in the development of mechanized, airborne, and airmobiletactics.DuringthepeacebetweenWWIandWWIIcombinedtankandinfantry tactics had a chance to become fleshed out and experimented with Before the end of WWI British general Fuller had created aninnovativeplandesignedtodeploytanksandaircraftonanenormousscale Atthecenterofhis‘Plan 1919’ was the motorized and mechanized infantry, working in direct communication and support with the tank corps The war ended before his plan came to fruition but it laid out the ideas and innovations that woulddevelop during the Interwar years and culminate in the German invasion of Poland One of the first proponents of tank theory in the Interwar years was Basil Liddell Hart whose writings ontankandinfantrytacticsinfluencedBritain’s mechanized force In 1927, Britain unveiled a new and revolutionary force design, one that wasself sufficientand incorporatedalltheelementsexperimentedwithduringWWI ItwasaBrigadesizeandconsistedofreconnaissance, strike force, infantry support, artillery, support services, and RAF units. Interestingly,thedenotationoftheprimary tank force as the strike force shows where the infantry is marked support shows the tactics used in developingthe Experimental Mechanized Support 1927 It moves the infantry spearhead of the past into the backseat and pushes tanks as the primary element constituted in the brigade Fundamentally, the brigade was a tank brigade, with an infantry battalion in support. Liddell Hart’s ‘Indirect Approach’ saw infantry and artillery act in support of the armor,withtheirownmobilityintheformsoftrucksandarmoredcars InGermany,themobilizationofitsowntank corps did not emergeinfullforceuntiltheriseofHitler Hitler,inhisdisregardfortheTreatyofVersailles,beganto build up Germany’s armed forces with a focus on the tank corps. Inspired by Britain’s efforts, German Colonel Heinz Guderian helped develop the German Panzer Division and the ‘Blitzkrieg’ concept 24 In the United States, support for a tank corps was minimal Although George Patton, a US military leader who would become instrumental in the European theater during WWII, had petitionedforadedicatedarmoreddivision,itwouldnotbe created until 1940. The US armored divisions were designed to capitalize on the German successes in Europe and originally consisted of a primary tank component and support infantry component, as well as all relevant support units 25

The earlyGermansuccessesinEuropewerearesultofthepreviouslymentionedstrategyofBlitzkrieg Thisformof warfare, developed in the Interwar years as a result of German general Hans Von Seeckt and other reformers, became the standardofstrategicdoctrineinthelate20thcenturyandisstillusedtodayintheformof3rdgeneration warfare, known as maneuver warfare The German military invasion of Poland in 1939 used a combined arms approach orientated on speed and overwhelming the defending forces Blitzkrieg used all the new technologies of the 20th century to its benefit. Themainspearheadwasmannedbyspeedylighttankswiththeflanksbeingcovered

by mobilized infantry Behind the light tanks came the medium tanks with mechanized infantry equipped with half tracks and followed up by infantry on foot to ensure there were no ‘stay behind’ forces Behind the infantry came the headquarters, reserve, and artillery. A hugepartofBlitzkriegwastheconstantairsuperiorityandcloseair support provided by the German Luftwaffe's Bf 109 fighters and Stuka dive bombers Blitzkrieg also came in two phases,advancetocontactandcontact Theadvancetocontactphasewascharacterizedbythefrontaldeploymentof light armored reconnaissanceelementswhilethecontactphasefeaturedthelightandmediumtanksasthespearhead of the force. A key theory developed within Blitzkrieg was the idea of bypassing industrial and heavily fortified centers and surrounding them for the main element to siege and assault 26 This worked well for the German campaignsinPoland,France,andtheearlystagesofOperationBarbarossa Blitzkrieg, when it could, also maximized on another form of infantry: the airborne. Airborne units capitalized on the possibilities brought by the airplane and allowed highlyskilledlightinfantrytocausechaosbehindenemylines or conduct seizure operations Towards the end of WWI, an airborne seizure of the fortress city of Metz was proposed by US Brigadier General William“Billy”MitchelltoGeneralPershing.Althoughtheplanwasnotcarried out, it was to be elaborated upon during the Interwar years Mitchell experimented with the tactic in 1928 but the US, like the armored division, would not formally create an airborne division until the increased funds that came with theGermaninvasionofPolandandtheUSfearofwarallowedforthecreationofadedicatedairbornedivision. In Europe, Italy pioneered the creation of the static line parachute, a system that automatically deployed the parachute upon exit of the aircraft This system would come to be adopted by most nations The first majoruseof paratroopers in combat came in the form of the German invasion of Western Europe Their invasion used paratroopers in conjunction with the German mechanized strategy of Blitzkrieg to great advantage. However, the limitations of airborne forces would become evident during the attempted seizure of Crete in 1941 because of the enormous casualties sustained by the German Fallschirmjäger units Paratrooper operations would be heavily used by the allied forces, especially in Operation Overlord in Normandy and Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands Operation Overlord saw the effective use of airmobile troops, using gliders, combined with airborne troops to drop behind German lines, cause chaos, conduct sabotage, and hold strategic locations hours before the main seaborne assault. This airborne operation was highly successful and gave allied leadersasenseofconfidence in their airborne capabilities 27 Operation Market Garden would see three British and American airborne and airmobile divisions along withaPolishbrigadeattempttoseizeaseriesofbridgesintheNetherlandsculminatingin the capture of the bridge at Arnhem over the Rhine river. These airborne forces were to be relieved by a British armored advance along a highway across all the bridges. Although the allied forces captured all the bridges up to Arnhem, they were unable to capture the bridge over the Rhine and in the process lost 4,200 Polish and British paratroopers This operation demonstrated the weaknesses of airborne infantry operations such as communication andresupplyfailureaswellaslightinfantry’sinherentweaknessagainstarmoredvehicles(atthetime).28

During WWII another form of infantry also began to develop, that of the airmobileinfantry Airmobileinfantry,as previously mentioned, use gliders to their advantage and typically deploy alongside airborne infantry. This would change, however, with the development and deployment of the rotary aircraft in the late years of the war Throughout the war, Russian engineer Igor Sikorsky experimented with rotary aircraft with the support of the US Army. By the end of thewar,hehadproducedandsold400R 4HelicopterstotheUSandBritishmilitaries.Oneof their combat deployments was with the 1st Air Commando Group in Burma. ThissawtheR 4serveinavarietyof supply and combat roles includingadaringcombatsearchandrescue,orCSAR,mission Therotaryaircraftdidnot yet, however, serve in an airmobile capacity This capacity came with the US war in Vietnam The 20 year gap between the helicopter’s first combat use during WWII and its extensive airmobile and close air support, or CAS, use during the Vietnam war allowed the United States todevoteresourcestoitsdevelopmentandthedoctrinetogo with it AlthoughtheUSMarineCorpsbeganexperimentingwithhelicopterassaulttacticsin1948theirrealcombat use came in 1954 during the French colonial conflict in Algeria. France used tactics that modeled the later US airmobile tactics in Vietnam They used transport helicopters to ferry in airmobile infantry and used armed attack style helicopters to provide CAS ThesetacticswouldbecomethebasisfortheAmericanwarinVietnamand became a key strategy throughout the decade long conflict. One of their first combat actions during the US warin

Vietnam came in October of 1965 in the Battle of the Ia Drang Valley The 1st Cavalry Division used the tactics envisioned under the Howze Board and tested with the 11th Air Assault Division (Test) to their advantage29 Airmobile tactics allowedtheUS1stBattalion,7thCavalryRegiment,commandedbythefamousLt.ColHaroldG. Moore to land an entire company sized element within 10 seconds 30 Helicopters became staples in the military arsenals of both sides of the Cold War belligerents and airmobile infantry units persist to this day in most large militaries today.Thisshifttowardsairmobile“SkyCalvary”becameakeydoctrineoftheUSmilitaryinitsconflicts in Grenada, Panama,andSomaliaaswellastheSovieteffortsinAfghanistanandtheRussianFederation’seffortsin Chechnya In Grenada, Panama, and Somalia airmobile tactics becamesynonymouswithSpecialOperationstroops conductinghigh intensityraids TheSovietandRussianeffortsintheirrespectiveconflictsshowedthelimitationsof airmobile infantry and the vulnerability presented by helicopters versus the armored shells that protected mechanized infantry Afghanistan showed helicopters’ inherent weakness to surface to air missiles, orSAMs,such as the US made Stinger missile system 31 Chechnya showed Russian helicopters’ weakness inbuilt upurbanareas, as did the US’ Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia. Grozny and Mogadishu both demonstrate the limitations of airmobiletacticsincontemporary4thgenerationwarfare

These battles also showed the limitations and strengths of late 20th century mechanized warfare. Alargefailureof the Battle of Mogadishu was the failure of US strategic and tactical commanders to make any attempt at using armored forces to support the initial Special Operations insertion, instead relying on the US Army Rangers’ Humvees for transportation Mobilized infantry would not cut it in the sprawling urbanlandscapesthatpresenteda unique challenge to infantrymen everywhere. The Russian Federation, on the other hand, used many mechanized and airmobile formations in Chechnya These, however, were still vulnerable because of the separatists’ use of asymmetric warfare tactics and the Russian overconfidence regarding their armed forces Chechen forces used sniper and hunter killer RPG tactics to slow down andwitherawayRussianforces.32 TheBattlesofMogadishuand Grozny saw the urbanbattlefieldseeninStalingradcombinedwiththemobilized,mechanized,andairmobiletactics developed and refined in the wars in Vietnam, Afghanistan, and other developing nations These two conflicts, among others, gaveaglimpseintothelow intensityconflictseeninthelaterGlobalWaronTerror.Thetacticsofair mobility, airborne,andmechanizedBlitzkriegfoundferventbelieversintheinfantryofallmajornations Bytheend of the 20th century, these tactics became the basis for the creation of increasingly complex doctrine basedoneach nation’s problems and itsstrategicgoalsfordealingwiththoseproblems.Thiscenturysawthecreationofcombined arms operations involving tanks, planes, and laterhelicoptersbutthecontinuationthroughoutthisevolutionwasthe use of infantrytosupportortoactasthemainforce Thisshowshowtheideaofthe19th centuryinfantrymannever trulywentawayandhowthecoreofanygroundforcewastheinfantry

TheBirthoftheRaider

With the introduction ofnewtechnologyintowarfaresuchasthemachinegun,tank,andaircraftinfantrymenhadto develop new tactics to cope with this new technology and stay relevant in this new world occupied by muddy trenches andmassivebombardments.In1916duringtheGreatWar,theGermanarmywasfieldingnewunitsknown as Sturmtruppen, or Stormtroopers These new ‘raider’ infantry were the birth of the modern commando One of their primary duties was thatof‘trenchraiding’Thebrutalstalemateofthe1stWorldWarcausedthemostfrequent combat action to be carried out by small parties of experienced and well equipped infantry. TheGermanswerethe first to formalize these raiders by the creationoftheirSturmtruppenandtheuseof“infiltrationtactics”Thegoalof these tactics and units was the penetration of strategic points in the allied lines and the collapse of those lines Stormtroopers were equipped with new and innovative equipment. They fielded handguns, hand to hand weapons, and new portable submachine guns such as the German MP 18 These allowed them tooperatemoreeffectivelyin the close quarters' space of the allied trenches and gave them fire superiorityoverthealliedinfantryequippedwith bolt action rifles.InfiltrationtacticsbecamestandardintheGermanarmyby1918.33 Akeypartofinfiltrationtactics

was the raid Raids sought to not capture and hold territory but to perform other duties including sabotage, information gathering, and high value target, or HVT, acquisition These duties required the raiders to bespecially equippedandtrainedforthismissionset.

The next major development of raider infantry would come at the onset of the 2nd World War The British developed the Combined Arms Command, responsible for conducting raids into occupied Europe. These raiders would begin conducting raids into occupied France using primarily amphibious infiltration methods. These raids, most famously the raidonSt Nazaire,hadstrategicconsequencesforGermanmilitaryforcesinEurope St Nazaire saw the British commandos infiltrate using an old warship, flying the German ensign, and loaded withexplosives Before the warship was identified as British, the commandos were under a mile from their landing zone. Using soft skinned speed boats the commandos were to make an assault ontheSt Nazairedrydock Theywereequipped with special boots to prevent noise as well as thefightingknifethatbecamesynonymouswithBritishCommandos Great care was to be taken to ensure secrecy and prevent the German discovery of the operation. The goal of the operation was to denytheuseofthedrydocktotheGermanbattleship Tirpitz TheBritishtookheavycasualtiesbut nonetheless accomplished their mission The morning after the raid the British warship wedged into the dry dock exploded and with it, the lock of the dry dock was completelydestroyed.Thecommitmentofover600menandan old destroyer had changed the course of the Battle of the Atlantic and of the war itself34 . This raid, more than any other, truly showed the potential of the Infantry Commando in modern warfare Occupied Europewasnottheonly place to see the effective use of Commandos The British also used infiltration tactics in the North African campaign, although in a different environment that required slightly modified tactics. British Special Air Service Commandos, or SAS, frequently conducted long range patrols and raids in German occupied desert using specialized jeeps and other equipment The British Commandos even made an attempt at German Field Marshall ErwinRommelhimself,althoughitfailed.BritishCommandos,asidefromsabotageandassassinationmissions,also conductedintelligence gatheringraidssuchastheraidonDieppe ThegoaloftheDiepperaidwasnotthecaptureof physical intelligence per se but instead, a test to see the strength of German fortifications This test would prove extremely helpful in the planning of the allied invasion of Europe at Normandy. The raid was generally a success and in addition to the information, it gave to allied command it also put the German forces in France on the defensive because it proved that a large scale, amphibious operation was possible in occupied France The British were not the only ones to develop and use infiltration and raiding tactics. These tacticswerealsonotlimitedtothe European and African theaters of conflict but also saw great success in the Pacific campaign. Burma became a battleground flooded with Allied commandos, such as the aforementioned 1st Air Commando Group and the American commando group affectionately known as ‘Merill’s Marauders’ Officially known as the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) made up of people the army saw as expendable such as those with psychiatric disorders Training with the 1st Air Commando Group these commandos became incredibly skilled at long range jungle patrolling tactics They aided the 1st Commando Group and Chinese forces in the successful capture of Myitkynia, the primary goal of the Allies in Northern Burma.35 WorldWarIIsawtheextensiveuseofcommandos, particularly by the Allies These units included the joint American Canadian 1st Special Service Force, the US Rangers, the British SAS, and the more espionage oriented British Special Operations Executive and American Office of Strategic Services. The aforementioned units, as well as many more commando units, had atangibleand strategicimpactonthewareffortandforeverchangedinfantrytactics.

Commando tactics would be expanded upon further throughout the second half of the 20th century in the wake of the Cold War and Decolonization. Rhodesia saw the deployment of the 22 Special Air Service Regiment and the Selous Scouts who were widely regarded as experts inpatrollingcounterinsurgency,andairmobileoperations36 On the other side of the world in Vietnam, the UnitedStatesmadeuseofitsowncommandosbythedeploymentofthe newly created organizations of the US Army Rangers, US Army Special Forces,andUSNavySEALs.Theseunits saw extensive actioninLongRangeReconnaissancePatrols,orLRRPs Sometimesthesepatrollingoperationswere conducted by the Joint Military Assistance Command Vietnam Studies and Operations Group, known as MACVSOG. Some of these LRRPs, particularly those conducted by MACVSOG, were conductedagainsttheHo

Chi Minh Trail in Laos and Cambodia The trail servedasavitalsupplylinetosupplyVietCongguerillasinSouth Vietnam37 These covert operations helped shape the US military's view of Special Operations and their roleinthe geopolitical sphere. US Special Operations would become the frontline troops of most US operations following Vietnam, discounting the Gulf War These forces would be the spearhead of Operation Urgent Fury and Operation Just Cause Urgent Fury was the US invasion of Grenada The invasion was preceded by a SEAL reconnaissance operation and spearheaded by aRangerairfieldseizureandaSEALVIPextraction.Thisdemonstratedtheabilityof commando units that had uniquetrainingandequipment.InOperationJustCauseinPanama,USSOFwasassigned the mission of capturing Manuel Noriega, the Panamanian President They were also tasked with airfield seizure, VIP extraction, and protection of the vital Panama Canal They successfully completed all assigned missions includingtheincredible360 secondextractionofacapturedCIAofficer.SpecialOperationsaccountedforover15% of the invading force which demonstratedthetangibleeffectthatSpecialOperationshadonstrategicoperations By 1998, The United States had created an organized and massive Special Operations Command responsible for administering the US Army’s Rangers and Green Berets, The US Navy’s SEAL and NSW teams, and the US Air Force’s Special Tactics teams, among others In 1998 the United States military had 39,057 Special Operations personnel split among the branches38 Special Operationsoperators,knownworldwideasCommandos,areaspecial blend of infantry. They use the infiltration tactics developed during WWI and refined during WWII as their guideline but contemporary Commandos have greatly elaborated upon these basic principles using modern technology and involving covert scenarios Commando infantry, whether in the dangerous alleys of Mogadishu or theillegaljunglesofLaos,becamepermanentandirreplaceablepartsofthemoderninfantry

InsurgentsandPeacekeepers

The 20th century saw two important and interconnected struggles define it in its latter half, the Cold War and Decolonization. These struggles had a major effect on infantrymen. As previously mentioned the prevalence of airmobile and commando infantry are examples of these effects Another effect is the creation of a new brand of infantry, one devoted not to the long held tactic of “Search and Destroy” but insteadtomoderation,discipline,and compassion favored in the tactic of “Hearts and Minds.” Infantrymen now had to act as peacekeepers and were deployed into 4th generation conflicts where there was no enemy with a uniform, rank, or flag. 4th generation warfareisgenerallydefinedastheblurringoflinesbetweencivilianandcombatant,characterizedbythepresenceof asymmetric,unconventional,andcounterinsurgencytactics 39 Thistypeofconflictwouldbecomewhatcharacterized the aforementioned struggles. 4th generation warfare did not only create peacekeeper infantry, it also created their opponent, the insurgent The insurgent, or guerilla, isnota20th centurycreation,butthewayinwhichtheyfought, and their central role ofthemis Guerillas,priortotheColdWarandDecolonization,wereseenveryprominentlyin one place: occupied Europe. The German invasion of Europe was not well received by the civilian populace. The war crimes committed against the citizenry of these nations including the targeted genocide of Jews, Poles, and Slavs inspired many to take up arms against the Nazi war machine These guerillas found their place among the French Resistance, the Polish underground, and the Yugoslavian Partisans, among others. Partisan groups became emboldened by the allied victories on both fronts and increased their footprint accordingly, eventually resulting in the overt conflict seen intheliberationofParisandtheWarsawuprising Germaneffortstosuppresstheseinsurgent operations were oftentimes retributive in nature and brutal in action This strategy of complete destruction and brutalitywasunsustainable,immoral,andfutile.Instead,astrategyofde escalationmustbepursued.40

An attempt at this strategy and its failure was demonstrated in Vietnam The My Lai Massacre in Vietnam, committed by US Army infantrymen of the 20th Infantry, was a moral, strategic, and political disaster for the US effort in Vietnam It saw over 300 elderly, women, and children massacred because of suspicion of communist collaboration This was not an isolated incident Incidents like this, although typically not as organized and much more sporadic, were fueled by the conscripted troops employed by the US.41 These failures further support the

increased involvement of Special Operations and specially trained peacekeepers in 4th generation conflicts Generally, peacekeeping efforts have been fairly successful In a statistical analysis of peacekeeping between1989 and2004,itwasfoundthatwarwas24%lesslikelytoreoccurwhenpeacekeepersweredeployedcomparedtowhen they were not 42 Peacekeeping and counterinsurgency strategies seem to work Within these strategies, infantry, specifically light infantry, is the core William S Lind argues that by embodying guerilla tactics, eliminating ‘overkill’ items such as armored vehicles, and adopting some policing tactics infantry will be better equipped to fight 4th generation conflicts.43 Although this strategy is novel and untested it has seenpromiseincertainconflicts such as the US war in Iraq This strategy and its connotations, however, havenotbeenadequatelystudiedortested inregardstoitseffectonnear peerconflicts

ThenextstageofInfantrydevelopment

Infantry evolved during the 20th century through 4 main categories: Kit, Methods of Support, Tactics, and Mission set. Each of these elements is instrumental in how the modern infantry soldier operates today. These four categories, morethananyothers,affecttheoperationalartandcapabilitiesofthemoderninfantry.Infantryevolution in the 20th century did not stop at the year 2000 The infantry of the last 22 years hasseenconsiderablegrowthin the form of new technologies, support, tactics, and mission set Night vision, evolving fromitsscarcenatureinthe late 20thcentury,hasbecomeastapleof21st centuryinfantrytactics.TheinfantryoftheGWOThashadtodevelop new methods of IED disposal and avoidance Many infantrymen and women of the GWOT had to lessen their reliance on the mechanized and airmobile abilities and instead reverttotheirlightinfantryheritage Theinfantryof the 21st century had to cope with the increase of loitering munitions, suicide based attacks, and sniper tactics. 4th generation warfare is still the norm, although new tactics to defeat near peer and insurgent forces alike are being developed With the US Marine Corps’ FD 2030, the predominant tactics developed for insurgents by the United States are being discarded to revert to a near peer centered threat, specifically that of Russia and China.44 This switch back to a Cold War style doctrine could represent a future evolution, ordevolution,ininfantrytacticsinthe coming years Theinfantryofthe21stcentury,becauseoftheinnovationsinthekit,methodsofsupport,tactics,and missionsetarebetterwarfightersandarebetteradaptedtofightontheever changingbattlefieldinthecontemporary era.

WorksCited

1 Mark Owen and Kevin Maurer, No Easy Day: The Firsthand Account of the Mission That Killed Osama Bin Laden: the Autobiography of a Navy SEAL (New York, NY: Dutton, 2016), 215 241. The story that follows takes placebetweenthesepages

2 Obama,Barack "OsamaBinLadenDead" The White House, May2nd,2011 Jan5th,

3. WilliamS.Lind,"UnderstandingFourthGenerationWar," Military Review,September/October2004,1,accessed January5,2022,https://wwwhsdlorg/?view&did=482203

4 Earl J Hess, Pickett's Charge The Last Attack at Gettysburg (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press,2001),524 532

5. Department of War Ordnance Department U.S.A, Report of the Board of Officers Appointed in Pursuance of the Act of Congress Approved June 6, 1872 (np:Washington: GovernmentPrintingOffice,1873)

6 Gary James, "The 1886/93 Lebel: France's Great WarMasterpiece," American Rifleman,October2014,accessed January5,2022,https://www.americanrifleman.org/content/the 1886 93 lebel france s great war masterpiece/.

7 "PrimerGallery,"C&RSENAL,accessedJanuary11,2022,https://candrsenalcom/primer gallery/

8 G Tylden, "THE ACCOUTREMENTS OF THE BRITISH INFANTRYMAN, 1640 to 1940," Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 47,no.189(1969):18 19,http://www.jstor.org/stable/44222915.

9 Mick Ryan, Maj Gen, "Radio, Airplanes,andWorldWars:NextStepsfortheProfessionofArms," Modern War Institute, December 15, 2020, [Page #], accessed February 21, 2022, https://mwi.usma.edu/radio airplanes and world wars next steps for the profession of arms/.

10. Ellison Hawks, Capt., Britain's Wonderful Fighting Forces (London, UK: Odhams Press, [1940?]), 352, 377 378

11 "Ready for Battle: The Personal Equipment of a World War II Soldier," Army Heritage Center Foundation, accessed March 5, 2022, https://wwwarmyheritageorg/wp content/uploads/2020/06/Ready for Battle World War IIpdf

12 Hawks, Britain's Wonderful,381 385

13. Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "assault rifle." Encyclopedia Britannica, October 13, 2017. https://wwwbritannicacom/technology/assault rifle

14 ChrisMcNab, German Automatic Rifles 1941 45: Gew 41, Gew 43, FG 42 and StG 44 (BloomsburyPublishing, 2013),52 57,digitalfile.

15 D N Bolotin, Soviet Small Arms and Ammunition (Saint Petersburg, Russia: Poligon, 1995), 127, accessed March7,2022,http://wwwshooting uacom/dop arhiv/dop 2/books/Istor sovet orujiyapdf

16 Phillip Killicoat, Weaponomics: The Global Market for Assault Rifles, 3, April 2007,accessedMarch7,2022, https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/266561468141574815/pdf/wps4202.pdf.

17 Mike Perry, "FN FAL: The World's Most Successful Battle Rifle," SOFREP, last modified July 19, 2019, accessedMarch8,2022,https://sofrepcom/specialoperations/fn fal worlds successful battle rifle/

18. Bruce N.Canfield,"TheM14Rifle:JohnGarand'sFinalLegacy," American Rifleman,April28,2016,accessed March8,2022,https://wwwamericanriflemanorg/content/the m14 rifle john garand s final legacy/

19 Gordon L Rottman, Vietnam War US and Allied Combat Equipments,illus AdamHook(Oxford,UK:Osprey Publishing,2017),digitalfile.

20 "SOLDIERS FOUND MORE EFFECTIVE with 'OWN THE NIGHT' TECHNOLOGIES," Inside the Army 8, no 5(1996):http://wwwjstororg/stable/43978859

21. "The 'Fritz' Helmet," Soldier Systems, last modified June 17, 2016, accessed March 14, 2022, https://soldiersystems.net/2016/06/17/the fritz helmet/.

22 Julie Irene Prieto and Roger G Miller, US Army Operations in Mexico 1916 1917 (Washington,DC:USArmy CenterofMilitaryHistory,2016),83 85

23. EricMorris, Tanks,ed.MichaelLeitch,ModernMilitarySeries(London,UK:OctopusBooks,1975),25 33. 24 Morris,42 46

25 RichardW Kedzior, Evolution and Endurance: The U S Army Division in the Twentieth Century,18

26 Morris, Tanks,66 67

27 WalterJ Boyne, How the Helicopter Changed Modern Warfare (Gretna,La:PelicanPub,2011),40 43

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29 WalterJ Boyne, How the Helicopter Changed Modern Warfare (Gretna,La:PelicanPub,2011),106 133

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31. Westermann,EdwardB.1999, The Limits of Soviet Airpower: The Failure of

32 Gian P Gentile, Reimagining the Character of Urban Operations for the U S Army: How the Past Can Inform the Present and Future,22 33,2017,accessedApril 14,2022

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39 William S Lind and Gregory A Thiele, 4th Generation Warfare Handbook (Kouvola: Castalia House, 2015), 7 38

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42 Neil Halloran, The Shadow Peace, by Andy Dollerson, accessed April 14, 2022, http://www.fallen.io/shadow peace/1/.

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44 Department of Defense USMC, Force Design 2030,byDavidH Berger,March2020,accessedApril14,2022, https://www.hqmc.marines.mil/Portals/142/Docs/CMC38%20Force%20Design%202030%20Report%20Phase%20I %20and%20II.pdf?ver=2020 03 26 121328 460.

AROSECONUNDRUM Poetry

EricLiu

Inthesleeplesshourswhenthenightsenesceddreamily, Ifixedmyeyes

Uponthyscarletlabyrinthwhichliesbeforeme, Thypetalsembellishedbydotsofcrystals, Andthornsimpale, Throughtheinfinitesadness

AmidstthewindandrainoflateDecember,Iwatchedthee, Swayingandturningandbendingandresisting, Asthegusts,shamelesslyandshamefully, Endeavoredtoprytheeopen, Beseechingandharassing Isawthyroughpedalswithasmoothnessandfirm, Anintensehostilewelcome, Closelyenclosed,Closelyheld, Youngandloving,lonelyandlonging, Vigilantyetseductive,inthegustingwind, Teasingandscratchingandlongingwithloneliness.

Iinquiredofthee: “Whatpurposehastthouserved?” “Hastthoubeencherishedasasymbol?” “Endearedasanepitome?”

Iheardtheesingingback. “Iam thetrinketofhappiness andthenthepassingofhappiness.

Thesorrowofwistfulness andthenthepermanentsorrow”

Ipleadedthyanswer: O,sophisticatedandetherealexistence, HathIpossessedthee? AsIlaymyhandsonthee, Thyrednessencroachedthetipofmyfingers Whatbettercouldtherebe, Thantheworstofthebest, OfmystitchesIcaressed, Thesickandfine, Thedullandbright, Ofmysentimentsthouharnessed?

So,Isaidtomyself: O,youngman, Seeknottocontrive, Seeknottoseize, Buttobanishthesucculencerousingatease. Foramongthefigmentsofdelusion, ComesJoyandDefeat

STOPWORRYINGABOUTCOLLEGE

Memoir LeoLin

Waking up in the morning was hard. A long day usually startedwithmyalarm,asoundthatwouldhauntmeinmy dreams like nails on a chalkboard After frantically slapping my phone, I would often drift into a fantasy land of thought: Can I afford to sleep for five more minutes? What shoes should I wear today? Most importantly, what is stopping me fromdozingoffandslippingawayintoyetanothervividdreaminmycozybed?Theansweroftenbore the wrath of my mother, but after I waved goodbyetoherattheShenzhenairportandjourneyedtotheothersideof the globe, the answer became less clear As an international student studying in New York, my motto was always “work harder than you did yesterday.” My days usually involved intensecourses,stressfulsportscompetitions,and hours upon hours of endless preparation for tests and projects Sometimes, when looking at my calendar for the week,Iwouldaskmyself:Whatisallofthisfor?

About 61% of teens aged 13 17 state that they are under considerable pressure to produce good grades; this percentage easily increases for those who feel pressuretolookattractiveorsimplyfitin Inourmodern daysociety filled with peer competition and judgment, theadolescentyearscanbeespeciallychallenging Youngteensliveina culturethattestsnewlimitslikeneverbefore,andthepressuretogetintoagoodcollegehasbecomeoverwhelming.

With workloads stacked as high as mountains, students find themselves spending every available minute studying, giving up classes they love for high level “important courses,” and focusing less on the true meaning of life: relationships High school is a once in a lifetime experience; after listening to older people around me, I realized that it is a time people always look backupon Althoughtheseyearsmakeuponlyasmallportionoflife,theyhave a significant impact on the kinds of people we become. Friendships help mold who we are, and it is important to cherishourhigh schoolexperienceasitishappening

Puberty is already one of the biggestmysteriesofhumankind,andthefactthatteenagersfeelitnecessarytoaddten AP courses on top of this complex and confounding time of change is daunting. The journey of growing up is complicated enough without the pressure of college admissions, and while higher education signals an important landmark in one's life, it is indisputably just the beginning Whatisimportantisthatinlookingbackafter50years, we will have endlessstoriestosharewiththepeopleweloveandcarefor.Remember,agoodcollegedoesnotmean success,ahappylifedoes

WorksCited:

Barnard,Brennan.“CollegeAdmission,HelplessnessandChoice.” Forbes,11Jan.2021, wwwforbescom/sites/brennanbarnard/2018/11/14/college admission helplessness and choice/?sh=34e397b 52d49 Accessed7Apr 2022

Eira,Astrid.“WithaFiniteNumberofHoursperDayandanEndlessArrayofTo Dos...” Financesonline.com, FinancesOnlinecom,11Mar 2020, financesonlinecom/student stress statistics/#: :text=after%20high%20school ,(Pew%20Research%20Cente r%2C%202019),always%20feeling%20stressed%E2%80%9D%20by%20schoolwork..Accessed7Apr. 2022

Sheng,Jessica.“AffectsofHighSchoolFriendships.” HS Insider,11Sept.2018, highschoollatimescom/charter oak high school/affects of high school friendships/ Accessed7Apr 2022

“SuicideonCampusandthePressureofPerfection(Published2015).” The New York Times,2022, www.nytimes.com/2015/08/02/education/edlife/stress social media and suicide on campus.html.Accessed7 Apr 2022

HOLOCAUSTRELEVANCE

Literature

VictoriaHuang

Miriam Berger's mother, Ruth, looked typically Aryan Blonde haired, blue eyed, she possessed what Miriam referredtoas“Nordicfeatures.”ButshealsoworeayellowStarofDavidandwaseightmonthspregnant.

When Johanna Nickel noticed Ruth and her pregnant belly slogging through Berlin on her waytoforcedlaborata pharmaceutical company, Johanna knew she had todosomething.Severalmonthslater,shelteredinthecountryside fourhoursoutsideofBerlin,Ms Bergerwasborninhiding

“In the midst of this evil you find goodness,” said Ms. Berger, who co authored her family’s story in Defying the Tide: An Account of Authentic Compassion During the Holocaust Ms Nickel gave Ms Berger's parents false identity papers and herhusband’sdriver’slicense “YoufindaGermanwomanwhoapproachesmymotherandasks herifsheneedshelp.”

Living through a recent rise in contemporary anti Semitism and Neo Nazism, Ms Berger reflects on her family’s survival in Germany during the Holocaust and the perseverance of the Jewish people She also remembers the “kindness, goodness, and empathy” of people like the Nickels who put their risked their safety to keep Jewish familiesalive

While the Bergers passed as a typical German family, a trial awaited them. After four months staying in the small village, Ruth woke to the sound of motorcycles Looking out the window, she saw two Nazi soldiers entering the home The first thing they demanded were identity papers While the soldiers checked, Walter jumped on his bike and fled. Calling out to a passing farmer, Ruth begged them to take her and young Miriam to the train station. As Miriam later recounted, “If you believe in divine providence, that train came.” Therewereonlytwotrainsgoingto Berlin that day, and one of them happened to be there By another miracle, after the trainconductorhadrefusedto admitthem,theBergerswereallowedtorideinthecattlecar

Arriving in the United States in 1948, Miriam recounted the anti Semitism that hovered barely below the surface Her troubles and suffering did not stop there Miriam struggled to find her place She was an outsider; she had different clothes, different mannerisms, and spoke a different language. Recalling one incident that proved thatthe world’shatredremained,atleastinpart,shesaid,“Imusthavebeeninthethirdgrade,didn’tspeakanyEnglish,and my teacher startedyellingatmetospeakEnglish”TheintoleranceconfusedMiriamandchangedherinitialviewof theU.S.

These events were never forgotten The Nickels and Bergers remained close friends As Miriam describedit,there bond was the sort that formed only when you weresavedbysomeone RuthmailedfoodpackagestoJohanna,who stayed in Germany during the late 1940s. She also traveled to see her. Through the years, neither forgot the other, andtheyreunitedeverychancetheyhad

The most terrible event of the 20th century created a deep and everlasting bond between two families. “When someone helps you survive, they become a part of your life,” Miriam has said Without expectations of thanks or gain,JohannariskeddeathtosheltertheBergersfromthegoodnessofherheart

In these devastating events, the most beautiful parts of humanity are on display. “You don’t lose something that helped you survive”, Miriam expressed Despite living through some of the most traumatic times and events in history,Miriambelievesthatweshouldallhavehope Herurgentwishisthatweallremember

SAYNOTOCYBERBULLYING-BERESPONSIBLEFOR THEWORDSTYPEDONTHEKEYBOARD

Editorial MillyChen

Language is the reflection of hypocritical society, and violent language is the precursor of socialviolence.”1 When wordsareconsideredlessharmful,ourignorancehasledtotheproliferationofhostilecommentsontheInternet.

Those who can'tfindaplacetoreleasetheirstressinlifeusethevirtualInternetasaweapontoattackothers,known as "keyboard people." They indulge themselves under the cloak of anonymity, adding an undercurrent to an otherwise controversialnewsevent Inaddition,keyboardersviolatehumanrightsandaffectthephysicalandmental health of victims; they also damage the reputation of the victims andlowertheirsocialevaluation Simultaneously, they also guide the masses who do not know the truth to set off an unhealthy atmosphere in society and form negative energy The emergence of cyber violence from time to time has greatly interfered with the normal life of citizens and polluted an otherwise clean and harmonious network environment The effect of cyberbullying is so enormousthatsomepeoplewillcommitsuicideunderitspressure.

Abusers who hide behind the internet can kill people with a keyboard No matter how bright and beautiful people are, most people know that Samurai killpeoplewithasword,buttheydonotknowthatliteraticanhurtpeoplewith words.2 In modern society, the internet has become commonplace to facilitate people’s communication. However, while water can carry a boat, it can also overturn it As well as bringing convenience, social media is rife with cyberbullying Traditional forms of bullying, typically found in school and workenvironments,havenowmigrated to cyberspace. With the rapid development of computer technology, individuals are increasinglyexposedtoviolent 2 Aclassicworkofhealthpreservation, Xian Qing Ou Ji,writtenbyLiYuintheQingDynasty

stimulation First of all, internet violence has caused great har1m to the parties involved in public opinion, and secondly,ithasbroughtadverseinfluenceonthesociety,makingthemoralnormsofthesociety"degenerate"

The universality of the Internet has made it possibleforanyonewithamobilephonetopublishcommentsonline;it is impossible tojudgewhatisrightorwrongbypeopleatadisadvantageinaccessingknowledgeandinformationin many situations. However, online participation is a way to gain group recognition. The spiral effect of silence is reflected in the fact that netizens are afraid to speak out against the public. For those with limited knowledge, speakingwiththeso calledmainstreaminpublicshowsthattheyalsocareaboutsociety

Cyberbullying includes sending, posting, orsharingnegative,harmful,false,ormeancontentaboutsomeoneelse.It takes place over digitaldeviceslikecellphones,andcomputersandcanoccurthroughText,apps,oronlineinsocial media where people can view, participate in, or share content 3 In cyber violence, the indifference ofthebystander and the silence of the receiver gradually deteriorate the social norms. People get used to and acquiesce tothedark side of society topermeateeveryaspectoflife Asaresult,thisblatantmaliceislabeled"thisishowsocietyis”Mo Yan had written in his book, “Hyperbolic ey can become gloomy and sorrowful due to cyber violence, which can lead to self destruction. For instance, Sulli Choi, a South Korean actress, frequently caused controversy on the Internet at home and abroad in the past two years because of her bold style and revealing dress. Sulli’s braless photos went viral online and provoked heated debates, which resulted in unimaginably crude insults and online attacks against her and her family Even after her "no bra scandal" sparked public outrage, she seemed invincible and never held herself back. Sulli Choi took photos without underwear and showed her bare skin in the air. Moreover, shehaspubliclycommentedonsocialmedia:"Underwearisjustdecoration It'scomfortable,natural,and glamorous Hopefully, it will break the stereotype of whatpeoplethinkaboutit"Shewantedpeople’sprejudicesto disappear, so she revealed her authentic side. However, many netizensmadejudgmentalcommentsandpointedout Sulli Choi does not deserve to be a public figure if she intentionally takes pictureswithoutwearingunderwearand posts them online There are online supporters while conservatives, whobelievecelebritiesshouldbeconservative, described Sulli Choi as a "loose woman" to "obscene, unashamed and deliberately hyped." She was soon overwhelmed by thousands of negative remarksandsufferedfromdepression Laterintheyear,heragentfoundher hangingonthesecondfloorofherhouseinSeongnam Notonlydepressionbutcyberviolencewasundoubtedlyone of the killers that many netizens believe "killed" SulliChoi.The"depression,""cyberbullying"or,assomenetizens have speculated "conspiracy theories" were not known to theoutsideworlduntilSouthKoreanpoliceofficialstook note of Shirley's suicide In popular comments, "keyboard person," "troll," "public opinion" and other high frequency words act as indictments Another user on the internet wrote sarcastically, "In an avalanche, no snowflake is innocent." A few keystrokes can be the final straw that breaks those fragile souls. 4 This reflects the demoralization of the Internet nowadays, and everyone is responsible when suchatragedyhappens,cyberviolence islikeaswordhanginghigh,makingpeopletremble;itsdangersareself evident,anditcanhurtallofus

The majority tends to think that only celebrities or socialmediainfluencersarevictimsofcyberbullyingbecauseof their frequent public exposure; however, keyboard people havealsotargetedchildrenandteenagers Accordingtoa report published in February by the European Commission's Joint Research Center (JRC), a survey of more than 6,000 10 18 year olds from June to August last year found that about 50%ofchildrenhadexperiencedatleastone kind of cyberbullying in their lifetime Such a high rate of cyber violence needs moreattentiontoimprove,butthe situation turned out to be worse than expected excessive screen time during quarantines has led to a surge in hostile comments. Hate speech among teens and children has increased by 70% in the month sincetheCOVID 19 lockdown 5 For young children, harsh comments and refuting from the Internet can lead tomentalhealthproblems and low self esteem Furthermore, children who lack confidence face an increased risk for anxiety and feelings of

worthlessness According to a studypublishedintheJournalofMedicalInternetResearch6,studentswhohavebeen cyberbullied are twice as likely to engage in self harming behaviors and to have suicidal thoughts than those who havenot.Theseriousconsequencesofcyberviolencehavearousedtheconcernofparents.

It isunrealisticforustothinkthatthereisnoviolenceintheonlineworld TheanonymityoftheInternet,thelackof institutional and ethical constraints on the Internet, and the quality of some netizens will all contribute to the recurrence of online violence. The key is not to eliminate violence, but to restrict the occurrence of violence and reduce people's exposure to online violence Cyberbullyingbehaviorsarenotjustanuisance;insomecases,they’re a crime 7 Relevant judicial departments should bring bullies to justice Improving one’s literacy civilization online and thinking about one’s wordsasanetizenissignificant.Anidealnetizenshouldenhancetheabilitytoidentifythe authenticity of network information, a rational understanding of things rather than following the trend blindly and turning into an accomplice of network violence Moreover, one should also learn to protect themselves, and pay attentiontotheconfidentialityofprivateinformation,toavoidbecomingavictim.

As the Chinese saying goes, a kind word is like a fire to warm people in three winters, while hurtful words froze people’s hearts.8 I appeal to everyone heretobekindtoothersandberesponsiblefortheirwordsanddeedsbecause any of us might be the next object of public opinion. It is necessary to consider whatisgoingoninsteadofsimply going with the flow without principle I genuinely hope that all citizens will stand in the shoes of those who are besieged by malicious comments Perpetrators of cyberbullying, Please stop! Do not carve a scar deep into someone’s heart, let pain accompany others alltheirlivesbecauseofyourcasualwords.Wemightnotbenoble,but wecanchoosenottobedespicable

Bibliography

Alter,Charlotte.“UN:CyberViolenceIsEquivalenttoPhysicalViolence.”Time,September25,2015. https://timecom/4049106/un cyber violence physical violence/ Cyberbullying in school: Prevention and support Accredited SchoolsOnline (2021,July16) From https://wwwaccreditedschoolsonlineorg/resources/cyberbullying prevention and support/ “11FactsaboutCyberbullying.”DoSomething.org.AccessedJanuary8,2022. https://www.dosomething.org/us/facts/11 facts about cyber bullying.

“EnoughIsEnough:Cyberbullying”AccessedJanuary9,2022 https://enoughorg/stats cyberbullying

Sampathkumar,M (2020,April8) Cyberbullying is on the rise during the coronavirus pandemic Digital Trends RetrievedJanuary22,2022,from https://www.digitaltrends.com/news/coronavirus cyberbullying distance learning/ Vojinovic,Ivana,andBojanJovanović.“40Heart BreakingCyberbullyingStatisticsfor2021.”DataProt, September9,2021 https://dataprotnet/statistics/cyberbullying statistics/ “WhatAretheEffectsofCyberbullying?”Kaspersky,August23,2021 https://www.kaspersky.com/resource center/preemptive safety/cyberbullying effects. “网络暴力和抑郁症，是杀害雪莉的‘凶手‘吗？ 微博. ” 微博,October15,2019. https://wwwsohucom/a/347132423 260616

AFTERTHEENDOFHISTORY

PersonalEssay

AimeeYu

In The End of History and the Last Man, Fukuyamaproposedthepossiblepresentalternativewherewesternliberal democracy dominated the world gradually after the Cold War. AsaChinesestudentwhostudiesabroadinwhatthe book refers to as the western world, I often ponder about how this hypothesis came up in Fukuyama’s mind, how easilythecountriesintheeastletgooftheworldandgiveittothewestlikeapieceofleftoverpie

When I stood in the drivewayofmyuncle’shouseinBethesda,NorthCarolina,thosewerethewordscomingtomy mind: the End of History No cars drove by, the paved road was bleached by sunlight The clouds wereabsolutely still, hanging in the unrealistically blue sky; with no leaves falling,allowingmetohearthebreezeticklingmyhair And all I could seewereoceansofgreen:palmtrees,mapletrees,shorterbusheswaxedbysunshine;andifIlooked closer, across the road, to the yard of a house exactly the same as the one I was in, a purple sign saying “Congratulations Class of2020”couldbarelybeseeninsidethetall,latesummergrass Imagine:the“lastman”that Fukuyama wrote aboutfinallydecidedtostophereafterthousandsofmilestravelingaroundtheworld.Hesatinthe lounge on a rattan chair, legs crossed, sipping a lemon iced tea, enjoying the pure beauty of nature, of peaceful calmness,sotouching,soquiet

What I see is the end ofhistory,inthispeaceful,quietsummerview,theperfectreasonforstudentslikemetostudy inAmericaandyettheperfectreasontoleave

After staying in the US long enough, every Chinese person I encountered started to ask me whether I would, one day,returntomyhomecountry Theywouldcontinuetoaskme,afterIgraduatedfrommydreamcollege,afterIgot a highly paid job, after I lived in one of those houses with gardens and greenery that blend intothebackgroundof heaven, after they became too old to ask, when these questions were finally taking the breath out of theAmerican Dreamthatbelongstome

He took a small break from the paper due tomorrow, from the hot Starbucks that had already turned cold. Once, the decision he’d made of studying abroad seemed superior he was seeking an entirely different lifestyle, to step out of his comfort zone by living in a country abroad Then he’d heard from his old acquaintances: the middle school classmate he thought was below average was now a manager of an IT company, with a private driver taking care of his commute even on weekends; the childhood best friend who got married without inviting him to his big day; the neighbor’s daughter who talked about projects worth a million dollars casually on the phone in her sweats He

would pretend he never wanted to trade lives with them But every now and then, alone in the middle of the night, he couldn’t help but indulge himself with the temptation of the what ifs

Indeed, he’d ended up in one of those houses Big yards, palm or maple trees, a dog running carefree on the quiet street, a kid who’d just graduated from high school, the bright future of the family He stood there on a beautiful summer day, realizing he’d just lived the life he used to disdain ordinary, simple, no surprises only in the American version.

So, what else did he want? A bigger house? His house was big enough for ghosts to haunt A higher salary? His promotion was just around the corner anyways. Better spicy food? He was not that fond of hotpots after he lived abroad over fifteen years It wasn’t the materialistic desires that made his heart ache; it was the feeling of being at “the end of history”, the stagnation of his life, the time that once rushed forward suddenly now slowed down, stopped, nowhere to go, in the beautiful garden of his house, into a pool of silent green.

He could be any one of us The lawn outside, green as it always had been, so persistently, so conscientiously, so scrupulously,simplylike……Death.

What about life back home? The dogs will still bark in front ofclosedgatestoshooawaystreetbeggarswhosmell just like the food waste dumped from the mansioninside;thewhitecollarswhite collarswillstillreturntotheirtiny apartments at 2am and have a barely 4 hour sleep before heading toanothermorningrushhourinthesubway.But, for adolescents like us, itisabigswirlofpossibilitiesandopportunities,amineofcoalyettobediscovered:atleast they allhavesomethingtocomplainabout Historyisnotevenclosetoanend,thefutureisstillsittingbehindaveil, mysterious as we could imagine. We could run recklessly towards it, feeling the wind of meaning and meaninglessnesstanglingthehairbehindourbacks

There was a time I visited my old friends, and one of them told me, “Heyhey, come back to China, it is so sophisticated ”Hmm,sophisticated,thereyougo Forahungrysoul,this“complexity”isallweeverneed,and the beautiful neighborhood in North Carolina, peaceful and quiet, is just as ordinary as any other neighborhoods I willfindattheendofhistory.

“I will go back one day” I always told them Not for the glorious life and the familiarity ofpeople,butforsimply going from past perfect to present continuous I knew I’d probably over exaggerated the goodsidesandcreatedan illusion of my hometown, my piece of pie that I had onceputdownwithouthesitation:maybeit'snotthatexciting, it’s not that lively,it’snotthatcomplex Iwasthatlastpersoninoftheworld,huddledatinthebottomofawell, exhausted from the thousands of miles of traveling and from the life changing choices I’d made But,pleasedolet me look at the sky above me. Please, at least let me imagine,inthisregret,letmeimagineattheendofhistory,the love and hate and the songs and dances, the screaming and crying, the game shows and gunfights under the spotlightsontopofthestage

Art-Kinetic Photography

Mingzhu Victoria Huang

Laurel Journal of Humanities

Untitled Photography Emily Tang

Beasty Beauty Art

Emily Dong

Untitled Photography Emily Tang