OSH (2014) segurançahumana.eu
From resource to human right UN mental maps for global water governance Human Security Working Papers
JoĂŁo Terrenas, no. 212420 Lisbon 2014
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
Content Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3 The political significance of Water .......................................................................................................... 3 Water Security ........................................................................................................................................ 4 The United Nations Milestones on Water (1977-2014) ............................................................................ 5 Water as a Human Right ......................................................................................................................... 8 Water and Gender ................................................................................................................................... 8 The development dimension of Water .................................................................................................. 11 International Water and Water aid ....................................................................................................... 11 Water governance................................................................................................................................. 12 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 12 References ............................................................................................................................................ 14
2
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
Abstract The UN development agenda has developed steadily during the last decades, a timeframe where water security becomes a fundamental dimension of the UN development framework. Identified in almost every dimensions of human development, water is a resource whose scarcity is still responsible for numerous deaths every year. With more than 800 million people still
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lacking access to clean water and several challenges to reduce this number, the post-2015 development agenda is paving way to guarantee
Since its foundation in 1945, the United Nations
that solid water policies and efficient water
focused on improving global conditions for
management approaches are set up and
world peace. With primary targets being the
implemented. Throughout this work the political
definition and promotion of human rights, the
significance of water as a human right is
UN forged a set of institutions and mechanisms
identified and sketched as well as how it was
that enabled an efficient action on the fields of
gradually recognized in the United Nations
international security and development.
framework. Moreover, some more specific dynamics are explored: (i) the nexus between
However, the securitization ignited by the bipolar
water and gender equity, (ii) the concepts of
world caused by the ideological war and
water security and water governance and (iii) the
aggravated by the nuclear threats narrowed the
development dimension of water issues and its
UN agenda and reduced its ability to act in
global effects on the lives of individuals and
substantial fields of human development. Only in
communities.
the last decade of the 20th century could topics like
human
rights
and
environmental
Key-words: water governance; water security; UN
sustainability be addressed as priorities in the
water framework.
international agenda. In 1994 the United Nations embraced a significant change on the security framework
when
‘human
security’
was
introduced as a fundamental notion to address 3
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
global insecurity. Contrasting the notion of
explicitly recognized as a human right on its own
‘national security’, this concept puts the
through the approval of the UNGA Resolution
individual and communities at the center of
64/292 entitled ‘The human right to water and
concerns and emphasizes “freedom from want”
sanitation’.
and “freedom from fear” as basic pre-conditions for development. In 2000, with the approval of the Millennium Declaration and the agreement of
The correlation between water insecurity and
the MDG’s (2001), the human development
poverty,
agenda not only broadened its range; it presented
conflict
and
development
was
recognized and several targets on water and
“a set of concrete and time-bound goals and
sanitation were set up in the MDGs. Five years
targets that could be monitored by statistically
ahead those targets were met. However, more
robust indicators” (UN 2012: 6). During the last
than 884 million people still lack access to clean
two decades the United Nations reconfigured
water and the number of people living on Earth
this specific set of instruments to tackle human
kept rising. With more than 7 billion inhabitants
development according to the changing nature of
in 2014, scarcity is becoming more alarming than
our world.
ever and the access to clean water and sanitation
Through the means of an evolving global agenda,
continues to rank as a top priority to foster
topics
development and reduce human vulnerabilities
such
as
gender
equality,
human or
and poverty. Although impressive progress has
sustainable development acquired a fundamental
been made in recent years, the access to clean
role in policy thinking and planning for the 21st
water and sanitation has been uneven. This trend
century. A crucial feature that has been
becomes more evident especially in what regards
underlined in the last couple of decades is ‘water
(i) the serious deprivation of fresh water in the
security’, a concept closely linked with the major
poorest countries in Africa (SIDA 2013: 3) and
dimensions
development
(ii) the primary responsibility of women in
framework and whose significance the United
managing household water supplies in most
Nations system (both the main bodies and the
societies (GWTF 2006). Water, human rights and
specialized agencies) has been recognizing ever
gender equity are parts of the same equation and
since. In 2010, water was acknowledged as
most of the UN official documents on water
“indispensable for leading a life in human dignity
issues underline “the central role of women in the
[and] a prerequisite for the realization of other
provision, management and safeguarding of
human rights” (UNGA, 2010) and was also
water” (GWTF 2006).
empowerment,
of
poverty
the
eradication
human
4
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
Water Security The concept of ‘water security’ has been promoted
by
numerous
international
organizations and has been gradually adopted in several academic areas, resulting in different frameworks that “tend to vary with context and disciplinary perspectives on water use” (Cook
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2011: 94-97). In the context of the United Nations framework, one of the most recent
access to adequate quantities of acceptable
The United Nations Milestones on Water (1977-2014)
quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human
After the Stockholm UN Declaration on Human
well-being, and socio-economic development,
Environment (1972), the United Nations Water
for ensuring protection against water-borne
Conference in Mar del Plata
pollution and water-related disasters, and for
between 14 and 25 March 1977 marked the first
preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and
Action Plan in which the UN directly addresses
political stability” (UN-Water 2013: 1).
water issues and represents “an important
definitions considers water security as “the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable
taking
place
benchmark in the field of water management”
This definition was advanced by UNESCO’s
(Biswas 1988: 149). Moreover, it recognized for
International Hydrological Programmes (IHP)
the first time that “[a]ll peoples (…) have the
on its Strategic Plan of the Eighth Phase and was
right to have access to drinking water in
subsequently reinforced by the UN-Water Task
quantities and of a quality equal to their basic
Force on Water Security with the purpose of
needs”
assisting the work of UN-Water members and
and
considered
the
“possible
establishment of a consultative group mechanism
the incorporation of water security issues in the
on community water programmes” (UN 1977).
international dialogue occurring in that context. .
This document also offered recommendations at
Moreover, the concept can be said to “capture[s]
the national and international levels and
the dynamic dimensions of water and water-
identified several key areas of action for policy-
related issues and offer[s] a holistic outlook for
makers.
addressing water challenges” (UN-Water 2013:13).
Since then, the water topic has been associated with the right to proper sanitation. Furthermore, 5
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
in
December
1979
the
United
Nations
guiding principles for policy implementation at
introduced both subjects as a significant part of
national and international levels, it emphasized
the gender equity agenda by reinforcing the idea
the “pivotal role of women as providers and
that states should “ensure to such [discriminated]
users of water and guardians of the living
women the right: (…) (h) To enjoy adequate
environment” (UN 1992) and summed up ten
living conditions, particularly in relation to
major outcomes meant to come out
housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply,
implementation of such principles: the reduction
transport and communication”. (UNGA 1979:
of poverty and disease, protection against natural
Article 14).
disaster, urban development and the resolution of water conflicts and disputes. Such outcomes
In 1989 water was inscribed in article 24 of the
require substantial national investment on water-
Convention on the Rights of the Child, stating
knowledge and capacity building through the
that “States (….) shall take appropriate measures:
preparation and training of specialists and action
(…) (c) [t]o combat disease and malnutrition (…)
plans. In the same year across the Atlantic, the
[through] the application of readily technology
Rio Summit (UNCED) marked an important
and through the provision of adequate nutritious
progress towards the future MDGs by integrating
foods and clean drinking-water” (UNGA 1989:
water in a holistic approach to the development
Article 24).
and environmental agenda.
In the 1990s water was again under the focus of
The publication of the Human Development
the international community dialogue. With the
Report in 1994 was essential for introducing the
end of the Cold War, and with the significant “de-securitization”
of
world
politics,
concept of ‘human security’ and redefining the
the
development agenda on a people-centered
environmental paradigm regained its space on
framework (UNDP 1994). In the late 1990s the
the international agenda. The New Delhi
focus on water became more visible and after the
Statement (1990) detected challenges on the
Habitat Agenda (Istanbul, 1996) referred to water
progress of water and sanitation issues such as “population
of the
growth”
and
“as an outstanding challenge for sustainable
“uncontrolled
development” (UNGA 1996), the Cape Town
pollution” but it also considered clean water as
Declaration (1997) reinforced the idea by
“vital for protecting the environment, improving
focusing on the major challenges for African
health and alleviating poverty” (UNGA, 1990).
urban water development. Following the Paris
In 1992, The Dublin Statement on Water and
Declaration in 1999, the Resolution “The Right
Sustainable Development pressed forward some
to Development”, approved by the UN General
vital aspects of the water agenda. Advancing four 6
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
Assembly in 2000 affirmed that “[t]he rights to
at its basis a tool for implementing the right to
food and clean water are fundamental human
water addressed to policy-makers, organizations
rights and their promotion constitutes a moral
and members of the civil society. Following the
imperative both for national Governments and
Human Rights Council (HRC) Decision 2/104
for the international community”. (UNGA 2000,
(2006) that requested “a study on the scope and
Art. 12)
content of the relevant human rights obligations related to equitable access to safe-drinking water
At the beginning of the new century the
and sanitation”, the HRC decided “to appoint,
International Conference on Freshwater taking
for a period of three years, an independent expert
place in Bonn emphasized the water security of
on the issue of human rights obligations related
the poorest as a top priority, and in 2002 the Johannesburg Development
Summit (WSSD)
for
to access to safe drinking water and sanitation”
Sustainable
focused
on
(UNHRC 2008), responsible for 6 defined tasks.
“the
In 2009 the Muscat Declaration acknowledge
indivisibility of human dignity” (UN 2002) where
that most of the MDGs success was reliant on
the access to water and sanitation played a
the ability to improve the access to clean water
fundamental role on achieving all of the MDGs.
and sanitation, a task whose main challenges
The same year, the UN General Comment 15
were “the lack of capacity, finance and political
(29th Session of the UN Committee on Economic,
Social
and
Cultural
will”, and encouraged the further strengthening
Rights)
of the South-South cooperation on the subject
acknowledge the human right to water as
(G77 2009). One year later, a General Assembly
“indispensable for leading a life in human dignity
Resolution (64/292) recognized for the first time
[and] a prerequisite for the realization of other
“the right to safe and clean drinking water and
human rights” (UNCESC 2003). Furthermore,
sanitation as a human right that is essential for
this right was defined as “the right of everyone to sufficient,
safe,
acceptable
and
the full enjoyment of life and all human rights”
physically
(UNGA 2010). Also in 2010, the Dushanbe
accessible and affordable water for personal and
Declaration on Water marked the midterm of the
domestic uses” (UNCESC 2003), providing a
Decade for Action “Water for Life” and resulted
useful guide for further legal interpretation on the
in a series of recommendations (UNGA 2010b).
basic human right to water.
At a time when 3,900 children die every day due
In 2005 the Sub-Commission on the Promotion
to the lack of clean water, a major benchmark in
and Protection of Human Rights adopted the
advancing water security was the adoption by the
draft guidelines for the “Realization of the right
General Assembly of the Resolution 58/217
to drinking water and sanitation”, a report that is 7
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
declaring the International Decade for Action
Water as a Human Right
“Water for Life” (2005-2015), an initiative that
Although there is no unambiguous recognition
started on March 22 2005, the World Water Day.
of water as a human right in international treaties,
This programme coordinated by the UN Water
international human rights laws point to specific
agency was reinforced by the appointment of 2013
as
International
Year
for
obligations of states to provide access to safe
Water
water to their citizens. There are some key
Cooperation. With 2015 as the final year for the achievement
of
MDGs,
the
aspects of the right to water that are emphasized
post-MDGs
by the Office of the High Commissioner for
development agenda is already being prepared
Human
and the blueprint for improving water security is
Rights
and
the
World
Health
Organization as a right in which: (i) there are both
one of the main topics in discussion.
freedoms and entitlements, (ii) the water supply should be enough to cover personal and domestic uses, (iii) the water quality must be guaranteed and acceptable, (iv) water supplies must be physically accessible and affordable (OHCHR 2010: 10-15). However, when regarding water as a human right it is important to mention that it does not follow that water has to be provided free of charge. In
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fact, equity in provision should be always the core principle “ensuring that public service systems
UN WATER MILESTONES
and tariffs are not designed in such a way that
(1977) United Nations Water Conference (Mar del Plata) (1990) The New Delhi Statement
they marginalize poor and disadvantage groups”
(1992) The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development
and guarantying that water services are affordable
(1996) The Habitat AgendaIstanbul Declaration on Human Settlements
for all (SIDA 2013:9). This ethical guidelines also
(2002) Johannesburg - World Summit for Sustainable Development
focus on the access to water for vulnerable
(2005) UNGA Res 58/217 International Decade for Action, "Water for Life"
groups such as rural and urban poor, women,
(2010) UNGA Res 64/292 on The human right to water and sanitation
children,
(2010) Dushanbe Declaration on Water
refugees,
IDP’s,
prisoners
indigenous peoples (OHCHR 2010:7).
(2013) International Year for Water Cooperation
8
and
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
approaches and other projects and initiatives on
Water and Gender
natural resource allocation” (IFAD:3). In fact,
Once the importance of involving women in
one of the main topics to consider when
water projects was recognized in the Dublin
designing and implementing water programmes
Principles, policymakers have attempted to
is that water is not “gender neutral”, and that
integrate gender in the global water security
gender-equality should be always in the forefront
agenda. Not only water is substantial to fulfill the
of water projects for development.
human potential, it has a major impact on gender equality. This becomes even more crucial when
Inequality between men and women stands at the
we realize that two thirds of the poorest people
centre of concerns regarding a gender approach
in the planet are women lacking access to clean
on water and the public policies set up in this
water and a substantial number of women in
context. Yet, there is nothing natural about water
developing countries walk 6 kilometers every day
inequalities and awareness is a powerful tool to
to collect water (IFAD:1-6). Lately however a
redress them. The critical element here stands at
growing number of women have been appointed
the level of policy formulation. Policy makers
to governmental roles connected to environment
need to be conscious of the impact different
and water issues, thus becoming leaders who
water policies have on men and women and the
“constitute the critical mass needed to get gender
relationship between them. The main value to be
integrated into water and sanitation policies and
promoted by a gender sensitive policy making is
programmes” (GWTF 2006).
fairness and therefore mainstreaming is a commonly accepted strategy at the level of UN
Women tend to be, in most societies, responsible
agencies and NGOs to achieve it.
for managing household supplies of water and to have a solid knowledge on water management.
In order to understand the concept of gender
While in charge of collecting water, providing
mainstreaming we need to turn to the UN
maintenance for households and playing an
Economic and Social Council. In its famous
active part in agriculture, these women play a
Declaration
central role in the micro-development of their
Perspective (1997), the ECOSOC introduced the
communities. However, and “despite the role
idea of gender mainstreaming as the process of
that women play in reducing food insecurity
assessing the effects for men and women of
through their knowledge of crop production,
planned
local biodiversity, soils and local water resources,
programmes in all areas and all levels. The
they are often excluded from decision-making
ultimate goal is to achieve justice by means of
processes in new agricultural water management
taking into consideration the experiences of men 9
on
actions,
Mainstreaming
legislation,
a
Gender
policies
or
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
and women for the design, implementation and
Finally, attention must be directed towards
monitoring
the
gender responses to citizen voice. Being
reproduction and perpetuation of inequalities.
marginalized in many societies, women usually
Water and water-related sectors are crucial in this
lack the relevant experience and tools to make
respect given that water and sanitation impact
themselves heard and take on political agency. In
strongly upon livelihoods and the building of
this respect, empowerment is the critical idea
resilience.
allowing women to embody an effective citizen
of
policies
and
avoid
engagement and openly exercise their rights and
Policy and gender mainstreaming are intimately
responsibilities. In the water sector specifically,
connected. A gender-sensitive water policy is the
women’s
sign of concern from governments and other
engagement
is
crucial
for
the
expression of ideas about an effective and fair
public authorities regarding the redressing of
water management on behalf of the whole
water inequalities. According to the Water and
community and in line with self-reliance and the
Sanitation Program of the World Bank (2010),
community’s self-defined goals. As stressed by
this is a most useful framework for assessing
the World Bank Water and Sanitation Program,
gender responses in policy or as it is stated , “for
“social accountability tools such as Citizen
considering how and where to pitch policy goals”
Report Cards, public hearings, and participatory
(World Bank Water and Sanitation Program
tools and assessments, can assist in strengthening
2010: 13). Therefore, the World Bank considers
citizen’s voices” (2010:27). As the main providers
different levels for achieving this: (i) the level of
of food and water for their households, women
welfare where the concern is to empower women
are especially tailored for this citizen engagement
in her capacity to fulfill household roles; (ii) the
and therefore sit at the centre of a much needed
level of access to production factors (land, water,
social network of water accountability regarding
credit for instance) that enable women to fulfill a
governance topics and policies (such as
role in society; (iii) the level of consciousness that
privatization).
gender roles are socially constructed and therefore can change through critical practices; (iv) the level of equal participation, decisionmaking, planning and administration; and finally (v) the level of equality of control where the distribution of production factors, economic resources and benefits does not leave men neither women in a position of control.
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From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
The development dimension of Water
International Water and Water aid
With the introduction of the new concept of
The
‘human
Human
management becomes more evident when there
Development Report (1994) the notion of
are river basins or aquifer systems shared by
security was substantially modified. Defying the
political communities and conditioning their
notion of ‘national security’ where state-to-state
ability to maintain and develop their livelihood
military threats was the major element of
conditions. This dimension implies the need to
international insecurity, this concept placed the
foster dialogue and cooperation on water security
individual at the center and advanced the notions
topics ranging from dam construction projects to
of security as “freedom from fear” and “freedom
environmental
from want”. This milestone on the human
(mangroves, for instance). It is also within the
development agenda enhanced the role of water
international dimension of water security that
as a “multi-dimensional issue and a prerequisite
conflicts tend to be more evident but local and
for achieving human security, from the individual
regional disputes should not be overlooked.
security’
in
the
UNDP
to the international level” (UN-Water 2013:5).
and
39) increases the relevance of understanding the
holistic
approach
to
were the
the
history
common of
feature
civilizations.
livelihoods, community resilience and even
multi-
political survival, international institutions and
dimensional character of water security and a
ecosystems
commercial purposes but also to human
and water-aid programmes on the central stage of
requiring
of
water
Recognizing the relevance of water provision for
(in)security. Moreover, it puts water cooperation the
disputes
throughout
nexus between water (in)security and human
expanding
protection
of
of the development agenda but water conflicts
dimensions of human security (Ferreira, 2012:
aid,
dimension
It is clear that water security is now at the center
The fact that water is linked with all of the seven
international
international
national
water
governments
have
recently
put
considerable effort on defining principles for
management programmes and public policies.
global water cooperation and governance. In spite of those efforts, several regions, especially where water is scarcer, are still marked by frequent conflict and insecurity as an outcome of societal and international competition for water sources (e.g. Golan Heights). According to the
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UN-Water, this social fact emphasizes “water’s 11
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
centrality for achieving a sense of security,
and investment in water management policies by
sustainability, development and human well-
local governments. From 2000 to 2010, donors
being, from the local to the international level.”
provided a total sum of US$17,7 billion that
(2013:3)
helped achieving the specific targets defined on the MDGs (Bain et al. 2013: 28). However, some
Water tends to be not only a source of conflict
developing countries are still far behind those
but conflicts can also impact directly on water
targets, a critical challenge to be address in the
resources and global economic development.
post-2015 UN development agenda. Issues of aid
Water risk was recently considered to be one of
effectiveness and efficiency discussed in Paris
the top four risk facing business in the 21st
(2005), Accra (2008) and Busan (2011) High
century (Steer 2013). Moreover, the access to
Level Forums are especially important to follow
water supplies in conflict zones can “aggravate
and debate in the context of water issues.
existing social fragility, tensions, violence and conflict, thus increasing the risk to water
Water governance
security” (UN-Water 2013: 8). Water issues are
Reducing water (in)security is directly connected
not only directly connected to cooperation and
with the positive implementation of water
the provision of official direct assistance (ODA)
management
but also to crucial interests of the business sector
programmes
through
good
practices of water governance. Still a recent
and the third sector. The whole of it makes water
concept, water governance can be understood as
issues not only a stronghold of multilevel
“the
governance but also of multi-actor coalitions.
political,
social,
economic
and
administrative systems that are in place, and
International aid in the context of water security
which directly or indirectly affect the use,
provision is provided in three different ways: (i)
development
projects (76 per cent), (ii) technical assistance (7
resources and the delivery of water service at
per cent) and (iii) sector budget support (9 per
different levels of society” (Tortajada 2010:299).
cent). The vital role of donors in development is
This multi-layered concept reveals the challenges
undeniable and their priorities in the field of
imposed by the dynamics of good governance,
water aid often the combined result on their
where both the public and the private sphere
contribution’s impact , the quality and efficacy of
interact in the form of government, civil society
that contribution for each particular country and
and business and whose progress is greatly
the ability of those countries to absorb and apply
dependent on the democratization and pluralism
the committed funds (Bain et al. 2013: 6-10).
achieved within each society.
Fulfilling the criteria requires the proper training 12
and
management
of
water
From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
Furthermore, water governance reports to (i)
Conclusion
principles, (ii) processes and (iii) roles. It reports
During the last three or four decades water has
to the principles in water management such as
become a fundamental issue within the UN
equity and efficiency in the use of resources and
development agenda. Being a scarce resource,
the allocation of services and water distribution; to
the
legal
processes
of
water is indispensable for human security and
formulation,
development and the access to clean water is now
establishment and implementation of water
acknowledge as “essential for the full enjoyment
policies and institutions and to the roles that
of life and all human rights” (UNGA 2010:
government, civil society and the private sector
paragraph 8). The identified links between water
taking part in processes of water management
scarcity and poverty, conflict, gender inequality
and administration (OECD 2011). In spite of the
and sustainable development require a holistic
increased relevance of water governance within
approach to the agenda of water security and
the human development agenda, a recent study
public policy-makers must not neglect the fact
points out that there is still “a vacuum in
that water policies are never gender neutral.
substantive global water governance; an absence
Moreover,
of strong and legitimate institutions to promote
the
political
significance
of
international aid should be measured by its
water governance” (Gupta et al. 2013: paragraph
capacity to improve water and sanitation access
45). According to Gupta, UN-Water works as at
and therefore must be implemented through a
the level of coordination but it lacks the mandate
multi-level approach to water management
and the resources to achieve its goals plainly.
programmes that are able to put governance and
Although different agencies do set off a broad
good practices at the center of policy-making. In
range debate on water issues, Gupta concludes
order to achieve effectiveness and efficacy, key
that the main challenge ahead is how to channel
factors as gender equality and grassroots
debates into effective decision-making.
inclusiveness must always be taken into account. The bottom line is that an approach following the perspective of water governance must set out to reduce the gap between policy-makers visions and
policy-takers
needs
on
behalf
of
communities’ self-reliance and the reproduction of sustainable livelihoods.
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UN mental maps for global water governance
References BAIN, Rober; LUYENDIJK, Rold & BARTRAM, Jamie (2013) Universal access to drinking water: the role of aid. WIDER Working Paper No. 2013/88 BISWAS, Asit K. (1988) 'United nations water conference action plan', International Journal of Water Resources Development, 4: 3, 148 — 159 BLUEMEL, Erik B. (2005) The Implications of Formulating a Human Right to Water. Ecology Law Quarterly, Vol. 31, 957-1006 FERREIRA, Marcos Farias (2012) El agua no cae del cielo: gobernación y gestión del agua en el Pacífico Sur. Perspectivas Rurales. Nueva época, Year 11, No. 21, 39-71 G77 (2009) Muscat Declaration on Water. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, 23-25 February 2009 GREY, David & SADOFF, Claudia W. (2007) Sink or Swim? Water security for growth and development. Water Policy, Vol. 9, 545-571 GUPTA, J., A. Akhmouch, W. Cosgrove, Z. Hurwitz, J. Maestu, and O. Ünver. (2013) Policymakers’ reflections on water governance issues. Ecology and Society, No. 18, Vol. 1, 35 GWTF (2006) Gender, Water and Sanitation: A Policy Brief. (June 2006) UN Water IFAD (2012) Gender and water, Securing water for improved rural livelihoods: The multiple-uses system approach. International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome
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From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
MEIER, B.M., Kestenbaum, J.G., Kayser, G.L., Amjad, U.Q., Dalcanale, F. & Bartram, J. (2014) Translating the Human Right to Water and Sanitation into Public Policy Reform. Science and Engineering Ethics, Springer Science OCHR (2010) The Right to Water. Fact Sheet No. 35. United Nations, Geneva OECD (2011) Water Governance in OECD Countries: A Multi-Level Approach, OECD Publishing, Paris SEVER, Charlie (2005) Gender & Water – Mainstreaming gender equality in water, hygiene and sanitation interventions. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. SIDA (2013) Realising the Human Right to Water and Sanitation. Sida Reference Paper. Sida, Stockholm STEER, Andrew (2013) Water Risk on the Rise. Project-Syndicate. Available at [http://www.projectsyndicate.org/commentary/the-economic-benefits-of-measuring-water-risk-by-andrew-steer] Accessed in 19/05/2014 TORTAJADA, Cecilia (2010): Water Governance: Some Critical Issues, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 26:2, 297-307 UN (1992) The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development. International Conference on Water and the Environment. January 31, 1992. Dublin Ireland. UN (2012) Realizing the Future We Want for All: Report of the UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. Report to Secretary General, United Nations UN-WATER (2013) Water Security & the Global Water Agenda: A UN-Water Analytical Brief. Institute for Water, Environment & Health (UNU-INWEH), Hamilton, United Nations University UNCESC (2003), General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water, 20 January 2003, UN Doc E/C.12/2002/11 UNCESC (1997) Report of the Secretary-General on Mainstreaming the gender perspective into all policies and programmes in the United Nations system (12 June 1997) UN Doc E/1997/66 UNCW (1977) Report of the United Nations Water Conference - Mar del Plata (14-25 March 1977). New York: United Nations UNDP (1994) Human Development Report. London, New York: Oxford University Press
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From resource to human right
UN mental maps for global water governance
UNGA (1979) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1249 UNGA (1989) Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1577 UNGA (1990) The New Delhi Statement, Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation, UN Doc A/C.2/45/3 UNGA (1996) The Habitat Agenda – Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements (14 June 1996) UN Doc A/CONF.165/14 UNGA (2000) Resolution 54/175 on The right to development (15 February 2000) UN Doc A/RES/54/175 UNGA (2010) Resolution 64/292 on The human right to water and sanitation (28 July 2010) UN Doc A/RES/64/292 UNGA (2010b) Dushanbe Declaration on Water. Outcome of the High-level International Conference on the Midterm Comprehensive Review of the Implementation of the International Decade for Action, “Water for Life”, 2005-2015, UN Doc A/65/88 UNHRC (2008) Human Rights Council Resolution 7/22 on Human rights and access to safe drinking water and sanitation WSP (2010) Gender in Water and Sanitation. World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Working Paper. November 2010
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