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IMPRESSUM J O U R N A L O F A P P L I E D E N G I N E E R I N G S C I E N C E (J A E S) The journal publishes original and review articles covering the concept of technical science, energy and environment, industrial engineering, quality management and other related sciences. JAES is Open-Access Journal that follows new trends and progress proven practice in listed fields, thus creating a unique forum for interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary dialogue.

JAES is part of the electronic journal editing with a transparent editorial and review policy. Provided are: • Online paper submission and tracking of review process with communication between editors, authors and reviewers • CrossRef: assignment of numerical identifiers (DOI) to assure greater visibility and accessibility of journal articles • CrossCheck: control for originality of submitted papers, to prevent plagiarism and duplicate publications • KWASS: automatic extraction of keywords from disciplinary thesaurus • Online-first publishing • Automatic transfer of metadata to SCIndeks that support international protocols for data transfer All published articles are indexed by international abstract base Elsevier Bibliographic Databases through service SCOPUS since 2006 and through service SCImago Journal Rank since 2011.

Serbian Ministry of Science admitted the Journal of Applied Engineering Science in a list of reference journals as Leading national journal M51. Same Ministry financially supports journal’s publication.

Publisher Institute for Research and Design in Commerce and Industry - IIPP; www.iipp.rs For publisher: Dr Branko Vasić Copublisher Faculty of Mechanical Engineering – Belgrade University; www.mas.bg.ac.rs For copublisher: Prof. dr Milorad Milovančević Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering – Belgrade University; www.sf.bg.ac.rs For copublisher: Prof. dr Branimir Stanić Editor in Chief Prof. dr Jovan Todorović Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade; Assistant Editor Dr Predrag Uskoković, IIPP Editorial Board Prof. dr Gradimir Danon, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade; Dr Dušan Milutinović, Institute for Transport and Traffic CIP, Belgrade; Mr Đorđe Milosavljević, CPI - Process Engineering Center, Belgrade; Prof. dr Miodrag Zec, Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade; Prof. dr Nenad Đajić, Mining and Geology Faculty, Belgrade; Prof. dr Vlastimir Dedović, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engeneering, Belgrade; Prof. dr Mirko Vujošević, Faculty of organizational sciences, Belgrade; Prof. dr Vladimir Popović, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade; Prof. dr Vesna Spasojević Brkić, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade; Prof. dr Dragan Aleksendrić, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade.

International Editorial Board Prof. dr Vukan Vučić, University of Pennsylvania, USA; Prof. dr Robert Bjeković, Hochschule Ravensburg-Weingarten, Germany; Prof. dr Jozef Aronov, Research Institute for Certification JSC, Russia; Prof. dr Jezdimir Knežević, MIRCE Akademy, England; Dr Nebojša Kovačević, Geotechnical consulting group, England; Adam Zielinski, Solaris Bus & Coach, Poland; Prof. dr Miloš Knežević, Faculty for Civil Engineering, Montenegro; MSc Siniša Vidović, Energy Testing & Balance Inc, USA; Prof. dr Zdravko Milovanović, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Banja Luka.

Publishing Council Milutin Ignjatović, Institute for Transport and Traffic CIP, Belgrade; Bojan Bojanić, Transport Company “Lasta”, Belgrade; Prof. dr Deda Đelović, Port of Bar, Bar; Dr Drago Šerović, Adriatic Shipyard, Bijela; Svetozar Veselinović, Belgrade Waterworks and Sewerage, Belgrade; Nenad Jankov, Power Plant Kostolac B, Kostolac; Miroslav Vuković, CBRE, Belgrade; Dušan Đurašević, Euro Sumar, Belgrade.

Editorial Office Nada Stanojević, Miloš Vasić, Darko Stanojević: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Belgrade; Miloš Dimitrijević, Ivana Spasojević, Nemanja Milenković, Milica Mikić: IIPP, Belgrade; Printed by: Planete print, Belgrade Designed and prepress: IIPP

ISSN 1451-4117 UDC 33 Papers are indexed by SCOPUS Journal of Applied Engineering Science 11(2013)4

CONTENTS

Irina Makarova, Rifat Khabibullin, Gennady Mavrin, Dmitry Zhdanov, Vadim Mavrin, Eduard Belyaev, Ilnar Suleymanov TRANSITION TO GREEN ECONOMY IN RUSSIA: CURRENT AND LONG-TERM CHALLENGES

1 - 10

Dr Sergey Nikolskiy, Dr Nikolay Vatin, Olga Pertseva POSSIBLE RAPID METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF CONCRETE’S FROST RESISTANCE

11 - 18

Dr Aleksandar Sergejevič Ljevčenko, Anatolij Andrejevič Rudičev, Irina Anatoljevna Kuznecova COMPETITIVE STRATEGY AS INSTRUMENT OF INCREASE OF BUSINESS ACTIVITY OF THE INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISE

19 - 24

Dr Vesna Spasojević-Brkić, Dr Zorica Veljković, Tamara Golubović FULFILLING THE REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPORT OF METAL INDUSTRY PRODUCTS FROM SERBIA AND BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA CROSS-BORDER AREA TO EU MARKET

25 - 34

Salim Khoso, Farhan Hussain Wagan, Abudl Hanan Tunio, Abdul Aziz Ansari AN OVERVIEW ON EMERGING WATER SCARCITY IN PAKISTAN, ITS CAUSES, IMPACTS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES

35 - 44

Dr Robert Bjeković, Kinga Piotrowicz EPOXY RESIN AND RELEASE AGENTS PART I: INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RELEASE AGENTS ON THE ADHESIVE PROPERTIES OF EPOXY RESIN

45 - 50

Dejan Matijević, Ivan Ivanković, Dr Vladimir Popović MODERN DESIGN AND CONTROL OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION AND THE PROSPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

51 -59

EVENTS REVIEW ANNOUNCEMENT OF EVENTS BOOK RECOMMENDATION

60 61 - 62 63

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

64 - 65

EDITORIAL AND ABSTRACTS IN SERBIAN LANGUAGE

66 - 70

Institute for research and design in commerce & industry, Belgrade. All rights reserved.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1

EDITORIAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE-MAINTENANCE OF MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT Since the Newspaper publishing organization Maintenance of machines and equipments (NIRO OMO) was founded, more than four decades ago, journals Fluid technique and OMO were established practically at the same time, while famous May conference of maintainers, organized throughout Yugoslavia, started some time later. Since 1988, first unofficially and later officially, co-organizer of conference becomes Faculty of mechanical engineering, University of Belgrade, thanks to prof. dr Jovan Todorović. Dr Ljubiša Papić from the Technical faculty Čačak, practically independently keeps OMO in life for several years, and based on that experience, establishes DQM Center, which helps OMO, especially in the publishing activities. From 1992 and arrival of Branko Vasić - assistant at the Faculty of mechanical engineering for the Chief editor of the OMO magazine, the magazine and conference gets a new form, new readers and new authors. By establishing a research center (today’s Institute for research and design in commerce & economy), in late 1994, OMO receives financial, organizational and personnel support. A new era for OMO conference begins with the foundation of the Serbia and Montenegro Technical System Maintainance Society – DOTS, in 2003, mainly due to Dejan Curović, associate at Faculty of mechanical engineering. International reputation of OMO conference is being built along with DOTS membership in the European Federation of National Maintenance Societies - EFNMS, which become a full member in 2004, thanks to the engagement of Nada Stanojević, research associate of the Faculty of mechanical engineering, within the General Assembly, the Board and other bodies of EFNMS. This year’s OMO will be devoted to the great jubilee celebration, but will continue to deal with its basic topics: asset management; technical systems maintenance management, as well as the maintenance of other assets.

It is realized through the presentation of papers, panel discussions and roundtables with the participation of eminent experts from the scientific and expert community. The aim of this gathering is to acquaint the public with the concepts, needs, actions taken, results achieved in this area in the past year, as well as with the possibilities and prospects of development or, if it does not sound clumsy - sustainable maintenance.

At the initiative of the signatory to the editorial, under OMO 2015 a special emphasis will be given to technologies for reverse engineering and rapid prototyping.

Application of the technologies for reverse engineering and rapid prototyping is becoming increasingly important in the maintenance of machinery and equipment. Often need to urgently produce a damaged or worn out part of a machine or part of the equipment that has no spare parts, documentation or CAD models, imposes the need for the application of reverse engineering as a highly effective and useable technology. As a rule, reverse engineering is followed by the application of technology for the rapid design of prototypes. Special place within this tehnology belongs to rapid design of functional prototipes, ie to those procedures which enable the production of parts of parts capable, at least, to temporarily perform their function. Each product, machinery, equipment or device, in the life cycle pass through the phase of conceiving, designProf. dr Dragan Milutinović ing, constructing, construction (development) and maintenance.

The need for quick responses to all the tougher competition requirements imposed development of the new technologies such as simultaneous or concurrent engineering that in a parallel manner comprise aforementioned stages in the product development which, as in conventional cases, are considered for direct engineering. A part od the CAD / CAM, rapid prototyping technology makes the backbone of concurrent engineering as well.

Problems that can occur in machinery and equipment maintenance, which technologies of reverse engineering and rapid prototyping of functional prototypes could efficiently solve, may be briefly summarized as follows: (i) an urgent need for a spare part or its reparation; (ii) the original documentation of the part is unavailable; (iii) the manufacturer has suspended production of its products, as well as spare parts for maintenance. Application of reverse engineering its important role gets right through the maintenance of machinery and equipment.

Machinery and equipment must constantly be in operation because every hour lost due to their dismissal is a waste of money and delays in the schedule. Many problems related to the maintenance of machinery and equipment in their working condition can be handled using the technology of reverse engineering and rapid production of functional prototypes.

In this editorial, I put emphasis on the application of reverse engineering, which will be one of the major themes of the upcoming OMO 2015 gathering. Bearing in mind that OMO 2015 will present the results of the ongoing and completed projects in the domestic economy, scientific institutions and public companies, as well as knowledge, methods and techniques and standards that contribute to or which may contribute to the improvement in this area, it is my pleasure to invite you to submit your copyright papaers and take part in this scientific gathering.

Prof. dr Dragan Milutinović, Guest editorialist Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Belgrade, University of Belgrade Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1

Original Scientific Paper

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7566

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 307, 1 - 10

TRANSITION TO «GREEN» ECONOMY IN RUSSIA: CURRENT AND LONG-TERM CHALLENGES Irina Makarova* Kazan Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Rifat Khabibullin Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Gennady Mavrin Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Dmitry Zhdanov Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Vadim Mavrin Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Eduard Belyaev Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Ilnar Suleymanov Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia Nowadays, many believe that there is no way to ecological stability other than transition to «environmentally oriented economy». In urban areas, the main sources of pollutants are industrial enterprises and automobile transport. To reduce the adverse environmental impacts one needs special methods of air quality control. Specifically, research in this field is aimed at developing of control systems for the city transport in order to predict the environmental response to changing traffic parameters and take appropriate measures to improve the situation. In this work it is demonstrated how the method of transport system control, based on simulation modeling, has been implemented. The optimization experiment has been performed on a simulation model adjusting the parameters of parts of a city road network for adequate decision making. Model experimenting has made it possible to establish the optimal traffic density and average current rates, without exceeding the pollution quotas, and calculate the consequences of changing in the number of vehicle car fleet on city roads. The experiment was carried out in the city of Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia.

Key words: Air, Road transport, Intensity, Maximum allowable concentration, Motorway INTRODUCTION Notwithstanding the benefits of recent technological and industrial advances, it has been increasingly emphasized that the ever growing volumes of mined and digested mineral resources promote the environment pollution, which has become a global challenge.

Although all working under the premise that “green” economy is to be low-carbon, efficient in resource utilization, and socially inclusive, the European states have different priorities. Thus, while the EEA states focus on sustainable consumption and production (SCP), and innovation, the priorities of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Russia are management development and power production [03].

The quality of management is all-important and has been extensively researched because it affects the stability of systems, notwithstanding their size or parameters, but mostly the major systems such as organizational, technical and social-economic ones.

Although being based on different methods, good management of today has opted for simulation.

The decision-making process incorporates numerous internal parameters and subsystems, as well as external impacts of which many are stochastic and processing of much information by using sophisticated algorithms. Moreover, since processes in large systems are long in time, they cannot be examined under actual conditions. The quality of decisions depends on both

* Kazan Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia, Kazan 420008, 18 Kremlyovskaya St.; kamivm@mail.ru

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Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

the quality of initial information and adequacy of algorithms for its interpretation, and is controlled by consistency in behaviour of modeled and real processes.

Transition to “green” economy is unique for each country, being affected by various interrelated factors. However, the main trends and challenges have been shaped by global processes and are relevant for both developed and developing countries. One of those is urbanization, which is an objective process triggered by social demands, modes of production, and character of the social system. As a consequence, a precipitous growth of urban population, especially in recent decades, has depleted the reproductive capacity of the environment in major cities.

Urban growth transforms the landscape, land and water resources; massive industrial and communal waste affects the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The urbanized mankind is faced with vulnerability of urban systems, migration and concentration of population, low quality of habitat, loss of fertile land, and necessity of waste disposal. A large city modifies almost all components of natural environment - the atmosphere, vegetation, soil, topography, drainage, ground water, soil, and even the climate.

Among the most environment-offending industries are nonferrous and ferrous metallurgy, chemical, petrochemical, woodworking, and pulp and paper production. Much has been said about the deplorable state of the environment on areas accommodating industrial enterprises emitting into the atmosphere such toxic substances as benzopyrene, different hydrocarbons, phenols, and heavy metals.

In large cities, a significant contribution to atmospheric pollution with sulphur dioxide, nitrogen and carbon oxides, and industrial dust comes from the motor transport. As stated in a report of the World Health Organization on traffic security, by promoting transfer of goods and people, road transportation benefits both countries and individuals. It facilitates access to workplaces, economic markets, education, recreation and entertainment centers, and also health services which, in turn, positively affects the public health, both directly and indirectly. Nevertheless, growing motor traffic inevitably affects the human health by causing road and transport traumatism, respiratory diseases and diseases caused by physical inactivity.

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Other harmful economic, social and ecological consequences of motor transportation include air pollution, emission of hotbed gases, consumption of nonrestorable resources, household inconveniences caused by adjacent highways, and noise. [02] Engine exhaust gas also contains much lead and ozone adversely affecting the health of urban residents. For instance, sulfur dioxide damages the respiratory system, causing coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, and airway constriction. Engine exhaust contributes to increasing of lead concentration in atmosphere, proportionally to traffic intensity. Lead gets into surface and ground water. From soil it is actively accumulated by vegetation so that its contents in roadside plants are 100 times higher than that in plants growing on relatively unpolluted areas. Such plants may be poisonous if used as food.

Another urban problem is degradation of green space caused by air pollution. In Moscow, about 20% of trees and shrubs are damaged by chlorosis and necrosis. Sound pollution in cities is promoted by ever increasing road traffic, particularly in narrow streets, and inadequate amenities in isolated residential districts and squares.

Says Vladimir Drobnyak, ECOSOC (Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Urbanization) Vice-President in follow-up to the meeting of the Segment of Integration of Economic and Social Council on 27-29 May 2014 [01]: “Cities are emerging as a leading force in mainstreaming environmental responsibility and combating climate change through integrating green technologies in sustainable infrastructure, reducing the carbon footprint of urban metropolises through innovative measures of reducing pollution and generating innovative solutions to reduce energy consumption. Adopting modes of public transportation that utilize alternative sources of energy such as electricity, utilizing biowaste in heating systems of municipal buildings, applying off-grid renewable energy systems such as solar energy panels, or integrating information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the management of traffic congestion are examples of innovative solutions that can aid in the effort to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing environmental resiliency of cities [01] ”.

Considering the public concern regarding the sustainability of urban territories and increasing human migration to cities worldwide, there has Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

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been developed a project concept of a system of city management taking into account both the mobility needs of population and environmental factors [06].

MANAGEMENT OF TRAFFIC INFRASTRUCTURE The stability of traffic infrastructure in metropolitan cities depends on the performance of its subsystems, including the reliability of communication therein, which in turn largely depends on management efficiency. Nowadays, controlling of large systems is supported by special decision-making arrangements, expert systems and information management systems. These systems assist in tackling of both strategic and tactical tasks. By wisely addressing these issues a city may more successfully deal with its economic and social problems by improving the

transport service for the population and reducing the negative impact of the transport complex on the environment.

Since the quality of decisions in large systems depends on the quality of information, its adequate analysis, and efficient analytical tools for large data arrays, it needs Decision Support Systems (DSS) combining the features and capabilities of information and database management systems. In DSS, analysis and selection of recommendations ensue as a result of information search, data mining and retrieval from databases, reasoning based on precedents, simulation modeling, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms, neural networks, situational analysis, cognitive modeling, etc. If a DSS incorporates artificial intelligence techniques, it is called an intellectual DSS. A conceptual diagram of a DSS is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The conceptual scheme of DSS

The DSS are designed to suit both the tasks to be solved, the available data, information and knowledge, and also the system users. There are three main parts in a DSS: 1. Data system for collection and storage of information obtained from internal and external sources.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

2. A dialogue system permitting the user to specify the desired data and select a pathway for their treatment.

3. A system of models incorporating ideas, algorithms and procedures for data processing and analysis. When selecting data, the user is based on his/her experience, knowledge 3

Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

of the situation and their own needs. Data processing incorporates different procedures ranging from simple summation to statistical analysis and nonlinear optimization.

In designing of a DSS, focus is made on its intellectual core, i.e. the simulation model. It is simulation modeling that makes possible qualitative analysis of processes, to explore the effects of any changes and select a variant satisfying all the set limits, and obtain optimal parameters. [05] The software, developed for these purposes, enables one to construct models that reflect real-life processes whereupon to conduct virtual experiments specifying the model time. The process can be researched both in a single test and in a number of tests allowing selecting the optimal process parameters. The results will depend on their random nature.

The effect here is threefold. Economy-wise, the intelligent transport systems will assist in diminishing of transportation costs owing to optimized traffic routes and better utilization of vehicles. The environmental effect consists in reducing of pollution. Social improvements will be represented by better air quality and diminished rates of respiratory diseases.

MANAGEMENT OF VEHICLE FLEET Since optimization for the transport system can be achieved in two ways, i.e. by regulating the traffic current density and making vehicles more environmentally friendly, relevant research is being conducted in two directions. Thus, traffic can be controlled by resorting to fiscal measures, such as banning on entrance to busy areas, traffic control, etc, and also through a more efficient use of the road network capacity, in other words, by increasing the occupancy rate of vehicles, encouraging the use of more capacious vehicles, and total renovating of the vehicle fleet.

Statistic analysis has revealed that large car parks are more responsible for the environment pollution than personal vehicles due to greater annual mileage of the former. While a personal car runs about 12000 miles/year, an average motor van may run as many as 23000 miles/year [10]. In this work, to demonstrate the potential benefits from transport fleet management, we decided to analyze the subsystem of public passenger vehicles from car parks (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Management methods of vehicles fleet

Firstly, because replacement of vehicles in car parks occurs more often than with individual owners. Besides, park owners are easier motivated to use cars more efficiently.

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DATA MANAGEMENT IN A DECISION-MAKING SUPPORT SYSTEM Since decisions are made proceeding from real data about an object, both analysis and ensuing strategic decisions require aggregated information stored in a specially created Data Warehouse Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

(DW). The role of DW consists in integrating, updating and coordinating of operational information from dissimilar sources in order to form a consistent view on the object in whole. Data

Warehouses contain information collected from several operative databases of On-Line Transaction Processing systems (OLTP) (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Presentation of data in the form of OLAP-cube a) dimension “transport type”, b) measurement “time of day”

A multidimensional intellectual data model is installed in the traffic control centre for collecting, storing and formalizing of road network parameters.

The analytical cube has the following parameters: 1. Model, make and type of a car engine.

2. Season of the year.

3. Time of the day.

4. Average useful life of passing cars.

5. Traffic intensity.

6. Movement direction.

7. Average speed of traffic current.

8. Length of traffic jams and number of stops for public transport.

9. Total number of cars passing per hour.

10.Value of emissions to atmosphere (CO, NOx, etc.).

11. Number of road accidents during the observation period.

For correct simulation of real-life situations it is necessary to have immediate information coming to the Control Centre in the real-time mode from different sources, such as servers of municipal enterprises and units for on-line monitoring of road situations (GPS/GLONASS systems).

The operation algorithm includes: 1. Data acquisition in the form of a flat chart or results of SQL inquiry.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

2. Data caching and conversion to a multidimensional cube.

3. Imaging of the constructed cube by means of a cross chart or diagrams, etc.

In general, one cube may be connected to an arbitrary amount of mappings.

The advantage of this technology lies in the fact that applications for the multidimensional analysis meet the requirements of the so-called FASMI test (Fast Analysis of Shared Multidimensional Information) including the following parameters: I. Fast, i.e. fast response of the system (not more than 5 seconds), II. Analysis - full-functional analysis achieved in the most convenient way, III. Shared - multiuser access, protection of information, etc., IV. Multidimensional – a multidimensional conceptual data presentation as cubes with hierarchical measurements, V. Information – access to data in required volume, wherever it is necessary.

Storing of information as an OLAP cube and its subsequent processing allows estimating more accurately the dynamics of street network parameters (number of vehicles, road section, season of the year, average speed, availability of traffic lights, etc.). Packages of formalized data are continuously transferred to the simulation system for changing of model parameters. By analyzing the information of city transport sys5

Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

tem parameters varying within a day, day of the week, and month of the year, one can predict similar road situations. Furthermore, modeling of workarounds with changing system parameters facilitates selecting of the optimal ones and building a knowledge base of best solutions at established traffic and environment parameters. Such databases are used for on-line making of management decisions in the case of emergency.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Monitoring of urban airshed In the city of Naberezhnye Chelny, Russia, motor vehicles are the main pollutants of the environment, all major stationary sources of pollution being located outside or along the city boundary.

Spatial planning of the city was performed with respect to the natural landscape: the city faces the expanses of the Nizhnekamsk water storage basin, the Shelninsky Bay, and forests on their shores. The city planning pattern represents an open linear structure and land use of the “classical” type, with parallel locating of industrial, residential, and suburban recreation areas. The transport frame of the city is made up by longitudinal highways connecting the residential areas, so that the road and street network is rectangular. The biggest longitudinal thoroughfare incorporates Musa Jalil, Naberezhnjchelninsky, and Mira Avenues (Figure 4). [13]

Figure 4: Plan-scheme of the location of points of the control of atmospheric air within the sanitation gap road in Naberezhnye Chelny

In order to determine the level of atmospheric pollution and the major offending sites in Naberezhnye Chelny, we calculated vehicles emissions by using the known methods.[08; 26; 27].

These consisted in calculating of the traffic intensity during one year through field surveying on 6

the highways. As a result, there were examined the traffic currents on 43 highways with 154 protocols of vehicle current composition and intensity drawn for each highway section.[08; 04; 09] Analysis of the protocol data has revealed that vehicles in residential areas are mostly represented by passenger cars (85-95%), whereas the share of freight transport does not exceed 3-4 %.

On industrial areas and roads of federal and republican importance, the share of freight transport in the traffic may achieve 10-20 %. Accordingly, the passenger cars contribution to the total traffic intensity is 60-80%.

According to the result of field surveying of the structure and intensity of transport current, the load on the city highways is unbalanced, with peaks of intensity at different motorways varying within a day.

For the industrial zone, the traffic current is the most intensive between 6:30 and 8:00 am and 04:30 to 06:00 pm, that is, before the workday and soon after it is over. During the rest of the day, the highways are loaded but slightly. The same traffic intensity was observed in the direction of the industrial area (Vahitovskiy, Avtozavodskoy, and Druzhby Narodov avenues, and Koroleva St.).

Having analyzed the road layout, the purpose of motor roads, and information about the traffic load, we selected the following 5 road portions for instrumental measurement of ambient air pollution on the following roadside clear zones: 1) Orlovskoe Koltso (part of M-7 federal highway, site №1).

2) Naberezhnochelninskiy avenue (at its junction with Akademika Koroleva St., site №2).

3) Mira Avenue (to the junction with Vakhitova Avenue, site №3).

4) Adelya Kutuya Street (Yashlek housing estate, site №4).

5) Naberezhnaya G. Tukaya (opposite the apartment block No 10/64, site №5) Sampling of atmospheric air was carried out in the immediate vicinity of roads, mainly from downwind, during the morning and evening rush hours and, on the Orlovskoe Koltso, during the lunch time.

For each site there were obtained 2 duplicate samples, so that the total number of samples was 600. Both the initial working solutions (600) and 300 blank solutions were prepared for analysis Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

at a chromatograph with a photoionization detector and photometer. Analysis for the presence of carbon monoxide has required the obtaining and processing of more than 300 chromatograms.

According to the findings of instrumental measurement, the following dependencies were established:

1) Traffic intensity vs pollutant concentration (Figure 5); 2) Atmospheric air temperature vs pollutant concentration (Figure 6); 3) Wind speed vs pollutant concentration (Figure 7).

Figure 5: The dependence of the coefficient of concentration on the intensity of the movement

It should be noted that relationships with a correlation coefficient of 0.74 and higher were obtained for concentration coefficients from 0.3 upwards for nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide, and were found to depend on

transport intensity and air temperature (Figure 5). Moreover, at regularly high C/ACLms values there was observed a noticeable correlation between the wind speed and nitrogen and carbon oxide concentrations.

Figure 6: The dependence of the concentration coefficient on temperature of air

Figure 7: The dependence of the concentration coefficient on the wind speed Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

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Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

Systematization of the results of instrumental measurements, taking into account the wind direction on urban areas, has proved impossible due to volatility of wind direction.

Simulation modeling of the city transport system Using the maps of pollutant dispersion from stationary sources, derived as a result of field observations, we highlighted the problem areas, one of which is a complex junction formed by intersecting Mira, Druzhba Narodov and Syuyumbike Avenues (Figure 8).

For more detailed analysis of the area, we constructed a simulation model using the AnyLogic software (Russia). The following factors were taken into account: I. Geometry of the road network portion; II. Traffic density; III. Intensity of pedestrian traffic along traffic lanes; IV. Pollutants actually emitted by motor vehicles and emission quotas; V. Modes of traffic lights operation at road portions preceding and following the portion being analyzed.

A constraint for the model was the value of the emission quota that was not to be exceeded: (1)

Figure 8: Decoupling scheme simulated road network

A structural scheme of the model of traffic current organization is presented in Figure 9. The scheme draws on both the road library items (Road Network, Car Source, Car Dispose, CarMoveTo) and the main library items (Hold, Delay Queue, SelectOutput).

Figure 9: Circuit model of the organization of traffic on the site

The vehicles behaviour on the road was modeled using a Java class â&#x20AC;&#x153;Carâ&#x20AC;?.

The Road Network block assigns the maximum speed of vehicles, swivel and U-turn speed, maximum and minimum distance to the vehicle in front, and the distance and time to for warning of rearrangement. Another parameter taken 8

into account is gear changing at different road segments. It is estimated by assigning a speed value in the Car Move To block. Transport current is generated using Car Source blocks.

In the model, cars are moving in keeping with movement parameters set in Car Move To blocks. Distributing of the traffic in different diJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

rections occurs in Select Output blocks. Queue modeling at traffic lights, crossroads and U-turns is performed using Queue blocks. Hold blocks simulate the operation of traffic lights and traffic control at road curves and U-turns. The motion of public transport is simulated by Delay blocks specifying delays at bus stops. Traffic lights and traffic motion at U-turns are controlled using state diagrams.

OPTIMIZATION EXPERIMENTS IN THE MODEL Simulation of traffic parameters established as a result of field observations has made it clear that congested traffic produces carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide by far exceeding the ACL levels (Figure 10). The optimization experiment on a

simulation model was carried out using an OptQuest device and metaheuristic methods. At the first stage of the experiment, we determined the optimal parameters for the traffic current, such as density, intensity and speed, falling within the quota for pollutant emissions (Figure 11).

Representing a confluence of two main city avenues, the site in question accommodates several public transport routes connecting the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s newer and older parts. Therefore optimizing of the traffic current parameters should primarily involve improving of the route network. Another approach consists in using of buses with greater capacity, which will both diminish the traffic current density and reduce emissions of harmful substances. Similar methods are described in works. [07, 11, 12]

Figure 10: The view of the simulation model of the considered section of the road network

Figure 11: Optimization experiment

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

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Irina Makarova - Transition to <<green>> economy in Russia: current and long term challenges

At the second stage of optimization experiment there were determined the vehicular emissions.

While preserving the original parameters, we replaced a part of the public transport with more environmentally friendly vehicles. This considerably reduced the volumes of emitted pollutants.

CONCLUSION The proposed solution for improving the quality of ambient air in urban areas is based on optimization of a city transport system parameters.

This was achieved by via simulation modeling taking into account a large number of parameters, both within and outside the system, many of the latter being stochastic. The model has been tested using the simulation model analysis of part of a road network and comparing the results with real system parameters. The recommendations include rearranging of the public transport routes and changing over to vehicles running on gas motor fuel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was funded by the subsidy allocated to Kazan Federal University for the project part of the state assignment in the sphere of scientific activities.

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2) Global Status Report On Road Safety. Time For Action. World Health Organization. 2009, 287.

3) Horton, B.; Ulrich Speck, S. Green Economy.

Europe’s environment: An Assessment of Assessments; Publication Ofiice of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2011; 92-138.

4) Hygienic requirements for air quality residential areas. Sanitary - epidemiological rules and norms. SanPin 2.1.6.98300; Russian Ministry of Health: Moscow, 2000; 47.

5) Makarova, I.; Khabibullin, R.; Belyaev, E.; Zhdanov, D. Intellectualization of transport

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systems for the benefit of safety and the sustainable development of territories. Journal of International Scientific Publications: Ecology&Safety. 2013, 7(3), 189-199.

6) Molina, Mario J.; Molina, Luisa T. Megacities and Atmospheric Pollution. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 2004, 54(6), 644-680.

7) Naoto, M.; Watanabe, T.; Feng, J. Route Optimization Using Q-Learning for On-Demand Bus Systems. Knowledge-Based Intelligent Information and Engineering Systems. 2008, 5178, 567-574.

8) OND-86. Method of calculating the concentrations in the air of harmful substances contained in industrial emissions; Gidrometeoizdat: Leningrad, 1987; 35.

9) Petruhin, V.; Vazhensky, V.; Donchenko, V. Pollution of urban atmosphere by vehicles and environmental risks to public health: methodology and experience ratings / Transport: science, technology, management.

1996, 9. 33-35.

10) Reich, Alicia A. Transportation Efficiency.

Strategic Planning for Energy and the Environment. 2012, 32(2), 32-43.

11) Saharidis, G.K.D.; Dimitropoulos, C.; Skordilis, E. Minimizing waiting times at transitional nodes for public bus transportation in Greece. An International Journal “Operational Research”. 2013, 14(3), 341-359.

12) Shimamoto, H.; Murayama, N.; Fujiwara, A. Evaluation of an existing bus network using a transit network optimisation model: a case study of the Hiroshima City Bus network.

Transportation. J. 2010, 37(5). 801–823.

13) The general plan of the city of Naberezhnye Chelny: Materials on the study of the project.

Explanatory note. Tatinvestgrazhdanproekt: Kazan, 2009, 140.

Paper sent to revision: 19.01.2015.

Paper ready for publication: 09.03.2015.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 307

Original Scientific Paper

doi:10.5937/jaes13-6553

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 308, 11 - 18

POSSIBLE RAPID METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF CONCRETE’S FROST RESISTANCE Dr Sergey Nikolskiy* Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia Dr Nikolay Vatin Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia Olga Pertseva Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, Saint Petersburg, Russia During this research, the theoretical analysis of dependence concrete’s frost resistance of sample and energy, which is emitted by a sample at destruction, was carried out. The offered method includes measurement of residual deformation of a sample after the one cycle of freezing defrosting, measurement of long strength and measurement of short-term strength. Frost resistance of a sample is as the mathematical relation of these energies, and the frost resistance of concrete is calculated as arithmetic mean on samples. The offered method doesn’t demand long tests, it’s high efficiency and wide scope, but special laboratory equipment is necessary.

Key words: Frost resistance, concrete, Dilatometric method, Non-destructive loading, Acoustic issue INTRODUCTION For determining the concrete mix composition it is necessary to take into account frost resistance. Frost resistance of concrete is ability of water-saturated concrete sample to maintain repeated standard thermo cycles without noticeable damage.

If filling concrete’s pores water turn into ice, it will increase in volume and cause concrete’s micro cracks. When number of cycle freezing-defrosting increases, damages of concrete are collected, and its durability decreases [24, 25]. Also different types of water pressure cause concrete’s frost deterioration, such as hydraulic and osmotic pressure [37], capillary pressure [12] and other types of water influence according to existing theory of frost resistance [18]. Decreasing strenght of construction material is associated with the processes of its water freezing (for example, rock [24, 22]). Water gets into structure of porous bodies, separates particles and breaks coupling between them [11]. Porosity of material is determinative factor for frost resistance and durability subsequently [38, 39]. So, strength of concrete could be pictured as a porosity function [23].

Of course, at the present time analytical [45] or computational methods allow to simulate concrete behavior under service conditions and estimate durability of material [10], but every research need to be proven by testing nature sam-

ples [43] and good data base [44]. In worldwide experience there are some test methods to determine durability of concrete by frost damage, such as Slab test For determining the concrete mix composition it is necessary to take into account frost resistance [40], CDF [36], CIF-Test [35] and Cube-Test [10]. These test methods contain follow steps: curing and preparing the samples, pre-saturation samples and thermo cycling of them. The test liquid simulates a deicing agent and contains 3 % by weight of NaCl and 97 % by weight of (demineralized) water in case of the test of the freeze-thaw and deicing salt resistance and demineralized water to test the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete respectively. Scaling of the samples is measured after a well defined number of freeze-thaw cycles and leads to an estimate of the resistance of the tested concrete against frost damage. The test methods differ however in their procedures and conditions. So at CIF test contain determination of internal damage by measuring of the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity (to take into account ultrasonic transit time) [16]. Also there are some models of labor concrete damage due to cyclic freezing and thawing, for example interaction of load and freeze-thaw cycles with chloride exposure regime on surface scaling process of concrete and the internal cracking process [23].

There are two different standard types of methods of determination concrete’s frost resistance

* St.Petersburg State Polytechnical University, Politekhnicheskayaul, 29,195251, Saint-Petersburg, Russia; big_panda16@mail.ru

11

Dr Sergey Nikolskiy - Possible rapid method for the determination of concrete’s frost resistance

- basic and rapid in Russian Federation.

Basic methods [19] include production and test of samples by series. Further, all samples have been sated by water and part of samples have been alternated repeating freezing and defrosting. After that all samples have been destroyed by compression. For comparison of average values of strength, both types of samples are taken: tested with freezing defrosting, and not. The next step is to define relative decreasing in strength of material under different number of term cycles. Concrete’s frost resistance is defined by number of thermo cycles, which necessary for decreasing in strength in limits, stipulated by the standard [51-55].

During estimation of concrete’s frost resistance considerable random dispersion of values of concrete strength (variation coefficient ρ = 15 …

20%) [16] under invariable conditions of production and tests of samples gives rise to a wide scatter of average values of strength and demands large volume test (quantity of test pieces 25 … 50) as proof that relative decreasing in strength of ∆R/R = 0,05 … 0,15 as a result of freezing defrosting.

Therefore, the basic methods have two main weaknesses: high labour input and small operability. Determination of frost resistance by basic methods takes big time intervals (from 1 to 6 months), so the rapid methods are necessary.

One of the existing rapid methods is a “Dilatometric rapid method for the determination of frost resistance” [19]. This method is a prototype for method, which has been offered by me. Dilatometric rapid method for the determination of frost resistance includes production of concrete samples, measurement of samples, determination of initial volume, saturation of samples by water, simultaneous freezing of each sample sated with water and a standard sample in the dilatometer up to the standard temperature and measurement thus differences of values of volume deformations of the concrete and standard samples (relative changing of volume). Concrete’s frost resistance is established by the maximum relative difference of volume deformations of the concrete and standard samples in accordance with tables provided in standard specification [19] taking into account a type of concrete, a form and the size of samples [03-08].

However, the results from tables provided in state standard specification are acceptable only 12

for concrete on a Portland cement and slag Portland cement without surface-active additives (PEAHENS), such concretes are used extremely seldom now. Now lot of new concretes are investigated [47], tested and used, for example, nanomodificated concete [21, 44], high-strength concrete [22,33], concrete on the basis of finegrained dry powder mixes [17], silica particles [48], concrete with using recycling concrete aggregates [17] etc. For obtaining of new tables long labour-consuming experiences with using basic methods are needed [13,14,15].

Task of project is expansion of methods for rapid definition of concrete’s frost resistance, decreasing labour input and increasing operability. Also cost of testing is one of the most important problems in our day [46], but it’s not purpose of existing manuscript.

OFFERED METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF CONCRETE’S FROST RESISTANCE Suppositive solution belongs to test methods of porous water-saturated bodies and is intended for definition of brand of concrete on frost resistance. That is number of standard cycles of freezing defrosting (for example, from +20 to 18±2˚С for 4 hours), necessary for decreasing in strength of samples sated with water, at a size stipulated by the standard specification, in particular, for 5 or 15%, i.e. relative decreasing in strength of ∆R/R = 0,05 … 0,15.

Sample’s long-time strength in the conditions of stretching correspond irreversible development of cracks in a concrete sample. Definition of relative tension set and long-time strength of a sample of a sample allows estimating the energy disseminated on processes destructions per unit of volume of material in the course of freezingdefrosting as per formula: Wtc=θrel Rlt

(1)

where: Wtc – the energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of freezing-defrosting; Θrel - relative tension set of a sample; Rlt - sample’s long-time strength in the conditions of stretching; Rlt is calculated by corresponding to it greatest nondestructive loading in the conditions of stretching L0, which is determined by experiment. Longevity of concrete takes infinite value without outreaching L0.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 308

Dr Sergey Nikolskiy - Possible rapid method for the determination of concrete’s frost resistance

In our time concept of greatest nondestructive loading L0 is usefully employed for express-monitoring different kinds of long resistance, such as durability (mechanical and exegetical), remaining life of product, longevity [29], frost resistance [02, 03, 35], cracking resistance, erosion behaviour [30], corrosion [07] and time-dependent deformation [08].

In time of freezing development of concrete’s damages is explained of subcritical cracks growth. In the brittle solids cracks begin to take off by shearing action [29], also speed of them development is no more than 10-4 m/s [33, 34].

Therefore in conditions of freezing water filled crack in concrete capture of the nearby closed pores. It stabilize pressure in the water filled crack about the value causing in a material stretching tension, equal to long-time strength of a sample in the conditions of stretching.

If temperature body change since 78 K to 1493 K and loading is like describing earlier, value L0 shifts inside of deviation determination of it, i.e.

1÷3% [30]. This fact permit to use value L0 received at a low temperature, when energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of freezing-defrosting is established.

Sample’s loading in the conditions of monoaxial compression to extreme loading, registration these values of axial loading and axial strain, corresponding to loads, allows to calculate energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of its compression to extreme loading by numerical integration of dependence of axial loading from axial strain.. Value of the energy disseminated in unit of volume of a sample in the course of its compression to extreme loading, in proportion to a square of short-term strength [01]: Wcom=αR

(2)

where: Wcom – the energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of its compression to extreme loading; R – short-term strength; α – proportionality coefficient.

The logarithmation of expression (2) and the subsequent differentiation introduce the dependence between relative decreasing in the energy disseminated per unit of volume of a sample in the course of its compression to extreme loading and relative decreasing in short-term strength: Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 308

ΔW/Wcom =2 ∆R/R

(3)

where: ∆W – absolutely changing of energy disseminated in unit of volume of a sample in the course of its compression; ∆R – absolutely changing of short-term strength; The formula (3) allows to pass from relative decreasing in short-term strength allowed by the standard for concrete to admissible for a studied sample to relative decreasing in the energy [∆W] disseminated per unit of volume of a sample: ∆W=2Wcom [∆R/R]

(4)

where: [∆W] - standard absolutely changing of energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of its compression to extreme loading.

Thus, frost resistance as number of freezing defrosting will defined by the relation between admissible absolute changing of the energy per unit of volume of a sample disseminated in the course of compression and energy per unit of sample ‘s volume disseminated in the course of freezing defrosting, i.e. as per formula: Fsam= [∆W]/Wtc

(5)

where: Fsam – concrete sample’s frost resistance; REALIZATION OF OFFERED METHOD This way is realized as follows. First of all is making samples in the form of cylinders or cubes with an edge of 10 sm. from concrete mix of demanded structure. After curing samples are sated with water, measured. Further greatest non-destructive loading of L0 is defined for each sample by a nondestructive testing, for example a method of acoustic emission [30, 31]. Without outreaching L0 a sample’s crack doesn’t develop yet in the conditions of stretching. Expedient stretching tension in cylinders or cubes is created compression of them on lines of contact of cylinders with the plane (splitting). If L0 is determined, it is possible to calculate a limit of long durability for the tested sample: Rlt=2L0/πS

(6)

13

Dr Sergey Nikolskiy - Possible rapid method for the determination of concrete’s frost resistance

where: S–area of section of a sample, perpendicular compression planes; L0–the greatest nondestructive loading of a sample in the conditions of stretching.

After sample’s freezing-defrosting up to the standard temperatures and definition of relative tension set of a sample it’s possible to calculate the energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of its freezing defrosting as per formula (1).

Further, a sample is squeezed in the conditions of monoaxial compression to extreme loading, and the current values of axial loading and relative tension set of a sample corresponding to them are registered. Numerical integration of dependence of axial loading from absolute relative tension set of a sample and distribution of its result on the volume of a sample allows calculating the energy per unit of volume of a material disseminated before achievement of extreme loading. Frost resistance for a concrete sample Fsam is calculated by the received results as per formula: Fsam=2[ΔR/R]∙Wcom/Wtc

(7)

where: Concrete’s frost resistance is found as an average of values of frost resistance for samples.

Confidential interval of concrete’s frost resistance is counted on dispersion of values of frost resistance for a series of samples.

In particular, this way was realized on 10 samples cubes, an edge of 10 cm at the age of 88 days made of a concrete mix of such structure: Brand 400-1 portlandtsement weight part, sand – 2 weight parts, granite rubble 5 … 20 mm – 4,5 weight parts, waters – 0,6 weight parts. It is experimentally established in two different ways for this concrete at the age of 88 days that after 105 freezing-defrosting corresponding to brand of this concrete on frost resistance, average relative decreasing in strength makes 0,142 on a way [30] and 0,16 on the basic way [19], that is both values lie within an error of the used ways.

On the average relative decreasing in strength makes 15%.

Samples have been sated with water according to item state standard specification, measured and registered volume. For each sated with water cube splitting according to item value of the 14

greatest nondestructive loading (without which excess of a crack in a sample don’t develop yet is irreversible) were defined. After each test the plane of compression of a sample was changed for the perpendicular plane to previous compression. Definition of the greatest nondestructive loading carried out by means of an acoustic issue way, using the AF-15 AE-complex of Kishenevskiy manufacture. Acoustic sensors with a frequency of 20-200 kHz established on the verge of a sample, parallel to plane of compression.

For creation of axial loading a hydraulic press was used. By received value of the greatest nondestructive loading, corresponding to it value of a sample’s long-time strength in the conditions of stretching was counted. Then average value of a long-time strength was counted too. Results of calculating are given in the table.

The water-saturated samples were placed in the measuring camera of the differential volume dilatometer DOD-100-K, and in its second camera a standard aluminum sample was placed. Both cameras were filled with kerosene and pressurized. The dilatometer with samples was installed in the freezer and after 30 min. endurance freezing with a speed 0,3˚C/mines before achievement of temperature (-18±2) ˚С was began.

According to the dependency diagrams of differences, relative volume tension set of a concrete and aluminum sample was calculated. Energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of its freezing-defrosting as per formula (1) for each sample.

Further average value of sample’s long-time strength in the conditions of stretching was defined as arithmetic average Rlt values long-time strength in the conditions of stretching.

Axial compression of samples by splitting [52] with a speed of 400 kg/sec. carried out on the hydraulic press equipped with the graph plotter of dependence of axial loading from axial strain.

Values on a dynamometer are determined by the location of the conducted and conducting arrows being part of the closed electronic chain with a control bulb. Removal of sample’s loading was begun on a signal of the control bulb, which is switched off by electro contacts on a conducted and conducting arrow of a dynamometer. The conducted arrow of a dynamometer press registered value of the maximum loading. By the dependence received on the graph plotter the area under it was determined, i.e. received the Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 308

Dr Sergey Nikolskiy - Possible rapid method for the determination of concrete’s frost resistance

energy disseminated per volume of a sample in the course of its compression to extreme loading.

The energy per unit of sample’s volume disseminated in the course of its compression to extreme loading, was received as per formula (8): (8)

Wcom=W/V

where: W-energy disseminated of sample in the course of its compression to extreme loading; V-sample’s volume.

Then for each sample brand of a concrete sample on frost resistance was counted (Table 1) as number of freezing defrosting necessary for decrease in its strength for 15% on as per formula (7).

Further, an average for values of the F15i, and an average square deviation of results of experience were calculated: (9) where: S – an average square deviation of results of experience; F15i- the value concrete i-sample on frost resistance at decreasing sample’s short-term strength in the conditions of compression for 15%, received by the offered way; where i is changed since 1 to 10;

(F15 ) – concrete’s frost resistance, equal to arithmetic-mean value of frost resistance for series of concrete samples at decreasing theirs shortterm strength in the conditions of compression for 15%.

The average square deviation of F15i values was equal 16. Taking into account it, a divergence of average value of frost resistance of concrete is take on 99,7 and the earlier experimentally found number of cycles 105 (F15 brand) necessary for decreasing R for 15%, it is possible to consider casual, and the offered way is correct.

SUMMARY The offered way expands a list of technical means for the rapid definition of concrete’s frost resistance. Duration of determination of frost resistance is caused by the time of sample’s water saturation (4 days according to standard specification [19]). In our time, there is existing pending patent application for offered way. Detailed researches and pilot studies are necessary to get more data that are experimental and create new method of determination of frost resistance in future.

Table 1: Definition type concrete’s frost resistance as per offered method

№

Rlt MPa

Θten•104

Wtc•104 MPa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average

1,5 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,9 3,1 2,15

2,7 3,1 1,8 2,6 2,5 1,9 2,6 2,1 1,8 1,5 2,1

4,05 5,27 3,24 4,90 5,00 4,00 5,72 4,83 5,22 4,65 4,69

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 308

Wcom •10, MPa 0,9990 1,7215 1,2312 1,6796 1,4333 1,4364 2,2308 1,3846 1,6008 1,8600 1,5577

[∆W] •102 , MPa 2,997 5,165 3,694 5,039 4,300 4,309 6,692 4,154 4,802 0,558 -

F15i 74 98 114 102 86 108 117 86 92 120 99,7

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Dr Sergey Nikolskiy - Possible rapid method for the determination of concrete’s frost resistance

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44) Samardzioska, T., Trombeva-Gavriloska, A., Cvetanovski, P., Popovski, D., Partikov, M., (2012): Strengthening and overbuilding of car service «Automakedonija» in Skopje, Makedonija, Journal of Applied Engineering Science, № 1 (10), pp. 53-58 45) Shashank, B. (2004) Strain variations in concrete subjected to cyclic freezing and thawing, Tokyo: Thesis Submitted to University of Tokyo Department of Civil Engineering.

46) Shanshan, J., Jinxi, Z., Baoshan, H. (2013): Fractal analysis of effect of air void on freeze– thaw resistance of concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 47, pp. 126–130.

47) Sprince, A.A, Fischer, G.A., Pakrastinsh, L.A., Korjakins, A.A. (2014): Crack propagation in concrete with silica particles, Advanced Materials Research, 842, pp. 470-476.

48) Sprince, A.A., Pakrastinsh, L.A, Korjakins, A.B. (2011): Experimental study on creep of new concrete mixtures, Civil Engineering 17

Dr Sergey Nikolskiy - Possible rapid method for the determination of concrete’s frost resistance

‘11 - 3rd International Scientific Conference, Proceedings, 3, pp. 20-26.

49) Swedish Standard (2005) Concrete testing – Hardened Concrete-Frost Resistance, SS 137244, Sweden.

50) Toturbiev A.B., Cherkashin V.I., Macapulin V.U., Toturbiev B.D. (2013): Zharostojkij beton na mestnom prirodnom nanodispersnom kremnezemistom syr’e, Beton i Zhelezobeton, No.6, pp. 2-5 51) Vatin N., Nazmeeva T., Guslinscky R. (2014) Problems of cold-bent notched c-shaped profile members. Advanced Materials Research.

Vols. 941-944. pp 1871-1875 52) Vatin N., Havula J., Martikainen L., Sinelnikov A., Orlova A., Salamakhin S. (2014).

Thin-walled cross-sections and their joints:

18

tests and FEM-modelling. Advanced Materials Research Vols. 945-949. pp 1211-1215 53) Vatin V., Nemova D., Kazimirova A., Gureev K. (2014). Increase of energy efficiency of the building of kindergarten. Advanced Materials Research. Vols. 953-954 (2014) pp 1537-1544 54) Vuksanovic, D., Murgul V., Vatin, N., Aronova E. (2014): Shadowing impact on amount of power generated by photovoltaic modules.

Applied Mechanics and Materials. Vols. 587589, pp. 342-347 55) Ulybin, A.V. (2012): On the Choice of Concrete Strength Inspection Methods of Readybuilt Structures, Magazine of Civil Engineering, Vol. 34, No. 8, pp. 42-46 Paper sent to revision: 08.05.2014.

Paper ready for publication: 14.03.2015.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 308

Original Scientific Paper

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7859

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 309, 19 - 24

COMPETITIVE STRATEGY AS INSTRUMENT OF INCREASE OF BUSINESS ACTIVITY OF THE INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISE Dr Aleksandr Sergejevič Ljevčenko* Belgorod State Technological University named after V.G. Shukhov Anatolij Andrejevič Rudičev Belgorod State Technological University named after V.G. Shukhov Irina Anatoljevna Kuznecova Belgorod State Technological University named after V.G. Shukhov Jelena Aleksandrovna Nikitina Belgorod State Technological University named after V.G. Shukhov The achievement of stable economic development of an economic entity and growth of its competitiveness make it necessary to increase the level of its business activity on the basis of improvement of strategic management process. The mechanism of development of the competitive strategy of an economic entity providing transparency and predictability of its activity has been given in this article.

Practical realization of the developed strategy is possible, first of all, due to determining of the priority directions of development of an enterprise on the basis of activization of key subsystems of business activity. It is caused, first of all, by the fact that it is almost impossible to provide simultaneous growth of all components of business activity of an enterprise, despite their close interrelation.

Key Words: competitive strategy, business activity, financial activity, mechanism, indicators of business activity.

INTRODUCTION Relevance of a subject of research is caused by need of economic growth of the enterprise due to increase of its business activity on a basis improvement of strategic management by the managing subject. Development of effective strategy provides transparency and predictability of activity of the industrial enterprise. Set of approaches in definition of financial and economic strategy divides process of strategic planning into system of the interconnected chains of relationships of cause and effect. The system of strategic management is fully reflected in works of foreign and domestic authors. In a key of theoretical and methodological aspects of strategic planning monographs are submitted: I.M. Ansoff, A.M. Gershun, V.A. Goremykin, V.D. Gribov, I.B. Gurkov, Zh.Zh. Lamben, M. H. Meskon, P. M. Senge, A.D. Striklend, A. A. Thompson, F. S. Hedouri. Systemacity of process approach to strategic planning allows to characterize in a complex set of functional strategy of the organization, most to standardize processes of strategic planning at the industrial

enterprises, and also to establish control points on which it is necessary to pay special attention at management of their strategic activity. In turn, strategic management of the industrial enterprise is allocated with the whole complex of the rules characterizing extent of functional development of the organization. The complex of rules of strategic management allows to create sphere of action of functioning of the enterprise of that they carry, as a rule, restrictive and ordering character [1, p. 97].

The key moment at a choice of strategy is the assessment of alternative options. The essence of an assessment consists in choosing such strategy which could increase efficiency of functioning of the enterprise in the future. The choice of strategy has to correspond to the formulated direction of development of the company the Formulation has to be clear and unambiguous as the chosen strategy is capable to limit freedom of work of the top management of management and to have essential impact on all decisions applied by it.

The chosen alternative strategy as a whole has positive impact on increase of business activity of

* Belgorod State Technological University, Belgorod, Kostjukova 46, 308012 Russia aleksandersl.03.03@gmail.com

19

Dr Aleksandr Sergejevič Ljevčenko - Competitive strategy as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise

the managing subject. As a part of business activity as systems can be allocated a number of subsystems, such as: production, economic, financial.

• Production activity is characterized by growth rates of outputs and degrees of utilization of capacity. As a result, one of the important and main indicators considered in dynamics, output is; • Economic activity is a dynamic condition of the economic system, being characterized course of active processes of production on the basis of selection of the best methods, forms and the managing directions, and also search of new technologies, products and ways of the organization of production; • The resulting effect of management of business activity is reflected by the financial activity directed on realization of financial and

economic capacity of the enterprise. Financial activity is a definition of the direction of change of rates of used financial resources for the purpose of efficiency increase under the influence of a complex of purposeful actions for achievement of financial stability of the enterprise. It should be noted that “financial activity” characterizes interrelation in business activity of all subsystems.

Each managing subject not to remain at a former stage of development and in the future not to become a bankrupt, has to aspire constantly to growth of a level of business and find reserves of her increase. From the point of view of function-oriented approach reserves of increase of a level of business can be illustrated visually in the form of the scheme (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Function-oriented approach of systematization of reserves of effective functioning of the managing subject

Indicators which can be used for an assessment of a level of business on a functional sign, are presented in Table 1.

The analysis of the offered system of indicators allows to reveal the main reserves of increase 20

of effective management of the industrial enterprise having direct impact on increase of a level of business of the managing subject as a whole.

The high level of business of the managing subject allows to realize in practice strategic interJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 309

Dr Aleksandr SergejeviÄ? LjevÄ?enko - Competitive strategy as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise

ests for performance of certain results of commercial activity. Business activity is capable to have essential impact on investment appeal of the company, and also on its financial stability.

Change of a level of business depends not only on use of internal reserves (capacity) of the company, but also on environment that has to be considered when planning long-term goals and problems of managing subject and when developing strategy of its further development.

The choice of strategy has to correspond to the formulated direction of development of the company, and the formulation has to be clear and unambiguous as the chosen strategy is capable to limit freedom of work of the top management

of management and to have essential impact on all decisions applied by it.

The essence of realization of the developed strategy consists in understanding of what actions need to be made first of all that strategy functioned in practice and established periods of its execution were observed strictly, and, as a result, positive results were received.

The developed strategy is a basis of ensuring the effective financial activity as which main objective attraction and use of financial resources, coordination of their stream, and also development of sequence of schemes of financing, proceeding from specifics of activity of the managing subject and the factors having on it essential impact acts.

Table 1: The indicators characterizing business activity on a functional sign Gradation

Functions

Function management

Management classification

Reserves on

Planning

Reserves of use of fixed assets and capacities

Indicators uses production potential

-

output of products; material capacity of production; turnover of current assets; work fondovooruzhennost; capital productivity; coefficient of updating of fixed assets.

-

costs of introduction of IT technologies duration of processes of decisionmaking and conclusion of the contract for delivery expenses on advertizing level of the organization of production share of expenses on inventions share of administrative expenses

Reserves of use of Organization innovative resources

Indicators of use of institutional capacity

-

General functions

Motivation

Reserves of use of a manpower

Indicators of use of social potential -

Control

Specific (concrete) functions

Reserves of use of financial resources

Indicators of use of financial potential -

indicators of the quantitative and qualitative completeness of personnel structure; coefficient of turnover of staff; labor productivity; labor organization level; zarplatoyemkost; standards of controllability; share of expenses on personnel training; coefficient of safety of work; coefficient of labor discipline. revenue; product cost; profit on production sales; profitability of production; size of own and loan capital; size creditor and receivables

General management, financial management, production, research and development, marketing, controlling, etc.

Result of studying of a number of existing approaches to development of strategy as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise is the offered scheme (Figure 2).

Main development stages of strategy: I. At an early development stage of strategy to management companies, it is necessary to creJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 309

ate the direction of its development, first of all.

Well formulated ideology of the organization can concentrate efforts of the company on the direction determined by the management. At this stage strategic objectives turn firm mission into a specific task for further execution. The developed strategic objectives of the company have to 21

Dr Aleksandr Sergejevič Ljevčenko - Competitive strategy as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise

be really achievable, have deadlines and methods of their execution.

II. At a stage of elaboration of strategy for the achievement of the objectives, put in each area of functioning of the managing subject, the strategic development plan of the organization represents the aggregated model of the interconnected and unified strategy, such as: • corporate strategy (it is used for achievement of goals at the level of corporation); • business strategy (it is applied at the level of economic division of the company);

• functional strategy (define the tasks necessary for execution by each functional division of the enterprise); • operational strategy (are necessary for achievement of the planned purposes facing separate operational unit).

Often development of strategy is a task from top to down, i.e. from the top management of management to the lowest. Strategy of the bottom level supplements and supports strategy at higher level and makes the contribution in achievement of the planned purposes.

Figure 2: The scheme of development and the realization of strategy of financial security necessary for increase of business activity of the managing subject

The choice of concrete strategy for the enterprise in certain time of its development depends on the developed economic situation. There are general approaches of formation of strategy. The whole complex of the strategic decisions supporting legal, economic, production, social and other components is their cornerstone. Such decisions are innovative by the nature and provide the long-term organizational goals, tasks, the principles, the actions, capable to strengthen 22

competitiveness of the enterprise on a commodity market during any period of time. On the basis of the above it is representable in Figure 3 the scheme of formation of the mechanism of strategy of the managing subject developed during conducted research.

Realization in practice of the developed strategy is possible, first of all, by definition of the priority directions of development of the company on the basis of activization of key subsystems of busiJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 309

Dr Aleksandr SergejeviÄ? LjevÄ?enko - Competitive strategy as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise

ness activity. It is caused, first of all, by that it is almost impossible to provide at the same time growth of all components of business activity, despite their close interrelation among themselves.

Thus, at strategy justification as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise it is necessary: 1. to establish interrelation between processes of development and deployment of strategy in area of functioning of the managing subject;

2. to create the scheme of development and realization of strategy of financial security; 3. to consider that process of development, introduction and realization of effective steady competitive strategy consists of ranks of independent stages; 4. to remember multicomplexity of the administrative process connected with implementation of the strategic plan.

Figure 3: Scheme of formation of the mechanism of development of strategy of the industrial enterprise

CONCLUSION In our opinion, to provide strategy justification as an instrument of increase of business activity of an industrial enterprise it is necessary: 1. to establish interrelation between processes of development and deployment of strategy in the area of functioning of an economic entity; 2. to create the scheme of development and realization of strategy of financial security; 3. to take into account that the process of development, introduction and realization of effective sustainable competitive strategy consists of a number of independent stages; Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 309

4. to remember that the administrative process connected with implementation of the strategic plan is multicomplex.

SUMMARY To analyze problems of increase of business activity of an enterprise, it is necessary to pay attention to the following aspects: 1. Ensuring economic growth of an enterprise demands increase of its business activity on the basis of improvement of strategic management process.

2. Strategic management of an industrial enterprise has the whole complex of the rules char23

Dr Aleksandr Sergejevič Ljevčenko - Competitive strategy as instrument of increase of business activity of the industrial enterprise

acterizing the extent of its functional development and defining the sphere of activity.

3. The indicators offered in the article characterizing business activity according to the functional sign can be used for the identification of the main reserves of effective management improvement of an industrial enterprise.

4. Choosing competitive strategy as an instrument of increase of business activity of an enterprise it is necessary to take into account that it has to correspond to the formulated direction of its development. The formulation has to be clear and unambiguous as the chosen strategy is capable to limit freedom of the work of the top management and to have essential impact on all decisions made by it.

5. The scheme of formation of the mechanism of strategy development of an industrial enterprise has been given in the article. Practical realization of the developed strategy assumes determination of the priority directions of development of an enterprise on the basis of activization of key subsystems of business activity.

6. Justification of competitive strategy as an instrument of increase of business activity of an industrial enterprise requires: - establishing the interrelation between processes of development and realization of strategy in the sphere of functioning of an economic entity; - creating the scheme of development and realization of strategy; - taking into account that the process of development, introduction and realization of effective sustainable competitive strategy consists of a number of independent stages; - understanding that the administrative process connected with implementation of the strategic plan is multicomplex.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors extend acknowledgements to the rector of BSTU, prof. Sergei Nikolaevich Glagolev for their assistance in organizing the study and publication of the results. Work has been performed in the framework of Strategic Development Program at BSTU for 2012-2016.

The article was published with the financial support from Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation within the framework of 24

state assignment to the project #26.1511.2014K “Theory and methodology of managing innovational and investment processes in small business enterprises.”

REFERENCES 1) Arkatov A.Ya., Glagolev S.N. (2011) Strategic management at the enterprise of the industry of construction materials: the education guidance with UMO signature stamp.

Belgorod: BGTU publishing house.

2) Bendery O.B., Chernykh A.V. (2005) Complex economic analysis of economic activity: education guidance. Belgorod: BGTU publishing house. 357 p.

3) Bendery O.B., Slabinskaya I.A. (2011) Analysis and diagnostics of financial and economic activity: the education guidance with a signature stamp of the UMO. Belgorod: BGTU publishing house.

4) Vinogradova Z. I., Scherbakova V. E. (2004) Strategic management. The matrix of modules, “tree” is more whole. Moscow: Academic Project: Mir fund. 304 p.

5) Doroshenko Yu.A., Somin I. V. (2011) Management of innovations: the education guidance with UMO signature stamp. Belgorod: BGTU publishing house.

6) Kogdenko V. G. (2011) Ekonomichesky analysis: 2nd prod. reslave. and add. Moscow. 399 p.

7) Nikitina E.A., Vybornova V.V. (2011) Management of competitiveness of the enterprise: education guidance. Belgorod: BGTU publishing house.

8) Prokopchuk L. O. (2004) Strategic management: textbook. SPb.: Mikhaylov V. publishing house. 511p.

9) Rudychev A.A., Kuznetsova I.A., Nikitina E.A., Demura E.A., Yarmolenko I.V. (2011) Ekonomika of branch: education guidance.

Belgorod: BGTU publishing house.

10) Rudychev A. A. (2009) Organization Economy: Educational grant / Under edition of the prof., the Dr. the house-keeper. Rudychev A. A. sciences. prof., edging. house-keeper.

Kuznetsova I. A. sciences. - Belgorod: BGTU publishing house of V. G. Shukhov. 455 p.

Paper sent to revision: 02.02.2015.

Paper ready for publication: 10.03.2015.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 309

Original Scientific Paper

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 310, 25 - 36

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7785

FULFILLING THE REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPORT OF METAL INDUSTRY PRODUCTS FROM SERBIA AND BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA CROSS-BORDER AREA TO EU MARKET Dr Vesna Spasojević-Brkić University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Zorica Veljković University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia Tamara Golubović University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia

Exporting to European Union market includes free exchange of people, goods and services as well as wide range of opportunities for companies, but also includes many difficulties and requirements which need to be fulfilled. As exporting is a difficult challenge for metal industry companies in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, this study included 20 small and medium sized companies from cross-border area - Zlatibor and Sarajevo districts, which have traditionally been export oriented, in order to improve activities regarding fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from given regions. Analyses were conducted on statistically significant differences between influential parameters on fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products in cross border area of Serbia and BIH to EU market, financial standings and investment in the employee development, implementation of New Approach directives, implementation of management system standards and other. It was found that the largest issue in both Sarajevo and Zlatibor district are financial resources for fulfilling the requirements, while most influential obstacle is lack of government support and incentives. Recommendations are given to metal industry companies in both districts, based on the conducted empirical research. The research on fulfilling requirements for export of metal industry products to the EU market in the cross-border area of Serbia and BIH gives opportunity for companies in those areas to be connected and motivated to become more competitive, by using and exchanging modern knowledge and skills, European procedures and standards, raising the technological level and mutual promotional appearances.

Key words: Export requirements, EU market, Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts, Mann-Whitney U*-Test INTRODUCTION European Union (EU) market model implies free exchange of people, goods and services. This includes wide range of opportunities for anyone who exports products and services to EU market, but also includes many difficulties that have to be overcome in order to fulfill all requirements that go along with exporting goods to EU. Even though it is a challenging task, overcoming those difficulties can result in strengthening and better coordination of market monitoring and control, strengthening legislative system and its application on the national level, securing coherence rules for work of notified bodies, secure that

accreditation stays in public domain in order to avoid further multiplication in area of control of the products, and much more [05,26].

In the European Union document White Paper Preparation of the Associated Countries of Central and Eastern Europe for Integration into the Internal Market of the Union, there are requirements and measures which these countries have to adopt in each sector of their internal market.

According to requirements from the White Paper countries of Central and Eastern Europe have to align their legislations, standards and practice in 23 different sectors. Second chapter of White Paper contains information on free exchange and safety of industrial products. The principle

* Faculty of mechanical engineering, Kraljice Marije 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; vspasojevic@mas.bg.ac.rs

25

Dr Vesna SpasojeviÄ&#x2021; BrkiÄ&#x2021; - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

of mutual recognition of goods that are legally placed on the market, technical harmonization of legislation and mechanisms to prevent new trade barriers, are instruments that ensure the free exchange of goods in the EU [18].

According to [08] regarding to export to the EU market, largest influence on the companies have proccess of adjustment of national legislation with EU legislation, primarily in the sector of technical requirements and safety requirements for the products. With adjustment of their business to the new directives and regulations, domestic companies actually bring their competitiveness and quality of products and services on the higher level, making them more resistant to the influence of competition that comes along with opet market.

The import/export ratio in Serbia, despite the export continuous increase, still is not higher than 72% in 2013 /9/.

The import/export ratio in BIH is even worse, not being higher than 53% [20].

Fulfilling the requirements for export to the EU market is difficult challenge for metal industry companies in Serbia and BIH. Metal industry in Serbia and BIH was very developed in former Yugoslavia and participated in GDP with almost

40%, while both countries share strong commitment towards EU integration. Serbia was granted the EU candidate status on 1st March 2012.

Following the active and constructive efforts towards a visible and sustainable improvement of relations with Kosovo, the European Council decided to open accession negotiations with Serbia on 28th June 2013. On 16th June 2008 Bosnia and Herzegovina and the European Commission signed the Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA). By signing the agreement the EU recognized the efforts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the path of EU integrations [02].

Metal industry was once the foundation of Serbian industry, having high levels of capacity utilization /19/ while today it can be characterized with significant number of insufficiently strong companies which are in the process of reorganization, but still with growing number of examples with efficiency and productivity improvement.

That is, there is an increasing number of small and medium sized companies that make excellent business results. However, generally speaking, results of the whole sector in 2008 have been influenced by the global economic crisis, by decline in the industrial production and construction, as well as by metals and semi-finished metal products price reduction [12, 17].

Figure 1: Serbian economics of foreign trade from 2001 to 2013, in millions of euros [09]

BIH metalworking industry continuously has surplus and represents the largest export sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina that counts around 38% of the whole BIH export. Leading export product from this sector are metals, more precisely, aluminum and steel. Following is the automotive industry, with stabile growth and significant de26

velopment potential. Metal products also have significant development potential [15].

Metal industry sectors of Serbia and BIH are subjected to different classifications of work areas, even though they refer to the same types of products. Metal industry sector of Serbia includes [10]: Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

Dr Vesna Spasojević Brkić - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

• Extracting metal ore • Production of base metals • Production of standard metal products, not including machines or devices • Production of machines and devices • Production of electric and optic devices • Production of traffic means (motor vehicles, electronic, and electric equipment for MW, trailers, motor vehicle body, etc.)

• Production of other traffic means (ships, locomotives, airplanes, space aircrafts, motorbikes, military, vehicles, etc.)

• Other processing industry (metal industry includes only recycling of used raw materials in this section) On the other hand, metal industry sector in BIH lists its sub-sectors as follows [6]: • Metals and metal products (pipes, profiles, etc.)

• Electronic equipment • Machines and devices • Transportation vehicles (automotive industry) The Strategy for Development of Competitive and Innovative SMEs Serbia 2008-2013 envisages the development of a knowledge-based economy, which creates a strong and export oriented SME sector that contributes to an increase in the standard of living in Serbia [22]. As for the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Strategy for development SMEs in BIH for 2009-2011 predicts improvement of business environment in BIH, raising competitiveness of SMEs and support to increasing export possibilities as the main measures within priority of economic development [14].

There is a large number of barriers and obstacles preventing entrant companies from being established and successful in EU market /3/. From before, canton of Sarajevo and Zlatibor district are recognizable by metal complex, which intends to adjust to new conditions and challenges of international market.

It is important to define exact situation with implemented standards and directives in companies from these districts, and to define obstacles and

barriers that these companies stumble upon in the process of fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products to EU market. In order to do so, for this study needed data from companies sample were collected and analyzed.

SAMPLE AND METHODS On the cross border territory covering Sarajevo Macro Region and Zlatibor County there are 150 SMEs dealing in metal sector. This study included 20 small and medium-sized companies, ten from each region, which have traditionally been export oriented, in order to improve activities regarding fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from given regions ¬/12/.

All of the companies from this specified sample agreed to participate in the survey. Survey of the companies was conducted via e-mail query, using Google docs (survey instrument can be seen on the link https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1I49 YuzgCebrUigrAQHYwR36SJI9OKj3As01T3Od2 qQM/viewform).

Company size is determined by the number of employees, total revenue and asset value /24/.

Primary analyses were fist conducted on the basic data [21] which refer to descriptive statistics of the number of employees in the companies from both regions. Results are shown in Table 1.

The range of the number of employees is far greater in the Zlatibor district, where surveyed production companies showed numbers ranging from 5 to 1500 employees. In Sarajevo area this range was only from 12 to 97 employees.

Out of all companies that participated in the survey in the Zlatibor district, 70% of the companies were from sector of standard metal products, not including machines and devices, 20% were from sector of basic metals, and 10% from sector of electronic and optic devices. In Sarajevo district, 50% of the companies were classified as metals and metal products, 20% as machines and devices and transportation vehicles, and 10% as electronic equipment.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the number of employees in Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts Valid N

Mean

Median

Min

Max

Std.Dev.

Coef.Var.

Zlatibor district

10

174.500

64.5

5

1005

307.61

176.28

Sarajevo district

10

39.900

29.5

12

97

27.68

69.38

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

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Dr Vesna Spasojević Brkić - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

Implementation of ISO management standards in Sarajevo Macro Region and Zlatibor County is also important predecessor of export. Anderson et al. [04] found that export to Europe and elsewhere increases U.S. firms’ likelihood of seeking ISO 9000, while Corbett [13] concluded that supply chain pressures related to export flows contributes to global diffusion of ISO 9000. According to the number of QMS certificates, Serbia takes the 54th position in the world, while Bosnia and Herzegovina has even lesser number of certificates in proportion to the population number [17,25] even though applying ISO 9000 makes way to improvement of business performance [23]. For this reason, an analysis was conducted regarding the matter of implementation of the ISO 9001:2008 standard. Results show that the situation with standard is similar for both districts, whereby 70% of the companies have implemented the standard, 20% of the companies are in the phase of preparation or implementing the standard, while 10 % of the companies don’t have ISO 9000 standard.

Since Christmann and Taylor [11] and Albuquerque et al. [01] found that exports to more-developed countries increase the likelihood of ISO 14000 certification, as well as for importance of product safety [27], application of standard ISO 14000 and ISO 18000 was examined in this survey, too. Even though there aren’t any statistically significant difference between the two districts, diagram in the Figure 2 shows that in Zlatibor district 40% of the companies have one

of these standards while in 20% of the companies standard is in preparation. On the other hand in Sarajevo district not one company has those additional standards but in 30% of them one of these standards is in preparation or implementation phase.

Data collected on differences between influential parameters on fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products in cross border area of Serbia and BIH to EU market in this survey were nonhomogeneous (variation coefficients were greater than 30%). Therefore nonparametric tests were used, such as Mann-Whitney U*-Test.

Figure 2: Application of standards ISO 14000 and ISO 18000 in Sarajevo Macro Region and Zlatibor County

Figure 3: Export data for companies from Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts

28

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Statistically significant differences between influential parameters on fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products in cross border area of Serbia and BIH to EU market Regarding the fact that in further analysis data were nonhomogeneous (variation coefficients were greater than 30%), Mann-Whitney U*-Test is used.

Export of small and medium sized companies from Sarajevo and Zlatibor district metal complex Sarajevo district companies export far more than companies from Zlatibor district, as shown in Table 2 and Figure 3.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

Dr Vesna SpasojeviÄ&#x2021; BrkiÄ&#x2021; - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

Table 2: Exporting differences between Sarajevo and Zlatibor district companies ZL Export

SA

ZL

<<

p-level

SA

**

0.008

Table 3: Data on financial standings and investment in the employee development in Zlatibor and Sarajevo district ZL

SA

p-level

Finance

ZL

>

SA

*

Employee development

ZL

=

SA

ns

0.046

Figure 4. Financial standings on a 1-5 scale (a) and investment in the employee development on a 1-5 scale (b)

In Sarajevo district 80% of the companies are exporting while in Zlatibor district that percentage amounts to 50%. At the same time remaining 50% of the companies in the Zlatibor sector want to export while in the Sarajevo sector this percentage is 10%.

Financial standings and investment in the employee development in small and medium sized companies of the metal industry sector in Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts In order to release product to the foreign markets, manufacturer must deploy enough human and financial resources. Collected data on financial standings and investment in the employee development show that companies in the Zlatibor district are in a better financial condition than the ones from the Sarajevo region (table 3).

Despite the fact that the financial standings is better in the companies in the Zlatibor district (Figure 4) there is no significant difference in investment in the employee development between Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

these two districts. Thus it can be concluded that companies from Sarajevo district focus more on the employee development.

Implementation of New Approach directives in small and medium sized companies of the metal industry sector in Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts Every manufacturer needs to specify what EU regulations are relevant for his product. Regulations define environmental, health and safety conditions which must be fulfilled in order to release products to the EU market. Relevant regulations for industrial products are divided into: - Area of New Approach that covers technical industrial products, - Area of Old Approach that covers motor vehicles, as a part of metal industry [16].

In order to avoid obstacles that could come up due to the discrepancy among different national regulations, a new approach to technical regula 29

Dr Vesna Spasojević Brkić - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

tions and standardization has been made, based on the following principals [7]: 1. Prescribed key product requirements - EU directives precisely define which key requirements product must fulfill in order to be released to the EU market.

2. Harmonised standards - technical specification for the products which comply with the EU directives are delivered in the form of European harmonized standards. Compliance assumption - A product is considered to fulfill key requirements given in the directives if it is described in accordance with European harmonized standards.

3. New Approach is applied to all products which are released to the EU Single Market, regardless of whether they are produced in the member countries, or “Third World” countries (outside EU), except for the products produced in the following industrial sectors: chemical, pharmaceutical, automotive (and agricultural vehicles), and food industry.

After comparing the application of New Approach directives in different companies, the results show that there is no significant difference in choosing which directive will be implemented, between the companies of the Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts.

It should be noted that most of the companies of

the Zlatibor district did not have the knowledge of the New Approach directives (90% of them), while companies from Sarajevo district were much more aware of them (50% of the companies) (figure 5).

Comparison of implementation of New Approach directives: - In Zlatibor district one company in the survey (10%) uses 1 directive (Marking of packaging).

- In Sarajevo district two companies use one directive each ( Low Voltage and Machinery), while three companies use two directives each (two companies use Low Voltage Directive, one uses directive for Simple Pressure Vessels, two companies use Machinery Directive, one company uses directive Articles of precious metal and two companies use other directives). Statistically, number of implemented new approach directives in the Sarajevo district (50%) is far greater than in Zlatibor district (10%) (table 4).

In Sarajevo district all companies that use the New Approach also use the Directive on general product safety, and the same goes for the Zlatibor district.

It can be concluded that, statistically, companies in the Sarajevo district apply the Directive on general product safety to a far greater degree compared to those from the Zlatibor district (table 5).

Figure 5. Knowledge of New Approach directives in Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts

30

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

Dr Vesna SpasojeviÄ&#x2021; BrkiÄ&#x2021; - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

Table 4: Number of implemented New Approach directives in the Sarajevo and Zlatibor districts ZL Number of implemented deirectives

ZL

SA <<

SA

p-level **

0.0045

Table 5: Number of implemented general product safety directives in the Sarajevo and Zlatibor district ZL Number of implemented general product safety directives

ZL

SA <<

SA

p-level **

0.0044

1 Government agencies, 2 Domestic embassies abroad, 3 Chamber of commerce, 4 Shipping companies, 5 Agencies for Marine Insurance, 6 Port Authority, 7 Foreign embassies and foreign economic offices, 8 Internet, 9 Banks, 10 Not collecting data â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these are excluded from comparison and 11 other Figure 6: Frequency of different sources of information used by Zlatibor and Sarajevo districts

Other observations regarding the influential parameters on fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products in cross border area of Serbia and BIH to EU market In addition to the elements of survey which showed significant statistical difference, there are other aspects which influence export, and are included in the research, that need to be mentioned.

The factor of the most influence on the export of products in the Zlatibor district, is the quality needed for a given product category - 100%, while the same factor in the Sarajevo district has the target value of 90%. Fallowing are product cost, product safety and technological level of the product with 90% in the Zlatibor district and 70% in the Sarajevo district. Next are product appearance and suitable marketing with 70% Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

in Zlatibor district, and in Sarajevo district these factors have significance of 60% and 50%, respectively. Significance of factor product functionality is 70% in the Zlatibor district and 90% in the Sarajevo district.

Most of the companies in Zlatibor district (70%) use two to three sources of information about possibilities of export to the EU market, while in the Sarajevo district, this number is greater, and divided - 50% of the companies use five sources and 40% use two.

Regarding source of information, majority of information is gathered through the internet (figure 6), followed by chambers of commerce and government agencies. Data is either the same or similar for both Zlatibor and Sarajevo districts.

31

Dr Vesna SpasojeviÄ&#x2021; BrkiÄ&#x2021; - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

1 Demand trends, 2 Standards and specifications trends, 3 Language requirements 4 Distribution channels 6 Business practices 7 Tariff and non-tariff barriers, 8 Legal aspects (legislation), 9 Dispatching costs and 10 Other Figure 7. Criteria for the selection of EU countries in which to export for Sarajevo and Zlatibor district

Criteria for the selection of countries in which to export suggest that for the companies most important is criterion of demand trends, followed by distribution channels. In the Zlatibor district the standards and specifications stand out as well (figure 7).

In both districts included in the research, 90% of the companies are either exporting, or want to export more than one type of product.

It is interesting to point out the conformity of components sourced from the suppliers with the EU legislation. In Sarajevo district 50% of suppliers are in conformance with EU legislation, while 30% of subsuppliers partially conform with EU legislation. As opposed to that, in case of Zlatibor district, 50% of the surveyed companies did not know the answer, and with 30% of the companies, some of suppliers were in conformance with EU legislation.

In both districts in the research, only about 30% of companies keep track of new regulations, and the changes in the existing ones, while 40% of companies partially follows these updates.

Portion of the companies that use consulting services when fulfilling formal exporting requirements for export to the EU is 70% in Zlatibor district, and 60% in Sarajevo district.

70% of the companies in Zlatibor district and 60% in Sarajevo district share the opinion that 32

there is a sufficient number of suitable, registered laboratories, or competent institutions, needed for fulfilling the formal requirements for export to the EU market. As opposed to that only 40% of companies in both districts believe that there is enough number of institutions for helping the export companies.

In terms of profitability of investing resources in fulfilling the formal EU requirements for export, only 10% of the surveyed companies in the Zlatibor district consider that it is rentable to invest, while 70% considers it is not. As opposed to that, in the Sarajevo district, 60% of companies believe that such investment is rentable and 30% that it is not.

The largest issue in both Sarajevo and Zlatibor district are financial resources for fulfilling the requirements, while most influential obstacle is lack of government support and incentives.

CONCLUSION The research on fulfilling requirements for export of metal industry products to the EU market in the cross-border area of Serbia and BIH gives opportunity for companies in those areas to be connected and motivated to become more competitive, by using and exchanging modern knowledge and skills, European procedures and Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

Dr Vesna Spasojević Brkić - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

standards, raising the technological level and mutual promotional appearances.

Results of this research point out the following.

Companies in both districts fall under the category of small and medium sized companies, but companies in Zlatibor district have more employees. In both districts, 70% of the companies are ISO 9001 certified, while 20% are working on becoming certified. Companies in the Zlatibor district are inclined to certification in other management systems also, more than the companies in the Sarajevo district, but only 50% of surveyed companies in Zlatibor district are exporting products in EU market, as opposed to 80% of exporting companies in Sarajevo district.

Despite the fact that the financial standings are better in the companies in Zlatibor district, there is no significant difference in investing in the employee development between the companies of the two districts, thus it can be concluded that companies of the Sarajevo district commit more (to the employee development. Companies in the Sarajevo district statistically implement New Approach directives much more than those in Zlatibor district. Companies in the Zlatibor district have much more problems with conformance of components sourced from suppliers with EU legislation. They are also informed from smaller number of sources than companies in the Sarajevo district. The factor with most influence on export of products in both districts is the quality needed for a given product category.

Recommendations are given to metal industry companies in both districts, based on the conducted empirical research: - To invest more in the employee development, and to be more dependent on own employees; - To define and describe the product and to define in which product group according to directives the product belongs to.

- Establish the date from which the directive is valid, as well as all possible changes and updates of the directive since that date; - Since the product can belong to different directives, it is necessary to choose which directive will be the main for “CE” marking of the product, and which directives will be supporting ones; - To define which harmonized EU regulations and standards (or certain EU memberJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

countries that you wish to export to) apply to product; - To define which actions regarding conformance with the main and supporting directives must be applied.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work is supported by grants TR 35017 (MESTD) and Research on formal requirements for export products on EU market in the cross border area in Bosnia and Serbia, Ref: 2012/306285/TD 11 (RRA Zlatibor).

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2) Alujevic-Vesnic, L., (2012) European Integration for Western Balkans: From Reconciliation to European Future, Brussels: Centre for European Studies.

3) Anders, P., (2009) Barriers to entry and market strategy: a literature review and a proposed model, European Business Review, 21(1), 64–77.

4) Anderson, S. W., Daly, J. D., Johnson., M. F., (1999) Why firms seek ISO 9000 certification: Regulatory compliance or competitive advantage?, Production & Operations Management, 8(1), 28–43.

5) Belgrade Chamber of Commerce, (2006) Guidelines for dealing with the European Union (in Serbian), Belgrade, Serbia.

6) BIH Agency for Statistics, (2012) International trade between BIH and foreign countries (in Bosnian), BHAS, Sarajevo, ISSN 1840-104X. 7) Chamber of commerce and industry of Serbia, (2009) Requirements for exporting to the EU market (in Serbian), Food techology.

8) Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, (2010) 100 questions and answers for businessmen about European Union (in Serbian), ISBN 978-86-80809-80-9 9) Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, (2014) International trade by months from 2001 (in Serbian), URL: http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/Public/PageView. aspx?pKey=215 10) Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, (2013) Metal and electro industry (in 33

Dr Vesna Spasojević Brkić - Fulfilling the requirements for export of metal industry products from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina cross-border area to EU market

Serbian), URL: http://www.pks.rs/PrivredaSrbije.aspx?id=12&p=2& 11) Christmann, P., Taylor, G., (2001) Globalization and the environment: Determinants of firm self-regulation in China, Journal of International Business Studies, 32(3), 439–458.

12) Ćoćkalo, D., Đorđević, D., Sajfert, Z., Bogetić, S., (2011) SMEs in The Republic of Serbia: The Developing Capacities, Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 9(4), 449-456 13) Corbett, C. J., (2006) Global diffusion of ISO 9000 certification through supply chains, Manufacturing & Service Operations Management, 8(4), 330-350.

14) Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, (2009) Development strategy of small and medium sized enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina in period 2009–2011 (in Bosnian).

15) Foreign Trade Chamber of Bosnia and Herzegovina, (2013) Strategy for export of metal sector (in Bosnian), URL: http://komorabih. ba/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/bhepa-izvozna-strategija-metalnog-sektora.pdf 16) http://www.kombeg.org.rs/Komora/centri/CentarZaEkonomskeOdnoseSaInostranstvom. aspx?ve za=3089, download from 15.10.2013.

17) Industrial Union of Serbia, (2011) Initiatives of metalworkers unions for sustainable industrial policy of Serbia (in Serbian), Towards Sustainable Industrial Policies in SEE, Seminar, Zagreb.

18) Joviševic, V., Bobrek, M., Grujic R., (2005) Standards of Europian Union for export oriented companies (in Serbian), Banja Luka. : Agencija za razvoj preduzeca.

19) Klarin, M., Milanovic, D. D., Misita, M., Spasojevic-Brkic, V., Jovovic, A., (2010) A method to assess capacity utilization in short cycle functional layouts, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering, 224(1), 49-58.

20) Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina, (2012) Analysis of international trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 2012 (in Bosnian), Sarajevo.

21) Montgomery, D. C., Runger, G. C., (2010) Applied statistics and probability for engineers, John Wiley & Sons.

22) Serbian Government, (2008) Strategy for development of competitive and innovative 34

small and medium sized enterprises of the Republic of Serbia (2008-2013) (in Serbian).

23) Spasojevic Brkic, V. K., Djurdjevic, T., Dondur, N., Klarin, M. M., Tomic, B., (2013) An empirical examination of the impact of quality tools application on business performance: Evidence from Serbia, Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 24(5-6), 607-618.

24) Spasojevic Brkic, V. K., Klarin, M. M., Brkic, A. D., Lucanin, V. J., Milanovic, D. D., (2011) Simultaneous consideration of contingency factors and quality management: An empirical study of Serbian companies, African Journal of Business Management, 5(3), 866-883.

25) Spasojevic Brkic, V., Klarin, M., Curovic, D., (2009) Dimensions of quality management of Serbian industrial companies suppliers (in Serbian), Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 7(23-24), 67-71.

26) Spasojevic Brkic, V., Veljkovic, Z., Golubovic, T., Omic, S., Brkic, A., (2014) Bosnia and Herzegovina’s metalworking industry companies barriers to export to EU market, Journal of engineering management and competitiveness (JEMC), 4(2), 78-84.

27) Stamenkovic, D., Popovic, V., SpasojevicBrkic, V., Radivojevic, J., (2011) Combination free replacement and pro-rata warranty policy optimization model, Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 9(4), 457-464.

Paper sent to revision: 03.02.2015.

Paper ready for publication: 11.03.2015.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 310

Review Paper

doi:10.5937/jaes13-6445

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 311, 35 - 44

AN OVERVIEW ON EMERGING WATER SCARCITY IN PAKISTAN, ITS CAUSES, IMPACTS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES Salim Khoso Quaid-e-Awam University College of Engineering, Sciences & Technology (QUCEST) Farhan Hussain Wagan Quaid-e-Awam University College of Engineering, Sciences & Technology (QUCEST) Abdul Hanan Tunio Assign Engineering Consult Intl.

Abdul Aziz Ansari Quaid-e-Awam University College of Engineering, Sciences & Technology (QUCEST)

Apparently with two thirds of the earth’s surface covered by water, it is evidently clear that water is one of the most important elements responsible for life on earth. It is not only vital for sustenance of life, but equally essential for socio-economic development. Water is the unique gift of God and the basic requirement of life. Due to the high indulgence and exploitation of human being with nature, the global environment is changing every day. As a result the water resources are depleting gradually.

The global fresh water shortage and food security issues related to the teeming billions of population necessitated the shifting of fresh water from agriculture to other more pressing uses. The country is facing the worst ever crises of water shortage for last many years, as water available for any given use has become increasingly scarce. The rapidly growing population, expanding of irrigation areas, and growing urban & Industrialization are putting more stresses on water resources. Therefore, building of more reservoirs and an effective management strategy are the needs of time. The problem of water shortage particular in Sindh is crucial as being the end user and lower riparian on the Indus basin irrigation system.

Key words: Water Shortage; Agriculture; Power generation; economy; Seepage; Indus River Basin INTRODUCTION Water is a fundamental basic need and an essential resource for economic activities with strong cultural and symbolic values for millions of people especially in developing countries. A domestic water supply is universally acknowledged as not only a basic right but a key development indicator. One third of the world’s population is currently experiencing some kind of physical or economic water scarcity. A growing competition for water from different sectors, including industry, agriculture, power generation, domestic use, and the environment, is making it difficult for people to access this scarce resource for productive, consumptive and social uses. In water-scarce regions and countries, inequity in access to water resources is increasing because of competition for limited resources, and this particularly affects poor rural people.

Although large scale water resources development has been taking place in the world, but until vast majority of people shall do not have enough potable water for drinking and canal water for irrigation. According to researchers water supply consists of making water available for agricultural urban use. Agricultural uses include irrigation, watering and farm household use. By law of supply and demand, water will be inexpensive when it is abundant and expensive when it is scarce (Adebayo A. 2007). The distribution of water supply for drinking purpose is quite appalling in modern times. Mean time the downstream people are not suitably protected against flood or disaster hits due to the improper management. Irrigation is the main stay of Pakistan’s economy, around 90% of total agriculture output of the country is totally dependent on irrigation. It is clear that water resources have played very

* Quaid-e-Awam University College of Engineering, Sciences & Technology (QUCEST), Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan; engr.salimkhoso@gmail.com

35

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

important role in the development of land and water storage system. More than half of worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population lives in developing countries and the poorest of these communities depend heavily on exploitation of local water resources for their livelihood.

IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN Agriculture is important sector in the development of country, taking broader perspective on contribution of agriculture to gross domestic production and including associated support services. Agriculture is of immense importance for Pakistan. At the time of independence Pakistan was primarily agriculture based country. But as time progressed Pakistan turned into more diversified country as industrialization took hold.

But development of industries had not eliminated the existence of agriculture in Pakistan although the share of agriculture had decreased significantly since its birth. The role of agriculture in the economic development of Pakistan cannot be denied and Pakistan is still characterized as an agricultural country (Sarvesh Chauhan 2013).

Agricultural sector of Pakistan has made significant contribution to its GDP. When the GDP of a country grows, economic development takes

place. The agriculture actually accounts the major portion of the total economy of Pakistan with 21% contribution to GDP and more than 45% contribution in labour force. It is also the major source of foreign exchange incomes in Pakistan.

The export of rice, cotton, cotton based products etc. bring about 65% of our total earnings. The imports help in vital inputs for development i.e. import of equipment, capital machinery, and technical know-how etc. Agriculture is one of the main cause of employment in Pakistan, more than the half of the population of Pakistan lives in rural areas. In the development report of World Bank (2010) 63% lived in rural areas of the total population. In Pakistan 70% of the population depends directly upon agriculture and is their main resource for livelihood as food and fibre is the basic need of the country. Improvement in agriculture productivity is must for food security, at present from 80 Mha geographical Area, 29.6 Mha is suitable for agriculture and from that 13.3 Mha is canal irrigated and 3.5 is rain fed. Agriculture acts as an industry and it is gaining recognition for its importance in combating wide spread rural poverty and acts as stabilizing factor in the national economy. It is clear from the above facts that it becomes indispensable to manage water resources and agriculture properly.

Figure 1: Total water consumption by different sectors in Pakistan

36

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

Table 1: Distribution of water for many purposes and their quantities S. No. 1

2

3

Description

Purpose

Quantity

Drinking

3 to 5 liters per capita per day

House hold

200 to 400 liters per capita per day

Irrigation water converted to vapour through biophysical process

2000 to 5000 liters per capita per day

One automobile coming from assembly

Needs 150,000 liters of water

Refining of each liter of gasoline

Needs 300 liters of water

Thermal conversion of each kilowatt hour energy generation

Needs 225 liters of water

Human need

Irrigation

Industrial use

WATER RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN

CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY

Rainfall

Less downpour

The major sources of rainfall in Pakistan are Western depressions (December-March) and Monsoons (July-September). During the seasons of Kharif and rabi, the entire Indus plain receives an average rainfall of 212mm and 53mm respectively (Enum Naseer 2013).

The Hydrological cycle determines the set of processes that maintains the flow of water through the system. The hydrological cycle depend upon evaporation, due to high contamination of wet lands, oceans, rivers the process is affected badly. The contribution of rainfall to crops is 5% to 10%. Cutting of large areas of jungle according to UN report in Pakistan from 7000 to 9000 hectares jungle is removed yearly and now it is only 5% instead of 25 % of Total land.

Glaciers Nearly 13,680 sq-km of the total area of Pakistan, is covered by glaciers that help to boost the river turnoff in warm weather. According to scientists, in just a period of 30 years, glaciers in the Himalayas have diminished by nearly onefifth and it is believed that glaciers in this region will have disappeared by 2035 and the impact of which will be devastating for the 1.3 billion people living in downstream river basins provides food and energy (Enum Naseer 2013).

The Indus River System Fed by the glaciers of the Hindu Kush and the Karakoram, Indus is the largest river of Pakistan and the primary source of freshwater. It helps fulfill household and industrial needs and support nearly 90% of agriculture. The eastern tributaries of the Indus are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab and Sutlej.

According to the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India was given control over Bias, Ravi and Sutlej due to which they are left with less water as they flow into Pakistan. There are number of small rivers which join the west of the Indus of which biggest river is Kabul. Other rivers include Swat, Tochi, Kurram and Gomal (Enum Naseer 2013).

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

Silting of reservoirs Scarcity of water and the crippling load shedding have infuriated the nation and caused the nation of billions of dollars loss. But no one has paid attention to the silting of reservoirs that destroys reservoir lifespan, the source of water that severely affects agricultural development. Silting is equally dangerous as shortage of water and power if not more. Tarbela and Mangla the biggest reservoirs in Pakistan are facing lot of problems due to silting up to 6.6 million acre feet (MAF) in 36 years. This is alarming. Rapid silting of reservoirs has adversely affected the storage created under the Indus Water Treaty. The lost replacement of storage due to silting created under the Indus Waters Treaty urgently requires to be replenished, as part of the Indus Waters Treaty. Silting of reservoirs destroys storage capacity and adversely affects agricultural production for which dams are built and water is stored.

Similarly, flood control like silt control is equally vital to avoid losses of life and property in billions of dollars and preserve water for agriculture.

37

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

Table 2: List of main reservoirs of Pakistan and their capacity.

S. No

Reservoir

Location/Near City

Total Storage

1

Tarbela

Abotabad

10.2

2

Mangla

Mirpur

5.6

3

Hub

Malir

0.0924

4

Tanda

Kohat

0.0788

5

Khanpur

Khanpur

0.059

6

Warsak

Peshawar

0.0475

7

Rawal

Islamabad

0.0475

a)

b)

Figure 2: Views of two different unlined watercourses in Village Haji Ali Nawaz Khoso, Noorpur, Sindh

The total loss due to silting in reservoirs is about 13.20 MAF. Table 2, shows the list of main reservoirs of Pakistan and their capacity to store water (Fateh ullah Khan Gandapur 2010).

Seepage is defined as the process of movement of water from the bed and sides of canals and water courses into the soil. In Pakistan seepage losses are usually high and are about 8 to 10 cusecs per million square foot of the wetted area of the cross section and amounts to 35 to 40% of diversion into the canal. The total length of canals and watercourses in Pakistan is 56073 km and 1.6 million km respectively. Studied carried out that indicate a total annual loss of 18.3 MAF of valuable irrigation water to the ground from unlined canals and watercourses in Pakistan through seepage alone. This huge loss of supplies if prevented can irrigate approximately an additional 3.0 million acres annually.

The Indus river system is prime source of irrigation water in Pakistan. If we reduce the losses from canals and water courses, more area can be cultivated. It is estimated that about 25% water (26 MAF) is lost through 38

canals, distributaries and minors. And about (45 MAF) water is lost from water courses through seepage, evaporation, transpiration and overtopping etc.

Seepage of water Seepage is defined as the process of movement of water from the bed and sides of canals and water courses into the soil. In Pakistan seepage losses are usually high and are about 8 to 10 cusecs per million square foot of the wetted area of the cross section and amounts to 35 to 40% of diversion into the canal. The total length of canals and watercourses in Pakistan is 56073 km and 1.6 million km respectively. Studied carried out that indicate a total annual loss of 18.3 MAF of valuable irrigation water to the ground from unlined canals and watercourses in Pakistan through seepage alone. This huge loss of supplies if prevented can irrigate approximately an additional 3.0 million acres annually.

The Indus river system is prime source of irrigation water in Pakistan. If we reduce the losses from canals and water courses, more area can Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

be cultivated. It is estimated that about 25% water (26 MAF) is lost through canals, distributaries and minors. And about (45 MAF) water is lost from water courses through seepage, evaporation, transpiration and overtopping etc.

GLOBAL POPULATION POSITION UN ESTIMATED The global population in 2006 was 6.7 billion, which is increasing at a rate of 78 million/year that has reached 7.13 billion now. It has been predicted that the population will reach up to 10.9 billion by the year 2050. Among all this total population, 90% growth rate occurs in developing countries; already such countries like Pakistan are facing many problems of food, fibre, health and education. Increase in population will put an enormous pressure on water use. Pakistan is 6th most populous nation in the world with 19.6 million population growing at a rate of 1.52% by the year 2014 (The World Fact book 2014).

INDUS WATER TREATY Soon after 1947, the dispute of water distribution arose between Pakistan and India. The treaty

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

was signed through World Bank in 1960. This treaty divided the use of rivers and canals between the two countries. Pakistan obtained exclusive rights for the three western rivers, namely Indus, Jehlum and Chenab. And India retained rights to the three eastern rivers, namely Ravi, Beas and Sutluj. The treaty also guaranteed ten years of uninterrupted water supply. During this period Pakistan was to build huge dams, financed partly by long-term World Bank loans and compensation money from India. Three multipurpose dams, Warsak, Mangla and Tarbela were built.

A system of eight link canals was also built, and the remodeling of existing canals was carried out. Five barrages and a gated siphon were also constructed under this treaty. Total water sold 24MAF, irrigating some Area of 8MA of land. The IWT took place in 62 million pounds and it was a big loss to the country making the water scarcer (Story of Pakistan 2003).

WATER LOSSES The tree below shows total water collected from all the surface sources in Pakistan and the losses from canals, watercourses and lands.

39

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

DISCUSSION

IMPACT OF WATER SHORTAGE

No kind of irrigation engineering work can be under taken without ample knowledge of the water availability. A correct estimate of available water for irrigation is a pre-condition of success. In addition quality and quantity of water has to be assessed before its utility. The water supply available for agriculture is derived from freezed ice, surface storages and ground entrapment. But the actual and only recharging source is the rainfall. Rainfall is normally inadequate to sustain more than a very low level of agricultural production, particularly in semi-arid regions. This requires the effective watershed management for harvesting the surface and sub-surface runoff and preparation of water budget from all sources. The irrigation water is becoming a diminishing source in Pakistan and the whole world. It is clear from the global facts that for sustainable and further development of the agriculture sector, storages are must at proper places with proper planning and management.

Shortage in cropped land Due to the water shortage out of 80 million hectares of land (Mha), 29 Mha land is cultivable but only 17 Mha is hardly canal irrigated yet, therefore import of food grains put additional stress on economy. The major crops of Pakistan include wheat, rice, maize, millets, sorghum, sugarcane, pulses, cotton, oilseeds. Pakistan is home to the aromatic long grain Basmati rice, grown in the plains of north Punjab. Some of the best varities of fruits are grown in Pakistan that include mangoes, apples, oranges, peaches, plums, apricots, cherries, grapes, pears, pomegranate, guava, melons and dates. A wide variety of vegetables are also produced in Pakistan. But the water shortage in the present situation can put enormous reduction in the mentioned productions and put impact on economy of the country.

Table 3: List of in service Thermal stations and their energy generation capacity Thermal Power stations in service S. No.

Station

Location

Capacity (MW)

Source

1

Hub Power company Plant

Hub Balochistan

1292

Oil fired thermal station

2

Hub Power project Narowal

Narowal Punjab

225

Furnace oil fired plant

3

Bin Qasim Power Plant I

Karachi, Sindh

1260

Oil and Natural gas fired plant

4

Jamshoro Power Station

jamshoro, Sindh

1054

Oil and Natural gas fired plant

5

lalpir Limited

Muzaffargarh, Punjab

362

Oil fired thermal station

6

Altern Energy limited

Fateh Jang, Punjab

29

Gas fired Diesel Engine

7

Atlas Power Limited

Sheikhupura, Punjab

225

Furnace oil fired plant

8

Attock Gen Limited

Rawalpindi, Punjab

165

Furnace oil fired plant

9

Fauji Kabirwala company

Kabirwala, Punjab

157

Combined cycled, gas fired plant

10

Gul Ahmed Energy Limited

Karachi, Sindh

136

Furnace oil fired plant

11

Nishat Power Limited

Lahore, Punjab

200

Furnace oil fired plant

40

12

Nishat Chunian Limited

Lahore, Punjab

200

Furnace oil fired plant

13

Sapphire Electric Company

Muridke, Punjab

225

Furnace oil fired plant

14

Saba Farooq Company

Farooqabad, Punjab

125

Furnace oil fired plant

15

Southern Electric Power Company

Raiwind, Lahore

135

Furnace oil fired plant

16

Tapal Energy Limited

Karachi, Sindh

126

Furnace oil fired plant

17

Japan Power Generation Limited

Raiwind, Lahore

135

Furnace oil fired plant

18

Kohinoor Energy Limited

Lahore, Punjab

131

Furnace oil fired plant

19

Sitara Energy Limited

Faisalabad, Punjab

85

Diesel & Natural gas fired Plant

20

Saif Power Limited

Sahiwal, Punjab

225

Diesel & Natural gas fired Plant

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

Hydro Power Pakistan has an estimated potential of 40,000 MW of hydropower in the upper Indus region; we have tapped only 13%. At present Pakistan has an installed electricity generation capacity of 22,797MW. The average demand is 17,000MW and the shortfall is between 4,000 and 5,000MW. Oil (35.2 per cent), hydel (29.9 per cent), gas (29 per cent), and nuclear and imported (5.8 per cent) are the principal sources (Zakir Kazmi 2014). WAPDA has projected a power requirement of 75149 MW by year 2025, which can only be achieved by constructing additional storage dams. Table 3, shows in service thermal power stations in Pakistan and their energy generation.

Effects of Urbanization Pakistanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s estimated population in 2014 is over 190 million making it worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 6th populous country. Due to the fast pace in the growth of population, urbanization is increasing which will put an enormous pressure on the social demography of the country where the cities are growing at an unprecedented speed. In this case people need water for their survival, but water scarcity in turn is affecting the availability of water badly. With the increase in water shortage, the society will witness tremendous problems in the coming times.

Ground Water Shortage of surface water has put tremendous pressure on ground water. Over drawing of ground water by users to compensate the shortage. In turn reduced recharging owing to less percolation. This has resulted rising of saline water lens nearer to the ground surface.

Effect on National Harmony The worst impact of water shortage is that, it is creating bitter controversy between provinces, which is affecting national integration and creating disharmony between provinces.

Intrusion of Salt Water The Indus water discharge to the sea keeps the sea water at bay and does not let it intrude too much into the surface and subsurface water resources inland. With the current water shortage the situation is deploring. Salt-water intrusion has been witnessed inland up to 100 kilomeJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

ters north of the sea. The Laar area of Sindh is adversely affected. The salt-water intrusion destroys water supplies and people are compelled to drink brackish water and thus exposed to various diseases. Throat swelling due to drinking salty water is a common complaint witnessed in the coastal areas of Sindh. Furthermore, seawater renders fertile agricultural lands useless, resulting in loss of jobs and economic devastation.

Hundreds of villages in the Badin and Thatta districts have been deserted and people have been forced to migrate to some other areas (Altaf A. Memon 2002).

Coastal Land Lost Due to continuous increase in the Indus withdrawals in Punjab, the outflow to sea has reduced to a great deal. Consequently, the costal ecosystem has been damaged. The degeneration of the natural resources has deteriorated human settlements compelling plenty of people of the coast to migrate to other areas in search of water and food. Former Sindh Minister of Irrigation, Ali Mir Shah, provided results of a survey conducted by the government of Sindh that over1.2 million acres land were eroded or lost to the sea within Thatta and Badin districts, dislocating a quarter million people, and inflicting financial losses over Rs.100 billion. The seawater had destroyed at least one-third of the land.

12 Recent estimates put the figure at 1.4 million acres of the land lost to the sea. Further 13 loss of land due to erosion and seawater is not out of the question as the water shortage continues unabated (Altaf A. Memon 2002).

Impact on Economy / Society Agriculture is the backbone of the country and the water flowing in the channels to the crops is its blood line. If there is shortage of water then the country should be prepared for facing problems economically as well as socially. According to the estimates of federal government, the agriculture sector would suffer a loss of about Rs. 90 billion because of drought. Since agriculture has remained a major source of shouldering the already crippled economy, it has a vital role to play particularly in terms of food security and employment of the everburgeoning population of the country. The adverse effects of water shortage on agriculture would have a spiraling effect on the prevailing level of poverty (Water crisis in Pakistan and its remedies 2014).

41

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

REMEDIES TO THE PRESENT WATER SHORTAGE Pakistan is agricultural region water is key for survival, water is lost due to mismanagement mainly. A big investment in the repair of existing dams and the large scale construction of new water storage is simple solution of problem. In managing water resources, the government of Pakistan must balance competing demands between urban and rural, rich and poor, the economy and the environment. However, because people have triggered this crisis, by changing their actions they have the power to prevent water scarcity from devastating Pakistanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, agriculture, and economy.

Effective management Managing water resources is the need of time, and Pakistan is already facing shortage in water.

The solution of this can save around 1.3 MAF of water from existing losses. Following are the recommendations in this regard: - Most of the water is lost due to seepage, infiltration and leakages etc. Seepage results in water logging eventually making the land less fertile. These losses can be eliminated by lining the canals and watercourses.

- In addition, people should be educated and aware to conserve water by cooperation and using it efficiently.

- Like many western countries the government should make laws on water conservation.

- The second largest contribution to the total water available comes from the groundwater sources. This source has been exploited and very well used by public and private tube wells. It can still provide over 9 MAF of water.

This source can be exploited and judiciously used for irrigation purposes. However in some areas ground water is rapidly depleting due to excessive pumping of water with tube wells, authorities should take control in such areas to save them from depleting and to use sources for recharging them.

- Efforts should be made to convert the present rotation based irrigation system to demand oriented system.

- There should be proper use of irrigation water and can be controlled by adopting modern irrigation techniques, that is trickling, sprinkling etc, which have a potential to im42

-

-

-

-

prove water distribution and its utilization.

Waste water should be re-used for the irrigation purpose.

Authorities should take appropriate steps to curb the illegal extraction of water and ensure its equitable distribution.

Presently irrigation department has failed to stop the illegal theft and extraction; thus irrigation distribution system needs to be privatized through water user associations.

In addition, water, now-a-days is supplied to farmers at a very negligible cost and that is why they do not treat water as a precious resource; therefore there is a need to increase the water prices to make irrigators realize the importance of this asset.

Farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s organizations, water user association, and private sector be involved in construction, operation, and maintenance of the irrigation system. Such associations are conceived as a mechanism for creating a cooperative frame work for improvement of watercourses.

Investigation - There should be Feasibility investigation of required sources in detail.

- Study for River basin development should be done for its all parameters.

- There should be Regional development policy applicable to the area using water.

- National development policy should be initiated in light of water rules.

- The above mentioned investigations are necessary to conduct that will help the socioeconomic and environmental development.

RECOMMENDATIONS - Food and fibre is the pressing need of every one, therefore proper management of water resources is necessary.

- Statistics of yearly water budget will help in effective planning of water resources.

- A one century old irrigation system is now posing the serious problem of water wastage through seepage; it requires proper rehabilitation at required level.

- The water users be awared properly about the importance, availability and effective use of water through social mobilization.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

- Institutional management, effective planning and wise use of water is the requirement of time.

- Furrow as method of cultivation and trickle as method of irrigation be implemented effectively.

- Water rights, rules and policies be framed to control wicked problems like tampering of modules, water theft and pilferage etc.

- Instead of land tax, now Tax be fixed on water quantity CONCLUSIONS More than 70% of the population lives in rural areas and the poorest of these communities depend heavily on exploitation of local natural resources for their livelihoods. Management becomes important when the productive resource is water and depleting day by day. Awareness through all possible means about the environment calls for reduced abstraction and higher quality return flows. A national policy is necessary to achieve sustainable agriculture growth.

The problem of water shortage be investigated up to its grassroots, then on the basis of that an effective solution be produced and implemented.

Growing urban concentration and industrialization along the rivers on one side led to the significant abstraction of fresh water and on other side put negative impacts on water quality. Therefore water balance, water quality and water accounting is must for sustainable water supply for all possible uses. Agriculture had contributed in Pakistan’s development in these various ways.

The government should announce policies which raise the productivity of agriculture in order to increase economic development. Government should familiarize modern ways of production through the introduction of technology in the area of agriculture. The government should also study land reforms as the large lands are more productive than the small ones and should also increase the ownership of land to remove feudalism. Effective and operative ways for agricultural sector will definitely enhance the development of the weak economy of Pakistan.

Salim Khoso is presently working as a lecturer in Quaid-e-Awam University college of Engineering, Science and Technology, Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan. He has completed his bachelor’s degree from the same university and has done his Master’s degree in Design of Steel Structures Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

from University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy. He is working on Seismic design of Steel structures, concrete structures and having an interest in Irrigation too. Mr Salim is an author of 4 publications that are presented in national conferences and published internationally. He is a member of Pakistan engineering council (PEC).

REFERENCES 1) Adebayo, A. (2007) Adaptive Water Management System in Nigerian Peri-urban Center, A paper presented at 4th Annual Association of Nigerian Geographers conference, held at University of Abuja, Nigeria, 15th -19th October, 2007 2) Allan, J.A. (1999) Productive efficiency and allocate efficiency: why better water management may not solve the problem, Agricultural Water Management 40,71-75.

3) Burton, M. (1999) Note on proposed framework and activities, Prepared for the IWMI.DSI.CEVMBER Research Programme on Institutional Support Systems for Sustainable Management of Irrigation in Water – Short Basins, Izmir.

4) Clarke, R. (1993) Water: The International Crisis Earth scan, London.

5) Cleaver, F. (1999) Paradoxes of participation: questioning participatory approaches to development, Journal of International Development 11, 597 – 612.

6) Enum Naseer (2013) Pakistan’s Water Crisis, Spread head Research Special Report 7) Gandapur Fateh Ullah Khan (2010) Silting is destructive for life of reservoirs and for agricultural development, Fateh Gandapur’s blog on Water issues in Pakistan.

8) Heathcote, I.W. (1998) Integrated Watershed Management. Principles and Practice. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

9) Iqbal Ali (1993) Irrigation and Hydraulic Structures Theory, design and practice.

10) Marella L. Richard (1998) Water Use Trends and Demand Projections in the Northwest Florida Water Management District, U.S. Geological Survey.

11) Mehta, I., (2000) Water for the twenty-first century; challenges and misconception, IDS Working Paper 111, IDS, Brighton.

43

Salim Khoso - An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures

12) Memon A. Altaf (2002) An Overview of the History and Impacts of the Water Issue in Pakistan, Proceedings of International Conference on “Sindh, the Water Issue and the Future of Pakistan,” The World Sindhi Institute, November 9, Washington, DC, 2002 13) Molden, D. (1997) Accounting for water use and productivity, SWIM Paper No.1, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

14) Sarvesh Chauhan (2013) The Role of Agriculture in Economic development of Pakistan, http://www.scribd.com/doc/47709856/Roleof-Agriculture-in-Economic-Development, retrieved on 28.01.2011

44

15) Story of Pakistan (2003) Indus Water Treaty, http://storyofpakistan.com/indus-water-treaty/ , retrieved on 1.06.2003.

16) Walton, W.K. (1970) The World of Water, Weilder Feld and Nicolson, London.

17) Water crisis in Pakistan and its remedies (2014),http://www.pakissan.com/english/watercrisis/water.crisis.in.pakistan.and.its.remedies.shtml, retrieved on 14.07.2014 18) Zahir Kazmi (2014), Pakistan’s Energy Security http://tribune.com.pk/story/655573/pakistansenergy-security/, retrieved on 07.01.2014 Paper sent to revision: 14.07.2014.

Paper ready for publication: 09.03.2015.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 311

Original Scientific Paper

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7210

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 312, 45 - 50

EPOXY RESIN AND RELEASE AGENTS PART I: INFLENCE OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RELEASE AGENTS ON THE ADHESIVE PROPERTIES OF EPOXY RESIN Dr Robert Bjeković University of Applied Sciences in Ravensburg- Weingarten, Germany Kinga Piotrowicz University of Applied Sciences in Ravensburg- Weingarten, Germany A wide range of epoxy resins are molded to produce composite components for various applications.

Release agents are generally used to facilitate the removal of the component from the mold. The work presented in this paper shows differences between release agents and resin during a RTM process. Adhesive properties of release agents in interaction with the resin are analyzed, with respect to pressure and temperature. It was found that the reaction of epoxy resin results indifferent breakaway forces from mould surfacesdepending on used agents.

Keywords:Epoxy resin, internal and external release agent, RTM (Resin transfer molding) process the shape of the finished part.

• The 2nd phase is mold filling during which Epoxy resin isone of the most important polyresin in injected into the cavity of a mold conmers, with applications in such fields asstructural taining the preplaced preform. adhesives, surface coatings, composite materi• The 3rd phase is resin curing which may start als and electronic devices and so on [03]. The induring or after the second phase. terest in epoxy resins is related to their attractive • The 4th phase is demolding which occurs afcharacteristics, including small shrinkage during ter the curing reaction comes to completion curing, good adhesion to substrates and electriand the part solidifies [01]. cal and mechanical resistance [13]. Moreover, epoxy resins have good thermal, dimensional, One of the important points of resin compositesis as well as electrical stability and, chemical resis- to select release agents properly according to intance.[03,05].Epoxy composites market is very teractions between resin and both mold surfaces fast evolving particularly for the high- perfor- and fibers. Most often these components are eimance composites. This is characteristic in the ther mixtures of esters, waxes, zinc and calcium automotive industry for short cycle time as chal- stearates or fluorocarbon and silicon complexes lenge for mass production [16]. The resin transfer [09]. Polymeric components are molded to parmolding (RTM) process is one of the widely used ticular shapes and release agents are used to famanufacturing process of composite structures in cilitate removal of the component from the mold the industry of transport (e.g. automotive) and air- [15]. The agent creates a very low surface energy craft [16]. Lately that process has more attention coating on a substrate, which allows the shaped in industry of many advantages [02].The material material to be released quickly and easy.Applied cost with RTM is much lower than with prepreg release agent causes elimination or reduction of technology. It creates a compromise in comparison adhesion on the surface of the mold, which is ofof manual lamination, autoclave molding and RTM ten difficult to achieve [14,17]. A well preparation process in terms of requirements, productivity and and precise application of these products durquality [10]. The typical RTM process cycle con- ing manufacturing process is very important. It takes time to prepare a clean surface of the mold sists of four phases: st • The 1 phase is preform manufacturing faultlessly and the right amount of agent has to which produces the fiber reinforcement in be applied. To be effective, the surface must be cleaned thoroughly to remove all traces of oils, * Hochschule Ravensburg-Weingarten - University of applied sciences, Gebäude H, Raum H022, Doggenriedstr., 88250 Weingarten; 45 INTRODUCTION

robert.bjekovic@hs-weingarten.de

Dr Robert Bjeković - Epoxy resin and release agents part I: influence of external and internal release agents on the adhesive properties of epoxy resin

,waxes or other impurities [04]. Release agents can be divided into two groups: external- products which are applied on the mold surface; and internal- which are combined with the resin system. Application of external release agentsis critical in ensuring their optimal performance. It can be applied by hand or using spray equipment. Traditional agents with problems that have already been resolved like safety concerns due to environmental and health issues have led to new alternative water-based products. The major disadvantage of the water-based release agents is a long time of evaporation and it is recommended to use them with heated molds. The recent alternative is to use a semi- permanent release agent [12], which are reactive resin solutions designed to cross- link and cure on the mold, providing inert release films[11,12].

Internal release agents are combined with the resin prior to molding. The agent is dissolved in the mixed resin. The time to apply an external agent on the surface compared to an internal agent is eliminated from the production process.

One main advantage of this type of release agents is robustness of processfor high volume manufacturing[12].

This paper presents the differences between the impact of the external and internal release

agents on the epoxy resins of the molding polymer. In practice,there are no suitable toolswhich can effectively classify effects of release agents.

Moreover, the influence of release agents on adhesion between mold surface and epoxy resin is investigated. The aim of this work was to identify suitable release agents for epoxy resins.

EXPERIMENTAL Materials used A standard epoxy resin of bisphenol- A (epichlorhydrin) type, suitable for construction and industry, with an average molecular weight of 700, supplied by Sika®,was used. The hardener 3aminomethyl- 3, 5, 5- trimethylcyclohexylamine, 2- piperazin- 1- ylethylamine, was modified by weightin a ratio of 100 to 24.

All release agents used in this paper are characterized in Table 1.

Preparation All samples were prepared by mixing a formulation of resin and hardener.

External release agent was applied to mold surface at room temperature. The mold was covered by triple coating layer of an external agent. Before

Table 1: Characterisation of release agents.

Producer/ Provider

Products

External release agent Axel Plastics Research Laboratories Ins (www.axelplastics.com)

XTEND 19RBU®- semi- permanent releases.

Chem- Trend (www.chemtrend.com)

Mold Sealer S-31® and Treil Part 310®-semi- permanent release agents.

Hacotech (www.hacotech.com)

Hacowax T1®- external release agent.

Henkel (www.henkelna.com)

Frekote 55 NC®, Frekote 700 NC® and Frekote 770®- semi- permanent release agents.

KVS Eckert & Woelk (www.kvsewo.de)

EWOmold 3721® and VP 094491®- external release agents.

Muench Chemie Internalional (www.muench-chemie.com)

Mikon 705 MC®, Mikon 34+® and Mikon W 38+®semi- permanent release agents.

Zyvax Inc (www.zyvax.com)

Watershield® and Enviroshield ®- solvent- free semi- permanent release agents.

Internal release agent WELA Handelsgesellschaft (www.wela-handelsgesellschaft.de)

Additive G- 161® and Additive G- 161®- internal release agents.

E. and p. Wuertz & Co KG (www.epwuertz.de)

PAT®657/ BW® and PAT®657/ BW- internal release agents.

46 48

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 312

Dr Robert Bjeković - Epoxy resin and release agents part I: influence of external and internal release agents on the adhesive properties of epoxy resin

applying an external release agent the surface has been thoroughly cleaned (Figure 1a). The sealer sealedeffectively all micro porosityon the tool surface (Figure 1b). The release agent was applied as a smooth wet film over an area in accordance to the specific instructions (Figure 1c).

The internal release agents were mixed with epoxy resin and hardener. The added amount of agents (1vol%, 2vol%, 3vol% and 5vol%) is related to the final mixture. For every test a 2 g sample was prepared. The samples were exposed at temperature of 80°C and pressure of 1MPa and were cured for 20 min. To facilitate the cleaning of the mold’s surface Surface Cleaner® and Mold Cleaner #3® were usedto clean surfaces after every test. The epoxy resin was applied on the

molds surface (diameter 90 mm). The used material was grinded steel (Figure 2b).

Testing method To test the external and internal release agent special geometrywas designed and integrated in the testing machine (Figure 2a). Base design is similar to the approach of University of Bayreuth [09].

Tests were carried out on an universal testing machine model Instron 5567 under controlled atmosphere conditions (23°C ±2 K) and a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min-1. Inside the mold, there were two heating elements (bottom and top) and one sensor PT100 in each plate to control temperature (Figure 2b).

Figure 1: Applying the release agent on the surface: a) cleaner, b) sealer and c) release agent [16].

Figure 2: An instruments a) Instron 5567 used for measurement, b) image of test stand in SolidWorks.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 312

47

Dr Robert Bjeković - Epoxy resin and release agents part I: influence of external and internal release agents on the adhesive properties of epoxy resin

All components were connected with the heating deviceas shown in (Figure 3).

Figure 4: Thermographic image of the heating surfaces Figure 3: The heating device for heating elements and sensors

The temperature accuracy between the mold surfaces was 80°C ± 2 K (Figure 4). The epoxy resin was applied, after mixing, to the bottom part. Defined distance between two mold surfaces was 0.5 - 0.7 mm. After completing, the epoxy resin has to be separated from the mold surface.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The analysis allowed determination of influence both of the external and internal release agents on the behavior of a resin systemin automated industrial processing. The differences in demolding forces emphasize that chemistry (which is usually not ordinarily known), must be considered for each system.

Figure 5: Breakaway force compared to different external and internal release agents

48

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 312

Dr Robert BjekoviÄ&#x2021; - Epoxy resin and release agents part I: influence of external and internal release agents on the adhesive properties of epoxy resin

Figure 6: Breakaway force with different concentration of % internal release agents

However, after the same time, the external release agent was not on the mold surface and the application process took time. Due to the impossibility of preforming measurements, the fact that all applied coat were different, needs to be taken into consideration. The assessment show that the presented method does not allow obtaining reproducible thickness of coatings.

It was proved that only one internal release agent PAT 554E with 5% of concentration is comparable to external release agents. In can be observed that Frekote 55 NC of 0,0045 MPa shows the low surface energy on a surface to compared Frekote 700 NC of 0,74 MPa. The below-presented graph demonstrates that not every release agent is suitable for this epoxy resin.

Figure 5 presents different amount 1%, 2%, 3% and 5% of internal release agents. The higher % concentration is determined by producer. There is a clearly defined pattern to the graph, and this can be taken to mean that with higher amount of % is the lowest surface energy. Nevertheless, Fig. 6 shows that minimum and maximum concentration of release agent has a influence on the results. Moreover, the release agent PAT 554 E of 5% presents the lowest energy on surface Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 312

under force of 0,08 MPa. The release agent PAT 554 E (1%, 3%, 5%) shows the best result compared to G-161, G-161x and PAT 657 BW. CONCLUSION This paper presents the influence of the external and internal release agents on the breakaway force of the bisphenol- A (epichlorhydrin) epoxy resin. The results clearly show that it is impossible to find an universal release agent for the epoxy resin. The difference between two release agents shows that only one of the external and internal release agent can create a very low surface energy on a substrate. It is shown that concentration of % internal release agent has a considerable impact on the results. With the rise of content of the internal release agent then decreases the value of force acting on the surface. However, repetition of the same % content of the agent does not correspond to the comparable result with the other agent. It depends on the chemical composition of substance, which is usually not given by manufacturer and on the chemical composition of resin with which it is used. Designation of external and internal release agent into existing reactive epoxy resin is an im portant step towards process automation.

49

Dr Robert Bjeković - Epoxy resin and release agents part I: influence of external and internal release agents on the adhesive properties of epoxy resin

Future work will be focused on the testing of different adhesive agents using a wide range of surfaces, higher temperatures and comparison of the similar epoxy resin to the one presented in this paper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank The Europe Union – Europäischer Fondsfürregionale Entwicklung (EFRE) - and Baden- Württemberg for their support.

REFERENCES 1) Advani S. G., Brusche M. V., Parnas R., Flow and rheology in Polymeric Composites Manufacturing , (Ed. Advani S. G), Elsevier, Amsterdam 1994, pp. 466- 479 2) Archim V., Ruiz E., Int J Master Form 2009,3 (S2), pp. 1277-1286 3) Coscaval C. N., Rosu D., Mititelu- Mija A., Rosu L., Polimery 2006, 51, pp. 199-205 4) Goss B., Reinforced Plastics 2004, 8, pp. 24-26 5) Hodkin J. H., Simon G. P., Varley R. J., Polym. Adv. Technol. 1998, 9, pp. 3-10 6) http://www.lange-ritter.de/fileadmin/user_ upload/Downloads/Produkte/Diverses/L_R_ Katalog_2013_Diverses_Formentrennmittel.pdf (access 2013) 7) Kang M. K., Jung J. J., Lee W. I., Composites Part A 2000, 31(5), pp. 407- 422

50

8) Karbhari M. V., Journal of material science letters 1998, 17, pp.2061-2062 9) Krämer J., Hähnel M., Fabris W., Altstädt V., ,,Classification of internal release agentsEvaluation of test facility and the effect on the neat epoxy resin properties’’, Thermosets, Berlin, Germany, 22 September, 2011 10) Naik K. N., Sirish A., Inani A., Progress in Aerospace Sciences 2014, 65, pp. 22-40 11) Plastic, Additives and Compoulding, Volume 1, Issue 1, April- May 1999 12) Reinforced Plastics, Volume 52, Issue 7, July- August 2008 13) Rosu L., Ciobanu C., Rosu D., Polimery 2008, 53, pp. 644-648 14) Scyidow F. T., Mansoori Y., TaghiNezhad J., Industrial Lubrication and Tribology2007,pp.236-241 15) Shield A. J, Hpburn D. M., Kemp J., Cooper J. M., Polymer Degradation and Stability 2000, 70, pp.253- 258 16) Workshop, Leichtbaufertigung mit Faserbundwerkstoffen, Ditzingen, Germany, 20 November, 2012 17) Würtz J., ,,Leistungs- und Qualitätssteigerung in der Serienproduktion durch interne Trennmittel‘‘, 17 Nationales Symposium SAMPE Deutschland e. V- Hochleistung und Großserie, Aacheln, Germany, 16-17 February, 2011 Paper sent to revision: 27.11.2014.

Paper ready for publication: 12.03.2015.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 312

Review Paper

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7727

Paper number: 13(2015)1, 313, 51 - 59

MODERN DESIGN AND CONTROL OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION AND THE PROSPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT Dejan Matijević The School of Electrical and Computer Engineering of Applied Studies, Belgrade, Serbia Ivan Ivanković* University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Vladimir Popović University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia The paper provides an overview of modern technical solutions of automatic transmissions in automotive industry with their influence on sustainable development. The objective of the first section is a structural view of specific constructions and control systems of presently used automatic transmissions, with emphasis on mechatronics implementation. The second section is based on perspectives of development, by integrating some branches of soft computing, such as fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks in order to create an optimal control algorithm for obtaining a contribution to fuel economy, exhaust emission, comfort and vehicle performance.

Key words: Automatic transmission, Mechatronics, Automotive industry, Soft Computing INTRODUCTION Almost all automobiles in use today are driven by internal combustion engines, which are characterized by many advantages, such as relatively good efficiency, relatively compact energy storage and high power – to – weight ratio [07].

But, fundamental disadvantages are: • Incapability to produce torque from rest (zero engine speed) and relatively low torque at small engine rpm ; • an internal combustion engine only produces maximum power at a certain engine speed; • fuel consumption is strongly dependent on the operating point in the engine’s performance map; It is not hard to conclude that speed characteristic of internal combustion engine is not the most appropriate for the vehicle movement with a high efficiency. The desired characteristic is “ideal traction hyperbola” which can be obtained only by maximum available engine power Pmax through all vehicle speeds [07].

The area below the ideal traction hyperbola in the traction diagram, shown on Figure 1 for vehicle with a four speed gearbox, could be used for vehicle movement. Upper limitation is related to maximum traction force between tires and road,

which is depended by coefficient of friction and normal load on the drive axle. Lower limitation is defined by maximal speed that vehicle can reach. Shaded areas between traction forces through gears are power losses. To decrease power losses and to be as closely as possible to the ideal traction hyperbola, the gearbox with enough gear ratios is needed.

Figure 1: Traction diagram for a vehicle with for four speed gearbox [06]

Besides characteristics of drivability, which should be satisfied by certain type of transmission for specified vehicle, there are also requirements related to the fuel consumption, installation space, comfort, convenience and product costs. It is not easy to fulfill all these demands, but because of high competition, great efforts have been made in the field of research and development.

* University of Belgrade, Faculty of mechanical engineering, Kraljice Marije 16, Belgrade, Serbia.; iivankovic@mas.bg.ac.rs

51

Dejan Matijević- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

It was reflected on automatic transmissions too, because from the beginning of series vehicle production, it has been tended to processes automatization. Gear changing automatization has crucial impact on traffic safety, because driver gets much less tired than with manual transmission, where is demanded constant changing of gear ratio according to the road conditions and traffic situations. This is especially important for city driving.

Despite higher complexity, there are less negative effects on gearbox sustainability and reliability caused by driver’s unprofessional handling with automatic over manual transmission.

Utilization of planetary gear sets enabled much greater number of gear ratios than it is possible to obtain with manual transmission (for commercial vehicles up to 18). Continuously variable transmissions have theoretically an infinite number of gear ratios, what leads to maximal approximation of ideal traction hyperbola.

But even today, when benefits of control systems and mechatronics utilization are clearly evident, many people especially in Europe (where percent of sold passenger cars with AT is only 15 to 20 percent, while in North America and Japan this percentage goes up to 80 to 90 [02]) believe that automatic transmission are too much expensive for maintenance and that are less reliable because of their complexity and connections with other electronic systems in the vehicle, without deep understanding of their advantages. But, automatic transmission utilization differs through vehicle segments, and it is shown on Figure 2.

Of course, the highest percentage of their application is in Luxury segment. Small and Mini segments are economically unsuitable for installation of automatic transmissions. It is important to notice a positive grade in automatic transmission usage in Sports segment in the last few years and the reasons for that are decreasing of gear shifting time (especially with DCT transmissions) and better utilization of engine performance.

Figure 2: Market share of vehicles with automatic transmissions (in %) through years

ELECTRONIC TRANSMISSION CONTROL Electronic control of automatic transmissions represents an integration of electrics, electronics and hydraulics. The basic functions are achieved by use of sensors, actuators and appropriate software in the transmission control unit (TCU).

Advanced functions include networking of the control units into one global system, what enables information exchange between them, by 52

CAN communication as it is shown on Figure 3.

It leads to reduction of costs and complexity while increasing diagnostic functions and reliability.

Basic automatic transmission control systems are: • Automated manual transmission (AMT); • Hydrodynamic mechanical transmission (HMT); • Continuously variable transmission (CVT); • Dual clutch transmission (DCT); Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

Dejan Matijević- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

Figure 3: Communication between electronic control units by CAN protocol [06]

AUTOMATED MANUAL TRANSMISSION (AMT) The automated manual transmission combines the advantages of manual transmissions with function of automatic transmission [01]. The greatest advantage of this transmission is high efficiency which is characterized for manual transmissions. Their automatization leads to lower specific fuel consumption over manual transmission controlled by average driver. It enables lower level of CO2 emission, which is one of the most important global issues. Also, by avoiding an installation of the clutch pedal, the increasing safety with operating comfort and convenience are achieved.

Two basic types of this kind of transmission are: • Electric-motor clutch management (ECM); • Automated shift transmission (AST); The basic difference between these two types of transmissions is higher level of automatization of the AST because there is no mechanical connection between the selector lever and the transmission, as it is shown on the Figure 4. Examples of application ECM systems are: Mercedes A – Class, Fiat Seicento and Hyundai Atoz. Examples of application AST systems are: VW Lupo, MCC Smart and Opel Corsa Easytronic [01]. In conventional systems of manual transmissions, the maximal clutch torque must be 50% to 150% higher than defined maximal engine torque. The reasons for that are strong fluctuations of the torque on the flywheel, especially with modern diesel engines, and the requirement that the clutch must transfer engine torque under all extreme conditions.

To decrease these negative effects, function of torque correction during gear shifting is implemented in the control system of AST. This method not only that achieves smoother control of the Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

process, but it also enables faster gear shifting.

It is achieved because the clutch torque is only marginally above the engine torque. The regulation process enables dropping the clutch torque at the moment when the driver takes his foot off the accelerator pedal, Figure 5.

a. ECM b. AST 1. Available signals 2. Clutch actuator with integrated ECM ECU 3. Gear recognition 4. Shift-intention recognition on shift lever 5. Clutch actuator with integrated AST ECU 6. Transmission actuator 7. Selector lever

Figure 4: Review of ECM and AST systems [01]

Figure 5: Review of clutch and engine torque control during gear shifting 53

Dejan MatijeviÄ&#x2021;- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

HYDRODYNAMIC MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION (HMT) The main component of hydrodynamic mechanical transmission is a torque converter. The torque converter is a power take-up element, which works as an additional gear in the start-up range and also serves to damp vibrations [01]. Torque converter is connected to the crankshaft of the engine by flex drive plate. The flex drive plate also has a function to decrease torsion rigidity of the transmission and with massive torque converter, filled with automatic transmission fluid, there is no need for heavy and expensive dual mass flywheel to smooth stresses and vibrations coming from the engine. Function of multiplying engine torque is achieved by stator assembly, located between the pump and the turbine assembly in the torque converter. Characteristic of the torque converter is shown on the Figure 6.

The most important basic functions of Hydrodynamic mechanical transmission control are the shift point control, the lockup converter clutch control and engine torque control during shifting [02]. The basic shift point control, which is related also for other transmission control types, uses shift maps which are stored in the unit memory.

The shift point limitations are defined by minimal and maximal engine speed. To avoid frequent shifting between two gears under certain engine load and vehicle speed, the hysteresis between the upshift and the downshift characteristic is embedded. To improve this basic function and to obtain higher hysteresis between upshift and downshift characteristics, an adaptive function is incorporated. It can be achieved only by software changes with use of already existing components in the system. The simplest transmission control takes into account just three parameters. These are vehicle speed (determined by the transmission output speed), the throttle position as indicator of engine load and the accelerator pedal position as driver command. The adaptive function uses vehicle acceleration, as additional parameter, which is calculated from transmission output speed over time. Calculated or actual vehicle acceleration is compared with set value which is determined from traction resistance characteristic and depends from actual vehicle speed and engine load. Basic principle of adaptive shift point control is shown of Figure 7.

Figure 6: Characteristic of the torque converter [01] It can be noticed from the diagram on the Figure 6, that there is a converter area v<85 % with maximum efficiency up to 90 %, and the clutch area v>85 % when a one-way clutch is activated in order to obtain mechanical connection between pump and turbine assembly. This leads to increased efficiency up to 97 %, because fluid slip is eliminated, but there is no torque conversion. In order to accomplish enough gear ratios, for this type of transmission in luxury vehicles usually seven or eight speeds are available, planetary gear sets are used. Different gear ratios are achieved by coupling certain elements of planetary gear sets by bands and clutches.

They are regulated by electro hydraulic actuators, controlled by electronic transmission control unit.

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Figure 7: Basic principle of adaptive shift point control [07] By this way, the shift point correction is obtained what leads to better control of the process and possibility for implementation of different shift maps into the database of the transmission conJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

Dejan MatijeviÄ&#x2021;- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

trol unit (TCU). For example, one shift map can be adopted for low fuel consumption, which has shift points in the range of best efficiency of the engine, and the other one should enable highest engine output power. The selection of appropriate shift map can be done by the driver, with a selector push button or a switch.

Function of lockup torque converter clutch is important for reducing power losses caused by converter slip. For increasing the efficiency it is necessary to close the clutch as often as possible. But beside function of increasing torque, the torque converter is an important component to prevent vibrations coming from the engine. It can be concluded that the clutch activation is a compromise between low fuel consumption and driving comfort. Situations in which the clutch is certainly open are, driving in the first gear, during shifting process and under high torque demand with low engine speeds. Reasons for it are obtaining torque increase for improved acceleration and reduction the level of vibrations under non stationary conditions. In other driving situations which are mainly defined by constant load, the clutch should be closed. Torque converter clutch is controlled by on/off solenoid, pressure regulator or a PWM solenoid.

Like with automated manual transmission, a function of engine torque control during shifting must be incorporated to the process regulation.

For obtaining that function, a communication with engine management system is crucial. Depending of engine type and system of mixture formation different methods of engine torque control are possible. For gasoline engines the fastest regulation process is achieved with an ignition angle. It is also used for idle speed regulation.

The advantage over throttle valve position regulation, which is characterized by its inertia and need for parallel correction of injection time for obtaining defined lambda factor of the mixture, is shorter response time of the system. Injection quantity correction is applied for diesel engines and beside variation of injection time it also includes injection pressure correction (Common Rail - CR, Unit Pump System-UPS, Unit Injector System - UIS). The parameters of engine torque regulation are defined by calibration data for each combination of the engine, gearbox and the vehicle, so regulation process is controlled by transmission input speed in order to obtain synchronization during gear shifting process.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

Generally, during downshift process a short interruption of the tractive power transfer should occur to minimize undesired vibrations incurred by higher revolving energy. During upshift process a torque reduction should be obtained in order to decrease power losses.

CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE TRANSMISSION (CVT) Principle of operation of continuously variable transmission is based on infinite number of gear ratios and because of that its theoretical efficiency is higher than other transmission systems.

Because transfer and transformation of power parameters are accomplished by friction element, which is crucial for CVT operation, due to slipping, power losses are higher as higher power transfer is requested.

The largest number of CVT units is made with a belt as wrap element. Figure 8 shows the structure of the most common pulley based CVT systems. If two cones of the pulley fall apart, the diameter of the pulley becomes small; while they are close, the diameter of the pulley is large. Because the length of the driving belt is fixed, when the diameter of the drive pulley becomes small, the diameter of the driven pulley must become large by closing two cones of the pulley together, and vice versa [13].

Figure 8: Pulley based CVT [04]

Rubber belts have tendency for straining and slipping, what is the reason for reducing its efficiency. Entering of new materials makes CVT transmission more efficient and reliable. One of design improvements is metal belt, which comprises two steel strips connected with thin highly resistant metal. Metal belts are not slipping and 55

Dejan MatijeviÄ&#x2021;- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

with them CVT transmission can transfer higher loads. Also they produce less noise than rubber belt. For greater demands, steel chain could be used as wrap element. It is also flexible, but much more strength than any other element. System with steel chain is implemented with sensor of torque for ensuring enough tension with optimal

contact pressure. Depending of the chosen friction elements there are different types of variatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s principles which could be in use. Example of mechatronic unit for CVT transmission with both controlled pulleys and the torque converter is shown on Figure 9, and its operating principle on Figure 10.

Figure 9: Mechatronic unit for CVT Transmission [06]

Figure 10: Scheme of control CVT Transmission [06]

The main component of this mechatronic unit is line pressure solenoid valve, which regulates the pressure from a pump in a range 5 - 60 bar.

At idle the pressure is 15 bars. Reason for such high pressures is demand for high transmission efficiency, which could be achieved only by strong clamping force of the belt, to decrease belt slippage as much as possible. For achieving sufficient clamping force on the belt, secondary pressure solenoid is responsible. Also, there is a solenoid for the primary pulley, but before the pressurized fluid comes into that solenoid, it must pass through ratio control valve, which 56

is via pulley ratio linkage controlled by stepper motor. For this mechatronic circuit, stepper motor is the least reliable part of the system. But stepper motor enables more precise control, because its proper activation is a condition for gear ratio changing. All CVT units have a planetary gear set for reverse operation and two clutch packs for forward and reverse motion. If there is a torque converter, there are solenoids for lock up clutch regulation. Because torque converter offers good starting response, pulleys transmission ratios could be beneficial to over drive range so large ratio span could be covered. In order Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

Dejan Matijević- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

to achieve better efficiency TCC PWM Solenoid regulates the pressure of the fluid in a range 0 - 10 bars, and there is a TCC Lock-Up On/Off regulator for activating torque converter clutch lock up as soon as possible.

DUAL CLUTCH TRANSMISSION (DCT) Dual clutch transmission (DCT) presents the further development of the automated shift transmission (AST), designed and developed by Audi and Volkswagen, with first application in 1992 in motor racing car. This type of transmission has a high efficiency because power transfer is achieved by clutches instead of fluid coupling.

Construction of DCT is similar as manual transmission, with application of collar, synchronizer and gear set in order to perform gear shift.

Biggest advantage of DCT is fast gear shifting, without interruption of the tractive force, what enables relatively low fuel consumption. [01,13] Dual clutch transmission is characterized by two main shafts and associated clutches in its structure, one for odd (1st, 3rd,5th) and the other for even gears (2nd, 4th, 6th), as it is shown on Figure 11.

ing to neutral first in order to adjust the spinning speed of the input shaft, and just after to shift to the next gear. The mechatronics of DCT are housed in the gearbox, surrounded by oil. They comprise an electronic control unit and an electro-hydraulic control unit. The mechatronics form the central control unit in the gearbox. All sensor signals and all signals from other control units come together at this point and all actions are initiated and monitored from here. By hydraulic means, it controls and regulates gear actuators via pressure modulation valves and selector valves, but it also controls the pressure and flow of cooling oil for both clutches. The Mechatronics assembly can adapt to learn the positions of the clutches, the positions of the gear actuators for each specific gear and the main transmission fluid pressure. Example of electro-hydraulic control unit is shown on Figure 12 [11].

Figure 12: Electro-hydraulic control unit for DCT [11]

DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRANSMISSION CONTROL ALGORITHMS

Figure 11: Basic construction of dual shift transmission [13]

As soon as computer detects that the spinning speed of the input shaft is too high, for example in the first gear, it prepares the next speed, by engaging 2nd gear’s collar to the 2nd gear. Only after that, the clutch for the odd gears should disengage, and the 2nd gear’s input shaft should engage. For smoother application, despite short gear shifting time, it is possible to perform “double clutching” what could be obtained by shiftJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

In 2013. Rolls – Royce engineers designed Satellite Aided Transmission, new control system where the transmission control unit is connected to Global Position System (GPS) receiver [09].

With this kind of communication, vehicle control system can determinate road profile in front of the vehicle, so gear shift prediction could be achieved.

Therefore vehicle performance and fuel economy could be improved, with higher comfort, because problems of inadequate gear shifting on a slope or in a curve could be avoided. But entering navigation systems has even more sense for complex control systems of automatic transmission, which include adaptive functions of self learning.

One of the crucial steps in developing of software is calibration process. Because transmission control is nearly connected to the engine management and many other systems, fulfilment of many opposite requirements which should be meet in the best manner for every system in every driving situation, is practically impossible to 57

Dejan MatijeviÄ&#x2021;- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

describe with defined mathematical model. Modern software development processes demand very little human interference, or even their complete absence in calibration process. Therefore, fuzzy logic as a branch of logic that uses the degree of participation of some element in the system, more than just strictly true or false definition of its membership, will be very used in modern control systems. Introduction of fuzzy logic is further encouraged by increasing the number of variables which should be calibrated. With fuzzy logic as basis, artificial neural network could be designed. The main advantage of this approach is online training using real-time vehicle data and adaptive calibration on control capability.

[08] The block diagram of described algorithm is shown on the Figure 13.

Figure 13: Block Diagram of the Gear Shift Algorithm with adaptive control [10]

The inputs of the controller are signals from sensors and GPS system and according to them controller determinants appropriate gear ratio, but it also has a feedback from driver intervention, to update the membership functions in the real time so it can accommodate better different driving patterns in the future. The advantages of this control will be shown by comparing it with the simplest (traditional) control, which takes into account just vehicle speed, throttle valve angle and accelerator pedal position as input parameters. Problems in traditional control are expressed especially during driving on the road slope. During uphill driving, the driver releases the gas pedal before entering the curve to reduce vehicle speed and in traditional observation of just a vehicle speed and throttle valve angle, upshift could be done. But right after the curve, driver presses the accelerator pedal to increase speed, when the downshift must occur. During 58

downhill driving, because of decreasing throttle valve angle, the control unit will upshift what directly reduces the engine brake effect. Desired flexible shift control, besides basic input parameters, also observes factors such as, road grade, steering angle, vehicle acceleration and vehicle mass, toward to achieve better performance, fuel and emission characteristics, so unnecessary gear shifting could be avoided.

CONCLUSION Automatic transmissions for vehicles with internal combustion engines could be broadly divided, according to their principle of operation, into four described concepts (AMT, HMT, CVT and DCT). All four concepts are widely used today, but in different share according to the market demands.The most used are of course HMTs because of the long history of usage and development. People in Europe generally more prefer manual transmission, so even development of automatic transmission was determined by automatization of that well known operating principle. Thus was created AMT system. Also, robotization of the manual transmission designed DCT, characterized by high efficiency, high bearing forces, no interruption of the tractive force and fast gear shifting. As already mentioned, in Japan and USA there are much more vehicles with automatic transmissions than in Europe.

Especially in Japan, the most popular solution is CVT because of its features such as, optimal fuel consumption in entire engine map, high ratio span, high comfort and improved driveability. There is a growing interest of usage of CVT concept all around the world, but it refers only for lower vehicle segments, caused by power transfer limitations, related to the slipping of the friction element. Its greater application is also related to common use of CVT concept on hybrid vehicles.

Hybrid transmissions are specific subset of automatic transmissions. Depending on the concept of hybrid systems different constructions of hybrid transmissions are in use. In many hybrid vehicles is used a constantly variable drive ratio, without relying on belts and pulleys. This can be accomplished by proper regulation of electric motors, whose output characteristics are the most similar to the desired ideal traction hyperbola over other types of powertrain. It should be mentioned that simpler hybrid vehicles use a conventional CVT, or even conventional manual or hydrodynamic mechanical transmission.

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Dejan Matijević- Modern design and control of automatic transmission and the prospects of development

But hybrid transmissions also include devices for power splitting between power sources, and their proper regulation, by hybrid control system is crucial for obtaining desired output performance in accordance with fuel economy and battery state of charge. Regardless of the type of automatic transmission and the type of power source it is obvious that in future control strategies of ATs will be more and more complicated.

The issue of gear shifting optimization still represents a real challenge to scientists and experts in the field of motor vehicles, because only optimized gear shifting enables the best possible relation between vehicle motion regimes and engine working regimes [03,02]. Toward a contribution to gear shift optimization many parameters will be observed with implementation of adaptive functions which will compare actual (measured) and set (calculated) value of some signals in order to obtain functionality of the system in defined limits. It will be very apparent further integration of electronic transmission control system into one global system which will also include GPS navigation, capable to predict appropriate gear ratio according to operating state of the vehicle and road conditions, taking into account desired vehicle performance, fuel economy, exhaust emission, traffic safety, comfort and convenience, in order to obtain maximal efficiency.

For accomplishing such a complicated goal application of fuzzy logic is very perspective, especially when control algorithms are upgraded with artificial intelligence. It is quite evident that further contribution to automatic transmissions will be obtained through more mechatronics usage, networking and soft computing application. It is also well known that maintenance management has a delay in relation to technical development (Management Gap) [12]. In order to compensate this negative fact for the maintenance systems of large fleets of vehicles, probably sophisticated expert systems for problem solving will be developed. A significant influence for maintainability these complex and networked systems will have engineers in research and development departments through integration of proper safety and diagnosis functions into the control algorithms.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is a result of two important projects financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (project number TR 35045 – “SciJournal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1, 313

entifi c-Technological Support to Enhancing the Safety of Special Road and Rail Vehicles” and TR 35040 – “Developed New Methods for Diagnosis and Examination Mechanical Structures”).

The authors wish to express their gratitude to all persons who helped making this paper better.

REFERENCES 1) Bauer, H. (editor) (2004) Electronic Transmission Control ETC, Stuttgart, Robert Bosch GmbH. 2) Blagojevic, I., Ivanovic, G., Jankovic, S., Popovic, V. (2012) A model for gear shifting optimization in motor vehicles, Transactions of FAMENA, 36 (2), 51-66.

3) Blagojevic, I., Vorotovic, G., Ivanovic, G., Jankovic, S., Popovic, V. (2012) Energy efficiency improvement by gear shifting optimization, Thermal Science, 17(1), 91-105.

4) http://auto.howstuffworks.com/cvt2.htm, preuzeto 3.2.2015.

5) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnuuZd9seg, preuzeto 3.2.2015.

6) Jurgen, R.,Denenberg, J. (1999) Automotive Electronics Handbook (2nd ed), New York, McGraw-Hill.

7) Naunheimer, H., Bertsche, B., Ryborz, J., Novak, W. (2011) Automotive Transmissions – Fundamentals, Selection, Design and Application (2nd ed), Berlin, Springer-Verlag 8) Poliščuk, J.E. (2004) Ekspertni sistemi, Podgorica, Faculty of Electrical Engineering.

9) Stanojevic, D., Spasojevic, V., Stevanovic, I., Nedic, A. (2013) The contemporary automatic gearboxes - Review of the current state and interpretation of advantages and disadvantages of their use with respect to vehicle performance and traffic safety, Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 11(2), 89-97.

10) Sun, Z., Habbale, K. Challenges and Opportunities in Automotive Transmission Control, In proceedings of American Control Conference, June 8-10, 2005, Portland, 3284-3289.

11) The 02E Direct Shift Gearbox – Design and Function, Self Study Program, Course Number 851 403 (2004), Auburn Hills, Volkswagen of America, Inc. 12) Vasic, B. (2004) Menadžment i inženjering u održavanju, Beograd, Institut za istrazivanja i projektovanja u privredi.

13) Yao, C.-H. (2008) Automotive Transmissions: Efficiently Transferring Power from Engine to Wheels, ProQuest Discovery Guides.

Paper sent to revision: 13.02.2015.

Paper ready for publication: 12.03.2015.

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EVENTS REVIEW

X SYMPOSIUM RESEARCH AND DESIGN FOR INDUSTRY 11th-13th December 2014 X Symposium Research and design for industry, was opened on 11th December. X Symposium were organized by Redaction of leading national scientific journal: Journal of Applied Engineering Science and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade.

Key speakers at the opening ceremony were: • Mr. Željko Sertić, Minister of Economy of the Republic of Serbia and • Prof. dr Milorad Milovančević, Dean of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade.

After opening ceremony, the authors have presented their papers which are positively reviewed and published in proceedings of X Symposium Research and design for industry.

Symposium was organized under the patronage of Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.

The aim of Symposium were introduction of wide professional public with results of local and international projects, whose final results are significant for both individuals and for the entire local economy.

Symposium show results of launched and realized projects in domestic economy to scientific institutions and public companies, as well as knowledge, methods, tehniques and standards that contribute or can contribute their more efficiency implementation.

VIII SCIENCE CONFERENCE PNEUMATICI 2014 12th-13th, December Serbian chamber of commerce The aim of organizations was to get together experts who are involved in development, manufacturing, sales, retreading, exploitation and maintenance of tires, as well as researching in this area. Research shows that tires represent large participation in vehicle exploitation costs. Also, indicates that concern about tires is insufficient and that they are neglected in aspect of maintenance. That equally refers to drivers of passenger’s cars, traffic companies and companies which activity includes using of vehicles. Also, tires which are fault are the most frequently cause of vehicle stop. Thus, tires are important for traffic safety.

Key speaker at the opening ceremony was: Dr Miloš Petrović, the State Secretary-Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Serbia Topic areas, which were presented through papers at conference, were: • • • • • •

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New materials for tire manufacturing; Tire pressure monitoring systems; Application of software for tires design; Devices and objects for tire maintenance; Rubber waste handling New regulations in area of tire exploitation;

• • • •

Retreading of tires; Tires and traffic safety; Vehicle dynamics; Experiences in tire exploitation

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1

ANNOUCEMENT OF EVENTS

OMO 2015 will present the results of the ongoing and completed projects in the domestic economy, scientific institutions and public companies, as well as the knowledge, methods and techniques, standards that contribute to or which may contribute to their efficient implementation.

OMO will be organized through presentations of authors papers, large amount of round tables and informal discussions.

We invite interested authors to submit papers in the field of mechanical engineering, transport, construction, economy, energy, management, electrical engineering, agriculture, tourism, water industry and IT technologies.

Special attention will be given to the following topics: •

Industrial and infrastructure maintenance;

Important dates: • 30th April, 2015 - Informations about accepted papers;

•

Strategies Maintenance Management;

•

29th May, 2015 - Submission of final papers;

•

Maintenance and Manufacturing - technology, services, solutions and tools;

•

18th June, 2015 - Opening ceremony, Faculty of mechanical engineering, Belgrade;

•

Energy efficiency in industry;

•

•

Safety, health and environmental protection;

23rd-26st June, 2015 - Working sessions, Budva, Montenegro, Hotel Mogren.

•

Risk Management;

•

Quality Management.

All accepted papers published in the Proceedings of the OMO 2015 will be submittied to the database Thomson Reuters for indexing, Google Books, and Google Schoolar. Uppon positive review, the most interesting papers will be published in a leading national scientific journal (M51) Journal of Applied Engineering Science and indexed in Scopus.

Contact for detail informations: Tel: +38111 6300 751; +38111 3302 451; E-mail: nstanojevic@mas.bg.ac.rs; Fee: 120 EUR or 15.000,00 RSD

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Discount for the academic community Members of the academic community are entitled to 30% discount.

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ANNOUCEMENT OF EVENTS

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BOOK RECOMMENDATION Recomended by mr Nada Stanojević RISKS IN THE FIELD OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS Author: Boban Đorđević Preface When one finds himself in a situation to write a few words about something completely new, something that has no precedent in our theory nor in practice, besides having a special honor, one also has a great responsibility to make real initial impulse to a highly professional debut, with own overview, and properly present it to those to whom it is intended. This book is a debut in all. It is an innovation in many different aspects. The author’s intention itself, to explain something that is new in professional theory and practice, as it was mentioned before, was real epistemological tabula rasa until now, it is a risk which shoes us that it must be a very interesting reading.

Thus, the topic itself is already a great and unfamiliar novelty to us. Further, another novelty is author’s intention to develop the topic in extremely professional and modern context, in the same way as it done in developed world. Also new is that someone among us, has for the first time, located and analyzed in detail, risks in civil engineering and building that derive from our law regulations, as well as from the most important and most widely spread model, or more accurately said, contacting principle of constructional ventures which is FIDIC. These are only some examples which explain how much novelties this book will bring (in theory and practice) in these regions, in one of, by global measures, most important areas in civil engineering, which is a risk. In the age of low level civil engineering technology, construction building, especially of complex constructions, was the most important thing of every constructional contract. It was, I can freely say, some kind of fetish and fascination by technique, placed concrete amounts, asphalting kilometers, construction heights, bridge ranges. Today, when construction building is trivialized in terms of technique (omitting the complex constructions), basic principle of building is changed - it is not to build the object by any means, but the basic aim of building is that all participants of building, at the end of the day, make profit. At this moment, the developed world realized a necessity to dedicate great attention to a new category which is risk. Risk, in everyday colloquial meaning, also in a new, specialized meaning of a generally known term, is now connected attributes such as detection, allocation, quantification and management. With this, professional value of this book is invaluable. Because of the fact that this book is not only the first in which explanations for this topic can be found, but also because it explains the risks in an exceptionally professional and detailed way, thus it is very hard to find pendant for this book even beyond our borders. This book, in the encounter tête-à-tête, beats all which I have read in this area. In front of you is not an easy content. This book requires attention and efforts during reading, because the matter is complex, and is related to practically all aspects of building, and as all delicious food (in the case for the brain), it must be consumed with certain dedication of a real connoisseur. But efforts will be rewarded – readers will find out many exceptionally interesting and important things about overall process of leadership in a building project, in general, and about risk, and will especially get unique information and knowledge. Briefly, this book is, and will be for a long time, one valuable tutorial and practicum.

Slobodan Mitrović, civil engineer Belgrade, december 2013.

Format B5; 187 pages; ISBN 978-86-85225-07-9; Published: 2014.

Journal of Applied Engineering Science 13(2015)1

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHOURS The benefits of publishing in Journal for Applied Engineering Science are: • No page charges • World wide exposure of your work • Accelerate publication times • Online author service • Automatic transfer of metacontent in SCOPUS, SJR, SCIndeks and other bases supporting international protocols for data transfer • Assignment of numerical identifiers DOI • Fair, constructive and able to follow reviewing process • Dedicated team to manage the publication process and to deal with your needs Submission of the papers has to be done online, trough journal e-service at http://aseestant.ceon.rs/index.php/jaes/login For assistance during the process of submission and publication, please contact graphical editor Mr. Darko Stanojevic at dstanojevic@iipp.rs or +381 116300750 Every manuscript submitted to JAES will be considered only if the results contained in the paper were not already published, that are not currently in the process of publishing and not to be published in another journal. Each paper is sent to a review by two independent experts and the authors are obligated to adopt the observations and comments of the reviewers.

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHOURS Units - standard SI symbols and abbreviations should be used.

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REFERENCES must be written in alphabetical order and in the following form: Journal: /Number/ (must match number in the text), Last name, Initial of the authors name, (Year of publication). Article title: secondary title. Title of the Journal (italic), volume number (number of the journal), page number. /1/ Sekulić, D., Dedović, V. (2008): Simulation of oscillatory behavior of buses with conventional and active suspension systems, Journal of Applied Engineering Science, Vol. 6, No. 20, pp. 23-32 Book: /Number/ (must match number in the text), Last name, Initial of the authors name, (Year of publication) Book title: secondary title, Place of publishing: Publisher. /2/ Vasić, B., Popović, V. (2007) Inženjerske metode menadžmenta, Beograd: Institut za istraživanja i projektovanja u privredi.

Book chapter: /Number/ (must match number in the text), Last name, Initial of the authors name, (Year of publication) Chapter title: secondary title, Book title: secondary title, Place of publishing: Publisher, page numbers. /3/ Vasić, B. (2004) Model Hardverskog resursa, Menadžment i inženjering u održavanju, Beograd: Institut za istraživanja i projektovanja u privredi, 95 – 97.

Internet source: /Number/ (must match number in the text), link to the page from which the text is taken, retrieved on (state the date) /4/ http://www.autogume.net/veleprodaje/kelena/, retrieved on November 7th, 2010

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SADRŽAJ

Prof. dr Dragan Milutinović UVODNIK

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REZIMEI RADOVA Irina Makarova, Rifat Khabibullin, Gennady Mavrin, Dmitry Zhdanov, Vadim Mavrin, Eduard Belyaev, Ilnar Suleymanov TRANZICIJA KA ZELENOJ EKONOMIJI U RUSIJI: TRENUTNI I DUGOROČNI IZAZOVI

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Dr Sergey Nikolskiy, Dr Nikolay Vatin, Olga Pertseva MOGUĆNOST METODE UBRZANJA ZA ODREĐIVANJE OTPORNOSTI BETONA NA MRAZ

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Dr Aleksandr Sergejevič Ljevčenko, Anatolij Andrejevič Rudičev, Irina Anatoljevna Kuznecova, Jelena Aleksandrovna Nikitina KONKURENTNA STRATEGIJA KAO INSTRUMENT POVEĆANJA POSLOVNE AKTIVNOSTI INDUSTRIJSKOG PREDUZEĆA

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Dr Vesna Spasojević-Brkić, Dr Zorica Veljković, Tamara Golubović ISPUNJENJE ZAHTEVA ZA IZVOZ PROIZVODA METALSKE INDUSTRIJE PREKOGRANIČNE OBLASTI SRBIJE I BIH NA TRŽIŠTE EU

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Salim Khoso, Farhan Hussain Wagan, Abdul Hanan Tunio, Abdul Aziz Ansari PREGLED RAZVOJA NASTAJANJA NESTAŠICE VODE U PAKISTANU, NJIHOVIH UZROKA, UTICAJA I MERA

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Dr Robert Bjeković, Kinga Piotrowicz EPOKSIDNA SMOLA I AGENSI OTPUŠTANJA I DEO: UTICAJ SPOLJAŠNJIH I UNUTRAŠNJIH AGENSA OTPUŠTANJA NA SAMOLEPLJIVA SVOJSTVA EPOKSIDNE SMOLE

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Dejan Matijević, Ivan Ivanković, Dr Vladimir Popović SAVREMENO PROJEKTOVANJE, UPRAVLJANJE I PRAVCI RAZVOJA AUTOMATSKE TRANSMISIJE

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UVODNIK NAUČNO-STRUČNI SKUP: ODRŽAVANJE MAŠINA I OPREME Od kada je, pre više od četiri decenije, osnovana Novinsko Izdavačka Radna Organizacija Održavanje Mašina i Opeme (NIRO OMO), praktično istovremeno su pokrenuti časopisi Fluidna Tehnika i OMO, a nešto kasnije su počeli i čuveni Majski Skupovi Održavalaca, organizovani širom Jugoslavije. Od 1988. godine, prvo nezvanični, a nešto kasnije i zvanični, suorganizator skupova postaje Mašinski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu i to zahvaljujući prof. dr Jovanu Todoroviću. Dr Ljubiša Papić, sa Tehničkog fakulteta u Čačku, praktično samostalno održava OMO u životu tokom nekoliko godina, a na temeljima tog iskustva, osniva DQM Centar, koji koji pomaže OMOu, naročito u izdavačkoj delatnosti. Od 1992. godine, i dolaska na mesto Glavnog urednika časopisa OMO, Branka Vasića - asistenta Mašinskog fakulteta, i časopis i skup dobijaju novi oblik, nove čitaoce i autore. Osnivanjem Istraživackog centra (današnjeg Instituta za istraživanja i projektovanja u privredi), krajem 1994. godine, OMO dobija i finansijsku i organizacionu i kadrovsku podršku. Nova era OMO skupova počinje sa osnivanjem Društva Održavalaca Tehničkih Sistema Srbije i Crne Gore - DOTS, 2003. godine, čemu je najviše doprineo Dejan Curović, stručni saradnik Mašinskog fakulteta. Međunarodnu reputaciju OMO počinje da gradi od ulaska DOTS-a u članstvo European Federation of National Maintenance Societies - EFNMS, čiji punopravni član postaje 2004. godine, zahvaljujući angažovanju Nade Stanojević, stručnog saradnika Mašinskog fakulteta, u Generalnoj skupštini, Bordu i drugim telima EFNMS-a.

Ovogodišnji OMO će se posvetiti proslavi svog velikog jubileja, ali će se baviti i dalje svojim osnovnim temama: Asset Management-om, upravljanjem održavanjem tehničkih sistema, kao i održavanjem druge imovine preduzeća. Realizuje se kroz izlaganje radova, panel diskusije i okrugle stolove u kojima učestvuju eminentni stručnjaci iz naučne i stručne javnosti. Cilj ovakvog okupljanja je da se javnost upozna sa koncepcijom, potrebama, preduzetim akcijama, ostvarenim rezultatima u ovoj oblasti u prethodnih godinu dana, kao i mogućnostima i perspektivama razvoja ili, ako ne zvuči rogobatno - održivim održavanjem.

Na inicijativu potpisnika ovog Uvodnika, u okviru OMO 2015 poseban osvrt biće dat i tehnologijama reverznog inženjerstva i brze izrade prototipova.

Prof. dr Dragan Milutinović

Primena tehnologija reverznog inženjerstva i brze izrade prototipova postaje sve važnija u oblasti održavanja mašina i opreme. Česta potreba da se urgentno izradi oštećeni ili pohabani deo za neku mašinu ili deo opreme za koju nema rezervnog dela, dokumentacije ili CAD modela, imperativno nameće potrebu za primenom reverznog inženjerstva kao efikasne i vrlo upotrebljive tehnologije. Reverzno inženjerstvo po pravilu prati i primena tehnologije za brzu izradu prototipova. Posebno mesto u ovoj tehnologiji zauzima brza izrada funkcionalnih prototipova, odnosno oni postupci koji omogućavaju izradu delova koji su u stanju da barem privremeno obavljaju svoju funkciju. Svaki proizvod, mašina, oprema ili uređaj podrazumevaju da u životnom ciklusu prolaze kroz faze koncipiranja, projektovanja, konstruisanja, gradnje (izrade) i održavanja.

Potrebe za brzim odgovorima na sve oštrije zahteve konkurencije su nametnule razvoj novih tehnologija kao što je simultano ili konkurentno inženjerstvo, koje na paralelan način obuhvata ove pomenute faze u nastanku proizvoda, koje se kao i u konvencionalnim slučajevima, smatraju za tzv. direktno inženjerstvo. Pored CAD/CAM-a okosnicu simultanog inženjerstva čini i tehnologija brze izrade prototipova.

Problemi koji se mogu pojaviti kod odžavanja mašina i opreme, a koje tehnologije reverznog inženjerstva i brze izrade funkcionalnih prototipova mogu efikasno rešiti se ukratko mogu sumirati na sledeće: (i) urgentna potreba za rezervnim delom ili njegovom reparacijom; (ii) originalna dokumetacija dela je nedostupna; (iii) proizvođač je obustavio proizvodnju svog proizvoda, kao i rezervnih delova za održavanje.

Primena reverznog inženjerstva svoju važnu ulogu dobija upravo tokom održavanja mašina i opreme. Mašine i oprema moraju stalno biti u funkciji jer svaki izgubljeni sat zbog njihovog otkaza je gubitak novca i kašnjenja u rokovima. Mnogi problemi vezani za održavanje mašina i opreme u radno sposobnom stanju se mogu rešavati primenom tehnologija reverznog inženjerstva i brzom izradom funkcionalnih prototipova.

U ovom uvodniku, stavio sam naglasak na primenu reverznog inženjerstva, koja će biti jedna od glavnih tema na predstojećem OMO 2015 skupu. Imajući u vidu da će OMO 2015 predstaviti rezultate tekućih i završenih projekata u domaćoj privredi, naučnim institucijama i javnim preduzećima, kao i znanje, metode, tehnike i standarde koji doprinose ili mogu doprineti razvoju u ovoj oblasti, zadovoljstvo mi je da vas pozovem da predate vaše autorske radove i uzmete učešća na ovom naučnom skupu.

Prof. dr Dragan Milutinović, Gost uvodničar Mašinski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu

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REZIMEI RADOVA doi:10.5937/jaes13-7566

Broj rada: 13(2015)1, 307

TRANZICIJA KA ZELENOJ EKONOMIJI U RUSIJI: TRENUTNI I DUGOROČNI IZAZOVI Irina Makarova, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Rifat Khabibullin, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Gennady Mavrin, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Dmitry Zhdanov, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Vadim Mavrin, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Eduard Belyaev, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Ilnar Suleymanov, Federalni Univerzitet Kazanj, Rusija Danas, mnogi veruju da nema drugog načina za postizanje ekološke stabilnosti osim tranzicije ka ekonomiji orijentisanoj ka životnoj sredini. U urbanim područjima, glavni izvor zagađivača su industrijska preduzeća i automobilski transport. Za smanjenje uticaja na životnu sredinu neophodne su metode za kontrolu kvaliteta vazduha. Specifično, istraživanje u ovom pravcu je usmereno ka razvoju sistema kontrole za gradski transport radi predviđanja odgovora životne sredine za promenu parametara saobraćaja i preduzimanje odgovarajućih mera za poboljšanje situacije. U ovom radu predstavljene je metoda kontrole transportnog sistema, zasnovana na simulacionom modelu, i način njene implementacije. Optimizacioni eksperiment zasnovan je na simulacionom modelu podešavanja parametara delova saobraćajne mreže grada za pogodno donošenje odluka. Eksperimentisani model omogućio je uvođenje optimalne gustine saobraćaja i prosečne trenutne mere, bez isključenja kvota zagađenja, i proračun posledica promene u broju vozila na saobraćajnicama gradova. Eksperiment je sproveden u gradu Naberezhnye Chelny u Rusiji.

Ključne reči: Autoput;Maksimalna dostupna koncentracija;Intezitet; Saobraćaj;Vazduh

doi:10.5937/jaes13-6553

Broj rada: 13(2015)1, 308

MOGUĆNOST METODE UBRZANJA ZA ODREĐIVANJE OTPORNOSTI BETONA NA MRAZ Dr Sergey Nikolskiy, Politehnički državni Univerzitet Sankt Petersburg, Rusija Dr Nikolay Vatin, Politehnički državni Univerzitet Sankt Petersburg, Rusija Olga Pertseva, Politehnički državni Univerzitet Sankt Petersburg, Rusija U ovom istrazivanju sprovedena je teoretska analiza zavisnosti otpornosti betonskih obrazaca na mraz i energije oslobodjene obrazcima pri razrusenju, na osnovu cega predlazemo novi metod za odredjivanje otpornosti betona na mraz. Predlozeni metod ukljucuje u sebe merenje preostale deformacije obrazaca posle termickih ciklusa, a takodje duge i kratkovremene predele jacine. Otpornost obrazaca na mraz izracunava se kao odnos energije potrebne za potpuno unistenje obrazca, ka energiji, oslobodjenoj obrazcom posle jednog termickog ciklusa. Otpornost obrazca na mraz izracunata je kao prosek otpornosti obrazca na mraz. Predlozeni metod karakterise nizak intenzitet rada, velika brzina i ne zahteva specijalnu opremu, ali su potrebni dodatni laboratorijski testovi.

Ključne reči: Akustička emisija; Nerazrušujuće opterećenje;Dilatometrijski metod; Beton; Otpornost na mraz;

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REZIMEI RADOVA doi:10.5937/jaes13-7859

Broj rada: 13(2015)1, 309

KONKURENTNA STRATEGIJA KAO INSTRUMENT POVEĆANJA POSLOVNE AKTIVNOSTI INDUSTRIJSKOG PREDUZEĆA Dr Aleksandr Sergejevič Ljevčenko, Tehnološki Univerzitet Belgorod, Rusija Anatolij Andrejevič Rudičev, Tehnološki Univerzitet Belgorod, Rusija Irina Anatoljevna Kuznecova, Tehnološki Univerzitet Belgorod, Rusija Jelena Aleksandrovna Nikitina,Tehnološki Univerzitet Belgorod, Rusija Održanje stabilnog ekonomskog razvoja poslovnog subjekta, kao i rast njegove konkurentnosti zahteva obavezno povećanje nivoa poslovne aktivnosti na osnovu usavršavanja procesa njegovog strategijskog upravlјanja. U radu je predložen mehanizam razrade konkurentne strategije poslovnog subjekta koji može da obezbedi transparentnost i predvidlјivost njegovog poslovanja. Praktično ostvaranje razrađene strategije je moguće pre svega putem opredelјenja prioritetnih smerova razvoja preduzeća na osnovu aktivacije klјučnih elemenata poslovne aktivnosti. Obrazloženjem toga se javlјa nemogućnost da se u praksi obezbedi istovremeni rast svih komponenta poslovne aktivnosti preduzeća bez obzira koliko su povezane između sebe.

Ključne reči: Pokazatelji poslovnih aktivnosti; Mehanizmi; Finansijske aktivnosti; Poslovne aktivnosti;Konkurentna strategija

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7785

Broj rada: 13(2015)1, 310

ISPUNJENJE ZAHTEVA ZA IZVOZ PROIZVODA METALSKE INDUSTRIJE PREKOGRANIČNE OBLASTI SRBIJE I BIH NA TRŽIŠTE EU Dr Vesna Spasojević-Brkić, Univerzitet u Begradu, Mašinski fakultet, Srbija Dr Zorica Veljković, Univerzitet u Begradu, Mašinski fakultet, Srbija Tamara Golubović, Univerzitet u Begradu, Mašinski fakultet, Srbija Izvoz na tržište Evropske unije podrazumeva slobodan protok ljudi, proizvoda i usluga kao i širok spektar mogućnosti za preduzeća, ali takodje uključuje i niz poteškoća i zahteva koji se u tom cilju moraju ispuniti. Kako je izvoz u EU izazov za preduzeća metalske industrije u Srbiji i Bosni i Hercegovini, u ovo istraživanje je uključeno 20 malih i srednjih preduzeća iz prekogranične oblasti - Sarajevskog i Zlatiborskog okruga, tradicionalno orijentisanih ka izvozu, kako bi se poboljšale aktivnosti vezane za ispunjenje zahteva za izvoz proizvoda metalske industrije iz datih oblasti. Analizirane su statistički značajne razlike uticajnih parametara na ispunjenje zahteva za izvoz proizvoda metalske industrije u prekograničnoj oblasti Srbije i BIH na tržište EU, finansijsko stanje i ulaganje u obuku zaposlenih, primena Direktiva novog pristupa, posedovanje standarda sistema menadžmenta i dr.

Rezultati analiza su pokazali da najveći problem u obe regije predstavljaju finansijska sredstva za ispunjenje formalnih zahteva, a izvozna barijera sa najvišom vrednošću u obe regije je nedostatak državne pomoći i podsticaja. Shodno sprovedenom emprijskom istraživanju u radu su date preporuke preduzećima metalske industrije obe regije. Istraživanje ispunjenja zahteva za izvoz proizvoda metalske industrije na tržište EU u prekograničnoj oblasti Srbije i BIH pruža mogućnost da se preduzeća iz datih regija povežu i podstaknu da, kroz primenu i razmenu savremenih znanja i veština, evropskih procedura i standarda, podizanje tehnološkog nivoa i zajedničke promotivne nastupe, postanu konkurentnija.

Ključne reči: Mann-Whitney U*-Test; Sarajevski i zlatiborski region; EU tržište; Zahtevi za izvoz;

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doi:10.5937/jaes13-6445

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PREGLED RAZLOGA NASTAJANJA NESTAŠICE VODE U PAKISTANU, NJIHOVIH UZROKA, UTICAJA I MERA Salim Khoso, Quaid-e-Awam Univerzitet, Inženjerski koledž-nauka i tehnologije (QUCEST) Farhan Hussain Wagan, Quaid-e-Awam Univerzitet, Inženjerski koledž-nauka i tehnologije (QUCEST) Abdul Hanan Tunio, Assign Engineering Consult Intl.

Abdul Aziz Ansari, Quaid-e-Awam Univerzitet, Inženjerski koledž-nauka i tehnologije (QUCEST) Dve trećine zemljine površine pokriveno je vodom, te je jasno da voda predstavlja jedan od najvažnijih elemenata života. Voda nije od vitalnog značaja samo za potrebe života, već je podjednako značajna i za socio-ekonomski razvoj. Voda je jedinstveni poklon Boga i osnova za nastanak i opstanak života. Zbog visoke nemarljivosti i nepogodne eksploatacije prirode od strane ljudi, globalna životna sredine podložna je svakodnevnim promenama.

Kao rezultat, izvori vode se iscrpljuju postepeno. Zemlja se suočava sa najvećom krizom nedostatka vode u poslednjih nekoliko godina, te je voda u sve manjoj upotrebi za različite svrhe. Rapidni porast populacije, rast urbanih i industrijskih zona sve više utiče na zagađenje izvorišta vode. Šta više, izgradnja više rezervoara i efikasni strateški menadžment su pitanje vremena. Problem nedostatka vode, naročito u Sindu je od ključne važnosti za krajnje korisnike nižih obalnih sistema za navodnjavanje u slivu Inda.

Ključne reči: Sliv Inda;Curenje;Ekonomija;Energetsko akumuliranje; Poljoprivreda; Nedostatak vode

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7210

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EPOKSIDNA SMOLA I AGENSI OTPUŠTANJA I DEO: UTICAJ SPOLJAŠNJIH I UNUTRAŠNJIH AGENSA OTPUŠTANJA NA SAMOLEPLJIVA SVOJSTVA EPOKSIDNE SMOLE Dr Robert Bjeković, Univerzitet primenjenih nauka u Ravensburgu, Nemačka Kinga Piotrowicz, Univerzitet primenjenih nauka u Ravensburgu, Nemačka Veliki opseg epoksidnih smola se koristi za kompozitne komponente u razlicitim oblastima proizvodnje.

Sredstva za otpuštanje se uobičajno koriste da olakšaju vađenje tih komponenata iz kalupa. Ovaj rad pokazuje razlike između sredstava za otpuštanje i smole u toku RTM procesa. Lepljive osobine sredstva za otpuštanje vezani za pritisak i temperaturu analizirani su u interakciji sa smolom. Pronalasci su da reakcija epoksidne smole sa sredstvima za otpuštanje prouzrokuje različite snage potrebne za razdvajanje.

Ključne reči: RTM proces; Unutrašnje i spoljašnje sredstvo za otpuštanje; Epoksidna smola

doi:10.5937/jaes13-7727

Broj rada: 13(2015)1, 313

SAVREMENO PROJEKTOVANJE, UPRAVLJANJE I PRAVCI RAZVOJA AUTOMATSKE TRANSMISIJE Dejan Matijević, Visoka škola elektrotehnike i računarstva strukovnih studija, Beograd Ivan Ivanković, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet, Beograd Dr Vladimir Popović, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mašinski fakultet, Beograd Rad predstavlja pregled savremenih tehničkih rešenja automatske transmisije u automobilskoj industriji sa pogledom na njihov uticaj na održivi razvoj. Cilj prvog dela rada je strukturalni prikaz specifičnih konstrukcija i sistema upravljanja koji su danas u upotrebi kod automatske transmisije, sa naglaskom na implementaciju mehatronike. Drugi deo je zasnovan na perspektivi razvoja, integrisanjem nekoliko grana “soft computing”-a, kao što su fazi logika i veštačka neuronska mreža sa ciljem stvaranja optimalnog kontrolnog algoritma za dobijanje doprinosa u smanjenju potrošnje goriva, izduvne emisije, povećanje komfora i performansi vozila.

Ključne reči: Soft computing”; Automobilska industrija; Mehatronika; Automatska transmisija 70

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