Kent Political Almanac ‘Global Edition’ Third Issue
Issue 3 (2016)
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EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
ACADEMIC ADVISORS
Moonira Mamoon
Dr Paolo Dardanelli Professor Elena Korosteleva
EDITORIAL BOARD Agathe Hugel Claudia Hill Emil Tan
Ms Eske Van Gills Dr Ian MacKenzie Mr Igor Merheim-Eyre Dr Pak Lee Dr Ruth Blakeley
Eugenie Megally Mathilde Lang
LAYOUT & DESIGN
Philip Gonzalo Taylor
Mehdi Abakarim
James Walker
Robert Small
ABOUT THE KENT POLITICAL ALMANAC The Kent Political Almanac was created to provide a platform for academic debate and peer-reviewed publication opportunities for students in Politics and International Relations. This journal’s purpose is to showcase the School’s best undergraduate and postgraduate essays. The initiative came from students of the School of Politics and International Relations, which led to the journal being launched in November 2013. All articles are peer-reviewed by both students and members of the School’s academic staff. We are proud to be an entirely student-led publication, supported from our School of Politics and International Relations at the University of Kent.
Kent Political Almanac School of Politics and International Relations Rutherford College, University of Kent Canterbury, Kent, UK. CT2 7NX Blog: http://blogs.kent.ac.uk/kentpoliticalalmanac/ E-mail: kentpoliticalalmanac@gmail.com
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CONTENTS The ontology of ‘terrorism’: The impact of definition 4
GLOBAL EDITION
Imperial China, East Asia, and five centuries of regional peace and security 12
Welcome to this special issue In its third year running, the Kent Political Almanac (KPA) continues to provide an opportunity for Politics and International Relations students at the University of Kent to have their work published on a professional platform. This publication marks the third issue of the KPA and the first of two editions in 2016. It takes a different perspective from previous publications in that the articles within are
The clash of titans and the failure of diplomacy in 19th century China 18 Europe’s Achilles heel: A common army? 25 A state in limbo: Serbia and the politics of transition 32
focused on different issues across the world, hence following a ‘global’ theme. This student-led journal has substantially grown over the years and we
Has increased EU immigration affected levels of Xenophobia in the UK? 38
hope to develop our publication more in terms of exposure and
Disengaged or disillusioned:
number of editions throughout the year. We would like to thank all of
Political participation in Britain today 47
the authors who contributed to this issue and those who had submitted their works to the KPA in general. We have continued to receive a very high quality of papers across the board from students,
To what extent does neo-trusteeship impact on state sovereignty 56
which in turn, holds promise to the future. Of course, none of this would be possible without the committed team of editors who had volunteered their time in reviewing the selected works and assisting the authors reach a high standard in their writings. We are also especially grateful to the members of staff from the School of Politics and International Relations, who gave their time to be part of the review process and helped advertise this opportunity to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. We hope that you will enjoy reading this issue of the KPA, as it will surely take you on a journey across the world through a political lens! Moonira Mamoon Editor-In-Chief
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BY KIERAN O’MEARA A crucial element impacting our understanding of ‘terrorism’ is in its own definition. This article will explore three ways in which the definition of ‘terrorism’ impacts our understanding of the phenomenon itself. Through a dialectic analysis, this article explores the debate surrounding the ontology of terrorism itself and shall ultimately investigate the flaws in the numerous conceptualisations surrounding the notion that ‘terrorism’, in itself, is simply an ‘essentially contested concept’. The aim of this piece is no more than to take a journey of conceptualisation that is indeed lacking within the wider literature, synthesising the orthodox and critical perspectives in an attempt to find the ontology behind our key concept. To demonstrate this, there will be an analysis of three conceptual mechanisms of ‘terrorism’ by the: ‘nature of the act’, ‘nature of the actor’, and more controversially, ‘nature of the definer’. Overall, this article shall show that the mechanical adaptations of definitions ultimately influence what we perceive ‘terrorism’ to be, and it is consequently these mechanisms that limit our understanding of the wider phenomenon.
THE ONTOLOGY OF ‘TERRORISM’: THE IMPACT OF DEFINITION ‘Terrorism’ is one example of Walter Gallie’s “essentially contested concepts” 1. This can be illustrated by exploring how the mechanisms behind the definitional debate of ‘terrorism’ have ultimately impacted the way in which we understand the phenomenon itself. Alongside this, the underlying question underpinning this enquiry shall also be addressed; specifically how is it that the definitional debate has impacted on our perception of terrorism, resulting in a deeper level of investigation. ‘Terrorism’ shall therefore not be conceptualised here. Instead this article is aimed at examining competing definitions of the term, as a means of showing how this has shaped our ability to better conceptualise terrorism. Also, the term ‘definitional debate’ shall be understood as the outcomes of the discourse between perspectives surrounding the definition of ‘terrorism’. By utilising a dialectic method of analysis, three central definitional mechanisms that shape the conceptual debate will be investigated. The terms definitional mechanism’, or ‘method’, shall be utilised throughout this piece, representing an approach to definition that intern programs (or mechanises) an explicit outlook on the concept, and therefore the phenomenon itself. These mechanisms that shall be discussed are: the ‘nature of the act’, the ‘nature of the actor’, and the ‘motive of the definer’. Overall, the definitional debate surrounding ‘terrorism’ impacts our understanding of the phenomenon because definition in turn, adapts our ontological perspective as to what ‘terrorism’ is in resulting from the principles of our definitional mechanisms.
The ‘Nature of The Act’ Firstly, in defining by the ‘nature of the act’, our ontological perception of ‘terrorism’ is impacted upon by improving our understanding. Although scholars have spent decades attempting to find a common definition of terrorism, the concept itself is now more illusionary than ever2. In an attempt to break this illusion, one of the ways ‘terrorism’ may be defined is by the ‘nature of the act’ that it constitutes, allowing ‘terrorism’ to be best grasped as a tactic or method of fighting, not as an ideology 3. In defining terrorism by this mechanism, we shall look at the aggregated frequency of definitional elements in our key concept. This shows us that an overarching definition would term an ‘act of terrorism’ as: “Involving the threat or use of force or violence in which the pursuit of publicity plays a significant role” 4. Brian Jenkins argues that ‘terrorism’ must be defined by what is done, encapsulating not only the role of violence and force that appears in the definition above; but also the intent to incite wider terror, separating terrorist activity from criminal activity 5. Thus, in this way we are able to isolate criminal violence or hate crimes from ‘terrorism’, as for ‘ terrorism’: “The immediate victims are not as important as the broader message sent to the public”6. This allows us to differentiate between criminality such as the cartel activity of Pablo Escobar in Colombia, to the paramilitary activity of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Britain and Ireland for example. Hence, this boils down to the incitement of terror and use of violence within terrorism that is perceived to be altruistic, as for the example of the IRA compared to a criminal, such as Pablo Escobar, follows an egocentric path7. Relating this to our enquiry, by placing an emphasis on ‘the act’ at the source of the definition, the debate clarifies our ontological grasp of the phenomenon, distinguishing it from criminality and as a form of ideology. 1
W.B. Gallie, ‘Essentially Contested Concepts’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 56 (1955/1956), 167-198 (p.167). 2 H Cooper, ‘Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited’, American Behavioural Scientist, 44.6 (2001), 881-893 (p.891). 3 C.A.J. Coady, ‘Defining Terrorism’, in Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues, ed. by Igor Primoratz (Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 3-14 (p.7). 4 Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur and Sivan Hirsch-Hoefler, ‘The Challenges of Conceptualizing Terrorism’, Terrorism and Political Violence, 16.4 (2004), pp.777-794 (p. 777). 5 Brian Jenkins, The Study of Terrorism: Definitional Problems. (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation: RAND Paper Series, 1980) <http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P6563.html> [accessed 4 December 2015] (p.1-2). 6 Alan B. Kreuger, What Makes A Terrorist: Economics and the Roots of Terrorism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), p.15. 7 David J. Whittaker, The Terrorism Reader (New York: Routledge, 2007), p.9.
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Alternatively, this perception can be undermined, as defining terrorism by the ‘nature of the act’ does not alter our ontological perception of our central phenomenon. In the confusion of this debate, its sentiment is captured by the thinker Christopher Joyner, who argues that the phenomenon of ‘terrorism’ eludes a distinct and precise definition; one only knows it when it is seen, making a universally agreed definition unrealistic8. This definitional mechanism, although placing the concept within perceived ‘objective’ boundaries, impacts only to the superficial ease of definition; causing confusion and misconception through its attempt to prescribe a universality of action to the concept 9. Even though defining by the ‘nature of the act’ separates ‘terrorists’ from criminals, it cannot separate ‘terrorists’ from guerrilla movements in their actions: “What distinguishes terrorists from the others is not the extent of violence” 10. Thereby militant guerrilla groups, for instance the Marxist Guerrilha do Araguaia in Cold War Brazil who fought against military rule, cannot be distinguished from groups such as the religious doomsday faction Aum Shinrikyo in Japan; or even to an extent the violent anti-abortionist groups in the United States of America (US) today. It is in this manner the definitional debate is flawed and consequently holds no impact on our ontological understanding of the phenomenon, due to the debate’s definitional mechanism at its source: the ‘nature of the act’. Nevertheless, although this mechanism in theory allows for clarity, it can be said the definitional debate makes no impact on our understanding of the phenomenon and creates a clouding impact on our ontological grasp. As we have seen, defining by the ‘nature of the act’, although demystifies to a certain extent what defines ‘terrorism’, does not assist us in defining who is a ‘terrorist’ upon partisan or structural lines. This permits us to define both non-state and guerrilla movements as terrorists; but also states, impacting our understanding through its uncertainty. For an illustration, prominent critical thinker, Noam Chomsky argues that by defining ‘terrorism’ according to the use of violence or force through intimidation, we are able to consider states, such as the US under Reagan’s administration in the 1980s, as international terrorists11. In defining terrorism by the ‘nature of the act’, we obscure our understanding in the complexity of identifying the terrorist actor. Thus, the conduct of The Soviet Union or the US during the Cold War may be paralleled to violent non-state movements, such as the Zionist Lehi (Stern Gang) who acted to remove Britain from Palestine and create a Jewish state; or Hamas who, in their perspective, act to free Palestine from Israeli occupation12. Apart from projecting contradiction, this reinforces the claim made by Walter Laqueur in his conceptualisation of ‘Terrorism’, stating that such debates about finding a detailed definition will “continue for a long time… [and] will not result in a consensus”13. Therefore, the discourse surrounding the ‘nature of the act’ does hold an ontological impact on our understanding of ‘terrorism’ as a phenomenon, not an impact of clarity, but rather perpetuating contestation that ultimately allows us to disregard our antithesis due to the effect this mechanism holds at the linguistic source of definition.
““In defining terrorism by the ‘nature of the act’, we obscure our understanding in the complexity of identifying the terrorist actor.”
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Charles Kegley, International Terrorism (New York: St Martin’s, 1990), p.11-12. Stephen Nathanson, Terrorism and the Ethics of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p.20. 10 David J. Whittaker, Terrorists and Terrorism: In The Contemporary World (London: Routledge, 2004), p.4. 11 Noam Chomsky and Gilbert Archer, Perilous Power: The Middle East and US Foreign Policy Dialogues on Terror, Democracy, War and Justice (London: Penguin Books, 2007), pp.1-2. 12 Rosemary H.T. O’Kane, Terrorism (Harlow: Pearson, 2012), p.8. 13 Walter Z. Laqueur, Terrorism (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977), p.79. 9
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The ‘Nature of The Actor’ Connecting to the limitations of our first definitional method, in distinguishing between actors, we shall now see that the debate surrounding ‘terrorism’ by ‘the nature of the actor’, allows for an enhancing impact upon our understanding of ‘terrorism’, ultimately adapting our ontological perception of the phenomenon. The orthodox thinker Bruce Hoffman argues that what constitutes ‘terrorism’ through the ‘nature of the actor’ is a “subnational group or non-state entity”14. It is precisely what this method of definition addresses in which the previous cannot, allowing a critique of Jenkins’ perspective. Although this evaluation of the first definitional method produces some form of clarity, the critical perspective in the debate contests its grounds. Here, the critical episteme rests within Max Horkheimer, who stated orthodox thinkers perceive society to be a “sum-total of facts: it is there and must be accepted”15. Utilising this, orthodox scholars such as Hoffman, Laqueur or Martha Crenshaw see the world in this way, subscribing to the conventional order and therefore prescribing terrorists explicitly as non-state actors16. This is highlighted by Ruth Blakeley, who contends that due to this orthodoxy the concept of state terrorism, illustrated by the policy of the global north to the global south of for example in Latin America, is not brought to the forefront of the conceptual definition17. Consequently, the definitional debate surrounding the ‘nature of the actor’ has clearly impacted our ontological understanding of terrorism, as the orthodox-critical debate of this method has allowed us to include state actors as ‘terrorists’, not simply non-state actors; consenting us to view certain state’s policy as acts of ‘terrorism’.
“The orthodox-critical debate of this method has allowed us to include state actors as ‘terrorists’, not simply non-state actors; consenting us to view certain state’s policy as acts of terrorism.” On the other hand, by debating through the definitional mechanism of the ‘nature of the actor’, our ontological perception of ‘terrorism’ remains unchanged. Our antithesis shows credibility, as there is an endemic issue among thinkers like Hoffman in defining ‘terrorism’ through the violence of non-state actors where the methodological issues of selection-bias in terrorism studies are projected18. It is by using critical perspectives; we are able to see that ‘terrorism’ has been “virtually appropriated by mainstream political discussion to signify atrocities targeting the West”19. This definitional mechanism has produced a major focus on left-wing groups, such as the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) of Iraq and Turkey who seek national independence, or the Sandinistas of Nicaragua as socialist revolutionaries 20. This has occurred due to the ideological biases of orthodox scholars, who remove right-wing state-sponsored groups from definition, such as the US sponsored Nicaraguan Contras in opposition to the Sandinistas, sanctioning critical theorists to define states’ actions as ‘terrorism’ through sponsorship 21. Thus, the definitional debate does not impact on our ontological understanding of ‘terrorism’ as a phenomenon because the mechanism to which definitions have been forged in the debate, by the ‘nature of the actor’, are inherently defective and subject to selection bias’ that only produce false understandings of the phenomenon in the first place; consequently making the debate ineffective in its impact on our ontological
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Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), p.40. Max Horkheimer, ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’, in Critical Theory: Selected Essays, ed. by Max Horkheimer (New York: Continuum, 1982), pp 188-252 (p.199). 16 Harmonie Toros, Terrorism, Talking and Transformation: A Critical Approach (New York: Routledge, 2012), pp. 18-19. 17 Ruth Blakeley, ‘Bringing the State Back into Terrorism Studies’, European Political Science, 6 (2007), pp. 228-235. 18 Alex Minz and David Brule, ‘Methodological Issues in Studying Suicide Terrorism’, Political Psychology, 30 (2009), pp.365-371, (p.365). 19 Alexander George, Western State Terrorism (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991), p. 1. 20 Richard Jackson, ‘An Argument For Terrorism’, Perspectives On Terrorism, 2 (2008), pp 25-32, (p. 26). 21 Ibid., p.26. 15
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understanding. Nonetheless, defining ’terrorism’ by the ‘nature of the actor’, impacts our ontological perception of the concept, but meanwhile holds little effect upon our understanding of the phenomenon as a whole, deepening contestation. Here, the debate allows us to see that ‘terrorism’ is a method of violence committed on random targets to influence the wider political behaviour, applying to both state and sub-state organisations, and therefore is simply a ‘special’ form of political violence22. To relate this to our investigation, this only furthers confusion in understanding ‘terrorism’ as this amalgamation of both the orthodox and critical perspectives, being an outcome of the definitional debate towards the ‘nature of the actor’, may also encompass internal state terror. This notion is discussed primarily by the renowned scholar Hannah Arendt, who argued that terror within totalitarian regimes is not simply for the suppression of the population, but also to signify the state’s ‘perfect rule’ through terror23. Consequently, as a result of the debate’s outcome surrounding this definitional mechanism, state action characterised by both internal and external terror may be embraced as ‘terrorism’. Thus, Nazi Germany’s internal terror, the US’s foreign policy throughout the Cold War and Al-Qaeda’s agency for example, may all be referred to as acts of ‘terrorism’. This therefore allows us to reject our antithesis, as the debate impacts our ontological understanding of the phenomenon because the definitional debate clouds our ontological grasp by incorporating too many factors, that is inherently connected to this definitional mechanism.
The ‘Nature of the Definer’ Linking to both previous definitional methods employed within the debate, here this focus is inverted; concentrating on how the definitional characteristics of ‘terrorism’ adapt alongside the motive of the definer, concluding that this mechanism assists our understanding that in turn; adapts our ontological perceptions. The definitions currently employed by the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) and the US State Department reflect official institutional positions: stressing coercion, unlawfulness, and premeditation of violence; all reinforcing and legally entrenching the orthodox perspective within state law24. Many legal scholars argue that the resoluteness of law officially constitutes the way in which
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Paul Wilkinson, ‘International Terrorism: New Risks to World Order’, in Dilemmas of World Politics, ed. by John Baylis and N.J. Rengger (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 228-260, (p.229). 23 Hannah Arendt, ‘Ideology and Terror: A Novel Form of Government’, The Review of Politics, 15 (1953), pp. 303-327, (p.310). 24 David J. Whittaker, The Terrorism Reader (New York: Routledge, 2007), p.4.
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we define the world, influencing our ontological perceptions25. For example, White concludes, “Whoever has the power to define legitimacy has the power to define terrorism”26. Hence, as the state holds the power to define legitimacy, placing it in itself, these institutional definitions allow us to see ‘terrorists’ as those that fit the legal, and thus official actions of ‘terrorism’ such as individuals currently held in the US’s Guantanamo Bay detention camp27. In line with the debate’s critical perspectives, these acts of counterterrorism may in fact constitute ‘terrorism’, leading to the state apparatus’ definitional adjustment when necessary, so as to not include the actions of themselves within their own definitions28. Therefore, the definitions by states ultimately hold the ability to paint the phenomenon for the desired political effect, adapting our current ontological acuity of ‘terrorism’, permitting us to encompass the legal nature of definition as part of the phenomenon in itself; as state action to combat the phenomenon fit, in many ways, their own definition. Therefore the definitional debate impacts our ontological understanding of ‘terrorism’ as a result of the debate surrounding the ‘motive of the definer’, that is consequent only to this definitional mechanism at the source of deliberation: the ‘motive of the definer’.
“Whoever has the power to define legitimacy has the power to define terrorism. ” Alternatively however, in order to project the antithesis, the effect of the debate surrounding the ‘motive of the definer’, holds no ontological impact upon our understanding of the overall phenomenon. Jörg Friedrichs outlines that the conflict between individuals and states to define ‘terrorism’ is a continual or perpetual struggle, and the actions in addition to motivations of terrorists continually blur the lines between ‘good’ and ‘evil’29. Although the status quo is challenged in this manner, the allies and beneficiaries of a hegemonic order in the international sphere have no interest in adapting the status quo, so to accommodate hegemony. This point is uniquely demonstrated by one of the United Nations’ definitions of ‘terrorist activity’ as “intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians and non-combatants, when the purpose of such an act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a Government or an international organisation to do or to abstain from doing any act”30. This illustrates and sustains the view presented by Friedrichs, as the language utilised highlights the orthodoxy that rests within the status quo of the definitional debate. This outlines that institutional definitions are specifically created subjectively, flawing our objective ability to understand the overall phenomenon31. For that reason, the debate surrounding the effect of who defines the concept holds no impact upon our ontological understanding of the phenomenon, because these institutional definitions are innately subjective so to sustain the orthodox status-quo in definition; showing no real impact of the wider debate upon our intellect. Finally, the wider definitional debate that encapsulates the ‘motive of the definer’ explains in its totality the multifaceted nature as to why ‘terrorism’ is so complex to define and the complexity of the debate’s impact, weakening or ontological understanding of the concept itself. The focal outcome of the definitional debate is 25
Stephen E. Barkan, Law and Society: An Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2015), p.9. Jonathan R. White, Terrorism: An Introduction (Belmont: Wadsworth, 2003), p.9. 27 Amnesty International USA. Torture and Other Ill Treatment (New York: Amnesty International USA, 2015) <http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/torture> [accessed 5 December 2015]. 28 Noam Chomsky, Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest For Global Dominance. (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2003), p.188-189. 29 Jorg Friedrichs, ‘Defining the International Public Enemy: The Political Struggle Behind the Legal Debate on International Terrorism’, Leiden Journal of International Law, 19 (2006), pp. 69-91, (p. 89-90). 30 The United Nations, A More Secure World: Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change. (New York: The United Nations, 2004). <http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pdf/ historical/ hlp_more_ secure_world.pdf> [accessed 7th December 2015] (p. 164). 31 David J. Whittaker, The Terrorism Reader (New York: Routledge, 2007), p.4. 26
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that of an ontological change, showing us that a legitimate state, or international institution has the ability to subjectively adapt these ‘official’ definitions to enforce an orthodoxy referencing the ‘nature of the actor’, that is within the interest of these institutions32. Therefore, we are able to deduce that the meaning behind ‘terrorism’ has adapted with the political circumstances of the time33. For example within the US, the definition of ‘terrorism’ was redefined after the attacks on the World Trade Centre in September 2001 to re-accommodate non-state violence34. Although the definitional debate allows us to understand that the ‘motives of the definer’ effect definition due to political circumstances, this naturally has a consequent effect on the way in which we ontologically view the world, permitting definition according to bias. However, this produces little clarity by only showing the concept and therefore the phenomenon is subjectively defined, clouding our understanding of universality to the phenomenon overall. Thus, this mechanism of definition produces a negative impact upon our understanding, but an ontological impact nonetheless.
Conclusion This article has shown that the outcomes of the definitional debate surrounding the concept of ‘terrorism’ have adjusted our ontological perceptions of the phenomenon. Within this enquiry, three ontological adaptations have impacted on our understanding of ‘terrorism’, which occur out of the definitional mechanisms applied to define the concept. This has shown how the definitional method that is applied to the debate adapts our ontology by impacting on our understanding of the act of ‘terrorism’, which may then be considered a ‘terrorist’ and also on the impact to which the definer them self has on these constructs. Although the nature of this adaptation is contestable, whether positive or negative in clarifying our understanding of the concept, an ontological change in our perceptions of ‘terrorism’ have thus undoubtedly occurred following the definitional debate. Additionally, I can now reveal that the question at the heart of our investigation itself was flawed; implying that the definitional debate unsurprisingly influences our understanding of the phenomenon. This flaw allowed us to explore in further depth the multi-faceted nature of the overall topic, which could not have been investigated if this defect was not inherent to our enquiry. Therefore, the results of the definitional debate surrounding the concept of ‘terrorism’ has impacted
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Ben Saul, ‘Attempts to Define “Terrorism” in International Law’, Netherlands International Law Review, 52 (2005), pp.57-83, (p.58). 33 Alex P. Schmid, The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research (London: Routledge, 2011), p.49. 34 Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), p.18.
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the way in which we perceive how the phenomenon works, as a direct effect of the way in which it is debated; based upon which definitional mechanism is utilised to approach definition. This outcome holds political consequences, as it permits an analysis of ‘terrorism’ through the numerous definitional mechanisms within its conceptualisation; providing further critical tools through which to view the phenomenon in the future. This in itself prompts further research in to other, unconventional, definitions and their impact. Nevertheless, it is clear that Gallie’s assumption that ‘terrorism’ is an ‘essentially contested concept’ is not only pivotal to the definitional debate’s outcomes so far, but will for the foreseeable future.
Bibliography Amnesty International USA, Torture and Other Ill Treatment (New York: Amnesty International USA, 2015) <http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/torture> [accessed 5 December 2015] Arendt, Hannah, ‘Ideology and Terror: A Novel Form of Government’, The Review of Politics, 15 (1953) Barkan, Steven E., Law and Society: An Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2015) Blakeley, Ruth, ‘Bringing the State Back into Terrorism Studies’. European Political Science, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2007) Chomsky, Noam and Gilbert Archer, Perilous Power: The Middle East and US Foreign Policy Dialogues on Terror, Democracy, War and Justice (London: Penguin Books, 2007) Chomsky, Noam, Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest For Global Dominance (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2003) Chomsky, Noam and Vltchek, Andre, On Western Terrorism: From Hiroshima to Drone Warfare (New York: Pluto Press, 2013) Coady, C.A.J., ‘Defining Terrorism’ in Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues, ed. by Igor Primoratz (Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) Cooper, H, ‘Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited’, American Behavioural Scientist, 44 (2001) Dugard, John, ‘International Terrorism: Problems of Definition’, International Affairs, 50 (1974) Friedrichs, Jorg, ‘Defining the International Public Enemy: The Political Struggle Behind the Legal Debate on International Terrorism’, Leiden Journal of International Law, 19 (2006) Gallie, W.B., ‘Essentially Contested Concepts’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 56 (1955/1956) George, Alexander, Western State Terrorism (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991) Hoffman, Bruce, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006) Horkheimer, Max. ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’ in Critical Theory: Selected Essays, ed. by Max Horkheimer (New York: Continuum, 1982) Jackson, Richard, ‘An Argument For Terrorism’, Perspectives On Terrorism, 2 (2008) Jenkins, Brian, The Study of Terrorism: Definitional Problems (London: RAND Corporation, 1980) <http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P6563.html> [accessed 4 December 2015]
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Kegley, Charles, International Terrorism (New York: St Martin’s, 1990) Kreuger, Alan B., What Makes A Terrorist: Economics and the Roots of Terrorism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007) Laqueur, Walter Z., Terrorism (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977) Minz, Alex. and David Brule, ‘Methodological Issues in Studying Suicide Terrorism’, Political Psychology, 30 (2009) Nathanson, Stephen, Terrorism and the Ethics of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) O’Kane, Rosemary H. T., Terrorism (Harlow: Pearson, 2012) Saul, Ben, ‘Attempts to Define “Terrorism” in International Law’, Netherlands International Law Review, 52 (2005) Schmid, Alex P., The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research (London: Routledge, 2011) Toros, Harmonie, Terrorism, Talking and Transformation: A Critical Approach (New York: Routledge, 2012) United Nations, A More Secure World: Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change’ (New York: The United Nations, 2004) <http:// www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pdf/historical/hlp_more_ secure_world.pdf> [accessed 7th December 2015] Weinberg, Leonard, Ami Pedahzur and Sivan Hirsch-Hoefler, ‘The Challenges of Conceptualizing Terrorism’, Terrorism and Political Violence, 16 (2004) White, Jonathan R., Terrorism: An Introduction (Belmont: Wadsworth, 2003) Whittaker, David J., Terrorists and Terrorism: In The Contemporary World (London: Routledge, 2004) Whittaker, David J., The Terrorism Reader (New York: Routledge, 2007) Wilkinson, Paul, ‘International Terrorism: New Risks to World Order’ in Dilemmas of World Politics, ed. by John. Rengger Baylis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992)
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BY JOE DAY From 1368 to 1841 there was a long and enduring time of peace and regional security in East Asia. This was quite unprecedented making it a fascinating case study in the field of International Relations studies. This article attempts to comprehend the role played by Imperial China, which is by far the largest and most materially preponderant actor in the region during this time. Analysis in this article focuses on theories of hierarchy in IR according to David Lake, and contrasts such ideas of Security Hierarchy and Economic Hierarchy with the contemporary political reality. Through this method, it can be concluded that during the four centuries of peace and regional security in question, Imperial China does not fit quite perfectly with either of these designations. Rather it appears to have created for itself through the factors of pragmatic external relations, tributary relations, and material preponderance - a Civilizational Hierarchy that binds China’s neighbours in a Sino centric regime. Perhaps this is due to the unique geographic location of Chinese civilization relative to its neighbouring powers, which served well to maintain regional peace and security over time.
IMPERIAL CHINA, EAST ASIA, AND FIVE CENTURIES OF REGIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY This article seeks to address why Imperial China enjoyed five centuries of relative peace with its neighbouring states between the founding of the Ming dynasty and the Opium Wars, and the role that China played in maintaining such peace and security. This period of history is notable because it reflects an unusually long era of relative peace. This article’s arguments, however, will reinterpret this period according to empirical historical circumstances and defines China’s external political realities through the lens of David Lake’s writings on theories of hierarchy 1 in International Relations (IR). To that end, I will question whether the five centuries were as peaceful as had been previously stipulated, then interpret China’s role in this period based on its military primacy, tributary relations, and the degree of pragmatism practised by China’s leaders. Finally, the phenomenon whereby China sat atop a cultural hierarchy, which was by no means based solely in security or economic concerns and was not the sole means by which China’s external relations were conducted, plays a subsequent role in the state of affairs of China’s role in maintaining East Asian peace and security in the timeframe of the proposed question. But first, to frame such inquiries within the wider context of contemporary debates in IR theory on the issue of hierarchy, it is important to justify why we should glance back in time to the IR of China’s periphery in an age prior to and later concurrent with the emergence of the Westphalian inter-state system on the European continent. This article will ultimately conclude that this ancient, obscure, and often overlooked time-period and settings have an abundance of fascinating case studies for the avid IR scholar.
The crisis of anarchy in IR theory: Why hierarchy matters Owing to the collapse of the Soviet bloc, the easing of East-West tensions, the subsequent end of the Cold War and the ‘unipolar moment’, being the concept of fundamental anarchy in the international environment, has been subject to resurgence in literature that seeks to define, identify, and explain hierarchy in IR 2. This is problematic because the well-established IR positions of Realism and of Neoliberal Institutionalism take international anarchy to be their foundation for a belief of the state as the principal actor on the global landscape3. A theme that has emerged in the resultant literature of this spat between the venerable concept of international anarchy and the up-and-coming subject of hierarchy in IR is an identity crisis for the former postulate; for how can there be anarchy if there is the imposition of sets of values over others4 as a result of hierarchy or hegemony in international affairs5? For John Hobson, the existence of international hierarchy has been apparent throughout the age of imperialism and the post-colonial era, because successive generations of European academia have undermined the sovereignty of much of the world outside of Western Europe6, and in doing so created a European hierarchy based in the post-colonial period on a nonsensical claim in the superiority of 1
David A. Lake, Hierarchy in International Relations (New York: Cornell University Press, 2009), p.1-16. David A. Lake, ‘Escape from the State of Nature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics’, International Security, 32 (2007), p.48. 3 Kenneth W. Abbott and Duncan Snidal, ‘Why States Act through Formal International Organizations’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998), pp.3–32. 4 Ian Hurd, ‘Legitimacy and Authority in international Politics’, International Organisation, 53 (1999), p.383. 5 Tim Dunne, ‘Society and Hierarchy in International Relations’, International Relations, 17 (2003), pp. 303–20. 6 John Stuart Mill, ‘A Few Words on Non-intervention’ in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill XXI, ed. by J. M. Robson (Toronto: University Press, 1984), p.118. 2
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European rationalism7. Ian Clark further demonstrates that the existence of global hierarchy, or even global hegemony does not fundamentally contradict the concept of international anarchy, for the sound rationale that the former two conceptions do not infer “unchecked primacy”8. Hence, the concept of hierarchy in IR studies does not undermine traditional Realist and Neoliberal positions, but rather enhances the scope of their theoretical implications. That being said, David Lake’s writings is perhaps more theoretically generalisable and operational for the purposes of this inquiry when compared to those of Hobson, which is why this article draws more attention to the former and none to the latter.
“How can there be anarchy if there is the imposition of sets of values over others as a result of hierarchy or hegemony in international affairs?” The problems of peace: Five centuries of intermittent conflict The premise of the inquiry that this article seeks to answer is problematic because it infers a long period of near uninterrupted peace in East Asia, when the historical truth is that China alone was involved in several military conflicts in this period and was not always successful. China had fought a lengthy war in the sixteenth century against Buddhist Mongols, the Zunghars, resulting in the subjugation of Tibet as a protectorate of the Qing empire until the “Qing invasion [of Tibet] in 1751”9 that followed the assassination of two Chinese scholar officials a year earlier. In the same period, Qing armies had not been able to defeat the Burmese after Burma sacked Laos, drawing China into an unsuccessful war in the decade after 175010. The premise that East Asia was totally peaceful during this period is not accurate as although wars between China and its neighbours, Japan, Vietnam, and Korea was uncommon; conflicts between China and other entities and states did occur. Therefore, we can assess China’s role in maintaining regional peace and security in this light by making the generalisation that the major civilizations in East Asia were not fundamentally changed by conflict with China where it existed, but that conflict did exist nonetheless when states and entities infringed upon China’s interests.
Imperial China’s military primacy: The implications of military power on hierarchy An argument could be made in that China enjoyed military primacy during this period, and subsequently was able to deter attacks by other states in the region, thus reducing the likelihood of conflict whilst extending its hierarchy over other actors through the use of legitimate military force. Due to its large population and relative technological superiority11, as well as a domestic culture which “[glorified] self-sacrifice for the collective”12, China certainly enjoyed military primacy in the region at this time, so much so that from the midst of the 17 th to 18th century, China was the dominant force in East Asia13. It stands to reason that China’s strength relative to its neighbours served to deter them from aggression against it, and China’s territorial size blocked most avenues of conflict between 7
John Hobson, ‘The Twin Self-Delusion of IR: Why ‘Hierarchy’ and Not ‘Anarchy’ Is the Core Concept of IR’, Journal of International Studies, 42 (2014), p.569. 8 Ian Clark, ‘How Hierarchical Can International Society Be’, International Relations, 23 (2009), p.476. 9 Warren I. Cohen, East Asia at the Center (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p.222. 10 Ibid., p.221. 11 Jay P. Corrin, June M. Grasso, and Michael Kort, Modernization and Revolution in China (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2009), p.6 12 Sujian Guo, Chinese Politics and Government: Power, Ideology and Organization (London: Routledge, 2013), p.50. 13 Cohen, p.216.
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its neighbouring states. Therefore it can be argued that China maintained a level of peace and security in the region through a security hierarchy of varying strength with external polities, for example exhibiting stronger hierarchy in Tibet, where military occupation granted the Chinese many actions to legitimately command where “hierarchy is high”14, whilst not exhibiting such behaviour elsewhere. The militarily hierarchical justification for China’s role in maintaining a generally stable state of affairs in East Asia at this time, by virtue of its unilateral military strength certainly provides some insight into the matter, is by no means exhaustive in understanding why China played an ultimately significant role in East Asian peace and security at this time.
天下 (Tianxia) “Under Heaven”: cultural power, Sino-centrism and Civilisational Hierarchy Another crucial aspect of China’s behaviour that helped cordial relations to be enjoyed across East Asia at this time was its insistence upon the Sino-centric tributary system. This system emerged during the rule of Emperor Wu (141-87 BCE) where it was deemed “economically unfeasible” and “militarily unsustainable” for China to annex its neighbours15, and that all subsequent relations between China and these vassal states would “focus on the ritualistic façade of the Chinese Emperor’s superiority”16. From this perspective China was considered “the glorious centre” from which, the further one strayed and the less civilised one was considered 17. From this grew the Sino-centric notion that relations were to be based on a Confucian hierarchy, in which “each member state had their prescribed place” 18. With the Chinese Emperor being seen as the ‘Son of Heaven’19, the Chinese state received tributes from states that engaged in this system. This order of superiority enabled the Chinese to willing to engage in trade and peaceful relations 20. The Confucian system however had also transcended strained relations between China and its neighbours, such as between 1736-1799, when even “Burma and Nepalese Gurkhas accepted tributary status”21, or earlier still, prior to Japan’s expulsion from the tributary system when “the Shogun accepted that role for pragmatic reasons to profit from trade” 22. Because the tributary system included the adoption of Confucian practises in the lesser states, this strengthens China’s moral leadership in the region because “Confucian thinking reflects deeply rooted Chinese concepts” 23, which significantly points to China at this time as a potential hegemon and guarantor of peace and security. The impact of the tributary system in creating peaceful relationships through “shared values, norms, and institutions” 24 cannot be understated in East Asia at this time, and this Sino-centric system heavily suggests that China played a crucial role in regional peace and security through Confucian hierarchy, which in turn behaved like a form of hierarchy in IR that has not been covered by, but is not at odds with, Lake’s writings on international hierarchy.
Chinese pragmatism: the maintenance apparatus of peace and security Chinese pragmatism with regards to their external relations during this time was another crucial factor in the role China played in East Asian regional security. As already established, by the mid-17th century China was the preeminent power in East
14
Lake (2009), p.45. Yuri Pines, The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy (Princeton University Press, 2012), p.35. 16 Pines, p.35. 17 Grasso, p.3. 18 Ibid., p.26. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid. 21 Cohen, p.221. 22 Ibid., p.230. 23 Grasso, p.17. 24 Brett Bowden, The Empire of Civilization: The Evolution of an Imperial Idea (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), p.103. 15
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Asia, and although it is easy to view Chinese actions at this time as pertaining solely to the tributary system, China’s leaders “recognised emerging power structures, and responded pragmatically”25. This is perhaps best exhibited by Qing China’s pragmatic responses in dealing with the Russian eastward expansions into Siberia, which caused a security dilemma for the Qing leadership whose Manchu homeland faced the potential of Russian aggression at this time. After two separate instances of Sino-Russian conflict over the Albazin settlement, the Russian leadership opted for a negotiated settlement and the Qing leadership responded pragmatically by considering the Russians as equals by joining with them to negotiate the Treaty of Nerchinsk 168926. The reason why the Qing leadership responded pragmatically by not attempting to extend tributary status to Russia, lies in Chinese pre-occupation in the province of Xinjiang, where discontented local Muslim populations and outside nomads became a threat to China’s security due to unruly behaviour that likely stemmed from the decline of overland trade routes in favour of the emerging European sea trade routes in East Asia 27. Therefore, it can be drawn that from these circumstances, China was capable of altering the way in which it treated outside powers to balance relationships and reduce the likelihood of crippling security dilemmas outside of the tributary system, which nonetheless remained a crucial part of China’s external relations at this time. Even by treating the Russians as equals, against their Confucian and Sino-centric world view, the Chinese still insisted on kowtow, the ritual of prostrating oneself before the Chinese emperor to acknowledge their superiority28, to a Russian delegate of Peter the Great who was sent to Peking in 1719 for diplomatic purposes. In this sense, as stated by Cohen, the concept of imperial power is similar in meaning to both the Qing and European powers29 because China behaved in its external relations in various manners; some tributary, some as relationships of equals, and in other places exercising military power readily. This rational and pragmatic approach to external relations credits China with a central role, which to a great extent, kept regional relations cordial and peaceful through power balancing.
25
Cohen, p.243. Ibid., p.218. 27 Cohen, p.217. 28 Ibid., p.220. 29 Ibid., p.226. 26
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Civilisational hierarchy in IR: A summary of concluding thoughts Throughout this analysis of China’s role in East Asian peace and security in the specified timeframe, it appears that Lake’s theories of economic or security hierarchy is not applicable because there was no division of sovereignty between China and its neighbours30. For such hierarchies to exist, dominant states’ authority should cover “both the subordinates external relations and internal practises” 31; this refers to a reduction of the sovereignty of the lesser states in these areas. But owing to the relative autonomy that tributary states enjoyed 32, no such reduction of sovereignty took place in East Asian states at this time except with regards to their acceptable subordinate position to China, a single area of external policy, which infers that there were “relatively few actions that [the dominant state] could legitimately regulate” 33 leading to a low hierarchy, according to the provisions of Lake’s theory applied to East Asian international relations at this time. However, the Tianxia system afforded to China a veil of superiority that characterised its relations with many East Asian neighbour states, which although did not reduce their autonomy or sovereignty (with the exception of their status relative to China). This state of affairs can be understood in a relational approach where authority rests on a “social contract”34 between the dominant state providing a political order to the subordinate state, and in many cases China’s neighbours drew their own domestic sovereignty from their proximity to the Sino-centric system. This is best exhibited when the Vietnamese rebel leader offered tribute to China after the defeat of the Vietnamese ruling forces that previously called for Qing assistance35. This factor points to a Chinese civilizational hierarchy that promoted peace and security in the region at this time. To further support this, Japan’s informal relationship with China outside of the tributary system can be observed in that the formal relations between the two countries were almost impossible in the 18th century36, yet trade and informal contracts continued because China enjoyed a good relation with its tributary, Korea who acted as “the middlemen between China and Japan” 37. Through this complex relationship with its East Asian neighbours, China proved itself to be the central actor in many contemporary East Asian interstate relations at this time. To summarise, China’s role in maintaining East Asian peace and security is best exhibited by the implications of its civilisational hierarchy, drawn primarily from its tributary relations, the degree of pragmatism exercised by its leaders in external relations, and its military primacy in the five centuries in question, all of which in tandem produced a relatively stable regional order.
Bibliography Abbott, Kenneth W. and Duncan Snidal, ‘Why States Act through Formal International Organizations’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 42 (1998) Bowden, Brett, The Empire of Civilization: The Evolution of an Imperial Idea (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014) Clark, Ian, ‘How Hierarchical Can International Society Be’, International Relations, 23 (2009) Cohen, Warren I., East Asia at the Center (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000) Corrin, Jay P., June M. Grasso, and Michael Kort, Modernization and Revolution in
30
Lake (2009), p.3. Ibid., p.50. 32 Pines, p.35. 33 Lake (2009), p.45. 34 Ibid., p.3. 35 Cohen, p.223. 36 Ibid., p.230. 37 Ibid., p.231-2. 31
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China (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2009) Dunne, Tim, ‘Society and Hierarchy in International Relations’, International Relations, 17 (2003) Guo, Sujian, Chinese Politics and Government: Power, Ideology and Organization (London: Routledge, 2013) Hobson, John, ‘The Twin Self-Delusion of IR: Why ‘Hierarchy’ and Not ‘Anarchy’ Is the Core Concept of IR’, Journal of International Studies, 42 (2014) Hurd, Ian, ‘Legitimacy and Authority in international Politics’, International Organisation, 53 (1999) Lake, David A., Hierarchy in International Relations (New York: Cornell University Press, 2009) Lake, David A., ‘Escape from the State of Nature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics’, International Security, 32 (2007) Mill, John Stuart, ‘A Few Words on Non-intervention’ in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill XXI, ed. by J. M. Robson (Toronto: University Press, 1984) Pines, Yuri, The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy (Princeton University Press, 2012)
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BY HÉCTOR GARCIA LOPEZ This article seeks to portray The Opium Wars as series of events that could have been avoided by simple negotiation between China and Britain. Conversely, negotiations did not materialise due to strong philosophical and cultural divides between both empires, rather than the orthodox view that British trade caused the war. Economics is also seen merely as a condition for disagreement but not as the sole factor precipitating war. In terms of operationalisation, this article relies both on quantitative methods through the use of statistics relating to trade and economy, while also in qualitative methods such as international relations theory and Sino-British philosophical debates.
THE CLASH OF TITANS AND THE FAILURE OF DIPLOMACY IN 19TH CENTURY CHINA This article will disprove the assumption that the Anglo-Chinese Opium Wars of 1839-42 and 1856-60 were merely caused by trade deficiencies between Britain and China. Instead it will argue that the negotiations, which could have stopped both wars, were impossible to come to fruition due to deep cultural and societal divides between mercantilist Westphalian Britain and the Confucian tributary hierarchical hegemon China. In terms of operationalisation; firstly this article will examine the orthodox explanation of the Opium Wars focusing on British trade deficiencies and investigate how mercantilist tenants might have influenced British reactions to Lin Zexu’s abolishment of opium trade. Secondly, the article will investigate the theory that cultural and societal misunderstandings over opium led to both wars. In order to do so, the British perspective of the banning of opium as an economic protectionist tool will be contrasted with the moral Chinese philosophical standpoint of filial parity. Furthermore it will also examine the cultural clash between British pragmatic searches for wealth compared to Chinese appeal to morality to the British crown. This article will conclude that the defining factor, which led to both Opium Wars, was Sino-centrism as it greatly hampered Chinese ability to negotiate with Britain by prompting a war that could have been avoided by simple regulation of trade through equalitarian diplomacy.
Chronology of events The First Opium War was fought between the United Kingdom, at the side of the British East India Company, against the Chinese Qing Empire from 1839 to 1842. The orthodox understanding of the casus belli for the war is disputes over trade regulations relating to the opium trade. Britain, being a protectionist colonial empire, was greatly reliant on positive balances of trade with other nations and on its export of Indian opium to the rest of Asia. This became problematic due to Chinese refusals to legalise and tax opium trade as well as their prompt seizure of British opium stock without compensation in China. This gave the impression that Chinese actions forced the British to enter a naval war with the Qing Empire in order to improve its balance of trade with China. Later in 1857, a Second Opium War erupted as Britain was unsatisfied with the trade terms and implementation of the 1842 ‘Treaty of Nanking’ that ended the First Opium War.
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Britain: The economically driven state At prima facie, the British reliance on positive balances of trade stemming from mercantilism appears to be the quintessential cause of the Opium Wars. The British still subscribed to mercantilism until 1846 when the repeal of the British Corn Law irreversibly pushed Britain towards trade liberalisation 1. Mercantilism assumes that global trade is a zero sum game, in other words, where one actor’s gain is the equivalent to a loss for the second actor in the pair 2. Additionally mercantilism also assumes that in order to become more prosperous, a state is to maintain a positive trade output, which translates into a surplus of exports compared to imports3. However China became a thorn in the British Empire’s foot, as it was extremely difficult to create a positive balance of trade to satisfy mercantilism. While the commodity imports of Chinese tea, ceramics and silk were crucial to the British, especially tea as the English market required 2,235,000 pounds by 1750 and “[during] the 18th century China was the world’s only source of tea”4. Contrastingly the Chinese had little need for traditional British exports such as woollens and raw cotton5. In order to eradicate the trade deficit, Britain started the sale of opium, which already had a small market within china through the tributary Arab trading (50 tonnes in 1650), quickly becoming 57% of all imports into China (1390 tonnes in 1835), as shown in the figure below6. Additionally Britain was doubly relying on the opium trade as an 1832 Parliamentary committee enquiry had concluded that monetary benefits from exporting Bengali Opium would also allow balancing of the Indian budget7.
The abolishment of the opium trade within China combined with the British reliance on it spawned a perceived casus belli to start the First Opium War. Lin Zexiu the special imperial commissioner for the end of the opium trade directly
1
Kevin H. O’Rourke, ‘British trade policy in the 19th century: a review article’, European Journal of Political Economy, 16 (2000), pp.829-942, (p.830). 2 David Kinsella, Bruce Russet and Harvey Starr, World politics: the menu for choice 10th edition (California: Wadsworth, 2013), p.290. 3 Martin Wolf, Why globalization works, (Connecticut: Yale Nota Bene, 2005), p.33. 4 Warren I. Cohen, East Asia at the center: four thousand years of engagement with the world (New York: Columbia University Press 2000), p.241. 5 Melissa Banta, ‘Commodities, currencies, and the balancing of trade within a chronicle of China trade’, (Boston: Harvard Business School, 2015) <http://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/commoditiescurrencies.html> [accessed November 1, 2015]. 6 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The development of the opium problem in China within a century of international drug control’. (United Nations, 2010) <https://www.unodc.org/documents/ wdr/WDR_2008/WDR2008_100years_drug_control_origins.pdf> [accessed November 1, 2015]; Stephen C. Lockwood, Augustine Heard & Company, 1858-1862: American Merchants in China (Cambridge: East Asian Research Center, 1971), p.22. 7 Leslie Marchant, The War of the Poppies (History Today, 2002) <http://www.historytoday.com/lesliemarchant/wars-poppies> [accessed November 1, 2015], p.52-55.
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sized 20,283 chests and 200 sacks of opium that were “held” by the British Government. Charles Eliot, the British superintendent, relied on his confidence on Westphalian international norms dictating that the subsequent destruction of the opium would require compensation from the Chinese government. However as a caveat, it can be noted that such norms of behaviour were only followed by Westphalian states, hence British logic was limited to the extent that compensation can only be given if it is understood by all parties that the cultural norms require compensation in this situation8. Nevertheless, “Lord Palmerston announced in September 1839 that the only way to deal with China was to give it a good beating and explain afterwards”9. In other words, Britain was to go to war with China in order to declare that compensation was due no matter the cultural misunderstanding between the nations. Nevertheless British reliance on trade through mercantilism is not to blame for the First Opium War, as it cannot by itself explain the pre-war failure of negotiations over trade regulation between both parties. Rather, we need to turn to the culturephilosophical clash between both nations to explain those misunderstandings.
A clash of East and West: Two diametrically opposed ontologies of life As mentioned previously, Palmerston misunderstood the cultural motives for the ban of opium trade. The British, due to their mercantilist mind set, believed that the ban was a protectionist trade measure in order to sell Chinese lower quality opium; hence gaining a monopoly over the market rather than allowing free trade that gave British/ Bangladeshi opium an advantage10. However, reality could not be further from the truth as China was pursuing moral goals rather than profit. Under Confucianism, the concept of Xiao (filial piety) is crucial as it is the structure that holds society and government from collapsing. Hence taking into account that “according to Confucian custom, the body was not something the individual possessed for his own use but rather entrusted to him by his ancestors” 11. As the use of opium is clearly damaging to the body and to the fulfilling of the social responsibilities of Chinese citizens, it will also become a great affront to Xiao as disrespecting one’s own body is also disrespect to your ancestors. Furthermore under Tianming (Mandate of Heaven), the Daoguang emperor was morally forced to halt opium use within China. In order to maintain the Tianming, the emperor was to be benevolent and caring for his subjects, which in turn means to uphold the Xiao that was morally incompatible with opium abuse as described above. If the wellbeing of the people were not protected, the ruler would simply be deemed a tyrant and forfeit the approval of Heaven allowing people to rebel until a better governor gains the Tianming 12. Although the British also found the consumption of opium immoral, the sociocultural priorities of the British were polar opposites of the Chinese governance under Tianming. Lin Zexu did indeed try to appeal to moral principles by sending a letter to Queen Victoria, within the letter Lin also points out the hypocrisy of the equalitarian Westphalian system. “I have heard that the smoking of opium is very strictly forbidden by your country; that is because the harm caused by opium is clearly understood. Since it is not permitted to do harm to your own country, then even less should you let it be passed on to the harm of other countries “ (Brooklyn College 1996) 13. 8
June M. Grasso, Corrin Jay and Michael Kort, Modernization and revolution in China: from the Opium Wars to the Olympics (New York: M.E Sharpe, 2009), p.36. 9 Ibid, p.36. 10 Marchant. 11 Grasso, p.34. 12 Yuri Pines, Foundations of Confucian thought: intellectual life in the Chunqiu period, 722-453 B.C.E, (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2002), p.57-59. 13 Lin Zexu Lin Tse-Hsu, Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria, (Brooklyn College, 1996) <http://
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This meant that British citizens were not to consume opium, as it was known to be dangerous. However when profits were involved, the ideals of wealth creation discussed in the principles of mercantilism superseded moral standings, despite that fact that other state’s citizens were being harmed14. Furthermore, there were also claims that the British knew they were wrecking the Chinese economy due to the strain opium sales were creating on the bi-metallic system15. Opium traders often insisted on being paid with silver, which is also simultaneously the metal required to pay taxes to the Chinese government. Poor Chinese citizens were only paid in copper, hence had to exchange copper for silver to pay taxes and opium purchases. Also, due to the scarcity of silver, an inflation of exchange rates had followed, which caused havoc on the prices of commodities 16. However, some historians17 point out that there is a possibility that the Queen may have never seen such letter, in which case the theory that the philosophical thirst for wealth supplanted the moral priorities of the British would lack evidence due to the fact that the moral appeal never would have been heard by the British court.
China: The central kingdom or the hubris that sealed their fate? Ultimately while the previously discussed cultural disparities between both nations are important, the defining cause of the Opium Wars was not the lack of British empathy towards the problems generated by opium, and nor the strain that caused to the philosophical importance of Tianming for Chinese governance. But rather it was the Chinese Sino-centrism that made any sort of mutually beneficial negotiation between both parties impossible. On the domestic cultural level, China suffered from ethnocentrism; defined as “the belief that Chinese culture was superior to other cultures” 18. The principles forging ethnocentrism are based on Confucianism, through Dao tong (Transmission of the Way) and Zheng Dao (the true way), stating that any truth is handed down from the ancients to Confucius and in turn to current scholars which contrasted with the ideals of radical change stemming from the enlightenment in Europe. While some interpretations see the ancients as any wise human being, the Neo-Confucian scholars in power at the time preluding the Opium Wars; saw the truth of the ancients to be limited to Chinese scholars. This then created a xenophobic vision of the non-Confucian world making it difficult for China to partake in the equalitarian system of Westphalian diplomacy.
“Defining cause of the Opium Wars was not the lack of British empathy ... But rather it was the Chinese Sino-centrism that made any sort of mutually beneficial negotiation between both parties impossible. ”
In international relations China acted as “Zhongguo”, the hegemon in a unipolar world where all the other states were to bend down to its cultural and military hegemony. Under such assumption, an extremely stable tributary system flourished under which the Sinic zone states of Korea, Annam, and
14
Ibid. Robert A Bickers, The scramble for China: foreign devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914, (London: Penguin, 2012), p.77. 16 Marchant. 17 Lin Zexu. 18 David E. Mungello, The great encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, (Lanham, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005), p.47. 15
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Ryukyu Island had hailed Chinese superiority. This superiority was declared by prostration through the Kowtow of emissaries as well as the sending of gifts to the Chinese empire. The cornerstone of Chinese hegemony and legitimacy was the Sinic zone’s borrowing of Confucian styled government principles, hence de-facto defining it as superior to their ulterior government systems. However, China was not a hegemon within a unipolar world, but rather a decaying hegemon within a bipolar world whom acted on the diplomatic scene as a unipolar hegemon 19. As seen on the figure below20, the share of China’s GDP started steadily declining from the 1820 and onwards, while the western share of GDP steadily increased in reaching a level close to parity at the onset of the First Opium War.
Due to its ethnocentrism and perceived international hegemony within the tributary system, China refused any sort of negotiations with Britain, which caused the Opium Wars. Often it is assumed that China refused negotiation due to the McCartney’s refusal to Kowtow and that Qianlog nor any of his successors were ready to consider real negotiation with the British21. Regardless, the ‘ethnocentric’ China greatly underestimated British military power, which made them chose to concentrate in taming internal turmoil within China such as the anti-Qing White Lotus revolts. This was done under the assumption that a state outside of the Chinese cultural sphere of influence could not be powerful22. Yet Britain was the military hegemon of the century due its recent industrial revolution development such as the steamboat and modern rifles23. Furthermore, due to China’s acclimatisation to the tributary system and its relative lack of knowledge of the Western world, China failed to understand that diplomacy was necessary. Lin “arrive[d] at Guangzhou to dictate not to negotiate”24, as he would to a Sinic tributary state. This lack of communication allowed Palmerston to misunderstand Chinese intentions and gave him the casus belli for the First Opium War. China did not see the British as a hegemonic threat in a bipolar world but rather as petty barbarians, as Lin described the British in his letter
19
David C Kang, ‘Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia’, Security Studies, 19 (2010), pp.591-622, (p.596-600). 20 Angus Maddison, Percentage of World GDP (last 500 years) (University of Groningen, 2008) <http:// visualeconsite.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/percent-world-gdp-15001.jpg> [accessed November 1, 2015]. 21 Cohen, p.242. 22 Grasso, p.33. 23 David Killingrav, Margarette Lincoln and Nigela Rigby, Martine empires British imperial maritime trade in the nineteenth century (Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2006), p.100. 24 Grasso, p.35.
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to the Queen25. The causes of the Second Opium War are merely extensions of the first; as the British disheartened with treaties requested renegotiation Beijing’s refused to treat official representatives in an acceptable manner as they were still perceived as barbarians. The lack of an apology for the murder of a French missionary was used as the pretext to invade and force China to negotiate, as China would not do so under diplomatic official channels causing the Second Opium War26.
Conclusion Both Opium Wars were indeed caused by a philosophical clash between two cultures and two notions of government and society. While the British started the military invasion, their casus belli could have been discarded by simple regulation of opium trade or by satisfying British trade deficiencies with other imports both catering to Xiao and Tianming. Ultimately the blame for both wars lies on the deep philosophical incompatibility between Sino-centrism and diplomacy. It is to be noted, however, that this article’s conclusions are limited to the extent of other barriers to diplomacy such as the vested interest of other Western nations or language barriers.
Bibliography Banta, Melissa, ‘Commodities, currencies, and the balancing of trade within a chronicle of China trade’, (Boston: Harvard Business School, 2015) <http:// www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/commodities-currencies.html> [accessed November 1, 2015] Bickers, Robert A., The scramble for China: foreign devils in the Qing Empire, 1832 -1914, (London: Penguin, 2012) Cohen, Warren I., East Asia at the center: four thousand years of engagement with the world (New York: Columbia University Press 2000) Grasso, June M., Corrin Jay and Michael Kort, Modernization and revolution in China: from the Opium Wars to the Olympics (New York: M.E Sharpe, 2009) Kang, David C., ‘Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia’, Security Studies, 19 (2010) Killingrav, David, Margarette Lincoln and Nigela Rigby, Martine empires British imperial maritime trade in the nineteenth century (Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2006) Kinsella, David, Bruce Russet and Harvey Starr, World politics: the menu for choice 10th edition (California: Wadsworth, 2013) Lin Zexu, Lin Tse-Hsu Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria, (Brooklyn College, 1996) <http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/com-lin.html> [accessed 1 November 2015] Lockwood, Stephen C., Augustine Heard & Company, 1858-1862: American Merchants in China (Cambridge: East Asian Research Center, 1971) Maddison, Angus, Percentage of World GDP (last 500 years) (University of Groningen, 2008) <http://visualeconsite.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/ uploads/2008/01/percent-world-gdp-15001.jpg> [accessed November 1, 2015] Marchant, Leslie, The War of the Poppies (History Today, 2002) <http:// www.historytoday.com/leslie-marchant/wars-poppies> [accessed November 1, 2015]
25 26
Lin Zexu. Grasso, p.39.
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Mungello, David E., The great encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, (Lanham, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005) O’Rourke, Kevin H., ‘British trade policy in the 19th century: a review article’, European Journal of Political Economy, 16 (2000) Pines, Yuri, Foundations of Confucian thought: intellectual life in the Chunqiu period, 722-453 B.C.E, (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2002) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘The development of the opium problem in China within a century of international drug control’. (United Nations, 2010) <https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2008/ WDR2008_100years_drug_control_origins.pdf> [accessed November 1, 2015] Wolf, Martin, Why globalization works, (Connecticut: Yale Nota Bene, 2005)
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EUROPE’S ACHILLES HEEL: A COMMON ARMY The comparative lack of military strength of the European Union (EU) has long been seen as its Achilles heel. Academic scholars, such as Gordon 1, have gone as far as to say that EU’s regional security objectives would be impossible to achieve without a robust Union military. The idea of the ‘capabilities-expectations gap’ following the end of the Bosnian Civil war has long been at the centre of discourse of EU foreign policy2, based mainly around this lack of a common army to enforce policy. This combined with the failure to reach the necessary selfsustaining 180,000 active and stand by troops for the Helsinki headline goals, can be seen as a poor omen for the start of a Common European Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). There is logic in the argument that as the Common Security and Defence Policy, it would inherently require an army in order to function; however to do so fails to account for the nuanced multilateral agenda that CSDP works under and hopes to achieve. Therefore, this article shall assess the CSDP in accordance with how it adheres to its definition in the treaty of Lisbon; that it shall: ‘draw on civilian and military assets…for peacekeeping, conflict prevention and strengthening international security…with the principles of the UN charter’3. This will be demonstrated through discussions around the issues of limiting analysis around the lack of a European army, by showing how CSDP missions are possible and active instruments of EU policy. Then, it is argued instead, that the lack of a coherent common strategic culture, as defined by Longhurst of being a ‘distinctive body of beliefs, attitudes and practices regarding
BY JAMES HENRY KELLY The comparative lack of military strength controlled by the EU has long been seen as its Achilles heel in regards to exerting policy as a global power. This article finds however that to judge the EU’s CSDP purely by the lack of a common army is misleading; both in terms as a unit of analysis and in regard to the types of missions the EU carried out under CSDP (namely civilian orientated and peacekeeping operations). The EU has also demonstrated that it has advanced deployment capabilities with a global reach through operations such as Atalanta. The problem with CSDP though is not the lack of a common army, but instead a lack of a common strategic culture across member states. Until this is resolved there shall always be a limitation on the capacity of CSDP.
the use of force’4, is the primary hindrance to CSDP. For purposes of argument, the concept of an ‘army’ shall be treated as collective armed forces, thus including maritime and air forces as well as a land force.
An army as a means of assessing policy Firstly, to view CSDP through the narrow traditional lens of military capacity inherently limits how we can perceive its effectiveness. The EU is not a nation state nor is its CSDP focussed solely upon classical hard power coercion, so approaching the topic from this perspective is both limiting and inappropriate. Discussion on CSDP should therefore take into account the other resources (primarily economic and civilian) the EU has to use, and the less threatening style of power the EU wishes to project5 as a normative power.
“The comparative lack of military strength of the European Union has long been seen as its Achilles heel. ”
1
Philip H. Gordon, ‘Europe’s Uncommon Foreign Policy’, International Security, 22 (1997), pp.74-100, (p. 96). 2 Robert Dover, ‘The EU and the Bosnian Civil War 1992/95: The Capabilities/Expectations Gap at the Heart of EU Foreign Policy’, European Security, 14 (2005), pp.297-318, (p.297). 3 Stephan Keukeleire and Tom Delreux, The Foreign Policy of the European Union (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), p.173. 4 Asle Toje, ‘Strategic Culture as an Analytical Tool History, capabilities, geopolitics and values: the EU example’, Western Balkans Security Observer, 14 (2009), pp.1-23, (p.2). 5 Michael E. Smith, ‘Researching European Foreign Policy’, Politics, 28 (2008), pp.177-187, (p.180).
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As such, CSDP should be seen through the objectives that are set out in its doctrinal publications; namely the Petersberg tasks, European Security Strategy (ESS) and European Neighbourhood policy (ENP). These documents establish the parameters, wider strategic objectives, and regional ambitions of CSDP. Broadly speaking, they have an emphasis on action through multilateral means, be it militarily with NATO or for humanitarian purposes with the UN or other regional bodies (African Union etc.) 6. Considering this, it would seem that to judge the CSDP by the lack of EU unilateral military prowess; would be using entirely the wrong criteria as the work it carries out is characterised as being multilateral in both scope and design. Secondly, the capabilities that a modern army would have on an EU level would be limited in a post-cold war strategic setting as many objectives have already been achieved without one. The traditional primary objective of an army, to ensure the territorial sovereignty of a state, has become less imperative in Europe7 and is achieved already by the presence of national armed forces in the member states. Thus the roles of a common army would focus on further pursuing the goals currently being fulfilled by national armies: war-fighting, peacekeeping, internal security and policing8. Peacekeeping has already been implemented extensively, using both civilian and military elements, as shall be discussed in the following sections. Policing is also an active element of CSDP, with an EU Gendarmerie force taking part in Policing missions as far away as Afghanistan. Internal security is becoming a more prescient issue in CSDP, most specifically in regard to the current migration crisis whereby the interplay between internal and external security is becoming more evident. For instance the level of institutional co-operation and coordination among member states with the EU Gendarmerie can be said to be extensive 9. As Bigo indicates however, the increasing transnationalism of security in the EU has centred on new actors such information and intelligence companies; thus to focus on police and armed forces – or the lack of a common one in this instance – alone misses the core component of the approach to internal security taken in the CSDP 10. A common army would then only introduce a war-fighting capability to CSDP, and as this is not a priority of Petersberg tasks, ESS, or part of any common strategic culture in Europe, it would unlikely be utilised for such a purpose.
CSDP missions The EU has undertaken a plethora CSDP operations without a common European army. The range and scope of CSDP missions in the past 12 years cannot help but be considered extensive; with a total of 33 completed and ongoing missions. These missions have been located in the nearer European neighbourhood, Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa, and even as far as South Asia with the monitoring mission in Aceh11. To put this in perspective, the UN has undertaken 20 peacekeeping missions in that time, and 14 if we discount missions which have been continuous since before 2003 like the observation missions in India and Pakistan 12. Although the scopes 6
European Council, ‘Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy- Providing Security in a changing world’ (Brussels: European Union, 2008), (p. 11). 7 Timothy Edmunds, ‘What are armed forces for? The changing nature of military forces in Europe’, International Affair, 82 (2006), pp.1059-1075, (p.1065-6). 8 Ibid., p.1062. 9 Jörg Monar, ‘EU Internal Security Governance: the case of counter terrorism’, European Security 23 (2014), pp.195–209, (p.195). 10 Didier Bigo, ‘Internal and External Aspects of Security’, European Security, 15 (2006), pp.385-404, (p.401-402). 11 European Union, ‘Ongoing missions and operations’, <http://www.eeas.europa.eu/csdp/missions-andoperations/> [accessed 9 December 2015]. 12 United Nations, ‘List of Peacekeeping operations: 1948-2013’, <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/ documents/operationslist.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
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of these missions are dissimilar in numbers and type of units deployed, these figures demonstrate that the EU has not been lax in the years since CSDP came about. CSDP has been more than active in the multilateral security arena and to ignore its impact would be to belittle a large portion of international security missions carried out since the start of the millennium. To understand the singular role EU has in international security, it is worth discussing the roles civilians play as well as traditional military forces in the security missions of CSDP.
The civilian aspect Notably, the characteristics of such 21 missions that the EU had carried out under CSDP were categorised as ‘civilian missions’. These are defined by the deployment of non-military actors in order to ensure security, with idea of creating longer-term stabilisation13. With the use of police, judges, and civil servants, these missions work to ensure the rule of law and that civil administration can continue. By their very nature, military forces would be insufficient in securing these objectives, at best being able to secure martial law. Civilian based missions are a manifestation of Europe’s Civilian power 14, an aspect, which distinguishes the EU in its security role on the global stage. The use of civilians in security and defence allows the EU to capitalise on its strengths to make up for its comparative lack of military strength and resolve. Indeed the use of civilian missions was introduced by Sweden and Finland to the EU so they would not have to compromise on their principles of neutrality but still help with collective defence and security15. Civilian missions have also meant that the EU has been able to build a new security identity for itself within its neighbourhood. The EU Border Assistance Mission in Moldova and Ukraine (EUBAM) saw, through the implementation of CSDP, the EU’s conflict management stance changed from from that of being a security consumer to that of an ‘emerging security provider’, in the words of Barbé and Kienzle16. Under the framework of the newly created ENP, the EU gave extensive support to the Moldovan government in regards to border control and customs, whilst also rapidly expanding diplomatic dialogues. Though it is true that the presence of Russia in Transnistria has limited the forcefulness with which the EU could act and extending diplomatic sanctions as
13
Keukeleire and Delreux, p.181-2. Ibid., p.21. 15 Ibid., p.182. 16 Esther Barbé and Benjamin Kienzle, ‘Security Provider or Security Consumer?’, European Foreign Affairs Review 12 (2007), pp.517-536, (p.526-532). 14
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the most serious instrument, the extensive use of civilian missions was a fully competent way to extend EU security interests without being geopolitically inflammatory. In a relatively small space of time, the EU was able to create a conflict management role for itself, projecting a clear security and defence policy in the face of the traditionally powered Russia, all without the presence of a common European army. Reconceptualising security and defence, expanding it from a purely military endeavour to include civil and bureaucratic muscles of the EU, brought about the possibility of successful CSDP. This is not to say either that the military operations of CSDP, though smaller in scope to their NATO counterparts, are lacking in impact; as shall be discussed in the next section.
Military operations without a common army Though the Helsinki Headline goals for a European rapid reaction force were not reached and a common European army has not come into force, it does not mean that the EU is completely toothless. The Saint-Malo declaration of 1998, whereby the French and British met to push forward ESDP, introduced the concept of EU ‘Battlegroups’. These groups of 1500 soldiers serve on a six-month stand-by and are made up of contributions from participating member states under the leadership of one commanding country. Though these have not been tested in the field, the reasons for which are discussed in the next section, they have proven that member state militaries have been able to coalesce their forces to an extent. The co-ordination of national forces to increase efficiencies, as indicated by the second ESS paper where a section focuses on the establishment of ‘a more effective and capable Europe’17, is an active part of CSDP. Within this section, there are comments on the successful creation of the European Security and Defence College to coalesce strategic training, which demonstrates how the commanders of the member states militaries are working together more closely. The character of CSDP, just as the rest of EU foreign policy, shows its core strength through multilateral dealings; be it through the co-ordination among member states or interaction with other international organisations. The remaining twelve CSDP missions that are classified as military operations are equally as diverse as their civilian equivalents. A clear success story of CSDP military operations is that of Operation Atalanta where the EU mandated mission to protect shipping and deter piracy in the Gulf of Aden. Atalanta has proved as the first EU naval operation that the EU is capable of projecting a continuous force at sea, for an extended period of time, which can help to provide security in one of the world’s most dangerous trade lanes. This blue water naval capability is one shared with only a few of the great powers and speaks to the scope that CSDP has by capitalising on the combined military assets of its member states. More so, Atalanta has also demonstrated that the EU can undertake such operations without losing its focus as a humanitarian actor working within the auspices of the UN and international law 18. All this demonstrates that the EU is capable of utilising military assets whilst still keeping within the guidelines of the Lisbon treaty without the presence of a common armed force. Though one could argue that the EU was far from fighting alone, with a significant NATO and non-NATO force being deployed in Operation Ocean Shield, the continual presence of EU mandated ships shows that common defence and security is far from impossible. CSDP successes aside, it would be naïve not to acknowledge
17
European Council, p.9. Marianne Riddervold, ‘Finally flexing its muscles? Atalanta – The European Union’s naval military operation against piracy’, European Security, 20 (2011), pp.385-404, (p.401). 18
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limitations to its effectiveness. The fundamental problem lies with disjointed political will and how member states respond to different crises that is the threat to a successful CSDP. To which point, there would be little use for a common European army without first a common strategic culture.
The true challenge: A common strategic culture As pointed out by Meyer, the problem is not necessarily the lack of strategic culture, but the many different strategic cultures that is the weakness of CSDP 19. The differing strategic priorities and cultures of member states limit the extents to which the EU can respond in a collective manner and for common security and defence purposes. In the broadest terms, this split is between those states that seek European security to be a purely continental EU policy area versus those who seek a NATO centric (and hence US alliance focussed) strategy20. The split is made worse by the fact that the two primary security actors of the EU, France and the UK, are divided into these camps respectively. This indeed formed the crux of Gordon’s argument back in 1996 as to the limitations of EU military capability21. The Saint-Malo declaration demonstrates clearly that European security co-operation outside of NATO still requires the mutual strategic co-operation of these two powers. Though the UK would largely prefer a bilateral Anglo-French centred European security structure with support from the US, the long-term success of CSDP would rely upon a more multi-lateral approach utilising all possible EU military assets22. The split is not just amongst the larger powers of the Union, as Central European states such as the Czech Republic since the fall of the Eastern bloc has largely taken an Atlanticist approach to security23. Denmark goes even further with its active participation with NATO but an opt-out clause with its defence relations to the EU. Naval action in the Gulf of Aden was a clear demonstration of this Danish approach to international security by participating as part of NATO but not as part of the EU taskforce. This is to say nothing of the four officially neutral countries of the EU, which though signature to the solidarity clauses, would be constrained in how they could respond to the request for aid by a member state by their national laws. The result of all this is that different states contribute varying amounts of manpower and funding to operations, which in the longer term is unlikely to be sustainable24. Disagreement among member states as to the role of the EU as a security actor has led to the closest thing the EU has to an army, the Battlegroups, being untested and ineffectual. The lack of political support for a common course of action in crises such as South Sudan in 201025 and more recently the war in Ukraine, has meant that the EU’s rapid reaction force has yet to be implemented. If the EU continues to lack the strategic and political will to use the Battlegroups
19
Christopher O. Meyer, ‘Theorising European Strategic culture: Between convergence and the persistence of national diversity’, CEPS Working Document, 204 (2004), pp.1-23, (p.5-7). 20 Keukeleire and Delreux, p.20. 21 Gordon, p.89. 22 Anand Menon, ‘European Defence Policy from Lisbon to Libya’, Survival, 53 (2011), pp.75-90, (p.88). 23 Michal Kořan, Czech Foreign Policy 2007-2009: Analysis (Prague: Institute of International Relations, 2010), p.373. 24 Jolyon Howorth, Security and Defence Policy in the European Union (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), (p.240-241). 25 Anna Bacikowska, ‘EU Battlegroups- ready to go?’, European Institute of Strategic Studies, 40 (2013), pp.1-4, (p. 4).
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when called upon, then CSDP shall also continue to lack a crucial rapid response capability.
Conclusion The lack of a common European army has not been the Achilles heel rendering CSDP impossible that some commentators have stated. Coordinated member state contributions have meant that CSDP has been able to carry out a diverse range of missions all in accordance with its mandated principles of humanitarianism and multilateralism. The unique emphasis on the civilian element in European security policy can be seen as further limiting the necessity for a common army. These conclusions are not to say that the EU would suffer in having a more robust, autonomous military apparatus, but for that to be an effective means of achieving security objectives through more coercive methods a clearer common strategic culture within the Union would have to be defined. The lack of a common strategic culture is the clearest detriment to the overall effectiveness of CSDP, however steps have been taken to co-ordinate and combine logistical and military assets in order to mitigate it. In short, CSDP not impossible, but will always be more limited in scope without the necessary unity of strategy. The next step would be to see if a continental strategic focus could be found, but the political gravity it would take for some member states to get there would likely change the entire nature of the European project.
â&#x20AC;&#x153;CSDP not impossible, but will always be more limited in scope without the necessary unity of strategy.â&#x20AC;?
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Bibliography Bacikowska, Anna, ‘EU Battlegroups- ready to go?’, European Institute of Strategic Studies, 40 (2013) Barbé, Esther and Benjamin Kienzle, ‘Security Provider or Security Consumer?’, European Foreign Affairs Review 12 (2007) Bigo, Didier, ‘Internal and External Aspects of Security’, European Security, 15 (2006) Dover, Robert, ‘The EU and the Bosnian Civil War 1992/95: The Capabilities/ Expectations Gap at the Heart of EU Foreign Policy’, European Security, 14 (2005) Edmunds, Timothy, ‘What are armed forces for? The changing nature of military forces in Europe’, International Affair, 82 (2006) European Council, ‘Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy- Providing Security in a changing world’ (Brussels: European Union, 2008) European Union, ‘Ongoing missions and operations’, <http:// www.eeas.europa.eu/csdp/missions-and-operations/> [accessed 9 December 2015] Gordon, Philip H., ‘Europe’s Uncommon Foreign Policy’, International Security, 22 (1997) Howorth, Jolyon, Security and Defence Policy in the European Union (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) Keukeleire, Stephan and Tom Delreux, The Foreign Policy of the European Union (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) Kořan, Michal, Czech Foreign Policy 2007-2009: Analysis (Prague: Institute of International Relations, 2010) Menon, Anand, ‘European Defence Policy from Lisbon to Libya’, Survival, 53 (2011) Meyer, Christopher O., ‘Theorising European Strategic culture: Between convergence and the persistence of national diversity’, CEPS Working Document, 204 (2004) Monar, Jörg, ‘EU Internal Security Governance: the case of counter terrorism’, European Security 23 (2014) Riddervold, Marianne, ‘Finally flexing its muscles? Atalanta – The European Union’s naval military operation against piracy’, European Security, 20 (2011) Smith, Michael E., ‘Researching European Foreign Policy’, Politics, 28 (2008) Toje, Asle, ‘Strategic Culture as an Analytical Tool History, capabilities, geopolitics and values: the EU example’, Western Balkans Security Observer, 14 (2009) United Nations, ‘List of Peacekeeping operations: 1948-2013’, <http:// www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/operationslist.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015]
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BY MATTHEW SEARY This article takes an in-depth look into the history of Serbia and how social and political tensions have kept the state in a limbo with the rest of the world. Serbia is an extraordinary case as the tumultuous history of its people has created rifts and bonds with its neighbours in a complex tapestry of politics. It will consider how Serb diaspora had led to a warped view of its own history and the effect this has on its modern status. It will also delve into and analyse how the Yugoslav wars have affected relationships with neighbours and goes on to assess the challenges that Serbia faces with integrating into the modern geopolitical climate. The latter part of this article will focus on how Serbia has made many steps forward and will equally discuss these, looking to the future prospects for a Serbia so ravaged by transition over the past century that it remains to the modern day in an odd limbo with both its neighbours and the European Union.
A STATE IN LIMBO: SERBIA AND THE POLITICS OF TRANSITION A mythical history When considering the state of affairs in the Balkans it is imperative to deliberate the nature of Serbia, a principal and authoritative state of the region. The history of Serbia is vast, but there has been ‘no continuous polity or territory with that name’ 1 which makes contemplating its history a significantly challenging goal. Instead it is necessary to consider Serbia’s history from its role in Yugoslavia since the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in 1918 under a constitutional monarchy due to its status as ‘the only Balkan country to have a truly distinctive foreign policy stance’2. Though Yugoslavia was recognised in 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors and subsequently renamed in 1929 as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the rise of communism does not become an aspect of Serbian affairs largely until the Second World War. Serbia in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia saw the state to ‘be theirs to rule’ and ‘dominated parliamentary life’ largely thanks to sustained support from the Slovene and Muslim parties as well as the Croatian boycott, which were abstaining from parliamentary life for a period as they wished for more autonomy 3. One of the reasons put forward for Serbia’s dominant stance in Yugoslavian matters was that, as well as having a Serbian entity within Yugoslavia, Serb diaspora is spread across the Balkans. In this sense, Yugoslavia acted as a border, a combined state, where the once divided Serbs could now ‘unite ethnically within one state’ for the first time in recent history4. The other states did not have such an incentive to unite under the Yugoslavian experiment and as such the relationship was often strained due to Serbia’s divisive quasi-leadership in the Balkans. Serbia’s supremacy in Yugoslavian affairs will be important when discussing its later transition and the historical developments, including the Yugoslav wars, as much of the tension had been built up prior to World War II. The Yugoslav experiment was doomed to fail as a result of the Serbs wanting greater federal control whilst the Croats rebelled the other way, pushing for greater autonomy and lacking in the collective sentiment of the Serbs. Yugoslav statesmen and revolutionary Tito went as far as to presumably include ‘American assurances into his plans to crush the liberal tendencies in Croatia, as many disgraced Croatian politicians have claimed’5. The greatest coalition Yugoslavia had seen since 1918 came in the form of a coup against the monarch Peter II as a result of the adherence to the Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy, and Japan. Pavlowitch describes this as ‘the last straw for the Serbian opposition’ that favoured allied support rather than an axis allegiance 6. Without an official declaration of war and under the codename ‘Punishment’, an offensive was launched to crush the rebellion; Belgrade and Yugoslavia unconditionally surrendered after eleven days of bombing and twenty days after the coup. Following the Nazi invasion, the fragmentation of Serbia and Yugoslavia remains key when looking at the history and state of affairs that exist as a result of the underlying tensions which dominated the politics of transition taking place towards the end of the century. Slovenia was split, Montenegro was taken by Italy, Albania acquired Kosovo and part of Macedonia, and Germany occupied most of Stevan K. Pavlowitch, Serbia: The History behind the Name (London: Hurst & Company, 2002), p.vii. David A. Dyker and Ivan Vejvoda, Yugoslavia and After (Addison Wesley Longman, 1996), p.1. 3 Pavlowitch, p.135. 4 Dyker and Vejvoda, p.10. 5 Batovic, Ante, The Balkans in Turmoil – Croatian Spring and the Yugoslav Position Between the Cold War Blocs 1965-1971 (LSE Cold War Studies Programme) <http://www.lse.ac.uk/IDEAS/publications/Analysis-Archive/workingPapers/batovic.pdf> [accessed March 22 2016]. 6 Pavlowitch, p.138. 1
2
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Serbia. A notable outcome from the occupation and fragmentation was the creation of the ‘Independent State of Croatia’ that comprised of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, with parts of Serbia. A puppet state of Germany, the fascist interim governments carried out a widespread genocide campaign that resulted in ‘between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serbs’ being murdered fuelling more racial tensions7. Sadly, ethnic cleansing would be a continued theme of Yugoslavian affairs and continued to contribute to the fragmentation of the Yugoslav state 8.
The effect of the Second World War on the Balkans The Second World War saw the communists turn into a ‘disciplined and wellorganized’ federalist Yugoslav party under the leadership of Josip Tito 9 . Invaded by Axis powers in 1941, the anti-Nazi resistance – the ‘Yugoslav Partisans’ – was led by Tito. With a mixed ethnic background, Tito appealed to Serbs and Croats alike and wished to return Yugoslavia to its state as a federation. Although seen ‘once again as a Serb-based movement’, this continued to highlight the larger interest Serbs took in political affairs even whilst the government was in exile and Germany ruled over the land10. The popularity of communism in Yugoslavia was, however, not widespread; Serbia had much stronger ties to communism and the threat of ‘vindictive Serbs’ resulted in a general revolt by German armed anticommunist Albanians11. By 1945, the Albanian revolt and Axis powers had been expelled largely due to the Yugoslav Partisans and limited support from Soviet forces. A new Yugoslavia was to be formed; however, this would set up six federal republics rather than a unitary monarchy and this was the first existence of a ‘Serbia’ since 1918. The issue with such a relationship is that without appropriate integration, ‘nationalist rivalries’ would become ‘embedded in this system’; it could be, if cynically considered, that the EU suffers from German-Franco interests producing rivalries of a similar nature to what Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia suffered from12. The federal budget is one such example as it saw Slovenia
7
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia: Jasenovac (Washington D.C.: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2005). <http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php? ModuleId=10005449> [accessed October 14 2015]. 8 Pavlowitch, p.142. 9 Ibid, p.134. 10 Ibid, p.151. 11 Ibid, p.153. 12 Leslie Benson, Yugoslavia: A Concise History (Palgrave, 2001), p.107.
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and Croatia accounting for over half the full amount, and only Serbia and Montenegro were net beneficiaries despite Serbia accounting for a large amount of Yugoslavia’s territory, especially with its two autonomous regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina. Similar to Czechoslovakia, the failure to treat the former states (Slovakia/ Croatia) with equal status would work to break apart this tenuous relationship. Whilst the new Yugoslavia thrived economically for a sustained period, one could only note that underlying tensions also prospered as a result of prior World War II conflicts, ethnic cleansing, and Serbia’s natural inclination to front the Yugoslavian experiment. Combined, these factors caused a fragmentation that would tear it apart from the inside and provide a difficult period of transition that would see 'all the successor states suffer from a problem of democratic deficit’ and suffer from the struggle to join the global community13. The Yugoslav wars also left a sour taste in the states involved, which would permeate the politics of transition for most of the nations, particularly Serbia that was the main pro-Yugoslav nation and ethnic group. The Serbs were also largely terrorised and displaced as a result of the Serb diaspora that left them as the biggest minority in Yugoslavian federal entities, especially Croatia. Rape was reportedly used ‘deliberately as an instrument to terrorise the civilian population’ as late as 1999 in the region14. Almost four million people were displaced and 140,000 killed in violent attacks and neither side was innocent. In 2007 Milan Martić, a leader of Croatian Serbs, was convicted of murder, persecution, torture and attacks on civilians and sentenced to thirty-five years’ imprisonment, possibly as revenge for the acts of genocide carried out against his people in the aforementioned World Wars – though human rights violations were not few and far between. Indeed, there have been arguments that ‘women [were] being raped in … camps all over the country’ and such places did exist to help the morale of men; an archaic view that women were the spoils of war that pervaded in the late 90s15. The conflict left the region ‘deeply divided and economically weak’ and no state has addressed the past human rights abuses adequately, although Serbia does show minor efforts towards this goal 16. Serbia and many other former Yugoslavian states are still dogged by their past, and refuse to acknowledge much of what happened, often trying to shift the blame to each other. The violent, often critiqued as genocidal, wars of the Yugoslav states will continue to hold Serbia back from into transitioning into a modern liberal democracy or from fully mending its relations with its neighbours.
“The conflict left the region ‘deeply divided and economically weak’ and no state has addressed the past human rights abuses adequately”
In limbo with Europe: The remands of a Yugoslav experiment Serbia’s politics of transition has been dominated by European politics, particularly that of the European Union (EU). Being the largest state in the Balkan region and one that touted itself as the most influential member in the Yugoslavian days, Serbia has been interfered with mostly by international authorities since the fall of Yugoslavia. Indeed, since the collapse of Milosevic’s regime in 2000 ‘Serbia’s membership of the EU has been one of the best supported objectives among the citizens of Serbia’ and 13
Dyker and Vejvoda, p.5. Human Rights Watch, Serb Gang-Rapes in Kosovo Exposed (Human Rights Watch, 2000). <http:// www.hrw.org/news/2000/03/20/serb-gang-rapes-kosovo-exposed> [accessed October 23 2015]. 15 New Internationalist, Weapon of War (New Internationalist, 1993) <http://newint.org/ features/1993/06/05/rape/> [accessed October 19 2015]. 16 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Press Release (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, 2007) <http://www.icty.org/sid/8870> [accessed October 25 2015]. 14
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by its governments17. Of course, this is supported by the fact ‘seventeen elections resulted in more or less comfortable majorities for parties advocating the European future of the country’, a future aimed towards integration with western liberal democracy and a path away from the days of old communist regimes 18. This advocates rather glaringly that Serbia is looking for a future as a Serbian state within the EU, away from its past intentions of forming a new Yugoslavia; suggesting cooperation with its neighbours is one of its utmost priorities. However, ‘it is clear that not all the residual post-Yugoslav problems have been resolved either’ and Serbia is only beginning its transition into the EU and as a liberal democracy – these could possibly be considered almost synonymous19. Serbia has begun to transition but faces a long struggle in the face of adversity, suffering from ‘the slow pace with which laws are adopted by parliament, economic difficulties, a lack of coordination and widespread corruption’20. In line with Serbia’s pro-EU and positive outlook towards liberal democracy, the country has also shown a ‘high degree of responsibility towards and cooperation with its neighbouring countries’ with greater trade relations and slowly acknowledging its past transgressions21. For example, close to Pristina ‘Serbian and Albanian businesses of all kinds now sit cheek by jowl in a way that has not been seen since 1999’ as a result of the transition from and acceptance of its past 22. The health of a liberal democracy and pro-European attitude is in recent history undermining the negative repercussions of the ethnic cleansing and nationalistic tensions that dominated Yugoslavian and Serbian affairs; once again the Serb diaspora is promoting integral relations in the Balkans. Such attitudes have also pushed forward the collapse of the Serbian Radical Party that ‘imploded by the autumn [of 2008], splitting into two and thus neutralising itself as a nationalist threat’23. Serbian nationalism, a constant theme in this article, was a continued obstacle that held Serbia back from transitioning into a modern liberal democracy. Batt described Serbian nationalism as continuing to ‘pose threats both to Serbia’s neighbours and to Serbia’s prospects as a liberal-democratic state’ but with the implosion of the Serbian Radical Party, these threats are becoming neutered 24. Education in Serbia about the atrocities carried out has begun, although it is somewhat limited - even if limited, it is still a step in the right direction and signals the continuation of a modernising and transitioning state. The Balkans are arguably more united than they have ever been with most wanting EU membership and trade between the states shows increasing prosperity; ‘the area is, to all intents and purposes, a single cultural’ state’25. Indeed, such cooperation between Balkan states highlights the preliminary transitioning of not just Serbia but the whole region, to an extent. Even the European Commission ‘always reported steps in the right direction’ in regards to its transition 26. However, whilst the outlook of Serbia may be bright, transition is slow and tedious especially with Serbia’s EU application being held in limbo until the Kosovo problem is resolved. The politics of transition for Serbia has been tainted by its 17
Wolfgang Petritsch and Goran Svilanovic, Serbia Matters: Domestic Reforms and European Integration (Nomos, 2009), p.41. 18 Ibid., p.45. 19 Ibid., p.28. 20 Ibid., p.45. 21 Ibid., p.38. 22 Petritsch and Svilanovic, p.26. 23 Ibid., p.26. 24 Judy Batt, ‘The Question of Serbia’, Challiot Paper no. 81, 11 (2005). <http://www.iss.europa.eu/ uploads/media/cp081-English.pdf> [accessed October 20 2015]. 25 Petritsch and Svilanovic, p.30. 26 Ibid., p.44.
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‘predominant conviction of national superiority, deep-rooted prejudices against Serbia’s neighbours and the feeling of being the “chosen people”’, and despite the collapse of the Radical Party this is still largely prevalent in parts of Serbian culture 27. Serbia’s inability to release Kosovo as an independent state became a continued issue for its transition into the EU as ‘an EU member state may not have territorial claims on a neighbour’ and yet this remains contentious to this day 28. Even if Serbia may have wishful intentions from pro-EU elections, past grudges will not allow them to move forward in transition. As a result, we can conclude from Serbia’s attitude that ‘Serbian nationalism will continue to pose threats both to Serbia’s neighbours and to Serbia’s prospects as a liberal-democratic state’ due to the imperialistic nature of the claim it holds upon Kosovo29. The imperialistic attitude nurtures the democratic deficit that Serbia has long lacked and undermines any transition to the global democratic sphere. ‘Serbia has to find its place in the world, and in Europe in particular’30. Can the Kosovo issue be resolved and allow for the continuing transition of Serbia? Very possibly, but it still faces large corruption within its political system and the ethnic tensions and public upset that will invariably come following the ‘departure’ of Kosovo. In addition, the UN Security Council Resolution 1244 has stated neither side’s desires, the wording allowing both Kosovo and Serbia to believe they are in the right. Indeed, the Balkans are considered with such magnitude that even the world powers are perplexed with how to resolve the issue, letting it play out naturally as opposed to interfering. ‘The establishment of ‘full cooperation’ with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and a more honest and frank discussion of the recent past’ are necessary for the continued transition of Serbia into a full liberal democracy with global significance31. Serbia cannot continue to ignore its past and it shows no signs of doing so; the opportunities for change are there, but they are slow. No state in Europe, arguably, has gone through as much transition as Serbia in recent history and it shows, as historical ‘obfuscation still have a significant influence on politics’32.
Conclusion: What now for Serbia? Serbia’s economic, social, and political transition has only really just begun, but shows glimmers of hope. Long-term attributes of Serbia such as the suffering democratic deficit, mythological perspective with which ethnic Serbs view their history, and the Serb diaspora that led to a sense of superiority from the Serbs in the Yugoslavian experiment, explain the slow state of transition. This is a result of Serbia being caught in limbo with the rest of Europe and its failure to often accept the issues of its past, characterised by the cases decided in the ICTY and Serbia’s indecision over Kosovo. These are all issues that Serbia appears to be working to resolve, cooperating closely with neighbours, and teaching the public from a more neutral perspective of history. Until Serbia can essentially move on from its past, or learn from it, it will remain contentiously stuck half in the EU and half out, half in the present, half in the past; Serbia must continue to make steps forward with western democracy to complete its transition. For now, ‘Serbia, newly liberated from the burden of sanctions, has yet to be welcomed back into the global family’ 33.
27
Ibid., p.113. Petritsch and Svilanovic, p.36. 29 Batt, p.11. 30 Petritsch and Svilanovic, p.115. 31 Ibid., p.38. 32 Ibid, p.39. 33 Dyker and Vejvoda, p. 2. 28
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Bibliography Batovic, Ante, The Balkans in Turmoil – Croatian Spring and the Yugoslav position Between the Cold War Blocs 1965-1971 (LSE Cold War Studies Programme) <http://www.lse.ac.uk/IDEAS/publications/Analysis-Archive/workingPapers/ batovic.pdf> [accessed March 22 2016] Batt, Judy, ‘The Question of Serbia’, Challiot Paper no. 81, (2005) <http:// www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp081-English.pdf> [accessed October 20 2015] Benson, Leslie, Yugoslavia: A Concise History (Palgrave, 2001) Dyker, David A., and Ivan Vejvoda, Yugoslavia and After (Addison Wesley Longman, 1996) Human Rights Watch, Serb Gang-Rapes in Kosovo Exposed (Human Rights Watch, 2000) <http://www.hrw.org/news/2000/03/20/serb-gang-rapes-kosovoexposed> [accessed October 23 2015] International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Press Release (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, 2007) <http:// www.icty.org/sid/8870> [accessed October 25 2015] New Internationalist, Weapon of War (New Internationalist, 1993) <http:// newint.org/features/1993/06/05/rape/> [accessed October 19 2015] Pavlowitch, Stevan K., Serbia: The History behind the Name (London: Hurst & Company, 2002) Petritsch, Wolfgang, and Goran Svilanovic. Serbia Matters: Domestic Reforms and European Integration. (Nomos, 2009) United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia: Jasenovac (Washington D.C.: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2005) <http:// www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005449> [accessed October 14 2015]
c
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BY DANIEL LEWIS QUIRK This article establishes that there is a relationship between the increased levels of EU immigration to the UK and increasing xenophobic sentiment of British citizens. It does so by using data on immigration levels and comparing these to the votes for
HAS INCREASED EU IMMIGRATION AFFECTED LEVELS OF XENOPHOBIA IN THE UK? The independent variable of this report is the level of EU immigration to the UK and the dependent variable is the xenophobic sentiment of UK citizens towards immigrants. To operationalise, xenophobia is defined as ‘an attitude of hatred or contempt’ for foreigners1. For the purposes of this article, this definition will be
anti-immigrant parties and negative
narrowed and defined as a negative sentiment towards foreigners; shown through
responses to survey questions on the
various behaviours associated with anti-immigrant beliefs. This anti-immigrant
subject of immigration from 1994 to
sentiment will be measured in two ways: firstly, by studying the vote for
2014. It also goes further by looking at
anti-immigrant party, UKIP, and analysing if there has been an increase in their vote
the regional impact of immigration on
as EU immigration levels increase, and secondly by using survey data from British
the views of British citizens and how those variations differ in relation to different levels of immigration. Data has been utilised from a variety of respected sources including the Plymouth Elections Centre, Migrants Watch UK, the British Attitudes Survey and a selection of academic works. The findings suggest that as
participants and studying responses to questions about immigration. By studying the changes in the responses, the measurement of changes in xenophobia within UK citizens can be shown as immigration from EU increases. This article hypothesises that increased levels of EU immigration, specifically from Eastern Europe since 2004, has increased xenophobic sentiments of UK citizens. This predominantly based on the notion of British citizens believing that European immigrants are occupying their jobs. The causal theory is that the increase in
immigration from the EU has
European immigration (IV) has subsequently led to the surplus of skilled labourers in
increased in the UK, especially since
the market. Industries thus decide to employ Europeans for their qualified skills and
2004, and so too has xenophobic
lower costs. Consequently, less skilled British workers are not being employed in
sentiment. This has been
comparison and also view EU workers as stealing British jobs, which is specifically
demonstrated by an increase in the
reinforced by numerous conservative media sources and UKIP. Therefore, British
votes for anti-immigrant parties since 2004 and the shift towards negative responses in surveys on the impact of immigration on employment. Also
workers feel they are unable to find jobs because of immigrants and so, xenophobic sentiment (DV) increases. By measuring the levels of EU immigration, the responses to questions on immigration and its impact on British jobs; allows us to evaluate how
from this research, it can be inferred
the IV manipulates the DV and establish if these mechanisms to the causal theory are
that UK regions that have experienced
valid.
higher levels of EU immigration generally hold more negative views on immigrants. Establishing this relationship is important with respect to the contemporary debates surrounding this issue and upcoming referendum on Britain’s membership of the EU, particularly as immigration is currently one of the most important issues for British voters.
s
Lincoln Allison, ‘Xenophobia’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) <http://www.oxfordreference.com/ view/10.1093/acref/9780199207800.001.0001/acref-9780199207800-e-1487? rskey=jQaSI5&result=1581> [accessed 28 November 2015].
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The comparisons used in this article are divided into two areas of study: firstly, the impact of immigration on votes for anti-immigrant parties and secondly, the impact of immigration on changing negative responses to immigration in surveys. For the first area, we would expect to see the UKIP vote increase as levels of immigration increase after 2004. We should also see a rise in their vote in years of EU enlargement and subsequent years. The rise in Eastern European immigration should also show a rise in UKIP’s vote. In the second area of this article, we should expect to see the negative responses given on immigrants increase after 2004. We should also see regions in the UK with higher levels of EU immigrants responding more negatively about the impact immigrants have on employment.
EU immigration and the UKIP vote
By studying Graph 12, it is clear to see that 2004 was the year EU immigration had increased dramatically compared to its previous years. We also see that in the same year, a peak of ≤6.8% in UKIP’s local elections vote share. 2006 and 2007 also shows a higher vote for UKIP with sustained high European immigration in those years. However, the real increase in UKIP’s vote was in 2013 and 2014 when EU immigration increased to unprecedented levels. Although this data cannot explain the causation, it infers a serious relationship between the increase in the UKIP vote and the increases in levels of EU immigration. Graph 1 would suggest that the rise in immigration has led to an increase in xenophobia causing a dramatic increase in the vote for anti-immigrant UKIP, especially since 2004 when immigration levels surged.
2
Migration Watch UK (2014) <http://www.migrationwatchuk.org/statistics-net-migration-statistics/ #create-graph> [accessed 27 November 2015].
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An issue is that the initial data for Table 1 3 and Graph 1 on UKIP votes was supposed to be accurate for each year, however data for UKIP as a distinct group did not begin until 2008 meaning that the data from 1994-2007 is based on results for UKIP listed under ‘other parties’. Therefore the percentages used were less-than-or-equal-to that stated, however the vote for UKIP and others in these years was so small that this does not dramatically affect the data. If the data had existed however, it would provide more valid information. In terms of application, this data is useful as it can explain UKIP’s vote increase and demonstrates that the UK is becoming more xenophobic and so if the media and politicians were aware of this, they may seek to address it. Further research on this subject should seek to validate the mechanism of the role of media and whether it has accelerated the xenophobic sentiment in the years 2003 to 2014 to further add to this research. When comparing EU immigration levels from the EU8/EU2 and the rest of the EU separately to the UKIP vote in contested wards4, we see the influx of Eastern European immigrants is the main driver of the rise of xenophobia. Graph 2 5 shows that immigration from the rest of the EU has been mostly stable with moderate increases, however it is predominantly the increase of migration from Eastern states that has added dramatically to immigration levels. We can clearly see that the years of 2004, 2011, and 2013 all show a rise in the vote for UKIP and also experienced high levels of EU8/EU2 immigration. The vote for UKIP had been declining before 2004 but the subsequent rise in Eastern European immigration would be an evident reason for the increase in UKIP’s vote. The UKIP vote also surged in 2009, which can be explained
3
The Election Centre Plymouth (n.d) <http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0008/191861/Plymouth-UKPGE-electoral-data-report-final-WEB.pdf> [accessed 27 November 2015]. 4 Robert Ford and Matthew Goodwin, Revolt on the Right: Explaining support for the radical right in Britain (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014), p.73. 5 Migration Watch.
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by the two previous years having high immigration levels from the EU8/EU2. From this it can be concluded that the increase in EU immigration from 2004, brought on from the Eastern enlargement, has increased the vote for anti-immigrant UKIP and thus would infer that there has been an increase in the xenophobic sentiment in Britain.
EU immigration and xenophobic responses to immigration survey questions Whilst the previous section suggests strong evidence for a relationship between increasing EU immigration and rising xenophobia, it does not directly explain the mechanisms of the causal theory. This section will provide evidence for such mechanisms. The question in focus can be exemplified in the data collected from 1995, 2003, and 2013 British Social Attitudes Surveys on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Immigrants from other countries living in Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The focus on the impact of immigration on British jobs will perhaps help to explain the validity of the mechanisms of the causal theory.
Table 46 shows that there has been an increase in the percentage of people who strongly agree to the question and a decrease in those who disagree, between the years 2003-2013. The 2003 responses are more positive than those of 2013, which infers an increase in xenophobic sentiment and that more citizens now believe that immigrants are occupying British employment. We can therefore infer a shift in the xenophobic sentiment of British respondents between these years and the reason for the increase in those who strongly agree in relation to the increase in EU immigration from 2004.
6
British Social Attitudes Survey (2013) <http://www.bsa.natcen.ac.uk/media/38108/immigrationbsa31.pdf> [accessed 27 November 2015].
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Graphs 3, 4 and 57 illustrate the change in responses to the question. It can be observed that in 2003, 44.8% of respondents agreed with the statement, whereas this was over half of responses in 2013. Analysis suggests that there has been an increase in those believing that immigrants are taking British jobs, thus there has been an increase in xenophobia in UK citizens. The significant increase in ‘strongly agree’ responses from 12.3% to 18.2% again reinforces this argument. Whilst this survey may not represent views of the whole population and its sample is relatively small, this data is still useful in giving us an insight into the changing views of British citizens towards immigrants. To conclude, the overall responses have seen an increase in negative sentiment towards immigrants when comparing the 2003 results to the 2013 ones, and the increase of immigration in 2004 onwards would explain this change. Therefore, increased EU immigration has increased xenophobia. To establish whether this increase in xenophobia in the survey responses is due to the increase in immigration from 2004, we need to compare the regional and national responses with the populations of EU immigrants within those areas to see if higher levels of EU immigrants in those areas have led to an increase in the negative responses.
“Analysis suggests that there has been an increase in those believing that immigrants are taking British jobs, thus there has been an increase in xenophobia in UK citizens.”
7
42
Ibid.
Kent Political Almanac
Table 58 and Map 19 show that London, the South-East, the East-Midlands and Eastern England all have the highest percentages of EU immigrants in their populations. The North-East region has the lowest population percentage. We therefore should expect to see London, with 12.1% of its population being EU immigrants, having the most negative responses towards immigrants and the North-East being more positive or neutral. Additionally, regions that have a higher percentage of EU nationals in their populations should show more xenophobia change since 2003 compared to those with the lowest, as they would have felt the impact of increased immigration more and are perhaps more likely to give negative responses on the impact of immigration on British jobs.
By studying Table 610, it is evident that there was variation in the responses in 2013. Londoner responses have relatively the lowest â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;agreeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; response to the
8
Owen Hawkins, House of Commons Library Briefing Paper: Migration Statistics (United Kingdom: House of Commons, 2015) <http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/ SN03845#fullreport> [accessed 27 November, 2015], p.16. 9 Ibid. 10 British Social Attitudes Survey.
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question on immigrants taking British jobs, this is surprising as its population is 12.1% EU. This would counter the hypothesis that higher immigration levels lead to xenophobia. Conversely, London has a history of multiculturalism and there are more employment opportunities in London than other areas of the UK, perhaps suggesting there are less negative impacts on locals in relation to immigration than other areas. London’s history of immigration and employment opportunities means it might view immigration differently to other areas. However, when looking at the change in London responses from 2003 to 2013, we still see that the ‘agree’ responses increased by 7.5%, inferring that immigration still has some xenophobic response in London. If we look at regions with high percentage populations of Europeans, we see they have some of the highest increases in the agree response. The East-Midlands saw a 14.6% increase and the South-East 6.4%. Areas with lower EU immigrant populations like the West-Midlands saw the ‘agree’ response fall by 4.8%. 2013’s ‘agree’ response standard deviation was 8.82, suggesting regional variations that should be expected with different immigrant populations, inferring different numbers of immigrants makes British citizens think differently about immigrant impacts on jobs causing xenophobia differences. This all strongly suggests that there is evidence for the mechanism that British people view their jobs are given to immigrants and thus xenophobia rises. However, some cases do not fit this trend. Wales with 2.2% of its population being EU immigrants, much lower than the South-East, saw an increase of 13.4% in those who agreed in some way that immigrants take British jobs and was the region with the highest agreement response. This contradicts the hypothesis as xenophobia has increased in Wales where there are fewer immigrants from the EU than in other areas. In contrast, further analysis allows us to explain this unusual occurrence as Wales has economic issues and issues in employment that may also add to xenophobic sentiment more than other areas that are not experiencing the same economic difficulties. Therefore, the economic conditions intensify the xenophobic sentiment in Wales and can therefore explain this phenomenon. The data from Table 6 mostly suggests that there is an increasing xenophobic sentiment in the UK, especially in regions where EU immigrant populations are larger. On the whole, regions with higher EU population percentages have very high agree response percentages too. The mean change in the agree response from 2003 to 2013 was +5.48 and the mean agree responses in 2013 was over half (51.5%), again reinforcing the hypothesis by showing that high levels of EU immigration after 2004 has increased the xenophobic sentiment of UK citizens. It also strengthens the mechanism in this relationship that EU immigrants occupying British jobs have led to this increase in xenophobia. .
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Conclusion The data evidence suggests the hypothesis, that higher EU immigration has increased xenophobia because of the fear of job loss, is correct. The data on the vote share of anti-immigrant parties has seen a dramatic increase since 2004. It shows that xenophobic sentiment has increased since around 2004, when EU immigration surged in Britain after EU expansion into Eastern Europe. It also clearly shows periods of high immigration from the EU to the UK through the data of higher votes for UKIP and other anti-immigrant parties. Findings also suggest that Eastern European immigration has particularly contributed to increasing xenophobia in Britain. Thus, it can be concluded from this that there seems to be significant evidence of a relationship between increasing immigration from the EU and xenophobia in UK citizens. Additionally, the changes in survey responses can explain and consolidate this relationship further. Whilst this comparison between anti-immigrant votes and immigration levels suggests a relationship, it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t explain why. Survey responses have shown that the areas of the UK with higher levels of immigrants tend to have higher negative responses towards immigration and employment and that since 2003, there has been an increase in the negative response nationally showing xenophobia is on the rise. Whilst some regions like London do not follow this pattern of high immigration causing more xenophobic sentiment, these examples have distinct differences from other areas. Perhaps it is due to their different views on immigration and can therefore be classified as anomalies. Thus, this not only allows us to accept the hypothesis but also supports the mechanism that some British people fear immigrants taking British jobs and this is a reason driving increased xenophobia as a result of increased immigration.
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This research is highly relevant given the current political situation in the UK with regards to UKIP, the European Union, and immigration. Whilst it is not the sole reason for UKIP’s success, the surge in UKIP’s popularity in UK politics can be partially explained as originating from the increasing levels of EU immigration, particularly from Eastern Europe, since 2004. Furthermore, this research examines how immigration from the EU has currently affected Britain’s views towards immigrants and other EU citizens. It can be maintained that the increase in EU immigration has caused a notable increase in anti-immigrant views among British citizens and this may have a substantial impact on the way in which some voters will decide in the upcoming referendum on the UK’s membership of the EU. Therefore, this research helps us to begin to identify the possible implications of increased EU immigration and xenophobia in Britain on contemporary British politics.
“It can be maintained that the increase in EU immigration has caused a notable increase in anti-immigrant views among British citizens and this may have a substantial impact on the way in which some voters will decide in the upcoming referendum on the UK’s membership of the EU.”
Bibliography Allison, Lincoln ‘Xenophobia’ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) <http:// www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199207800.001.0001/acref9780199207800-e-1487?rskey=jQaSI5&result=1581> [accessed 28 November 2015] British Social Attitudes Survey (2013) <http://www.bsa.natcen.ac.uk/media/38108/ immigration-bsa31.pdf> [accessed 27 November 2015] Ford, Robert and Matthew Goodwin, Revolt on the Right: Explaining support for the radical right in Britain (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014) Hawkins, Owen. House of Commons Library Briefing Paper: Migration Statistics (United Kingdom: House of Commons, 2015) <http:// researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN03845#fullreport> [accessed 27 November, 2015] Migration Watch UK (2014) <http://www.migrationwatchuk.org/statistics-netmigration-statistics/#create-graph> [accessed 27 November 2015] The Election Centre Plymouth (n.d) <http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/ __data/assets/pdf_file/0008/191861/Plymouth-UKPGE-electoral-data-report-finalWEB.pdf> [accessed 27 November 2015]
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DISENGAGED OR DISLLUSIONED? POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN BRITAIN TODAY
BY OTTO ILVESKERO Based on the historically low turnouts of the recent general elections, the public’s falling identification with political
‘In the brief moments of its freedom, the English people makes such a use of that 1
parties, and the decreasing sense
freedom that it deserves to lose it’ … For Rousseau the will of the ‘third estate’ or
of civic duty, it could be
public interest in England was undermined by the citizens’ lack of political
superficially argued that British
participation and the representative government’s placing of private interest
voters are disengaging from
before the public good. These words still resonate with the more contemporary
politics. However, this essay
concern about a ‘crisis of participation’ in the UK, which derives from the low
argues that the picture is not as
electoral turnouts in the 21st century as well as from the deepening distrust in
simple as it might seem. Based on
politicians to represent the electorate2. In terms of these two variables, electoral
the most recent British Social
participation and trust in politicians have both dropped significantly since the
Attitudes survey and Audit of
1980s and thus, it can be superficially concluded that citizens in Britain are indeed
Political Engagement, it can be
disengaging from politics3. However, for many modern political scientists, as well
seen that rather than
as for Rousseau, political participation means much more than just voting or party
permanently disengaging from
politics. For instance, Phillips and Simpson define political engagement as broadly
politics, the electorate has
as to be ‘any behaviour that involves people either in the political process or in
become gradually disillusioned
wider political activity’4. This definition includes in itself a vast variety of political
with the formal political
action from political campaigning, joining pressure groups, and signing petitions
establishment, and while those
to even discussing politics with friends. Therefore, the validity of the claim that
with civic skills and material
citizens in Britain are disengaging from politics needs to be assessed more broadly
resources have been able to
than only based on electoral participation in order to gain better understanding
resort to other means to
of the nature of the presumed British political apathy and, importantly, of the
accompany their electoral voice,
possible demographic unevenness in levels of political participation.
the less well educated have found it increasingly meaningless to
This article will first look into voting, which is arguably the most visible expression
participate for the time being.
of political engagement, and the electorate’s falling participation in party politics. Second, the other less formal ways of participation will be explored to highlight the difference between the public’s interest in politics and disinterest in party politics. Finally, the important question of who actually participates in the society will be examined. It will be argued that, rather than disengaging from politics, the British public has become disillusioned with the formal political establishment, and, while those with civic skills and other resources have been able to resort to other means to accompany their electoral voice, those with fewer resources have found it increasingly meaningless to participate for the time being. In other words, the distinction between disengagement and disillusionment allows us to understand the crisis of electoral participation against a larger background, where interest in informal participatory politics still remains. It is also important to realise the disparity in the participation rates of the opposite ends of the society, which can potentially have consequences on the functioning of democracy, as
1
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (London: Penguin Group, 1762/1968), p.141. William Maloney, ‘Political Participation Beyond the Electoral Arena’, in Developments in British Politics 8, ed. by Patrick Dunleavy, Richard Heffernan and Philip Cowley (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp.98-116 (p.98). 3 Lucy Lee and Penny Young, ‘A Disengaged Britain? Political Interest and Participation over 30 Years’, in British Social Attitudes 30, ed. by Alison Park and others (London: NatCen Social Research, 2013), pp.62-86 (pp.64, 69). 4 Miranda Phillips and Ian Simpson, ’Disengaged or Disconnected? Trends in Attitudes towards Politics’, in British Social Attitudes 32, ed. by John Curtice and Rachel Ormston (London: NatCen Social Research, 2015), pp.122-145 (p.124). 2
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those at the bottom become increasingly apathetic and put off by the political establishment.
Disengagement: Falling turnout and party identification Electoral participation is required in a representative democracy for the state to remain legitimate and effective5. In Britain, the 2001 general election saw only 59.8% of the voters make their way to the ballot box on the election day, marking the lowest level of electoral turnout since 19186. This 12-point crash from the 1997 general election followed the record low turnouts of the 1999 European Parliament election and the 1998-2000 local elections7. According to Bromley and Curtice, this period marked a change in the study of elections in the UK from why do people vote for certain parties to why do some people not vote at all 8. Certainly, electoral participation has run counter to the cognitive engagement model, which claims that people’s political participation increases with their increased ability to access and process information. However, despite the constantly growing levels of education and increased availability of information throughout the new millennium, turnout has remained lower than any time since 19229. To explain this historical low, scholars have often used the changes in party identification and perceptions of voting as a civic duty as indicators.
“Despite the constantly growing levels of education and increased availability of information throughout the new millennium, turnout has remained lower than any time since 1922” First, the number of people who identify either “very” or “fairly” strongly with a party has dropped from 46% in 1987 to 37% in 201410. Even more importantly, the number of those who do not claim a party identification at all has more than doubled from 8% in 1987 to 19% in 201411. What makes this especially significant is that according to Whiteley, the portion of the public with a strong party identification is over two and a half times more likely to vote than those with no party alignment 12. This development has also had an effect on the levels of other forms of formal, party politics related, participation. For instance, party membership has declined from the already low numbers between 7% and 9% in the 1980s to a mere 1% of the public 13. In some surveys these numbers are likely to be exaggerated, however, as the section of the electorate that frequently responds to political surveys is more likely to be interested in politics and thus more politically aware and active 14. 5
Paul Whiteley, Political Participation in Britain: The Decline and Revival of Civic Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p.9. 6 Catherine Bromley, John Curtice and Ben Seyd, ‘Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform’, in British Social Attitudes 18: Public Policy, Social Ties, ed. by Alison Park, John Curtice and Katarina Thomson (London: SAGE Publications, 2001), pp.199-225 (p.200). 7 Ibid., p.200. 8 Catherine Bromley and John Curtice, ‘Where Have All the Voters Gone?’ in British Social Attitudes 19, ed. by Alison Park, John Curtice and Katarina Thomson (London: SAGE Publications, 2002), pp.141-167 (p.141). 9 Charles Pattie, Patrick Seyd and Paul Whiteley, Citizenship in Britain: Values, Participation and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp.138-140; Phillips and Simpson, p.125. 10 Phillips and Simpson, p.136. 11 Ibid., p.136. 12 Whiteley, p.46. 13 Russell J. Dalton, Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 5th edn (Thousand Oaks: CQ Press, 2008), p.42; Phillips and Simpson, p.125. 14 Phillips and Simpson, p.125; Catherine Bromley and John Curtice, ‘Are Non-Voters Cynics Anyway?’ Journal of Public Affairs, 4 (2004), 328-337 (p.333).
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Second, whether voters still see the act of voting as a duty marking a ‘good citizen’ has also been used to explain the drop in turnout. This sense of civic duty matters because it is frequently reported to be the top reason for peoples participation15. What can be seen is that there has been a steady decrease in the past thirty years from the three-quarter of participants who believed it is everyone’s duty to vote in 1987 to 57% in 201316. Additionally, the number of people who say voting is not worth the costs has grown around five times higher during the same time period 17. Thus, based on these indicators it could be quickly concluded that the British public is gradually disengaging from electoral politics. However, although voting has evidently been lower in the last fifteen years than at any point since the early interwar period, it has gradually increased since 2001, reaching a turnout of 66.4% in the 2015 general election18. Similarly, turnout in the European elections has returned to above 30% from the record low in 1999. In fact, the following 2004 European elections marked the highest UK turnout on record at 39%19. This development has not been mirrored by an increase in the sense of civic duty, nor was there a sudden drop in the perceptions of voting as a civic duty between 1997 and 2001 that would directly explain the sudden drop in turnout between those elections. Importantly, the majority of Britons still view voting as their civic duty, while 61% agree that Parliament remains necessary to British democracy20. Likewise, the public’s claimed likelihood to vote has not significantly changed in the past decade, which is still the stance held by 69% of the population 21. These aspects go to suggest that the contemporary low in turnouts might only be a temporary setback in the political engagement of the British public.
Disillusionment: Interested in politics, uninterested in party politics If voting and the parliament are still desirable overall in the eyes of the public, there must be something else that continues to disengage, at least temporarily, so many of those who are registered to vote from electoral politics. Bromley and Curtice suggest that the perceived similarity of the parties and the closeness of the race in the run up to the elections are factors to be considered when studying the public’s disengagement. The scholars state that the electorate’s motivation to vote in 2001 was reduced by the lack of stimulus to those with weak party identification and a weak sense of civic duty, meaning that more voters had not suddenly become disengaged but that a larger proportion of those who were already distanced from the system were not interested enough to vote due to the similarity of the main parties and the unexciting race22. Their evidence shows that between 1997 and 2001 the levels of turnout and perceived lack of variety between the large parties changed considerably more among those with weak sense of civic duty and party identification compared to those with stronger ties 15
Hansard Society, Audit of Political Engagement 12 (London: Hansard Society, 2015), p.26. Phillips and Simpson, p. 137. 17 Ibid., p.138. 18 Electoral Commission, The May 2015 UK Elections (London: Electoral Commission, 2015) <http:// www.electoralcommission.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/190959/UKPGE-report-May-20151.pdf> [accessed 28 January 2016] (p. 12). 19 Oliver Hawkins, Vaughne Miller and Jeremy Hardacre, Commons Briefing Paper RP14-32 (London: House of Commons Library, 2014), p.44. 20 Hansard Society, p.7. 21 Ibid., p.12. 22 Bromley and Curtice (2002), p.153. 16
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to the political system23. Since 2001, when Labour led on average by 14% in the final week polls, turnouts have risen in the subsequent elections as the polls have been closer, with the Conservative lead in 2010 being 7% and only 1% in the famously misleading polls of 2015, which further strengthens the two scholars’ argument24. In addition, although still remaining low, the perceived difference of the two main parties has increased after the 2005 elections25. Thus, it is important to understand that in the midst of this decrease in the sense of civic duty and party identification, that if provided with sufficient stimulus, even those who are currently perceived as being disengaged from politics could make their return to the ballot box. Here, it seems that the British voters are increasingly disillusioned with party politics, to which they perceive as dull and not sufficiently matching their views rather than permanently disengaged from it. Moreover, this disillusionment with party politics can also be seen in the public’s confidence in the political system. For example, the levels of system efficacy, or how responsive people view the political system to be to their demands, have remained low since they dipped in the mid-1990s, while trust in politicians had in politicians had in 2013 (17%) fallen to less than half of what it had been in 1987 (38%) 26. Additionally, nearly seven in ten Britons agree that the system is in need of improvement27. Interestingly, there is no evidence that the overall levels of social trust or even trust in other public entities such as the police, would have decreased over the same period of time. This rules out the structural explanation of Putnam’s social capital model that assumes a link between social and political trust 28. Based on this, scholars such as Dalton have suggested that the public has turned to less traditional ways of participation, such as political consumerism (e.g. product boycotts and buying fair trade) and protests, because they feel that the political system inadequately responds to their needs29. Certainly, as system efficacy has decreased, a rise in people’s personal efficacy, or the public’s confidence in their own ability to have a say in how the state is run, has been identified30. Dalton explains this development by using the cognitive engagement model, stating that the better-educated and self-mobilised individuals favour referendums over elections and communal activities over campaign work 31. Perhaps the 85% turnout in the Scottish independence referendum, as well as the evidence that a membership of voluntary associations is more common than a being part of a political party, could give some basis to this theory 32. Also, the public is no less engaged in politics than before when it comes to the low-level everyday engagement
23
Ibid., p.154. Ipsos MORI, Final Polls in the 2001 General Election (London: Ipsos MORI, 2001) <https://www.ipsosmori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/poll.aspx?oItemId=1257> [accessed 28 January 2016]; Ipsos MORI, Final Election Poll (London: Ipsos MORI, 2010) <https://www.ipsos-mori.com/Assets/Docs/ Polls/final-voting-intention-topline-election-2010.pdf> [accessed 28 January 2016] (p. 1); Ipsos MORI, Final Election Poll (London: Ipsos MORI, 2015) <https://www.ipsos-mori.com/Assets/Docs/Polls/ GE2015_final_poll_topline3.pdf> [accessed 28 January 2016] (p.1). 25 John Curtice, ‘Bridging the Gulf? Britain’s Democracy after the 2010 Election’, in British Social Attitudes 28, ed. by Alison Park, Elizabeth Clery, John Curtice, Miranda Phillips and David Utting (London: NatCen Social Research, 2012), pp.1-20 (p.8). 26 Lee and Young, p.70; Phillips and Simpson, p.135-6. 27 Hansard Society, p.7. 28 Bromley, Curtice and Seyd, p.218-9. 29 Dalton, p.54-5. 30 Lee and Young, p.71. 31 Dalton, p.54. 32 Hansard Society, p.18. 24
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such as following political news or discussing politics, nor are they significantly less interested in politics than in the past33. Therefore, at a glance, this would seem to imply that, as the public has grown more dissatisfied with the political system, the disillusioned have turned to other forms of participation in order to voice their opinion.
Unequal participation: A class division Bromley, Curtice and Seyd explain that those who are involved in other forms of political engagement tend to be the same people as those who vote in elections34. What this means is that there seems to be a divide between those who try to maximise their influence by participating in a variety of ways and those who are disillusioned and thus, do not participate at all. Curtice and Seyd further discuss less formal ways of engagement as an ‘add-on’ to electoral participation and distinguish between well-educated ‘super activists’ and less educated non-participants as the opposite sides of the engagement scale35. Citizens with at least an undergraduate degree are twice as likely to claim that they understand politics than those with no formal qualifications, which can also explain their willingness to participate more in political activities, such as contacting an MP, which can assumed to require a fair amount of political knowledge and communication skills36.
33
Phillips and Simpson, p.127-30. Bromley, Curtice and Seyd, p.202. 35 John Curtice and Ben Seyd, ‘Is There a Crisis of Political Participation’, in British Social Attitudes 20: Continuity and Change over Two Decades, ed. Alison Park, John Curtice, Katarina Thomson, Lindsey Jarvis and Catherine Bromley (London: SAGE Publications, 2003), pp.93-107 (p.94). 36 Hansard Society, p.26. 34
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The most recent British Social Attitudes survey goes to show that these activists prefer low cost individual activities, such as signing a petition or boycotting a product, to high cost collective actions, such as protests 37. This is highlighted by the findings that two-thirds of Britons report having signed a petition and just over a third claims to have taken part in political consumerism, while the proportion of people who have taken part in a demonstration still remains below 20% 38. Furthermore, the most recent Audit of Political Engagement found that slightly over 50% of Britons reported having not taken part in any of the forms of participation in the last twelve-month period39. The survey even reported slight decreases in the levels of participation in most of the categories of participation, but this might only be a temporary drop. Thus, while ‘chequebook participation’, meaning being involved in political movements by donating, and signing petitions seem to be popular options within the public for raising an opinion outside the formal realm of participation, it should be understood that these are tools of those well-educated citizens who feel like the government is not responsive enough to their demands and thus try to maximise their own voice40. This means that there is a threat that the less well educated will become increasingly voiceless, because, apart from voting, the difference in political engagement between people with different levels of education is clearly tilted towards those with at least an undergraduate degree. Lastly, while education is clearly an important element of political engagement, this perceived gap in engagement seems to be created by the distribution of other resources as well. The civic voluntarism model of participation assumes that these resources, such as time and money, are a product of social structures that stem from factors such as education and upbringing. Survey evidence shows that those who have taken part in five or more political actions, the ‘super activists’, are much more likely to be well earning, professional workers with a higher education degree 41. Interestingly, and as mentioned above, these educated upper-middle-class citizens are mainly the same people who are also more likely to vote in the elections 42. Then, on the opposite side of the engagement spectrum lie manual workers and young people. Only 16% of young Britons today claimed that they were certain to vote before the 2015 elections, which is well below the national average of the certainty to vote (49%). While those in social grades C2DE – consisting of the skilled and unskilled working classes as well as the lowest, non-working class – have a significantly lower level of personal efficacy (12%) than the upper social classes (21%)43. However, young people’s lack of participation is nothing new, as they have always been the demographic least likely to be interested in politics or to have a strong sense of civic duty44. Although there is nothing to say that young people could not get more involved as they reach middle age, the disillusioned, less educated citizens in lower income occupations are being trampled in the social status hierarchy as income inequality and average levels of education increase. This in turn lowers the relative social status of these people, which is likely to diminish their involvement in the society45.
37
Phillips and Simpson, p.127. Phillips and Simpson, p.127. 39 Hansard Society, p.30. 40 Maloney, p.106, 109-111. 41 Pattie, Seyd and Whiteley, p.94. 42 David Denver, Christopher Carman and Robert Johns, Elections and Voters in Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). 43 Hansard Society, pp.6, 37. 44 Bromley and Curtice, p.160. 45 Whiteley, p.48-9. 38
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Accordingly, the lower classes are clearly less interested in politics as well as less satisfied with the current political system than grades ABC1, meaning the upper, middle and lower middle classes46. Also, the way in which all political participation is mostly the realm of those with the resources goes clearly against the equity-fairness theory of participation, or the relative deprivation model, which understands participation as being a consequence of an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception of an unjust lack of resources in comparison to other groups47. Therefore, it can be seen that, while high-income professionals are still participating in the political system, the citizens with fewer resources are at risk of becoming even quieter and more apathetic than they already are.
Conclusion Based on the evidence, it can be argued that the British citizens are not disengaging from politics, but that they are disillusioned with it instead. Moreover, this disillusionment is mainly contained in party politics, as although the measures considering formal political participation might give validity to the statement that the public does not make the best out of its freedom to participate, the electorate overall is practically no less interested in politics or engaged in the less visible forms of it than in the past. There is, however, a distinctive demographic unevenness in the levels of participation when it comes to the forms of political activity outside party politics, where those with the most resources utilise all the means available to maximise their political input and those with the least resources are discouraged from participating at all. While the British public might not deserve to lose its freedom to participate, those with fewer resources and ties to the political system who are increasingly more disillusioned may feel that freedom to participate in politics is simply not worth the costs. Rather than becoming permanently disengaged from politics, they choose to stay home for now because they receive fewer incentives and are not encouraged to join with their perceived unresponsive political system, to which they feel, does not care about them. Perhaps these citizens feel that the political system is disengaging from them rather than the other way around.
46 47
Hansard Society, p.34. Pattie, Seyd and Whiteley, p.147-9.
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Bibliography Bromley, Catherine, John Curtice and Ben Seyd, 'Political Engagement, Trust and Constitutional Reform’, in British Social Attitudes 18: Public Policy, Social Ties, ed. by Alison Park, John Curtice and Katarina Thomson (London: SAGE Publications, 2001), pp. 199-225 Bromley, Catherine and John Curtice, ‘Where Have All the Voters Gone?’ in British Social Attitudes: 19th Report, ed. by Alison Park, John Curtice and Katarina Thomson (London: SAGE Publications, 2002), pp. 141-167 Bromley, Catherine and John Curtice, ‘Are Non-Voters Cynics Anyway?’ Journal of Public Affairs 4 (2004), 328-337 Curtice, John and Ben Seyd, ‘Is There a Crisis of Political Participation’, in British Social Attitudes 20: Continuity and Change over Two Decades, ed. by Alison Park, John Curtice, Katarina Thomson, Lindsey Jarvis and Catherine Bromley (London: SAGE Publications, 2003), pp. 93-107 Dalton, Russell J., Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 5th edn (Thousand Oaks: CQ Press, 2008) Denver, David, Christopher Carman and Robert Johns, Elections and Voters in Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) Electoral Commission, The May 2015 UK Elections (London: Electoral Commission, 2015) <http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0006/190959/UKPGE-report-May-2015-1.pdf> [accessed 28 January 2016] Hansard Society, Audit of Political Engagement 12 (London: Hansard Society, 2015) Hawkins, Oliver, Vaughne Miller and Jeremy Hardacre, Commons Briefing Papers RP14-32 (London: House of Commons Library, 2014) Ipsos MORI, Final Polls in the 2001 General Elections (London: Ipsos MORI, 2001) <https://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/poll.aspx? oItemId=1257> [accessed 28 January 2016] Ipsos MORI, Final Election Poll (London: Ipsos MORI, 2010) <https://www.ipsosmori.com/Assets/Docs/Polls/final-voting-intention-topline-election-2010.pdf> [accessed 28 January 2016] Ipsos MORI, Final Election Poll (London: Ipsos MORI, 2015) <https://www.ipsosmori.com/Assets/Docs/Polls/GE2015_final_poll_topline3.pdf> [accessed 28 January 2016] Lee, Lucy and Penny Young, ‘A Disengaged Britain? Political Interest and Participation over 30 years’, in British Social Attitudes 30, ed. by Alison Park, Caroline Bryson, Elizabeth Clery, John Curtice and Miranda Phillips (London: NatCen Social Research, 2013), pp. 62-86
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Maloney, William, ‘Political Participation Beyond the Electoral Arena’, in Developments in British Politics 8, ed. by Partick Dunleavy, Richard Heffernan and Philip Cowley (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 98-116 Pattie, Charles; Patrick Seyd and Paul Whiteley, Citizenship in Britain: Values, Participation and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) Phillips, Miranda and Ian Simpson, ‘Disengaged and Disconnected? Trends in Attitudes towards Politics’, British Social Attitudes 32, ed. by John Curtice and Rachel Ormston (London: NatCen Social Research, 2015), pp. 122-145 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, The Social Contract (London: Penguin Group, 1762/1968) Whiteley, Paul, Political Participation in Britain: The Decline and Revival of Civic Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012)
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BY KAY BINDER This article seeks to analyse the relationship between the UN state-building approach of neo-trusteeship and state-sovereignty in order to evaluate the consequences the former has on the latter. By first evaluating differing academic approaches to sovereignty to form an operational definition, analysis on sovereignty in relation to neo-trusteeship will outline the compromising relationship
TO WHAT EXTENT DOES NEO-TRUSTEESHIP IMPACT ON STATE SOVERIEGNTY? The concept of sovereignty can be found at the heart of many political debates concerning when and why states should exercise power, often relating to issues of territory and ethnic or cultural conflicts. This article engages with the controversy regarding sovereignty in relation to neo-trusteeship, a policy instrument utilised by the United Nations (UN) and state actors to intrusively aid countries in which conflict and government failure are endemic. The question of whether or not neo-trusteeship is a threat to sovereignty is relevant today as we witness the evolution of state security threats with ever increasing globalisation and interconnectedness between countries. This article discusses the concepts of trusteeship and neo-trusteeship in order to determine the fundamental characteristics of each approach to state intervention with regards to sovereignty and infringement on the state.
neo-trusteeship poses a threat to
By focusing on the decline of trusteeship and the assumed need for its revival in a new form, the role and potential threat of neo-trusteeship in today’s post-imperialist world will be assessed. Before this, I will explore the concept of sovereignty in order to develop an understanding of the autonomy of states in the international sphere and what significance the inherent sovereignty of a state has when faced with interior political chaos. Finally, the essay will objectively evaluate the threat neo-trusteeship poses to the sovereignty of UN member states by assessing the success of past interventions, before concluding that although neo-trusteeship fundamentally infringes upon and threatens a traditional concept of sovereignty, the initiation of neo-trustee policy is often warranted by desperate and otherwise uncontrollable circumstances to build the domestic sovereignty of failed states.
orthodox sovereignty; however,
Sovereignty
when considering a deconstructed
In order to evaluate the threat posed by neo-trusteeship to the autonomy of a state, it is necessary to analyse the somewhat ambiguous concept of sovereignty. The original idea of sovereignty was espoused by Jean Bodin in 1576 and has been defined in a variety of ways in academic literature since1. The traditional orthodoxy of state sovereignty is most widely associated with its unwavering commitment to non-intervention in other states2. This definition posits that no foreign actor has the right to interfere or have a direct influence in the domestic politics of an independent and sovereign state. As put by Krasner, the fundamental rules of this definition of sovereignty are: ‘recognition of juridically independent territorial entities and non-intervention in the internal affairs of other states’3. It is this type of integral state sovereignty, which dictates the basic requirement to let states be totally independent and in control of their own interior political state of affairs.
between the two. This article will also demonstrate the effects of neo-trusteeship with the case studies of East-Timor and Kosovo in order to determine to what extent the approach threatened their sovereignty. Ultimately,
concept of the term, it is suggestible that one type of sovereignty must be compromised in order to build upon another.
Another perspective is to divide this conventional approach to sovereignty into three different elements: international legal sovereignty, Westphalian sovereignty, and domestic sovereignty. International 1
Tod Moore, ‘Violations of Sovereignty and Regime Engineering: A Critique of the State Theory of Stephen Krasner’, Australian Journal of Political Science, 44 (2009), pp.497-511 (p.499). 2 William Bain, ‘The Political Theory of Trusteeship and the Twilight of International Equality’, International Relations, 17 (2003), pp.59-77 (p.68). 3 Stephen Krasner, ‘Sharing Sovereignty: New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States’, International Security, 29 (2004), pp.85-120 (p.85).
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legal sovereignty refers to the recognition of ‘juridically independent territorial entities’ that have the right decide to enter into treaties or agreements 4. Westphalian sovereignty decrees the rule of refraining from ‘intervening in the internal affairs of other states’, which most resembles the form of sovereignty explained previously 5. Finally, domestic sovereignty describes the ‘nature of domestic authority structures’ and to what extent they are able to control actions within a country’s borders 6. With this approach Krasner aims to overcome the flawed, yet unchallenged, principles of orthodox sovereignty by interpreting the need to separate internal sovereignty from external sovereignty and seeing how these differing theoretical components can be compromised by another7. For example, due to a determined effort to not threaten Westphalian sovereignty of states, such as the failed states of Somalia and Rwanda, a moral obligation to protect was disregarded despite high levels of human suffering. This raises the normative question of which type of sovereignty is important to uphold, and under what circumstances. With these questions in mind, we can look at the different forms of trusteeship, which have evolved over time and evaluate their ability to mitigate these threats that the competing notions of sovereignty have highlighted.
‘Old trusteeship’ and ‘new trusteeship’ Extending from this understanding of sovereignty, we can begin to evaluate neo-trusteeship as a threat, but we must first define the approach of trusteeship and explore its formation and decline. In its simplest form trusteeship ‘presupposes a relationship in which a natural person or a legal person is responsible for the well being of persons who are incapable of acting for themselves’ 8. With regards to international relations, the role of foreign governance in trust territories was legitimised by the assumed need that after the Second World War, certain states needed trusteeship to develop a greater capacity of national administration and governance. It was also under this former doctrine of the need to manage populations who were incapable of managing themselves, in which European colonial powers vindicated their ‘civilizing missions’ throughout Africa and Asia 9. Unlike neo-trusteeship, the former strategy of trustee states was not to rebuild administrations and government and exit as soon as possible, but to dominate weaker states with colonial policies and utilise them for political gains on the global, political stage. Kwame Nkrumah espoused this line of thinking, in that trusteeship was merely thinly disguised support of ‘deception, hypocrisy, oppression, and exploitation’10. This point is exemplified by the rapid decline of trusteeship during the era of anti-colonialism and decolonization in trustee territories. During this era of an increased political apathy towards foreign actor intervention within domestic politics, countries under colonial rule were faced with populations fighting for independence whilst embracing revolutionary ideas of self-determination and sovereign national identity. Considering the somewhat sudden deterioration of trusteeship, it is surprising that since the 1990s there have been signs of the revival of this foreign policy strategy in a new and developed form. An explanation for this revival is offered by Lyon, who suggests that this remitting of trusteeship is closely linked with plans ‘for the future revitalisation of the United Nations and other international organisations’, thus 4
Ibid., p.87. Ibid., p.87. 6 Ibid., p.88. 7 Stephen Krasner, ‘Sharing Sovereignty: New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States’, International Security, 29(2004), pp.85-120 (p.85). 8 Bain, p.59. 9 Rob Jenkins, ‘Collateral Benefit Iraq and Increased Legitimacy for International Trusteeship’, Dissent, 53(2006), (pp.72-75). 10 Kwame Nkrumah, Towards Colonial Freedom: Africa and the Struggle Against World Imperialism (London: Heinemann, 1962), p.35. 5
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theorising the future growth of the involvement of the UN in global affairs 11. Unlike its predecessor, neo-trusteeship involves a largely multilateral approach to rebuilding failed states which includes the potential involvement of international and regional organisations, states, NGOs and corporations; therefore the UN has the ability to play a role in the legitimisation of state intervention, but is not exclusive in its ability to partake in such action12. The rise of international organisation de-legitimised the world order dominated by state empires, and neo -trusteeship was adopted as a means to manage newly independent states as they were introduced into the global, political arena. A defining feature that separates trusteeship from neo-trusteeship is that the latter does not assume that sovereignty of the state is completely withdrawn, but rather suspended until a stable state has been fully formed13. There is still however the suggestion that although trusteeship flouts all principles of self-determination and state sovereignty, neo-trusteeship poses a notable threat to the state sovereignty of UN member states as UN actors intervene within their borders, despite the rationally justified intentions used to validate such action.
Neo-trusteeship as a threat to the sovereignty of UN member states So far, this article has explored the differing concepts of sovereignty and neo-trusteeship as separate ideas. It is now necessary to evaluate the relationship they have with each other and the effects of this relationship within specific neo-trustee states in order to measure to what extent neo-trusteeship threatens sovereignty. The developing threats of ‘political disorder, misrule and humiliation in the Third World’14 prompt the argument that the UN and major power interveners must play an active role in restoring peace and structuring administrations within such states, not only for their benefit, but to also alleviate potential threats posed to other countries. These new global threats of globalisation and the broadening of international co-operation have shaped the
11
Peter Lyon, ‘The Rise and Fall and Possible Revival of International Trusteeship’, The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 31(1993), pp.96-110 (p.96). 12 James Fearon and David Laitin, ‘Neo-trusteeship and the Problem of Weak States’, International Security, 28(2004), pp.5-43 (p.11). 13 David Lake and Christopher Fariss, ‘Why International Trusteeship Fails: The Politics of External Authority in Areas of Limited Statehood’, Governance, 27(2014), (pp. 571-572). 14 Fearon and Laitin, p. 6. 15 Kofi Annan, Two concepts of sovereignty (The Economist: International, 1999) <http:// www.economist.com/node/324795> [accessed 3 March 2015].
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redefining of state sovereignty. Consequently, the relationship between the UN and its member states has shifted, as its role to protect has never been as relevant. Contrary to the anterior ideas of people being the instruments of their state, the roles have been reversed15. It is in parallel to this, that the augment arises in relation to the sovereignty of people, and powerful external actors should guarantee their ultimate protection from threats posed by their own state. UN protection of states through neo-trusteeship not only has the potential to benefit failing states on a national scale, but prevent the consequences of national crises having a directly negative effect at an international level. However, despite the convincing arguments for the need of the revival of neo-trustee systems, in academic literature there is little argument to suggest that neotrusteeship and sovereignty can co-exist without one or the other being compromised. Moore definitively concludes that it is only local actors who can ‘act in a sovereign way… [Who] have to be given every chance to construct… their own regimes and institutions without external coercion’16. The right of nations to self-determination enshrined in the UN Charter and described by Lenin as embodying ‘political self-determination, state independence, and the formation of a national state’ unveils the paradox of the UN system of neo-trusteeship as it undermines the self-determination it aims to advance17. Nevertheless, these arguments fail to take into account any historical examples of what happens, or has the potential to happen, if war torn states without a functional administrative system are essentially left to their own devices for the sake of protecting orthodox sovereignty and their right to act independently of third parties. If a state is a member of the UN, it must do what is necessary to preserve its domestic sovereignty by building a state authority with the means to control affairs within its borders in order to best protect the individual rights of its citizens, even if this means allowing a neo-trusteeship system to compromise the aforementioned Westphalian notion of sovereignty. Furthermore, it is easy to attack the concept of sovereignty which subordinates state intervention to the right to self-determination if we reflect on the humanitarian disasters which followed the end of the Cold War in Somalia, Rwanda and Yugoslavia, as they highlight what states can inflict on their populations if they have no authority able to control or influence them. Historical evidence affirms that the principle of non -intervention embodied in Article 51 of the UN Charter has been held up ‘too well’ if we refer to the Rwandan Genocide the Security Council failed to prevent 18. Kofi Annan, the former Secretary-General of the UN, further challenged this concept by describing the UN Charter as a means of protecting ‘the sovereignty of peoples’ as it was ‘never meant as a licence for governments to trample on human rights and human dignity’. Notably, he also specified that ‘sovereignty implies responsibility’, evidently suggesting that unless a state utilises its interior powers to responsibly empower and protect its populace, then it is itself breaching its own sovereignty 19. If we adopt this line of thinking, we can expand the argument that neo-trusteeship does not threaten the sovereignty of the state if this sovereignty has been already marginalised by the state in question. By allowing neo-trusteeship to build authority structures within a state, and therefore consequently enhancing domestic sovereignty, intervening powers redevelop the Westphalian sovereignty that was initially breached. Moreover, the UN and multilateral actors should never risk disasters such as genocide and widespread conflict in order to uphold such a restrictive concept, as intervention and invasion are far from being synonymous.
16
Moore, p.507. Vladimir Lenin, The Right of Nations to Self-Determination (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1972) <https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/self-det/> [accessed 14 March 2015]. 19 Kofi Annan, Secretary-General Reflects on “Intervention” in Thirty-Fifth Annual Ditchley Foundation Lecture, (New York: United Nations, 1998) <http://www.un.org/press/ en/1998/19980626.sgsm6613.html> [accessed 6 March 2015] 17
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Nevertheless, this is not to say that neo-trusteeship has always been successful in restoring or rebuilding the collapsed political systems of newly independent states. To best highlight how neo-trusteeship can function with varying success in different countries, I will now draw upon evidence from two states that have been subject to neo-trustee systems.
The cases of Kosovo and East Timor The cases of Kosovo and East Timor are useful to study in order to gauge how successful neo-trusteeship has been in rebuilding territories divided by violent conflict, as the visible results of each intervention are remarkably different. Despite the two states being comparatively similar in many aspects, since international territorial administrations were initiated in 1999 it has been clear that East Timor has largely benefitted from the intrusive neo-trusteeship systems in which foreign international actors took control of the basic functions of each state, as opposed to Kosovo where the situation is little improved since gaining independence 20. Schleicher concisely concludes that whilst international organisations have managed to successfully improve security, economic and social issues; the Kosovo is ‘still calamitous’ where unemployment and poverty are its ‘most intractable problems’ 21. Thus, highlighting that regardless of Kosovo receiving triple the amount of international aid ($14 billion in total) and having experienced a longer and deeper-rooted neo-trusteeship intervention, it has not reaped any significant benefits22. The reasons for this apparent failure can be attributed to several different characteristics of Kosovo, such as the distinct ethnic conflicts that ultimately fractured the state. However, the manner in which neo-trusteeship was enacted had a direct causal effect on its ultimate failure. Unlike East-Timor, the intervention in Kosovo was enacted without international consensus, clear legal authority and was not delivered in a single, uncomplicated form23. It is commonly theorised that neo-trusteeship can only be successful if the enacting powers are unanimous in their planned strategies and have achieved a consensus on the international stage alongside backing from the UN, which in turn legitimises any action taken. Taking this into account, we can posit that the legitimacy of the intervention in Kosovo was questionable and therefore the posed threat to sovereignty was not fully justified. In addition to this, the approach used in Kosovo undermined any achievable aims by investing in the idea that sovereignty could be introduced gradually to the state despite the ‘orthodoxy of sovereign equality’ which assumes that it is not possible for a state to exist in a ‘semi-autonomous’ entity. Furthermore, nowhere in the plan for the neo-trusteeship system in Kosovo laid out by UN Secretary General Ahtisaari ‘is the legal status of Kosovo’s future explicitly stated’24. For these reasons we can causally link the failing
20
Richard Caplan, ‘From Collapsing States to Neo-Trusteeship: The Limits to Solving the Problem of ‘Precarious Statehood’ in the 21st Century’, Third World Quarterly, 28 (2007), pp. 231244 (p. 231-233). 21 Elisabeth Schleicher, Positive peace in Kosovo: A dream unfulfilled (Berlin: Peter Lang, 2012), p.2. 22 Lise Morjé Howard, ‘Neotrusteeship, Neighbors, and the United Nations’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 656 (2014), pp.116-135 (p.117). 23 Howard, p. 121. 24 Ulrich Preuss, States of Sovereignty: The future of Kosovo, international law and secondclass statehood (UK: Rethinking Global Order, 2007) <https://ip-journal.dgap.org/en/article/ getFullPDF/20703> [accessed 12 March 2015].
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of neo-trusteeship policy to the consequent failings of Kosovo to be internationally recognised as an independent, sovereign state. Conversely, it was the UN that led all aspects of the foreign assistance in East Timor and the mission demonstrated a clear authority structure with UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) acting as the sole sovereign authority25. Despite limitations to both cases, Kosovo and East Timor illustrate the necessity to take into account how best to manage neo-trusteeship in a way that initially undermines sovereignty, but has the ultimate and feasible aim of reinstating sovereignty to a newly self-determined and independent state.
Conclusions This article has interpreted the fundamental differences between trusteeship and neo-trusteeship in order to determine to what extent the former policy model is a threat to member states of the UN. First by evaluation of different approaches to sovereignty adopted by academics to best form an operational conceptualisation of the idea, then through assessment of sovereignty in relation to neo-trusteeship and the compromising relationship between the two. This was demonstrated by the two contrasting cases of the success of neo-trusteeship in Kosovo and East Timor, which concentrated on the specific UN approaches to the treatment of sovereignty in each state in how the differing approaches led to the ultimate failure of the Kosovo mission and the divergent accomplishment in East Timor. After appraising the different arguments found during my research, I conclude that neo-trusteeship poses a threat to orthodox sovereignty, which asserts that no states should meddle in the domestic affairs of another state. However, when considering a deconstructed concept of sovereignty, in which the internal and external are separated in sovereignty, I determine that the threat posed to Westphalian sovereignty by neo-trusteeship is a necessary contradiction to be made in order to build upon a different aspect of sovereignty by developing internal authority structures of a failing state. This necessary contradiction enables the UN to be a global leader in state-building missions, and sustains an argument that supports future neo-trustee interventions.
â&#x20AC;&#x153;The threat posed to Westphalian sovereignty by neo-trusteeship is a necessary contradiction to be made in order to build upon a different aspect of sovereignty by developing internal authority structures of a failing state. â&#x20AC;?
25
Howard, pp. 128-129.
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Bibliography Annan, Kofi, Secretary-General Reflects on “Intervention” in Thirty-Fifth Annual Ditchley Foundation Lecture, (New York: United Nations, 1998) <http:// www.un.org/press/en/1998/19980626.sgsm6613.html> [accessed 6 March 2015] Annan, Kofi, Two concepts of sovereignty (The Economist: International, 1999) <http://www.economist.com/node/324795> [accessed 3 March 2015] Bain, William, ‘The Political Theory of Trusteeship and the Twilight of International Equality’, International Relations, 17 (2003) Caplan, Richard, ‘From Collapsing States to Neo-Trusteeship: The Limits to Solving the Problem of ‘Precarious Statehood’ in the 21st Century’, Third World Quarterly, 28 (2007) Fearon, James and David Laitin, ‘Neo-trusteeship and the Problem of Weak States’, International Security, 28(2004) Howard, Lise Morjé, ‘Neotrusteeship, Neighbors, and the United Nations’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 656 (2014) Jenkins, Rob, ‘Collateral Benefit Iraq and Increased Legitimacy for International Trusteeship’, Dissent, 53(2006) Krasner, Stephen, ‘Sharing Sovereignty: New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States’, International Security, 29 (2004) Lake, David and Christopher Fariss, ‘Why International Trusteeship Fails: The Politics of External Authority in Areas of Limited Statehood’, Governance, 27(2014) Lenin, Vladimir, The Right of Nations to Self-Determination (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1972) <https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/self-det/ > [accessed 14 March 2015] Lyon, Peter, ‘The Rise and Fall and Possible Revival of International Trusteeship’, The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 31(1993) Moore, T, ‘Violations of Sovereignty and Regime Engineering: A Critique of the State Theory of Stephen Krasner’, Australian Journal of Political Science, 44 (2009) Nkrumah, Kwame, Towards Colonial Freedom: Africa and the Struggle Against World Imperialism (London: Heinemann, 1962) Preuss, Ulrich, States of Sovereignty: The future of Kosovo, international law and second-class statehood (UK: Rethinking Global Order, 2007) <https://ipjournal.dgap.org/en/article/getFullPDF/20703> [accessed 12 March 2015]. Schleicher, Elisabeth, Positive peace in Kosovo: A dream unfulfilled (Berlin: Peter Lang, 2012)
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