conceptualization of field dependence (FD) and field independence (FI) (Witkin, Dyke, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971). Applications and analyses of the FD - FI continuum have been investigated in thousands of studies over the past thirty years, making this without question the most comprehensively tested of the various approaches to defining learning (or cognitive) style. These "tests" assess students' relative FD-FI through their ability to find designated simple figures within complex plates or drawings. Figure 6.1 illustrates the kind of problem posed by these tests (although it is not an actual item from them).
Simple Form A
Find Simple Form A
(In the administration of the Embedded Figures Tests, subjects are first shown the simple form, then the complex form. They do not see them side by side.) Figure 6.1 Representative Embedded Figures Task Field Dependent (FD) people are "lumpers," who find it difficult to split parts out of the whole. They are often good at creative tasks, are better able to learn socially relevant material, favor interactive teaching methods, and have lower performance expectations. They find it difficult to make sense of individual lessons if they have not first been given an overview of the big picture, so they know in advance how the separate facts and ideas fit together. FDs more frequently assume a passive or spectator learning role, and are more affected by both negative and positive reinforcement, by authority, and by the opinions of others. They are particularly attentive to nonverbal cues and affective relationships. They enjoy
interpersonal
interaction
and
are
often
attracted
to
interpersonally-oriented
occupations. Educationally disadvantaged students, such as those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, tend to be more field dependent than the norm. Field Independent (FI) people are "splitters," who tend to analytically examine the big picture in terms of its parts. They have less need for externally provided structure or
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