COUNTRY FACT SHEET
CHINA
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COUNTRY FACT SHEET
TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS I. GENERAL INFORMATION 1. History 2. Geography 3. Environment 4. Ethnic Groups 5. Household Registry (Hukou) II. GOVERNANCE 1. Political Structure 2. Administrative divisions III. ECONOMY 1. Banking IV. RELIGION V. TRANSPORTATION VI. TELECOMMUNICATIONS VII. SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM 1. Pension and welfare for senior citizens 2. Medical Insurance and Healthcare 3. Work-Related Injury Insurance 4. Unemployment Insurance 5. Maternity Insurance 6. Housing Fund VIII. EDUCATION 1. School System 2. Tuition Fees IX. HOUSING 1. Low-rent Housing System 2. Economically Affordable Housing System X. EMPLOYMENT 1. Employment Assistance 2. Vocational Training 3. Micro credit XI. SOCIAL PROBLEMS XII. HUMAN RIGHTS AND POLITICAL DISPUTES XIII. LINKS
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COUNTRY FACT SHEET I. GENERAL INFORMATION • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
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Full name: People’s Republic of China (PRC) Population: 1,343,239,923 (July 2012 est., CIA) Capital: Beijing (Peking) Largest cities: Shanghai (pop. 22,315,426), Beijing (pop. 18,827,000), Tianjin (pop. 11,090,314), Guangzhou (pop. 11,070,654) and Shenzhen (pop. 10,357,938) Area: 9,596,961 sq km Major languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (official), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghainese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan, Xiang, Gan. Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Zuang and other various languages are recognised regional languages. Major religions: Officially atheistic, but there are five state-registered religions: Daoism, Buddhism, Islam, Catholic and Protestant Christianity. Major ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.5%, Zhuang, Manchu, Hui, Miao, Uighur, Tujia, Yi, Mongol, Tibetan, Buyi, Dong, Yao, Korean, and other nationalities 8.5% (2000 census) Life expectancy: Life expectancy at birth (m/f) is 72/76 years. Monetary unit: yuan or Renminbi (RMB), Yuįn = 10 Jiǎo = 100 Fēn Main exports: electrical and other machinery, including data processing equipment, apparel, textiles, iron and steel, optical and medical equipment GNI per capita: US $ 4,930 (World Bank, 2011) Internet domain: .cn Borders: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Mongolia 4,677 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km Flag: The flag is red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper corner near the flagpole: the colour red represents revolution, while the stars symbolise the four social classes - the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the national bourgeoisie (capitalists) - united under the Communist Party of China National holiday: Anniversary of the Founding of the People’s Republic of China, 1 October (1949) Government type: Communist state Head of State and General Secretary of the CCP: President Hu Jintao Membership of international groups/organisations: United Nations (including permanent membership of the UN Security Council), ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, World Trade Organisation (WTO).
China is the world‘s most populous country, with a continuous culture stretching back nearly 4,000 years. For centuries, China was as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country experienced civil unrest, major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under Mao Zedong established an autocratic socialist system that, while ensuring China’s sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, Mao’s successor Deng Xiaoping and other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development, and by 2000, output had quadrupled. Nowadays China is one of the world’s top exporters and is attracting record amounts of foreign investment. In turn, it is investing billions of dollars abroad. 3
COUNTRY FACT SHEET Since the early 1990s, China has increased its global outreach and participation in international organisations, as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, a country with nuclear weapons and a major and growing economy. Living standards have improved and the room for personal choice has expanded for much of the population, but political controls remain tight. 1. History The Chinese imperial system came to an end in 1911. The Qing (Manchu) Dynasty was overthrown and China was proclaimed a republic, partly through the efforts of revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen. The end of imperial rule was followed by nearly four decades of major socioeconomic development and socio-political discord. The initial establishment of a Western-style government – the Republic of China – was followed by efforts to restore the throne. The lack of a strong central authority led to regional fragmentation, the spead of warlords and civil war. In 1927, the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT), under its leader Chiang Kai-shek, established a central government in Nanjing. The years between 1928 and 1937 are often referred to as the Nanjing Decade because of the national development druing Chiang’s presidency before World War II, when China’s capital was in Nanjing (Southern Capital). The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921. It split with the Kuomitang and begun an armed struggle against the Chiang regime. The CCP was forced to flee into the interior in the Long March in 1934/35. Both KMT and CCP forces opposed Japan during World War II but a civil war broke out from 1945-1949. CCP forces under Mao Zedong routed their KMT opponents and in 1949 Mao announced the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. The government of the then Republic of China under President Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan, together with approximately 2 million supporters. The period between 1949 and Mao’s death in 1976 was characterised by an ambitious political and economic restructuring programme. This involved the collectivisation of industry, the establishment of communes and the redistribution of land. The Cultural Revolution, which lasted from 1966 to 1976, brought enormous upheaval to the political system. Mao relied on the armed forces to maintain order and exercise control. The 1976 death of Mao ended the extremist policies of the party, and under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping and his supporters, China began a period of pragmatic economic reforms and opened up to the outside world. Thereby, China sought to modernise the economy, develop its external relations (the Open Door Policy), especially with the West, and implement a gradual and limited liberalisation of Chinese society. 2. Geography China is twice the size of Western Europe. It is the third largest country in the world by area, after Russia and Canada. Its terrain varies from plains, deltas and hills in the east to mountains, high plateaux and deserts in the west. In the south, its climate is tropical, while in the north it is sub-arctic. China’s complex climatic patterns cause temperature differences of 40 degrees between the north and south. Rainfall also varies greatly from region to region; it averages about 1,500 millimetres annually along the south-eastern coast. But moving inland, it decreases to less than 50 millimetres in northwest China. Less than a sixth of China is suitable for agriculture. The most fertile areas lie in the eastern third of the country, which is economically the most developed. China has substantial mineral reserves and is the world’s largest producer of antimony, 4
COUNTRY FACT SHEET natural graphite, tungsten, and zinc. Other major minerals are bauxite, coal, crude petroleum, diamonds, gold, iron ore, lead, magnetite, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, natural gas, phosphate rock, tin, uranium, and vanadium. With its vast mountain ranges, China’s hydropower potential is the largest in the world. 3. Environment China’s energy consumption is increasing significantly because of its economic growth. Some studies suggest that China overtook the US as the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases in 2007. The Chinese government is seeking to add energy production capacity from sources other than coal and oil, and focusing on nuclear and alternative energy development. The deterioration of the environment – notably air pollution, soil erosion, and a steady decline in the water table, especially in the North – is a long-term problem. China continues to lose arable land (about 20% since 1949) because of erosion and economic development. Deforestation has been a major contributor to China’s most significant natural disaster – flooding. In 1998, 3,656 people died and 230 million people were affected by flooding. 4. Ethnic Groups Besides the majority Han Chinese, China recognises 55 other nationalities or ethnic groups, numbering about 105 million persons, concentrated mostly in the northwest, north, northeast, south, and southwest, but also residing in the central interior areas. Based on the 2000 census, 91.5% of the population was classified as Han Chinese (1.1 billion). The other major minority ethnic groups include the Zhuang (16.1 million), Manchu (10.6 million), Hui (9.8million), Miao (8.9 million), Uygur (8.3 million), Tujia (8 million), Yi (7.7 million), Mongol (5.8 million), Tibetan (5.4 million), Bouyei (2.9 million), Dong (2.9 million), Yao (2.6 million), Korean (1.9 million), Bai (1.8 million), Hani (1.4 million), Kazakh (1.2 million), Li (1.2 million), and Dai (1.1 million). Classifications are often based on selfidentification, and sometimes in some locations, it is advantageous to identify with one group over another for political or economic reasons. 5. Household Registry (Hukou) The Hukou system requires every resident of China to be registered with the local Public Security Bureau. Household registration booklets are kept by local security offices for all households (individuals living alone are also counted as households). The booklets contain the following information about all the household members: names, dates of birth, occupations, marriage status, etc. Chinese citizens have only one permanent place for Hukou registration. According to the Provisional Regulations on the Management of Temporary Residents in Urban Areas, issued in 1985, any person staying or living outside of their Hukou zone for more than three days, including foreign nationals, must register with the local Hukou authorities at the local police station and obtain a guest, or temporary, Hukou registration. Individuals who fail to do so may be subject to fines and elimination of their place of permanent registration. Landlords, hotels, and other households who host visitors are responsible for making sure that their guests register with the local police, although these regulations have been relaxed in some localities. Any person staying in a locality outside their Hukou zone for more than three months must also apply for a Temporary Residential Permit (zanzhuzheng), which provides the legal basis for residence and the key basis for legal identity. In many localities, this permit is necessary in order to work, rent housing, open a bank account, enter public buildings (such as libraries), receive registered mail, and for other personal identification purposes. 5
COUNTRY FACT SHEET II. GOVERNANCE 1. Political Structure The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is an authoritarian state and constitutionally, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is the paramount source of power. According to its constitution, China is a multi-party socialist state under the guidance of the Communist Party of China (CPC) but it operates essentially as a single party state. The Party controls the entire political system, including the army. Direct elections were launched in 1988, but they are only for village councils and local People’s Congresses. Diagram explaining how China is governed: Communist Party Discipline Commission
Politburo
Party Elders
Military Affairs Commission
National People’s Congress
State Council
Armed Forces
Courts & Prosecutors
Provinces and Townships
Elects/ approves Exerts influence over
(BBC, updated 28 June 2011) The Chinese Communist Party has around 80 million party members. Every five years, the Communist Party members elect around 3,000 delegates to attend the Party Congress. The 3,000-member National People’s Congress (NPC) has the power to appoint and remove the President and Vice-President of the People’s Republic, the Premier and VicePremiers of the State Council (the most important administrative organ of the central government, similar to a cabinet), the Procurator and President of the Supreme People’s Court and the Chairman and members of the State Military Commission. The NPC can amend the Constitution and supervise the enforcement of laws. It scrutinises and approves national economic and social planning and also examines and approves the state budget. However, the NPC is largely a symbolic body. Only its standing committee meets regularly, while the full body convenes for only two weeks a year in order to approve proposed legislation. Hu Jintao, the current General Secretary who was elected in November 2002, holds the three most powerful positions as General Secretary of the CCP, President, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission. The Chinese Communist Party has a monopoly on political power and the nine-member Politburo Standing Committee sets government policy. Party members hold almost all the top posts in the government, military and internal security services, as well as in many economic entities and social organisations. Major policy decisions concerning economic development, social priorities, as well as foreign policy and military affairs are made by the Chinese Communist Party. Its decisions are implemented by the government. 6
COUNTRY FACT SHEET The highest judicial organ of the state is the Supreme People’s Court (SPC). Below the SPC there are Local People’s Courts (higher, intermediate and basic) and Special People’s Courts, which include military and maritime courts and railway transport courts. The CCP’s Law and Politics Committee have the authority to review and influence court operations at all levels of the judiciary. 2. Administrative divisions Since the 17th century, the provincial boundaries of China have remained largely static. Major changes have been made in the reorganisation of the provinces in the northeast after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and the formation of autonomous regions, based on Soviet ethnic policies. The provinces serve an important cultural role in China, as people tend to identify with their native province. The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China prescribes three legal levels of government, by dividing the nation into provinces, counties and townships: - The country is divided into provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government. - The provinces or autonomous regions are subdivided into autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous counties and/or cities. - The counties or autonomous counties are subdivided into townships, ethnic townships and/or towns. Directly under the Central Government there are 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, including Xizang (Tibet) and four municipalities (Beijing, Chongqing, Shanghai and Tianjin). China also considers Taiwan its 23rd province. The entire hierarchy of government includes: • the central government • provinces, municipalities or autonomous regions • prefectures or cities • counties or districts • townships • villages III. ECONOMY Since the late 1970s China has moved from being a closed, centrally planned system to a more market-oriented one that plays a major global role. In 2010, China became the world’s largest exporter. Reforms began by phasing out collectivised agriculture and expanded with the gradual liberalisation of prices, fiscal decentralisation, increased autonomy for state enterprises, creation of a diversified banking system, development of stock markets, rapid growth of the private sector and opening up to foreign trade and investment. China has implemented reforms in a gradual fashion. After keeping its currency tightly linked to the US dollar for years, in July 2005, China revalued its currency by 2.1% against the US dollar and moved to an exchange rate system that is pegged to a basket of currencies. The Chinese currency, the yuan, which is now one of the world’s strongest currencies, is currently hovering at US$1 = RMB 6.28 (October 2012). The restructuring of the economy, and resulting gains in efficiency, have contributed to a more than tenfold increase in GDP since 1978. In 2010, based on purchasing power 7
COUNTRY FACT SHEET parity (PPP) that is adjusted for price differences, China was the second-largest economy in the world after the US, having surpassed Japan in 2001. China is second to the US in the value of the services it produces. However, its per capita income is below the world average. The Chinese government faces numerous economic challenges, including: • reducing its high domestic savings rate and correspondingly low domestic demand, • sustaining adequate job growth for tens of millions of migrants and new entrants into the workforce, • reducing corruption and other economic crimes, • containing the environmental damage and social strife that is related to the economy’s rapid transformation. Economic development has progressed further in coastal provinces than in the interior, and by 2011, more than 250 million migrant workers and their dependents had relocated to urban areas to find work. A consequence of the population control policy enacted in China is the fact that China now has one of the most rapidly aging populations in the world. In 2010 and 2011 China faced high inflation, which resulted largely from a stimulus programme fuelled by credit. Some tightening measures seem to be controlling inflation, but consequently GDP growth has slowed to nearly 9% for 2011. The GDP growth forecast for 2012 and beyond will be lower than in the boom years, primarily because of the global economic crisis that started having an impact on China in 2008. The World Bank forecast is for 7.7% growth in 2012 and 8.1% in 2013 (October 2012). The slowdown in growth is driven by weaker exports as well as domestic demand, in particular investment growth. In 2011, wages and incomes continued to increase in China, with the aim of rebalancing growth and strengthening domestic demand. A total of 13 Chinese provinces raised minimum wages by an average of 21% in the first quarter of 2011(according to the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security). Per capita urban disposable income increased by 13.2% in the first half of the year and rural cash incomes climbed 20.4% (according to the China National Bureau of Statistics). China’s major exports include office machines and data processing equipment, telecommunications equipment, electrical machinery, apparel and clothing. China’s largest exports markets are the European Union, United States, Hong Kong, Japan and South Korea. The government’s 12th Five-Year Plan, adopted in March 2011, emphasises continued economic reforms and the need to increase domestic consumption in order to make the economy less dependent on exports in the future. 1. Banking China’s banking system has undergone significant changes in the last two decades. China has also been a member of WTO since 2001. The central bank of the People’s Republic of China is the People’s Bank of China. The four large state-owned commercial banks are the Bank of China, the China Construction Bank, the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China and the Agricultural Bank of China. In addition to the four large state-owned commercial banks, there are also smaller commercial banks. The largest ones in this group are the Bank of Communications, China CITIC Bank, China Everbright Bank and Hua Xia Bank. The third significant group of Chinese banks is the city commercial banks. Many of them are the successors of urban credit cooperatives. Most city commercial banks have strong ties to their local governments and are majority or wholly state-owned. Some have established “small loans units” in order to better serve small business clients. The 8
COUNTRY FACT SHEET Taizhou City Commercial Bank, Bank of Beijing and Bank of Ningbo are examples of city commercial banks. The People’s Bank of China Address: 32 Chengfang str., Xi Cheng district, Beijing, China (100800) Tel: (86-10) -66194114 Website: http://www.pbc.gov.cn/publish/english/963/index.html China Construction Bank Address: 25, Finance Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, China (100033) Tel: (86-10)-66215533 Website: http://www.ccb.com/en/home/index.html Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Address: 55 FuXingMenNei Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, China (100140) Tel: (86) 95588 Website: http://www.icbc-ltd.com/icbcltd/en/ Agricultural Bank of China Address: 69 Jianguomen Nei Avenue, Dongcheng District, Beijing, China (100005) Tel: (86) 95599 Website: http://www.abchina.com/en/default.htm CITIC Bank International China Address: Room 3201-05, 3210 Full Tower, 9 Dongsanhuanzhonglu, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China (100020) Tel: (86-10)-85911161 Website: http://www.citicbankintl.com/china/en/index.jsp IV. RELIGION China is officially atheistic, and about 59% of the population is atheists. But for historical reasons, the dominant recognized faiths are Confucianism and Taoism. The religions that are officially registered by state are Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, Catholic and Protestant Christianity. Pursuant to Article 36 of the Constitution, Chinese citizens can freely choose and express their religious beliefs and religious identities. According to incomplete statistics, there are more than 100 million believers, 100,000 venues for religious activities, about 300,000 religious personnel, and more than 3,000 religious groups. The state continues to closely monitor religious activities and some religious or spiritual groups are banned by law. It is impossible to say how many Christians there are in China today, but no one denies the numbers are exploding. According to the government, there are 25 million Christians, including 18 million Protestants and six million Catholics. According to independent estimates this is a vast underestimation. Official statistics indicate that there are 20 million Chinese Muslims. Huis make up China’s largest Muslim population. They are better integrated into Chinese society than the Uighurs in Xinjiang, who speak a different language. Religious and ethnic minorities, such as the Tibetan Buddhists and Uighur Muslims, experience discrimination throughout the country because of their religious beliefs and their status as ethnic minorities with distinct languages and cultures. 9
COUNTRY FACT SHEET V. TRANSPORTATION Since the middle of the 20th century, the length of the extensive railway network, which provides service to the entire nation and is the primary mode of transport, has doubled. The larger cities have metro systems in operation, under construction or in the planning stage. The highway and road system has also undergone rapid expansion, resulting in a sharp increase in the use of motor vehicle throughout China. China resembles the traffic situation in most developed countries, and traffic jams are now more prevalent. To help reduce the pressure on road infrastructure, China has implemented a programme to encourage people to use public transportation and reduce the use of private vehicles. As an incentive, the government has reduced bus fares and limited the number of private vehicles in urban areas by establishing a system in some cities whereby the last number on the vehicle’s license plate determines whether it can enter the city on a particular day. The restriction is announced on city’s traffic radio, traffic websites, newsletter and other public bulletin board. Although China’s transport system is comprised of a vast network of transport nodes across its huge territory, the nodes tend to be concentrated in the more economically developed coastal areas and inland cities along the major rivers. China has total of 86,000 km of railways and 3,860,800 km of roadways, including unpaved roadways, which total 804,500 km. VI. TELECOMMUNICATIONS Domestic and international telecommunications services are becoming increasingly available for private use. China’s major telecommunication service providers are China Mobile, China Telecom and China Unicom, each of which provide both fixed-line and mobile services. The communications network coverage rate is 96%. China currently has the largest number of active cell phones in the world, with over 1 billion users as of May 2012. It also has the world’s largest number of Internet and broadband users. China Telecom and China Unicom are the country’s two largest broadband providers. International dialling code: +86 Internet domain: .cn Private mobile phones can be purchased locally at reasonable prices from a wide range of outlets. Overseas mobile phones will work in China if global roaming is activated. Computer software and hardware, as well as audio-visual equipment, are widely available in China. Shopping complexes with lots of small shops that sell computer and electronic equipment are plentiful throughout China and they offer competitive prices. Department stores and specialist electrical stores offer a wide range of domestic appliances in a wide price range. Media From the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 until the 1980s, almost all media in China was run by the state. Independent media did not emerge until the onset of economic reforms. Despite being monitored by the government, Chinese media has become increasingly commercialised with growing competition, diversified content and an increase in investigative reporting. With nearly 1.2 billion viewers, TV is a popular source of news and the sector is competitive, 10
COUNTRY FACT SHEET especially in cities. The state-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV) is China’s largest media company. State-run media outlets such as Xinhua and People’s Daily also hold significant market share. Its provincial and municipal stations broadcast about 2,100 channels. China is a major market for pay-TV, which is almost entirely delivered by cable. There are more than 2,000 newspapers. Each city has its own paper, usually published by the local government, as well as a local Communist Party daily. There are an estimated 1,000 state-owned radio stations. Post Both international and local postal services are highly efficient and reliable. The parcel post work reliably and generally parcels arrive safely without damage. VII. SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM On 1 July 2011, China enacted its new Social Insurance Act. The main objective of the law is to improve the general social security safety net for Chinese residents. The five “insurances” covered by the mandatory welfare system are pensions, medical insurance, work-related disability insurance, unemployment and maternity insurance, which have been part of the existing social security framework in China for a number of years. In addition, housing fund contributions are usually included as mandatory welfare, because the costs are mandatory and contributions are made by both the employer and the employee. 1. Pensions and welfare for senior citizens Pensions comprise a social security system that ensures the basic needs as prescribed by law for the elderly, who are retiring from the general workforce. Chinese pensions are comprised of three parts. The first is the basic pension; the second is a supplement provided by the enterprise; and the third is an individual pension based on savings. The individual pension accounts are not paid out in advance. Individuals participating in the basic pension plan receive a basic monthly pension until their death, if they meet the following conditions: • To reach the national retirement conditions, including normal retirement, early retirement due to illness, retirement in advance due to special types of job. • In accordance with the provisions of the basic pension insurance to pay a total payment for 15 years. Payment period under 15 years but reach the statutory retirement age, the personal account will be paid to himself one-time. This pay-out, terminates entitlements to the pension insurance. Public pensions are a fairly new phenomenon in the Chinese countryside. Old-age security used to be provided by the family farming plot, not a pension. However, by the end of 2011, 326 million rural residents had been enrolled in the public pension plan. That is an increase of over 240 million since 2009, when China launched a new rural programme, based on pilot schemes. As of 2012, only about one third of the rural elderly had such a pension, and the average pension was 74 yuan per month. In the countryside, the local governments pay a basic pension that varies greatly depending on the financial situation. These pensions are supplemented by individual accounts into which individuals may deposit money throughout their working lives. This is encouraged by matching contributions from the state. In the cities, the main system combines social insurance, paid for by payroll taxes, with individual accounts, into which workers must pay 8% of their earnings.
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COUNTRY FACT SHEET The minimum pension is paid after 15 years of coverage. The maximum pension is no higher than 100% of the insured’s wage before retirement. The retirement age in China currently is 60 for men and 55 for female civil servants and 50 for female workers. The monthly benefit is equal to 1/120 of all the employer’s and employee’s contributions plus interest (transition arrangements are provided by local governments for the workers whose employment began before mandatory individual accounts were introduced and who retired after they were introduced). Benefits paid beyond 120 months are paid out of a reserve fund from balances of employer contributions to individual accounts closed on the death of the individual account holder. Pension Employer
Costs
Usually 20% of an employee’s salary, substantially lower in some cities (Shenzhen, Hangzhou, Ningbo, Zhongshan) No benefits accrue directly to the employer
Benefits
Employee 8% of employee’s salary (uniform rate nationwide)
Contributions made to the fund are not taxable. Interest also accrues to the funds in the individual’s account. On the precondition that the contributions have been made for a 15-year period, upon reaching retirement age, the individual is allowed to start receiving a pension based on the amount accumulated in his/her individual fund (comprised of the amount contributed by the employee during his/her working lifetime). Once the amount in this fund has been exhausted, the individual is entitled to claim a pension from the ”public” pool, which is effectively funded by the employer contributions. In the event of the death of the employee (either before or after retirement), the amount accumulated in the individual account may be inherited.
(China Briefing, February 21, 2012) The Department of Pensions of the Ministry of Labour and Social Security provides general guidance and ensures that local regulations observe the guidelines of the central government. Provincial or city/county social insurance agencies administer their respective retirement pension pools and individual accounts. Mandatory individual account funds are deposited in state-owned banks. China is an aging society. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, China now has more than 178 million people aged 60 or older, approximately 13% of the population. By 2042, the elderly will account for more than 30% of the population and China will have the largest problem in world related to the aging of its society. This is greatly exacerbated by its one-child policy. The average lifespan of a Chinese citizen is now 73 years. The services for the elderly are insufficient for handling the situation. The welfare system is still backward and a large number of senior citizens in rural areas are not included. 12
COUNTRY FACT SHEET Nonetheless, the majority of care facilities in rural China are funded and, in most cases, operated by local governments. Now, with China facing an aging population, the government has welcomed private and foreign investors to help cover the shortfall in facilities for the care of the elderly. Private companies dominate the nursing home sector in most major cities. 2. Medical Insurance and Healthcare China’s healthcare reform began in earnest in 2009. This far-reaching transformation of the system is expected to be completed by 2020. Progress is already significant in areas such as the development of infrastructure in lower-tier cities and rural areas of China and enrolments in insurance schemes, through which some form of insurance coverage is now provided to more than 95% of the population. Medical Insurance Employer
Costs
Employee
Usually between 7-12% of salary (much lower in few cities Zhongshan)
Usually 2% of employee’s salary (much lower in few cities Zhongshan)
No benefits accrue directly to the employer
In the event of an illness or injury, the employee can have part of the treatment cost covered by medical insurance. The exact proportion of the coverage will depend on the nature of the illness/ injury.
Benefits
The contributions made by individuals accrue to a card carried by that person and the funds in the card can be applied to the purchase of medicine at pharmacies or out-patient costs at hospitals. The contributions made by employers accrue to a public pool which goes to fund more expensive in-patient treatment.
(China Briefing, February 21, 2012) A weakness of the current system is the fact that when an employee travels and becomes sick or injured in an area far from his/her administrative jurisdiction, there are considerable difficulties in getting the insurance fund to reimburse the cost of treatment. The current health care insurance system has a ceiling for the coverage for medical expenses of all the diseases covered by the system. For urban residents, the insurance covers medical costs totalling up to four times the local average per capita annual income, or roughly 150.000 yuan. However, for rural residents the maximum coverage has just been increased from 30,000 yuan to 50,000 yuan. But the cost of treatment for the most serious illnesses is far more than the cap. In addition, only treatments and medicines listed on the health care insurance directory can be reimbursed. On average, the reimbursement ratio is around 60% to 70%. The distribution of medical resources is uneven in China. Outside the largest metropolises, such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, payment for the treatment of serious illnesses must first be made in cash by the patient who is then reimbursed by the state. 13
COUNTRY FACT SHEET Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China Address: No.1 Xizhimenwai Nanlu, Xicheng District, Beijing, China (100044) Tel: (86-10) 6879-4049 Fax: (86-10) 6831-3669 E-mail: manage@moh.gov.cn Website: http://www.moh.gov.cn/ 3. Work-Related Injury Insurance Work-Related Injury Insurance Employer
Costs
Benefits
Employee
From 0.4% -3% of salary depending on location and degree of danger of business engaged in
No contribution required
In the event an employee is injured at work, the employer is not required to pay for the employee’s medical treatment – this will be covered through the company’s social insurance contributions.
The medical insurance and work-related injury insurance funds should cover the cost of treatment if an individual is injured at work.
However, during the period of treatment and recuperation, the employer will have to continue to pay monthly salary to the employee in line with local regulations. This amount is generally calculated based on the average monthly wage of the employee over the past 12 months, including all allowances. This period will not last more than 12 months. If it is finally determined that the employee cannot return to work because the illness/ injury is too serious, the employer cannot terminate the labour contract with the employee. In this case, the employee can apply for the allowance from the social insurance fund.
After suffering a work-related injury, the individual’s employer should collect the necessary proof and prepare the relevant documentation to be submitted to the insurance agency for approval. This process takes time, so during this period the employee does not need to work and the employer should continue to pay the individual a monthly salary. This salary should be calculated based on the average monthly wage of the employee over the past 12 months, including all allowances. This period will be confirmed by the medical authorities, but will not last over 12 months. If the employee is seriously maimed or injured and cannot return to work, the employer cannot cancel the contract, but does not have to pay the employee a monthly salary. In this case, the employee should apply for an allowance from the social insurance fund.
(China Briefing, February 21, 2012) The law clearly states that the employers must make the contributions, but in the absence of such contributions, the employee can still claim the relevant treatment expense and the administrative agency is obligated to chase down the employer to collect the cost of the treatment. 4. Unemployment Insurance Companies operating in all major cities in China are expected to contribute towards unemployment insurance and, in most of these cities, require that their employees 14
COUNTRY FACT SHEET also make a contribution. Should the employee become unemployed, they can receive unemployment benefits, provided contributions to the unemployment insurance fund have been made for a minimum period of one year. The exact amount paid from the unemployment insurance fund is a fixed amount that varies from city to city, and it is unrelated to the employee’s salary or the total amount the individual had contributed to the fund in excess of the one-year minimum requirement. Furthermore, unemployment benefits can be enjoyed for a maximum of 24 months. Unemployment Insurance Employer
Costs
Employee
Usually between 2% of salary (but sometimes 1 percent and only 0.4% in Shenzhen)
Usually 1% of an employee’s salary (but not applicable in a few cities like Shenzhen and Zhongshan)
No benefits accrue directly to the employer
In the event of redundancy (note: not in the event the employee chooses to resign), the employee may claim unemployment benefit for a maximum period of 24 months. However, a precondition to this is that the employee has been making contributions to the unemployment insurance fund for at least one continuous year prior to redundancy. The individual should continue to actively seek employment during this period. The amount of benefit paid during the period of unemployment will be fixed and unrelated to the amount of salary previously earned by the individual or the amount of contribution he/she made.
Benefits
(China Briefing, February 21, 2012) 5. Maternity Insurance Unlike medical insurance, contributions made to China’s maternity insurance plans are made only by employers. When an employee becomes pregnant, a lump sum is awarded to cover, in whole or in part, costs associated with the birth of the child. Furthermore, during the maternity leave, the salary of the employee is paid by the maternity fund. According to the Special Provisions on Labour Protection of Female dated 28 April 2012, female employees are now entitled to 98 days of maternity leave for childbirth. Of the 98 days, 15 may be taken before giving birth. In cases of difficult deliveries, the maternity leave will be extended by 15 days. In cases of multiple births, the maternity leave will be extended by 15 days for each additional newborn. During the maternity leave, the female employee will receive a maternity allowance if she is covered by maternity insurance. In case she is not insured, the employer will pay her the same salary she earned before taking the leave.
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COUNTRY FACT SHEET Maternity Insurance Employer
Costs
Benefits
From 0.5-1% of salary depending on location (no contribution at all in Dongguan)
During the maternity leave, salary is not required to be paid to the employee – instead it will be funded by the insurance. Please note there are some exceptions to this rule.
Employee No contribution required
During the maternity leave (usually three months, but can be as long as five months in some cities), the employee can receive a fixed sum. Currently, in most cities this amount is directly related to salary earned, however the new law stipulates that the amount to be received will be equal to the average salary in the company for which the individual is working. A lump sum can also be received by the employee to defray the cost of the childbirth; the exact amount depends on local regulations and the circumstances surrounding the birth. Fathers can also gain a small benefit from the maternity insurance fund in the form of a few days of “paternity leave” paid for by the fund. The total number of days differs by city (some cities providing maximum 15 days of paid paternity leave).
(China Briefing, February 21, 2012) Article 56 of the new Social Insurance Act states that monthly payments from the insurance fund to women during their maternity leave will be made based on the average salary paid by the company to its employees. This differs from the previous practice of having women on maternity leave receive an amount equal to their salary (as defined by the social insurance contributions made by the company prior to her maternity). 6. Housing Fund Although in the strictest sense it is not social welfare, China’s housing fund is generally included within the scope of social security because the contributions are mandatory and come from both the employer and the employee (except for special areas like Shenzhen, where the employee does not need to make a contribution). As its name suggests, the housing fund is designed to ensure that workers save some money in order to purchase a house or an apartment. The employer will usually have to contribute between 7% and 13% of the employee’s salary. In many cities, the employees match this contribution with an equal contribution of their own, although certain cities have different policies. When the employee wishes to purchase a home, the money in the housing fund can be used to pay the initial down payment, and it can also be used to subsequently repay the loan to the bank. Furthermore, if proof is provided that funds have been accumulated in an individual’s housing fund, banks may offer lower interest rates on loans. Upon retirement, any remaining balance in the housing fund can be withdrawn and used for any purpose by the individual. Ministry of Labor and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China 16
COUNTRY FACT SHEET Address: No.12 Hepingli Zhongjie, Dongchen District, Beijing, China (100716) Tel: (86-10) 8420-1114 Fax: (86-10) 6421-8350 E-mail: webmaster@mail.molss.gov.cn Web site: http://www.molss.gov.cn/ VIII. EDUCATION In China, education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. On average the population has had only 6.2 years of schooling, but in 1986 the Chinese government passed a compulsory education law, making nine years of education mandatory for all Chinese children. China has the the largest education system in the world. In June 2012, 9.15 million students took the National Higher Education Entrance Examination (Gao Kao). Investment in education accounts for about 4% of total GDP in China. Although the law provides for nine years of compulsory education for children, in economically disadvantaged rural areas, many children do not attend school for the required period and some never attended at all. Public schools are not allowed to charge tuition. However, faced with insufficient local and central government funding, many schools continue to charge miscellaneous fees. Such fees and other school-related expenses make it difficult for poorer families and some migrant workers to send their children to school. Official figures indicate that 99.5% of all school-age children were enrolled in school in 2007. Government figures showed that in 2007, 99.9% of primary school pupils went on to junior secondary school, and of those, 79.3% entered senior secondary school. However, the overall figures mask some weaknesses, particularly in basic-level education. The percentage of illiterate and semi-literate people in 2007 was lowest in the Beijing municipality, at 3.3%, but as high as 36.8% in Tibet and above 10% in nine other provinces. Many rural schools are inadequately funded, although attendance has been boosted by a new national policy that provides free education to rural children and is currently being extended to urban regions. Truancy and absenteeism remain widespread, despite the requirement for nine years of compulsory education (six years at primary school and three years in junior secondary school) The literacy rate (age 15 and over can read and write) among the total population is 92.2%, male 96% and female 88.5% (2007). 1. School System Pre-school education is provided for children aged 3-5 by kindergarten education. Primary education is provided for children aged 6-11 by elementary school education. Secondary education is aimed at children aged 12-17 who acquire a middle school education, by attending junior and senior high school, vocational high school, or mediumlevel professional schools. The usual middle school is comprised of junior (3 years) and senior (3 years) high school, with some junior high school graduates entering senior high schools; some entering vocational high schools; and some medium-level professional schools. Higher education refers to junior college, undergraduate and graduate education after 17
COUNTRY FACT SHEET secondary education. The higher educational institutions in China are universities, academies and colleges. Since free higher education was abolished in 1985, applicants to colleges and universities compete for scholarships based on academic ability. Continuing education encompasses adult technical training, adult non-degree higher education, and anti-illiteracy education. 2. Tuition Fees There are general fees, book fees and other fees under the “one-fee system”, which are lumped together and charged by the Provincial People’s Government administration. Stateowned colleges and universities charge an average of 5,000-6,000 yuan per annum. As an example, the standard tuition fees for undergraduates in Beijing are the following: the main educational faculties (depending on the major) generally charge less than 5,000 yuan; the sciences are around 5,500 yuan, foreign languages and medical science about 6,000 yuan, the fine arts do not exceed 10,000 yuan; the fees at other universities generally do not exceed 4,200 yuan, the sciences do not exceed 4,600 yuan, foreign languages and medical science do not exceed 5,000 yuan, the arts not exceed 10,000 yuan; according to policy, tuition fees for undergraduates at the China Central Academy of Fine Arts are less than 15,000 yuan; at the technical college, ordinary majors do not exceed 6,000 yuan, foreign languages and medical science do not exceed 7,500 yuan, the arts (acting, directing, cinematography, conducting, and the fine arts) not exceed 19,000 yuan, other arts are less than 12,000 yuan. Student loans At ordinary state-owned colleges and universities, full-time college students, junior college students (including secondary vocational college students), second bachelor degree students and postgraduate students may apply for a National Student Loan under the following conditions: 1. Prove their family has financial problems. 2. Prove they are nationals of the People’s Republic of China, are at least 16 years old, and hold an identity card of the People’s Republic of China. 3. Have the capacity to perform normal civil activities (minors applying for student loans must have the written consent of their legal guardians). 4. Are honest and trustworthy, law-abiding, with no record of violating the law. 5. Demonstrate their capacity to study diligently and be capable of completing their courses. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China Address: No.37 Da Mucang Hutong, Xidan, Beijing, China (100816) Phone: + (86-10) 66096114 Fax: + (86-10) 6601-1049 E-mail: emic@moe.edu.cn Webpage: http://www.moe.edu.cn/ China Central Academy of Fine Arts Address: No.8 Hua Jia Di Nan St., Chao Yang District, Beijing, China (100102) Website: http://www.cafa.edu.cn/ Peking University Address: No.5 Yiheyuan Road Haidian District, Beijing, China (100871) Webpage: http://english.pku.edu.cn/ IX. HOUSING 18
COUNTRY FACT SHEET The People’s Republic of China’s central government is facing two major tasks in the housing sector. On the one hand, the government needs to sustain development in the real estate market in order to secure long-term and stable economic development, and on the other hand, it is also the government’s responsibility to make sure that the majority of the urban population can meet their housing needs at affordable costs. Due to the rapid industrialisation and urbanisation of China, industries and population are centred in the cities. This creates huge housing demands in the cities, drives up the housing prices, and makes the market prices unaffordable for the low-income people. Currently the housing system in China is comprised of three levels: • Commercial housing – for high-income people with market-driven prices. • Economical housing – for middle- or low-income people with limited profit prices. The developers are given preferential treatment by the government. • Low-cost housing – for the lowest-income people. The government provides subsidies. The urban per capita housing space in China is approximately 30m2. Rents differ depending on location and which provinces, cities or regions of China the housing in located in. For example, the average rent per month for a small, 1-bedroom apartment in the city centre is 3,500 yuan. The same apartment outside the city centre costs about 2,000 yuan. The Ministry for Housing and Urban-Rural Development is responsible for the right to housing and provision of basic housing. Local authorities are required to prepare annual plans for social housing, coordinated with their land use and development plans. Public financing is the main source of funding for social housing. The target is to use 1% of total annual gross domestic product (GDP) for social housing, divided between the central government, and the provincial and county/district governments. 1. Low-rent Housing System In urban areas, low-income families with housing difficulties are entitled to housing from the low-cost housing system or may elect to purchase a house under an economically affordable housing scheme. Under the low-cost housing scheme, the government can provide housing, as a form of social security, to families are faced with housing difficulties. Applicants have to meet certain minimum standards determined for urban residents, in order to qualify for subsidies or allocated houses, where the approved beneficiaries pay some form of rent based on their circumstances. The municipal People’s Government determines the entitlements, the targeted beneficiaries, as well as the areas for consideration and rental standards for low-rent housing based on the local conditions. These conditions are announced once a year. Low-Income Earners Rental housing subsidies are provided by the government to eligible applicants, to enable them to rent housing on the open market. The government can also allocate housing that is rented directly to qualifying tenants and charge them based on the rental standards applicable to low-rent housing. Rent reductions can be provided to the lowest-income families who have applied to rent public housing for given periods according to certain provisions. The subsidy standard for low-rent housing construction is 400 yuan/m2 in the western region and 300 yuan/ m2 in middle region of China. 19
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The target group for this scheme is urban low-income families with housing problems, and is based on local standards established to provide housing at affordable rents. The potential tenant can submit a written application to the local residential community office or the people’s government at the town level of the government. Application attachments: • Proof of the family’s income • Explanation of the family’s housing status • Identification cards and the residence books/documents of family members • Other references requested by municipal and county people’s government administrators. 2. Economically Affordable Housing System Economically affordable housing refers to the housing that has been included in the national programme wherein the government establishes a real estate enterprise to organise the collection of construction funds. It then sells the housing to urban low-income families at a low-profit price. This of commodity housing scheme fulfils social security objectives, and is designed to be economical and affordable. Application conditions • The targeted population should be local urban registered permanent residents (military personnel can also apply for housing to be allocated) or approved by the municipal or county people’s government. • Families without housing or inadequate space in their current housing (i.e. it is smaller than the standard stipulated by municipal or county people’s government). • Domestic income conforms to the income standards stipulated by municipal or county people’s government. • Other conditions. X. EMPLOYMENT The great inflow of rural migrant workers into the cities creates great pressure on employment for urban local workers. Currently, China is meeting the special challenge of dealing with the problem of unemployment, since the global financial crisis has had a significant negative impact on the growth of export and consequently on employment in China. According to the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, a total of 764.2 million people were employed in China at the end of 2011, including 359.14 million working in urban areas. The official urban unemployment rate was 4.1% in the third quarter of 2012. According to regulations, unemployment benefits in China must be lower than the local minimum wage in the area. However, nearly everywhere in China the local minimum wage is nowhere near a living wage, and therefore, the unemployment benefits provided by the state are not sufficient to support the families of the unemployed. 1. Employment Assistance This form of assistance is targeted at people who are having trouble finding jobs due to health problems, lack of skills, challenging family circumstances and those who may have lost their property or land. It also includes people who have been unemployed for lengthy 20
COUNTRY FACT SHEET periods. State Assistance Eligible families may apply voluntarily for registration at local labour security institutions near their registered permanent domicile. Specific conditions and procedures for registration are stipulated by the local labour security department. At present, the employment agencies run by all levels of labour security departments or non-profit employment agencies for social welfare are essentially public employment agencies that provide laid-off workers unemployment benefits or facilities to receive unemployment insurance and augment the applicable local minimum living allowance by providing certain free services. The state employment agencies provide information and policy consultation related to the labour market to employers and employees. They administer and maintain the records related to employment, unemployment registration, employment registration, etc., which is entrusted to them by the Administrative Department of the Labour and Social Security Office. Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China China’s Employment Website: http://www.chinajob.gov.cn/ 2. Vocational Training Workers who want to engage in occupations requiring complex skills or standard trades, and occupations dealing with state property, people’s lives and safety, must undergo formal training and receive recognised vocational certification before getting a job. The vocational training usually involves one to three years of training. The graduates of junior or high schools who are seeking employment and training can undergo preparatory training in the form of courses lasting between three and twelve months, which enable them to acquire the relevant professional qualifications or vocational skills. In China, vocational training takes place in four main ways: • lower secondary schools (now a small sector) • upper secondary vocational schools • tertiary education • adult education and enterprise training Training subsidies Under certain conditions, the government may provide subsidies to the unemployed or rural labourers who come to the city to work. If approved, people, who are having trouble finding employment and rural labourers coming to the city to work are evaluated to identify their basic vocational skills and thereafter obtain professional qualification certificates. They will be provided with one-off subsidies for such evaluations of their vocational skills. 3. Micro-credits Micro-credit programmes are a part of the government’s poverty alleviation policy. The aim of these microcredit programmes, in the form of subsidised loans, is to increase the income of poor households. There are microcredit programmes for laid-off workers that are implemented by the local departments. The primary goal of these programmes is re-employment. 21
COUNTRY FACT SHEET Laid-off workers who have “re-employment concession certificates” and self-employed retired soldiers who are applying for micro-credits to engage in low-profit project are exempt from paying interest. This is the responsibility of the financial department. Other urban registered unemployed people, college graduates and farmers whose lands have been expropriated and apply for micro credit loans to engage in low-profit projects will pay half the going interest. Accordingly, the financial department will subsidise the remaining 50% of the interest. The registered unemployed, the disabled, retired soldiers, as well as graduates from general colleges within 2 years of leaving college, who engage in self-employment enterprises are exempted from management charges, registration and license fees as well as other related administrative costs within 3 years after initially registering with the industrial and commercial department. Ministry of Labor and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China Address: No.12 Hepingli Zhongjie, Dongchen District, Beijing, China (100716) Tel: (86-10) 8420-1114 Fax: (86-10) 6421-8350 E-mail: webmaster@mail.molss.gov.cn Website: http://www.molss.gov.cn/ Shanghai Municipal Labor and Social Security Bureau Address: No.865 Zhongshan Nanlu, Huangpu District, Shanghai http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node23919/index.html Beijing Municipal Bureau of Labor and Social Security Address: No.5 Yongnei Xijie, Xicheng District, Beijing Website: http://www.bjld.gov.cn/ XI. SOCIAL PROBLEMS Unregistered children In China, the regulations on birth registration are part of the family planning regulations and are the responsibility of the provinces. While there is not a direct legal barrier to a single mother registering her child, it is also illegal in most provinces for a woman to give birth out of wedlock, and there are heavy fines for doing so. Children born from a pregnancy that contravenes the family planning regulations are known as ‘‘black” children or hei haizi, i.e., unregistered children. The Chinese family planning regulations do not include the concept of “illegal children” (i.e. children born out of “illegal pregnancies”) and the law prohibits discrimination against children born out of wedlock. However, children born of illegal pregnancies may not be registered or treated equally until their parents pay the punitive fines. Especially in urban areas, registration with the local authority is required for medical care, schooling and employment In order to delay childbearing, the law sets the minimum marriage age at 20 years for women and 22 years for men. Currently every birth in China has to be registered at the police station nearest to the parents’ household. Registration requires: • a medical birth certificate; since 1996, this has been issued by the Ministry of Public Health through the hospital or facility where the child is born • a family planning service booklet or child-bearing certificate; these are given to women after their check-up at the family planning department 22
COUNTRY FACT SHEET • the parent’s household booklet or resident identity card, issued by the public security departments. Child abduction The kidnapping, buying and selling of children for adoption has increased over the past few years, particularly in poor rural areas. There were no reliable statistics on the number of children trafficked, however according to media reports, as many as 20,000 children are kidnapped every year for illegal adoption. Most children that are trafficked internally are sold to couples unable to have children, particularly sons. Those convicted of buying an abducted child may be sentenced to three years in jail. In the past, most of the rescued children were boys, but an increased demand for children has reportedly caused traffickers to focus on girls as well. Trafficking China is a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking, specifically as forced labour and for forced prostitution. Women and children from neighbouring countries including Burma, Vietnam, Laos, Mongolia, Russia and North Korea and from locations as far as Romania and Zimbabwe are trafficked to China for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labour. Internal trafficking is most pronounced among China’s migrant population, which is estimated to exceed 150 million people. Forced labour remains a serious problem, including in brick kilns, coal mines, factories and on construction sites throughout China. The government is lacking a formal nationwide procedure to systematically identify victims of trafficking. It also fails to provide comprehensive victim protection services to both internal and foreign victims of trafficking throughout the country. Victims are sometimes punished for unlawful acts that were a direct result of their being trafficked – for instance, violations of prostitution or immigration and emigration controls. XII. HUMAN RIGHTS AND POLITICAL DISPUTES There has been significant progress on social and economic rights in China over the past 25 years. Now, ordinary people can usually travel freely and choose who to marry and where to work. But problems remain, particularly related to civil and political rights. Despite signing the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in 1998, China still has not ratified it. China is making progress, but there are still a number of areas where currently ICCPR standards are not being met. The rule of law is undermined by political interference in the judicial process. In addition, the use of the death penalty remains high, although the Supreme People’s Court now reviews all death sentences. The freedoms of expression, religion and association are restricted. The authorities continue to limit the freedom of speech and to control the press, the Internet and Internet access. However, on 1 January 2007, China introduced new regulations for foreign correspondents that no longer have to seek permission to conduct interviews on a caseby-case basis. Significant cultural and religious repression of ethnic minorities in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR) and Tibetan areas is also being continued by the authorities. Human rights groups accuse the authorities of the systematic destruction of Tibetan Buddhist culture and the persecution of monks loyal to the Dalai Lama, the exiled spiritual leader who is campaigning for autonomy within China. 23
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At the same time Chinese citizens are increasingly rights-conscious and challenging the authorities over livelihood issues, land seizures, forced evictions, abuses of power by corrupt cadres, discrimination, and economic inequalities. Internet users and reform oriented media are aggressively pushing the boundaries of censorship, despite the risks of doing so, by advocating for the rule of law and transparency, exposing official wrongdoing, and calling for reforms. XIII. LINKS CIA – The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html WHO http://www.who.int National Bureau of Statistics of China http://www.stats.gov.cn The World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/ U.S. Department of State http://www.state.gov Social Security Online http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/ssptw/ Nation Master http://www.nationmaster.com Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China http://www.moe.edu.cn/ Economist http://www.economist.com (11.08.2012) Human Rights Watch http://www.hrw.org Bank of China http://www.boc.cn/en/ Ministry of Agriculture of the People’s Republic of China http://english.agri.gov.cn/ Ministry of Commerce People’s Republic of China http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/ Ministry of Labor and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China http://english.gov.cn/2005-10/02/content_74185.htm Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China http://english.gov.cn/2005-10/09/content_75326.htm Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/ The Freedom House http://www.freedomhouse.org/ BBC http://www.bbc.co.uk International Journal of Housing Policy http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14616718.2011.599130 International Labour Organization http://www.ilo.org China Briefing http://www.china-briefing.com The Development of Microfinance in China http://www.microfinancegateway.org/gm/document-1.9.26681/22.pdf 24