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From Négritude to Coolitude General
Define me pray: What is a coolie? One caught by his neck And thrown over deck? I am Lascar, Malabar, Madras tamarind from the bazaar Telegu to tell all to you...
By Clare Anderson
C
oolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora aims to conceptualize the nineteenth-century dissemination of Indian labour in new and productive ways. Coolitude is a politically and intellectually ambitious book, and those with no knowledge of postcolonial theory will find it a challenging read, especially as there is no index to aid navigation of its complex ideas. Paralleling the ideas of ‘Negritude’ and Créolité pioneered by African and Caribbean intellectuals in the 1950s and 1960s, this book deploys the concept of ‘coolitude’ to describe and encapsulate the distinctive characteristics of the streams of indentured Indian migrants that shaped modern nations such as Mauritius, Trinidad, Guyana, Fiji, and influenced others like Guadeloupe, Martinique, East and South Africa. In doing so, it emphasizes their shared history. Marina Carter is perhaps the best-known historian of indentured immigrants in Mauritius, and has long wrestled with the epistemological problems of subaltern invisibility. Khal Torabully, descendant of a Lascar community (of Indian Ocean seafarers), is an acclaimed poet and film-maker based in France. The result of their collaboration is a collection of many previously unpublished texts, poems, and sketches that explore Indian plantation experiences and deconstruct traditional depictions of indentured migrants across the British Empire. Given its authorship, it is perhaps no surprise that Coolitude is a fundamentally postmodern work. It combines empirical research with artistic immersion into what Carter and Torabully describe as ‘the world of the vanished coolie’. The authors deconstruct representations of indentured labourers, seeking to move beyond both contemporary notions and historical reappraisals of their socio-economic ‘otherness’. Historical imaginings of the experiences of indentured labourers are thus central to their efforts to redefine and re-appropriate the ways in which indentured immi-
Hill Coolies landing at the Mauritius
grants coped with life on the plantation and produced meaningful forms of self and collective identity. Towards these ends, the authors explore the distortions and silences of the archives and early colonial literature, and assess the work of contemporary writers like V.S. Naipaul and Salman Rushdie. In this imaginative redefinition of the experiences of indentured labourers, the voyage across the sea (kala pani, or ‘black water’) is given special significance. It is described as a decisive experience that left an indelible stamp on the ‘landscape’ of coolitude, a place for the destruction and creation of identities. Moreover, the authors argue, this sea voyage encapsulates the essence of all migratory journeys, and the struggles, disappointments, and hopes of the coolie are those of universal human experience. In their evaluation of life on the plantation, Carter and Torabully go on to untangle the ways in which indentured migrants were ‘thrice victimized’: by nineteenth-century contemporaries who described them as pariahs among free men, by early literary accounts which rendered them exotic, and by historians who recast them as little more than slaves. By contrast, the authors explore ways in which Indians attempted to resist conditions on the plantation. These themes will be familiar to those who know the authors’ earlier work, particularly Carter’s nuanced reinter-
pretations of a system that other historians have uncritically presented as ‘a new system of slavery’. A new departure, particularly for Carter, is the exploration of ‘indenture heritage’: the experiences of the descendants of migrants and their feelings of social stigma. It is a pity that this is not examined more in-depth; the authors could have used the twentieth-century literary texts that they draw on elsewhere, as well as the recent work of anthropologists and others. Nevertheless, the interdisciplinary musings of Coolitude will appeal to historians and literary theorists of the Indian diaspora, as well as those interested in slavery and other systems of unfree labour. < - Carter, Marina and Khal Torabully, Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora, London: Anthem South Asian Studies (2002), pp.243, ISBN 1-84331-006-6
Bibliography - Carter, Marina, Voices from Indenture; Experiences of Indian Migrants in the British Empire, London: Leicester University Press (1996). - Dabydeen, D. and B. Samaroo (eds), Across the dark waters: ethnicity and Indian identity in the Caribbean, London: Macmillan (1996). - Dhawan, R.K. (ed.), Writers of the Indian Diaspora, New Delhi: Prestige (2001). - Torabully, Khal, Chair Corail, Fragments Coolies, Guadeloupe: Ibis Rouge Edns (1999).
Dr Clare Anderson is senior lecturer in the School of Historical Studies, University of Leicester. Her work and publications are on nineteenth-century incarceration and convict transportation across South Asia and the Indian Ocean. She currently holds a three-year Economic and Social Research Council research fellowship for the project British Penal Settlements in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, 1773-1906. ca26@le.ac.uk
Taken from the book under review
Review >
Speaking Peace Women’s Voices from Kashmir Review > South Asia
Kashmir has followed a model of ‘development’ that has bred a generation of children who ask for AK 47 guns as birthday gifts. This is but the logical fall-out of the military presence and a level of violence that has already claimed some 70,000 lives, left 4,000 missing and a million displaced, and bequeathed a ‘widow population’ of more than 15,000. Speaking Peace: Women’s Voices from Kashmir is a collection of essays depicting the world and the lives of the women of Kashmir, torn apart by politics, militancy, and war-like violence.
By Biswamoy Pati
L
ack of proper health care, education, irrigation, and industry; the legacy of Partition, human rights violations, displacement, and resurgent conflict, these are among the daunting problems that plague the state of Jammu and Kashmir, to which Urvashi Butalia draws attention in her introduction. The essays of this book illustrate the way violence has disrupted the lives of common people and affected women, irrespective of their religious identities. Pamela Bhagat’s essay focuses on women’s health issues in the Kargil district. For women who face under-nourishment at home and have to depend on women’s healthcare systems (in the Kargil district hospital, without women doctors until 1984), the dividing line between life and death can be razor 34
thin. As stated by a female doctor, pregnancies are the most serious health problem faced by women. The lack of basic knowledge on natal/post-natal care and family planning methods leads to multiple pregnancies, misery, and even death for a large number of rural women. Sahba Husain’s chapter complements Bhagat’s essay by focusing on the way personal traumas have impacted upon women. Interviewing doctors and patients at two government psychiatric hospitals in Srinagar, she chronicles cases of depression, sleep and anxiety disorders, and heart-related problems. Despite the increase in the number of patients from 1,700 in 1971 to 32,000 in 1999, the number of psychiatrists in the hospital (five) has remained the same. Neerja Mattoo’s chapter discusses the women’s college (Government College) set up in 1950. She examines the shift-
IIAS Newsletter | #33 | March 2003
ing profile of the institution where she studied and, later on, taught. The builtin structure of discrimination ensured that before 1950 even very talented women were barred from higher education. Mattoo recounts the sheer vibrancy of the institution and how religion was absent from college life until 1990. After 1990, grenades, bombs, and religious extremism/fundamentalism frightened away many female students. An extract from Krishna Mehta’s This happened in Kashmir recounts the brutalities that visited Kashmir during the 1947 Partition. Shakti Bhan Khanna and Kshama Kaul continue on this theme, focusing on the ‘second partition’ of Kashmir that led Non-Muslims, such as Kashmiri Pandits, to leave the Valley. Woven around the authors’ personal experiences, these chapters focus on forced displacement and the scars it
can leave on women. Their essays also illustrate how little people learn from the past. Sonia Jabbar’s chapter outlines the massacre of Sikhs at Chittisinghpora, and the brutalities that so often accompany the stigmatization of ‘otherness’. The chapter by Uma Chakravarty raises vital issues related to human rights violations and the way these have devastated families and traumatized those women who have survived. These brutalities raise questions about the identity of women, aspirations of a people and the hopeless rot that can set into any region where civil society breaks down and military solutions and crisis management techniques are resorted to. A report reproduced from the Indian Express written by Muzamil Jaleel recounts how the Bharatiya Janata Party grabbed hold of the home of Krishna Kotru, a Kashmiri Pandit, and converted it into its party headquarters after she was forced to flee Srinagar. For two years she petitioned government officials, including the Union Minister L.K. Advani, but to no avail. The local party leader, the Minister of Civil Aviation,
even told Krishna that were the Bharatiya Janata Party to remove its signboard from her house, it would appear as if the party had vanished from Kashmir. Such vignettes not only illustrate little-known aspects of the displacement of Kashmiri Pandits, but also reveal the real face of political parties that claim to represent ‘Indian nationalism’ in Kashmir. Taken together, the chapters of this socially engaged book comprise a laudable effort to give space to the voices of women, voices that are normally difficult to ‘hear’ and that are now further ‘veiled’ by the near war-like situation. < - Butalia, Urvashi (ed.), Speaking Peace: Women’s Voices from Kashmir, London: Zed Books (2003), pp. 314, ISBN 1-84277209-0
Dr Biswamoy Pati is reader in History at Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi, India, with a particular interest in the social history of colonial and postcolonial India. biswamoypati@hotmail.com