American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Science issue 13 vol 1 by IASIR

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734 ISSN (Online): 2328-3696 ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688

Issue 13, Volume 1, 2 & 3 December, 2015-February, 2016

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR) (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

STEM International Scientific Online Media and Publishing House Head Office: 148, Summit Drive, Byron, Georgia-31008, United States. Offices Overseas: Germany, Australia, India, Netherlands, Canada. Website: www.iasir.net, E-mail (s): iasir.journals@iasir.net, iasir.journals@gmail.com, aijrhass@gmail.com

PREFACE We are delighted to welcome you to the thirteenth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS). In recent years, advances in science, engineering, formal, applied and natural sciences have radically expanded the data available to researchers and professionals in a wide variety of domains. This unique combination of theory with data has the potential to have broad impact on educational research and practice. AIJRHASS is publishing high-quality, peer-reviewed papers covering topics such as Business administration, Management, Marketing, Finance, Economics, Banking, Accounting, Human resources management, Entrepreneurship, Relationship management, Risk management, Retail management, Linguistics, International relations, Anthropology, Archaeology, Sociology, International business, Tourism and hospitality management, Law, Psychology, Corporate governance, Education, Ethics, Geography, History, Industrial relations, Information science, Library science, Media studies, Philosophy, Political science, Public administration, Sociology, Social welfare, Literature, Performing arts (music, theatre and dance), Religious studies, Women studies, Production and operations management, Organizational behavior and theory, Strategic management & policies, Statistics and Econometrics, Technology and innovation, Management information systems and other closely related field in the disciplines of arts, humanities and social sciences.

The editorial board of AIJRHASS is composed of members of the Teachers & Researchers community who are enthusiastically involved in the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge to discover new paths for maintaining a strong presence in the arts, the humanities and the social sciences which can easily be coupled with the information and communication technologies. These fields respect objective and logical reasoning to optimize the impact of research in social, economic and cultural, quality of life to understand the advancements in humanities, arts and social sciences. These fields are the pillars of growth in our modern society and have a wider impact on our daily lives with infinite opportunities in a global marketplace. In order to best serve our community, this Journal is available online as well as in hard-copy form. Because of the rapid advances in underlying technologies and the interdisciplinary nature of the field, we believe it is important to provide quality research articles promptly and to the widest possible audience.

We are happy that this Journal has continued to grow and develop. We have made every effort to evaluate and process submissions for reviews, and address queries from authors

and the general public promptly. The Journal has strived to reflect the most recent and finest researchers in the fields of humanities, arts and social sciences. This Journal is completely refereed and indexed with major databases like: IndexCopernicus, Computer Science Directory,

GetCITED,

CRCnetBASE,

Google

DOAJ,

SSRN,

Scholar,

TGDScholar,

Microsoft

Academic

WorldWideScience, Search,

INSPEC,

CiteSeerX, ProQuest,

ArnetMiner, Base, ChemXSeer, citebase, OpenJ-Gate, eLibrary, SafetyLit, SSRN, VADLO, OpenGrey, EBSCO, ProQuest, UlrichWeb, ISSUU, SPIE Digital Library, arXiv, ERIC, EasyBib, Infotopia, WorldCat, .docstoc JURN, Mendeley, ResearchGate, cogprints, OCLC, iSEEK, Scribd, LOCKSS, CASSI, E-PrintNetwork, intute, and some other databases.

We are grateful to all of the individuals and agencies whose work and support made the Journal's success possible. We want to thank the executive board and core committee members of the AIJRHASS for entrusting us with the important job. We are thankful to the members of the AIJRHASS editorial board who have contributed energy and time to the Journal with their steadfast support, constructive advice, as well as reviews of submissions. We are deeply indebted to the numerous anonymous reviewers who have contributed expertly evaluations of the submissions to help maintain the quality of the Journal. For this thirteenth issue, we received 92 research papers and out of which only 52 research papers are published in three volumes as per the reviewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; recommendations. We have highest respect to all the authors who have submitted articles to the Journal for their intellectual energy and creativity, and for their dedication to the field of humanities, arts and social sciences.

This issue of the AIJRHASS has attracted a large number of authors and researchers across worldwide and would provide an effective platform to all the intellectuals of different streams to put forth their suggestions and ideas which might prove beneficial for the accelerated pace of development of emerging technologies in formal, applied and natural sciences and may open new area for research and development. We hope you will enjoy this thirteenth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences and are looking forward to hearing your feedback and receiving your contributions.

(Administrative Chief)

(Managing Director)

(Editorial Head)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS), ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 (December, 2015-February, 2016, Issue 13, Volume 1 , 2 & 3). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BOARD MEMBERS

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EDITOR IN CHIEF Prof. (Dr.) Waressara Weerawat, Director of Logistics Innovation Center, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Divya Sethi, GM Conferencing & VSAT Solutions, Enterprise Services, Bharti Airtel, Gurgaon, India. CHIEF EDITOR (TECHNICAL) Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Raturi, Head School of Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala campus, Suva, Fiji Islands. Prof. (Dr.) Hadi Suwastio, College of Applied Science, Department of Information Technology, The Sultanate of Oman and Director of IETI-Research Institute-Bandung, Indonesia. Dr. Nitin Jindal, Vice President, Max Coreth, North America Gas & Power Trading, New York, United States. CHIEF EDITOR (GENERAL) Prof. (Dr.) Thanakorn Naenna, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London. ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Fabrizio Gerli, Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Vit Vozenilek, Department of Geoinformatics, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Praneel Chand, Ph.D., M.IEEEC/O School of Engineering & Physics Faculty of Science & Technology The University of the South Pacific (USP) Laucala Campus, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

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Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Dr. Cathryn J. Peoples, Faculty of Computing and Engineering, School of Computing and Information Engineering, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. Prof. (Dr.) Pavel Lafata, Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, 166 27, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anis Zarrad, Department of Computer Science and Information System, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Md. Rizwan Beg, Professor & Head, Dean, Faculty of Computer Applications, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Engg. & Information Technology, Integral University Kursi Road, Dasauli, Lucknow, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vishnu Narayan Mishra, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath Mahadev Road, Surat, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India. Dr. Jia Hu, Member Research Staff, Philips Research North America, New York Area, NY. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bindhya Chal Yadav, Assistant Professor in Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College, Fatehabad, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. REVIEW BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Joel Saltz, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

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Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Pravin G. Ingole, Senior Researcher, Greenhouse Gas Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, KOREA Prof. (Dr.) Dilum Bandara, Dept. Computer Science & Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. Prof. (Dr.) Faudziah Ahmad, School of Computing, UUM College of Arts and Sciences, University Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman Prof. (Dr.) G. Manoj Someswar, Principal, Dept. of CSE at Anwar-ul-uloom College of Engineering & Technology, Yennepally, Vikarabad, RR District., A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Abdelghni Lakehal, Applied Mathematics, Rue 10 no 6 cite des fonctionnaires dokkarat 30010 Fes Marocco. Dr. Kamal Kulshreshtha, Associate Professor & Head, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Applications, Modi Institute of Management & Technology, Kota-324 009, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anukrati Sharma, Associate Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Natarajan, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, NH 47, Salem Main Road, Komarapalayam, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu 638183, India. Prof. (Dr.) J. Sadhik Basha, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Prof. (Dr.) G. SAVITHRI, Department of Sericulture, S.P. Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shweta jain, Tolani College of Commerce, Andheri, Mumbai. 400001, India Prof. (Dr.) Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar, Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Prof. (Dr.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Manjulatha, Dept of Biochemistry,School of Life Sciences,University of Hyderabad,Gachibowli, Hyderabad, India. Prof. (Dr.) Upasani Dhananjay Eknath Advisor & Chief Coordinator, ALUMNI Association, Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science, Narhe, Pune- 411 041, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudhindra Bhat, Professor & Finance Area Chair, School of Business, Alliance University Bangalore-562106. Prof. Prasenjit Chatterjee , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MCKV Institute of Engineering West Bengal, India. Prof. Rajesh Murukesan, Deptt. of Automobile Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering college, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Parmil Kumar, Department of Statistics, University of Jammu, Jammu, India Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Shesha Prakash, Vice Principal, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Alanahally, Mysore-570 028 Prof. (Dr.) Piyush Singhal, Mechanical Engineering Deptt., GLA University, India. Prof. M. Mahbubur Rahman, School of Engineering & Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth Western Australia 6150, Australia. Prof. Nawaraj Chaulagain, Department of Religion, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL. Prof. Hassan Jafari, Faculty of Maritime Economics & Management, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, khoramshahr, Khuzestan province, Iran Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad , Dept of EC, School of Engg, R.K.University,Kast urbhadham, Tramba, Rajkot-360020, India. Prof. (Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, ( Women's University), Tirupati-517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. P.R.SivaSankar, Head, Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science( AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. Manoj Chouhan, Deptt. of Information Technology, SVITS Indore, India.

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Prof. Yupal S Shukla, V M Patel College of Management Studies, Ganpat University, KhervaMehsana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kohli, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, D.A.V.Institute of Engg. and Technology, Kabir Nagar, Jalandhar, Punjab(India) Prof. (Dr.) Kumar Irayya Maddani, and Head of the Department of Physics in SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, State: Karnataka (INDIA). Prof. (Dr.) Shafi Phaniband, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, INDIA. Prof. M H Annaiah, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Soladevana Halli, Bangalore -560107, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shriram K V, Faculty Computer Science and Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham University, Coimbatore, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sohail Ayub, Department of Civil Engineering, Z.H College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. 202002 UP-India Prof. (Dr.) Santosh Kumar Behera, Department of Education, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Urmila Shrawankar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, G H Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur (MS), India. Prof. Anbu Kumar. S, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering) Delhi, India. Prof. (Dr.) Meenakshi Sood, Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Mysore, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka (India) Prof. (Dr.) Prof. R. R. Patil, Director School Of Earth Science, Solapur University, Solapur, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Khandelwal, Dept. of Mining Engg, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur-313 001 (Rajasthan), India Prof. (Dr.) Kishor Chandra Satpathy, Librarian, National Institute of Technology, Silchar-788010, Assam, India. Prof. (Dr.) Juhana Jaafar, Gas Engineering Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering (FPREE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor. Prof. (Dr.) Rita Khare, Assistant Professor in chemistry, Govt. Women,s College, Gardanibagh, Patna, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raviraj Kusanur, Dept of Chemistry, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore-59, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hameem Shanavas .I, M.V.J College of Engineering, Bangalore, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sandhya Mehrotra, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences, Pilani, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Ravindra Jilte, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering,VCET, Thane-401202, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, JKL University, Ajmer Road, Jaipur Prof. (Dr.) Pushp Lata Faculty of English and Communication, Department of Humanities and Languages, Nucleus Member, Publications and Media Relations Unit Editor, BITScan, BITS, PilaniIndia Prof. Arun Agarwal, Faculty of ECE Dept., ITER College, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Prof. (Dr.) Pratima Tripathi, Department of Biosciences, SSSIHL, Anantapur Campus Anantapur515001 (A.P.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudip Das, Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, I.C.A.R.E. Complex, H.I.T. Campus, P.O. Hit, Haldia; Dist: Puba Medinipur, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) ABHIJIT MITRA , Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta , India. Prof. (Dr.) N.Ramu , Associate Professor , Department of Commerce, Annamalai University, AnnamalaiNadar-608 002, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu , India. Prof. (Dr.) Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah, Assistant Professor of Theriogenology , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Beni-Suef University , Egypt. Prof. (Dr.) Ramel D. Tomaquin, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Surigao Del Sur State University (SDSSU), Tandag City Surigao Del Sur, Philippines. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) R.K.Tiwari, Professor, S.O.S. in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.-474011, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sandeep Gupta, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Gr.Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Akram, Jazan University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Sharma, Dept. of Mathematics, BIT, Durg(C.G.), India. Prof. (Dr.) Manas R. Panigrahi, Department of Physics, School of Applied Sciences, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India. Prof. (Dr.) P.Kiran Sree, Dept of CSE, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India Prof. (Dr.) Suvroma Gupta, Department of Biotechnology in Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) SREEKANTH. K. J., Department of Mechanical Engineering at Mar Baselios College of Engineering & Technology, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, India Prof. Bhubneshwar Sharma, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Eternal University (H.P), India. Prof. Love Kumar, Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), India. Prof. S.KANNAN, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar- 608002, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hasrinah Hasbullah, Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhargavi H. Goswami, Department of MCA, Sunshine Group of Institutes, Nr. Rangoli Park, Kalawad Road, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Essam H. Houssein, Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computers & Informatics, Benha University, Benha 13518, Qalyubia Governorate, Egypt. Arash Shaghaghi, University College London, University of London, Great Britain. Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anand Kumar, Head, Department of MCA, M.S. Engineering College, Navarathna Agrahara, Sadahalli Post, Bangalore, PIN 562110, Karnataka, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Venkata Raghavendra Miriampally, Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept, Adama Science & Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia. Prof. (Dr.) Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Director (I.T.), GTU's Ankleshwar-Bharuch Innovation Sankul &Director I/C & Associate Professor, Narmada College of Computer Application, Zadeshwar, Bharuch, Gujarat, India. Prof. Jaswinder Singh, Mechanical Engineering Department, University Institute Of Engineering & Technology, Panjab University SSG Regional Centre, Hoshiarpur, Punjab, India- 146001. Prof. (Dr.) S.Kadhiravan, Head i/c, Department of Psychology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Israr, Principal, Balaji Engineering College,Junagadh, Gujarat-362014, India. Prof. (Dr.) VENKATESWARLU B., Director of MCA in Sreenivasa Institute of Technology and Management Studies (SITAMS), Chittoor. Prof. (Dr.) Deepak Paliwal, Faculty of Sociology, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Anil K Dwivedi, Faculty of Pollution & Environmental Assay Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Botany,DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009, India. Prof. R. Ravikumar, Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, TamilNadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) R.Raman, Professor of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai university, Annamalai Nagar 608 002Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Khalafallah, Coordinator of the CM Degree Program, Department of Architectural and Manufacturing Sciences, Ogden College of Sciences and Engineering Western Kentucky University 1906 College Heights Blvd Bowling Green, KY 42103-1066 Prof. (Dr.) Asmita Das , Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad, Daulatpur, Delhi 110042, India. Prof. (Dr.)Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), CSE Department, Amrita School of Engineering , Amrita Vishwa VidyaPeetham (University), Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram P.O., Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, India Prof. (Dr.) S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty, Prof & Geoarchaeologist, Head of the Department of Sanskrit & Indian Culture, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram 631561, India Prof. (Dr.) Shubhasheesh Bhattacharya, Professor & HOD(HR), Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Hinjewadi, Phase-I, Pune- 411 057 Prof. (Dr.) Vijay Kothari, Institute of Science, Nirma University, S-G Highway, Ahmedabad 382481, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli, Department of Civil Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India.

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Prof. (Dr.)B. M. Kunar, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Prabir Sarkar, Assistant Professor, School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Room 307, Academic Block, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) K.Srinivasmoorthy, Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical,Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry university, R.Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science (AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.)P.Raviraj, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641402,Tamilnadu,India. Prof. (Dr.) Damodar Reddy Edla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India. Prof. (Dr.) T.C. Manjunath, Principal in HKBK College of Engg., Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) Pankaj Bhambri, I.T. Deptt., Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana 141006, Punjab, India . Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shambhu Nath Choudhary, Department of Physics, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81200, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Venkateshwarlu Sonnati, Professor & Head of EEED, Department of EEE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Saurabh Dalela, Department of Pure & Applied Physics, University of Kota, KOTA 324010, Rajasthan, India. Prof. S. Arman Hashemi Monfared, Department of Civil Eng, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Daneshgah St.,Zahedan, IRAN, P.C. 98155-987 Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Chanda, Dept. of Jute & Fibre Tech., University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India. Prof. V.S.VAKULA, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUK, University College of Engg., Vizianagaram5 35003, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Nehal Gitesh Chitaliya, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) D.R. Prajapati, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,Chandigarh 160012, India. Dr. A. SENTHIL KUMAR, Postdoctoral Researcher, Centre for Energy and Electrical Power, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. Prof. (Dr.)Vijay Harishchandra Mankar, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Mangalwari Bazar, Besa Road, Nagpur- 440027, India. Prof. Varun.G.Menon, Department Of C.S.E, S.C.M.S School of Engineering, Karukutty, Ernakulam, Kerala 683544, India. Prof. (Dr.) U C Srivastava, Department of Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, U.P-203301.India. Prof. (Dr.) Surendra Yadav, Professor and Head (Computer Science & Engineering Department), Maharashi Arvind College of Engineering and Research Centre (MACERC), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences & Humanities Dehradun Institute of Technology, (D.I.T. School of Engineering), 48 A K.P-3 Gr. Noida (U.P.) 201308 Prof. Naveen Jain, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur-313 001, India. Prof. Veera Jyothi.B, CBIT ,Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. Aritra Ghosh, Global Institute of Management and Technology, Krishnagar, Nadia, W.B. India Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Sirhind Mandi Gobindgarh, Punajb, India. Prof. (Dr.) Varala Ravi, Head, Department of Chemistry, IIIT Basar Campus, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Mudhole, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh- 504 107, India Prof. (Dr.) Ravikumar C Baratakke, faculty of Biology,Govt. College, Saundatti - 591 126, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) NALIN BHARTI, School of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shivanand S.Gornale, Head, Department of Studies in Computer Science, Government College (Autonomous), Mandya, Mandya-571 401-Karanataka Prof. (Dr.) Naveen.P.Badiger, Dept.Of Chemistry, S.D.M.College of Engg. & Technology, Dharwad-580002, Karnataka State, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Tauqeer Ahmad Usmani, Faculty of IT, Salalah College of Technology, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman, Prof. (Dr.) Naresh Kr. Vats, Chairman, Department of Law, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Prof. (Dr.) Papita Das (Saha), Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India Prof. (Dr.) Rekha Govindan , Dept of Biotechnology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of technology , Vinayaka Missions University , Paiyanoor , Kanchipuram Dt, Tamilnadu , India Prof. (Dr.) Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.o.Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Kalasad, Department of Physics, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka, India Prof. Rab Nawaz Lodhi, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal Prof. (Dr.) Masoud Hajarian, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, General Campus, Evin, Tehran 19839,Iran Prof. (Dr.) Chandra Kala Singh, Associate professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India Prof. (Dr.) J.Babu, Professor & Dean of research, St.Joseph's College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry, Palai,Kerala. Prof. (Dr.) Pradip Kumar Roy, Department of Applied Mechanics, Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi-835215, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi kumar, School of Electrical Engineering (SELECT), Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, VIT University, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Debasis Patnaik, BITS-Pilani, Goa Campus, India. Prof. (Dr.) SANDEEP BANSAL, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, I.G.N. College, Haryana, India. Dr. Radhakrishnan S V S, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faser Hall, The University of Mississippi Oxford, MS-38655, USA Prof. (Dr.) Megha Mittal, Faculty of Chemistry, Manav Rachna College of Engineering, Faridabad (HR), 121001, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihaela Simionescu (BRATU), BUCHAREST, District no. 6, Romania, member of the Romanian Society of Econometrics, Romanian Regional Science Association and General Association of Economists from Romania Prof. (Dr.) Atmani Hassan, Director Regional of Organization Entraide Nationale Prof. (Dr.) Deepshikha Gupta, Dept. of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,Amity University, Sec.125, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Kamruzzaman, Deaprtment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW-2145. Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil , Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry,Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Sudarson Jena, Dept. of Information Technology, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Jai Prakash Jaiswal, Department of Mathematics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal-India Prof. (Dr.) S.Amutha, Dept. of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620 023, Tamil Nadu-India Prof. (Dr.) R. HEMA KRISHNA, Environmental chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada. Prof. (Dr.) B.Swaminathan, Dept. of Agrl.Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) K. Ramesh, Department of Chemistry, C .B . I. T, Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075 Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences &Humanities, JIMS Technical campus,(I.P. University,New Delhi), 48/4 ,K.P.-3,Gr.Noida (U.P.) Prof. (Dr.) G.V.S.R.Anjaneyulu, CHAIRMAN - P.G. BOS in Statistics & Deputy Coordinator UGC DRS-I Project, Executive Member ISPS-2013, Department of Statistics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Sribas Goswami, Department of Sociology, Serampore College, Serampore 712201, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunanda Sharma, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics Y Gynecology, College of Veterinary & Animal Science,Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,Bikaner334001, India. Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Tiwari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009 U.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Praveena Kuruva, Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Rajesh Kumar, Department Of Applied Physics , Bhilai Institute Of Technology, Durg (C.G.) 491001 Prof. (Dr.) Y.P.Singh, (Director), Somany (PG) Institute of Technology and Management, Garhi Bolni Road, Delhi-Jaipur Highway No. 8, Beside 3 km from City Rewari, Rewari-123401, India. Prof. (Dr.) MIR IQBAL FAHEEM, VICE PRINCIPAL &HEAD- Department of Civil Engineering & Professor of Civil Engineering, Deccan College of Engineering & Technology, Dar-us-Salam, Aghapura, Hyderabad (AP) 500 036. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta, Regional Head, Co-ordinator(U.P. State Representative)& Asstt. Prof., (Pharmaceutics), Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) N. Sakthivel, Scientist - C,Research Extension Center,Central Silk Board, Government of India, Inam Karisal Kulam (Post), Srivilliputtur - 626 125,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) K.V.L.N.Acharyulu, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Bapatla Engineering college, Bapatla-522101, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Fateh Mebarek-Oudina, Assoc. Prof., Sciences Faculty,20 aout 1955-Skikda University, B.P 26 Route El-Hadaiek, 21000,Skikda, Algeria. NagaLaxmi M. Raman, Project Support Officer, Amity International Centre for Postharvest, Technology & Cold Chain Management, Amity University Campus, Sector-125, Expressway, Noida Prof. (Dr.) V.SIVASANKAR, Associate Professor, Department Of Chemistry, Thiagarajar College Of Engineering (Autonomous), Madurai 625015, Tamil Nadu, India (Dr.) Ramkrishna Singh Solanki, School of Studies in Statistics, Vikram University, Ujjain, India Prof. (Dr.) M.A.Rabbani, Professor/Computer Applications, School of Computer, Information and Mathematical Sciences, B.S.Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India Prof. (Dr.) P.P.Satya Paul Kumar, Associate Professor, Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University College of Physical Education & Sports, Sciences, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur. Prof. (Dr.) Fazal Shirazi, PostDoctoral Fellow, Infectious Disease, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Department of Museology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Mandeep Singh walia, A.P. E.C.E., Panjab University SSG Regional Centre Hoshiarpur, Una Road, V.P.O. Allahabad, Bajwara, Hoshiarpur Prof. (Dr.) Ho Soon Min, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Applied Sciences, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN, Putra Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia Prof. (Dr.) L.Ganesamoorthy, Assistant Professor in Commerce, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar-608002, Chidambaram, Tamilnadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vuda Sreenivasarao, Professor, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, Bahir Dar University, Bahirdar,Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) Umesh Sharma, Professor & HOD Applied Sciences & Humanities, Eshan college of Engineering, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) K. John Singh, School of Information Technology and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sita Ram Pal (Asst.Prof.), Dept. of Special Education, Dr.BAOU, Ahmedabad, India.

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Prof. Vishal S.Rana, H.O.D, Department of Business Administration, S.S.B.T'S College of Engineering & Technology, Bambhori,Jalgaon (M.S), India. Prof. (Dr.) Chandrakant Badgaiyan, Department of Mechatronics and Engineering, Chhattisgarh. Dr. (Mrs.) Shubhrata Gupta, Prof. (Electrical), NIT Raipur, India. Prof. (Dr.) Usha Rani. Nelakuditi, Assoc. Prof., ECE Deptt., Vignan’s Engineering College, Vignan University, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Swathi, Asst. Professor, Department of Information Technology, Vardhaman college of Engineering(Autonomous) , Shamshabad, R.R District, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Chakraverty, M Pharm (Pharmacology), BCPSR, Durgapur, West Bengal, India Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi Kumar, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT-Puducherry), An Institute of National Importance under MHRD (Govt. of India), Karaikal- 609 605, India. Prof. (Dr.) Amitava Ghosh, Professor & Principal, Bengal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, B.R.B. Sarani, Bidhannagar, Durgapur, West Bengal- 713212. Prof. (Dr.) Om Kumar Harsh, Group Director, Amritsar College of Engineering and Technology, Amritsar 143001 (Punjab), India. Prof. (Dr.) Mansoor Maitah, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 21 Praha 6 Suchdol, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Zahid Mahmood, Department of Management Sciences (Graduate Studies), Bahria University, Naval Complex, Sector, E-9, Islamabad, Pakistan. Prof. (Dr.) N. Sandeep, Faculty Division of Fluid Dynamics, VIT University, Vellore-632 014. Mr. Jiban Shrestha, Scientist (Plant Breeding and Genetics), Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. Prof. (Dr.) Rakhi Garg, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ramakant Pandey. Dept. of Biochemistry. Patna University Patna (Bihar)-India. Prof. (Dr.) Nalah Augustine Bala, Behavioural Health Unit, Psychology Department, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, P.M.B. 1022 Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Prof. (Dr.) Mehdi Babaei, Department of Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zanjan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) A. SENTHIL KUMAR., Professor/EEE, VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI Prof. (Dr.) Gudikandhula Narasimha Rao, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., KKR & KSR Inst Of Tech & Sciences, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Dhanesh singh, Department of Chemistry, K.G. Arts & Science College, Raigarh (C.G.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Syed Umar , Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Guntur, A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Rachna Goswami, Faculty in Bio-Science Department, IIIT Nuzvid (RGUKT), DistrictKrishna , Andhra Pradesh - 521201 Prof. (Dr.) Ahsas Goyal, FSRHCP, Founder & Vice president of Society of Researchers and Health Care Professionals Prof. (Dr.) Gagan Singh, School of Management Studies and Commerce, Department of Commerce, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital, Uttarakhand (UK)-263139 (India) Prof. (Dr.) Solomon A. O. Iyekekpolor, Mathematics and Statistics, Federal University, WukariNigeria. Prof. (Dr.) S. Saiganesh, Faculty of Marketing, Dayananda Sagar Business School, Bangalore, India. Dr. K.C.Sivabalan, Field Enumerator and Data Analyst, Asian Vegetable Research Centre, The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar Mishra, Department of Environmntal Science and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Prof. (Dr.) Manisha N. Paliwal, Sinhgad Institute of Management, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune, India Prof. (Dr.) M. S. HIREMATH, Principal, K.L.ESOCIETY’S SCHOOL, ATHANI, India Prof. Manoj Dhawan, Department of Information Technology, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore, (M. P.), India Prof. (Dr.) V.R.Naik, Professor & Head of Department, Mechancal Engineering , Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Dist. Kolhapur), Maharashatra, India Prof. (Dr.) Jyotindra C. Prajapati,Head, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa Anand -388421, Gujarat, India Prof. (Dr.) Sarbjit Singh, Head, Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab,India

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Prof. (Dr.) Professor Braja Gopal Bag, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Vidyasagar University, West Midnapore Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Chandra, Department of Management, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Bhilai House, Durg (C.G.) Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) L. Suresh Kumar, Mechanical Department, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India. Scientist Sheeraz Saleem Bhat, Lac Production Division, Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand Prof. C.Divya , Centre for Information Technology and Engineering, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli - 627012, Tamilnadu , India Prof. T.D.Subash, Infant Jesus College Of Engineering and Technology, Thoothukudi Tamilnadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Nassa, Prof. E.C.E Deptt., Dronacharya.Engg. College, Gurgaon India. Prof. Sunny Narayan, university of Roma Tre, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjoy Deb, Dept. of ECE, BIT Sathy, Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu-638401, India. Prof. (Dr.) Reena Gupta, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura-India Prof. (Dr.) P.R.SivaSankar, Head Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P., India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Rai, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Christine Jeyaseelan, Dept of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications , National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) K.V.N.R.Sai Krishna, H O D in Computer Science, S.V.R.M.College,(Autonomous), Nagaram, Guntur(DT), Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Asim Kumar Sen, Principal , ST.Francis Institute of Technology (Engineering College) under University of Mumbai , MT. Poinsur, S.V.P Road, Borivali (W), Mumbai, 400103, India, Prof. (Dr.) Rahmathulla Noufal.E, Civil Engineering Department, Govt.Engg.College-Kozhikode Prof. (Dr.) N.Rajesh, Department of Agronomy, TamilNadu Agricultural University -Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Har Mohan Rai, Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra 136131,India Prof. (Dr.) Eng. Sutasn Thipprakmas from King Mongkut, University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad, EC Department, RK University, Rajkot. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta,Faculty of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) Swapnali Borah, HOD, Dept of Family Resource Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya, India Prof. (Dr.) N.Nazar Khan, Professor in Chemistry, BTK Institute of Technology, Dwarahat-263653 (Almora), Uttarakhand-India Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Sharma, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai (TN) - 600 036, India. Prof. (Dr.) Aparna Sarkar, PH.D. Physiology, AIPT, Amity University , F 1 Block, LGF, Sector125,Noida-201303, UP, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manpreet Singh, Professor and Head, Department of Computer Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sukumar Senthilkumar, Senior Researcher, Advanced Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology, Chon Buk National University, Chon Buk, 561-756, SOUTH KOREA. . Prof. (Dr.) Hari Singh Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), INDIA. . Prof. (Dr.) Poonkuzhali, G., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, INDIA. .

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Prof. (Dr.) Bharath K N, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, GM Institute of Technology, PB Road, Davangere 577006, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) F.Alipanahi, Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan Branch, Atemadeyeh, Moalem Street, Zanjan IRAN. Prof. Yogesh Rathore, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RITEE, Raipur, India Prof. (Dr.) Ratneshwer, Department of Computer Science (MMV),Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India. Prof. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, ITM University, Gwalior, M.P., India. Prof. (Dr.)Sudarson Jena, Associate Professor, Dept.of IT, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Binod Kumar, PhD(CS), M.Phil(CS), MIEEE,MIAENG, Dean & Professor( MCA), Jayawant Technical Campus(JSPM's), Pune, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Singh Mehata, (JSPS fellow), Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Mech. Engg., Royal Institute of Management & Technology, Sonipat (Haryana), India. Prof. (Dr.) Siddharth Sharma, University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Satish Chandra Dixit, Department of Chemistry, D.B.S.College, Govind Nagar,Kanpur208006, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Solkhe, Department of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Neeraj Sharma, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) Basant Lal, Department of Chemistry, G.L.A. University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) T Venkat Narayana Rao, C.S.E, Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rajanarender Reddy Pingili, S.R. International Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) V.S.Vairale, Department of Computer Engineering, All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society College of Engineering, Kennedy Road, Pune-411 001, Maharashtra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vasavi Bande, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Netaji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Hardeep Anand, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. Prof. Aasheesh shukla, Asst Professor, Dept. of EC, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. S.P.Anandaraj., CSE Dept, SREC, Warangal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Chitranjan Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur- 313001, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rangnath Aher, Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Parner, DistAhmednagar, M.S. India. Prof. (Dr.) Chandan Kumar Panda, Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Tripura, Lembucherra-799210 Prof. (Dr.) Latika Kharb, IP Faculty (MCA Deptt), Jagan Institute of Management Studies (JIMS), Sector-5, Rohini, Delhi, India. Raj Mohan Raja Muthiah, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. Prof. (Dr.) Chhanda Chatterjee, Dept of Philosophy, Balurghat College, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihir Kumar Shome , H.O.D of Mathematics, Management and Humanities, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Muthukumar .Subramanyam, Registrar (I/C), Faculty, Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Puducherry, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Saxena, Department of Mathematics, Kisan Postgraduate College, Bahraich â€“ 271801 UP, India. Satya Rishi Takyar, Senior ISO Consultant, New Delhi, India. Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Mandi Gobindgarh (PB) Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar, Department of Sports Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Manish Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GJU, Haryana, India. Prof. Mridul Chawla, Department of Elect. and Comm. Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. Seema Chawla, Department of Bio-medical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Atul M. Gosai, Department of Computer Science, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajit Kr. Bansal, Department of Management, Shoolini University, H.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Vasistha, Mody Institute of Tecnology and Science, Sikar, Rajasthan, India. Prof. Vivekta Singh, GNIT Girls Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India. Prof. Ajay Loura, Assistant Professor at Thapar University, Patiala, India. Prof. Sushil Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Applications, Govt. P. G. College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana, India. Prof. Sube Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Narnaul, Haryana, India. Prof. Himanshu Arora, Delhi Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India. Dr. Sabina Amporful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Pawan K. Monga, Jindal Institute of Medical Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India. Dr. Sam Ampoful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Nagender Sangra, Director of Sangra Technologies, Chandigarh, India. Vipin Gujral, CPA, New Jersey, USA. Sarfo Baffour, University of Ghana, Ghana. Monique Vincon, Hype Softwaretechnik GmbH, Bonn, Germany. Natasha Sigmund, Atlanta, USA. Marta Trochimowicz, Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz, Germany. Kamalesh Desai, Atlanta, USA. Vijay Attri, Software Developer Google, San Jose, California, USA. Neeraj Khillan, Wipro Technologies, Boston, USA. Ruchir Sachdeva, Software Engineer at Infosys, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Anadi Charan, Senior Software Consultant at Capgemini, Mumbai, Maharashtra. Pawan Monga, Senior Product Manager, LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Sunil Kumar, Senior Information Developer, Honeywell Technology Solutions, Inc., Bangalore, India. Bharat Gambhir, Technical Architect, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Noida, India. Vinay Chopra, Team Leader, Access Infotech Pvt Ltd. Chandigarh, India. Sumit Sharma, Team Lead, American Express, New Delhi, India. Vivek Gautam, Senior Software Engineer, Wipro, Noida, India. Anirudh Trehan, Nagarro Software Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Manjot Singh, Senior Software Engineer, HCL Technologies Delhi, India. Rajat Adlakha, Senior Software Engineer, Tech Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Mohit Bhayana, Senior Software Engineer, Nagarro Software Pvt. Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Dheeraj Sardana, Tech. Head, Nagarro Software, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Naresh Setia, Senior Software Engineer, Infogain, Noida, India. Raj Agarwal Megh, Idhasoft Limited, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Shrikant Bhardwaj, Senior Software Engineer, Mphasis an HP Company, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Vikas Chawla, Technical Lead, Xavient Software Solutions, Noida, India. Kapoor Singh, Sr. Executive at IBM, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Ashwani Rohilla, Senior SAP Consultant at TCS, Mumbai, India. Anuj Chhabra, Sr. Software Engineer, McKinsey & Company, Faridabad, Haryana, India. Jaspreet Singh, Business Analyst at HCL Technologies, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

TOPICS OF INTEREST Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:  Business administration  Marketing & Management  Finance  Economics  Banking  Accounting  Human resources management  Entrepreneurship,  Education and its applications  Business ethics  Relationship & Risk management  Retail management and communication  Linguistics  International relations  Anthropology & Archaeology  Sociology  International business  Tourism and hospitality management  Law  Psychology  Corporate governance  Demography  Education  Ethics  Geography  History  Industrial relations  Information science  Library science  Media studies  Philosophy,  Political science  Public administration  Sociology  Social welfare  Literature  Paralegal  Performing arts (music, theatre and dance)  Religious studies  Visual arts  Women studies  Production and operations management  Organizational behavior and theory  Strategic management Policy  Statistics and Econometrics  Personnel and industrial relations  Gender studies & Cross cultural studies  Management information systems  Information technology

TABLE OF CONTENTS American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS) ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688, (December, 2015-February, 2016, Issue 13, Volume 1, 2 & 3) Issue 13, Volume 1 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-805

Climatic Tragedies in Bangladesh: What Should Government Do? Zayeda Sharmin , Mohammad Fakhrus Salam , Md. Sharif Hasan

01-05

AIJRHASS 15-806

A Descriptive Study to Assess the Knowledge and Attitude of Staff Nurses Regarding Palliative Care in Selected Hospital, Mangaluru Neethu Thomas, Nimmy Nixen, Ramshida T.A, Gireesh G R

06-09

AIJRHASS 15-807

Optimal Land Use Planning in Mojo Watershed with Multi-Objective Linear Programming Zelalem Biru Gonfa, Devendra Kumar

10-17

AIJRHASS 15-808

A Study to Assess the Knowledge Regarding The Ill Effects Of Smoking Among The Students Of Selected Pre-University College of Mangaluru Alpha Stephen, Amrutha Thomas, Anjaly Jose, Nithyashree B V

18-20

AIJRHASS 15-812

Determining the Strategic Situation and Sports and Touristic Strategies alongside the Shores of Mazandaran Province Hasan Rahmani Kafshgari, Seyed Mohammad Hosein Razavi, Saeed Amirnejad

21-25

AIJRHASS 15-813

Colonialism and the Decline of Indigenous African Industries: The Example of Cloth- Weaving in Esanland, Edo State, Nigeria Dr Julius O. Unumen

26-31

AIJRHASS 15-814

Pathology of Smuggling in the Customs of Kurdistan Province and Suggesting Preventive Ways Fariba Javaherneshan, Shahram Mohammadi

32-37

AIJRHASS 15-815

Knowledge and habits regarding the management of plastic waste among homemakers of urban area in Mangalore, India Mrs. Chaithra Nayak, Prof. Devina E Rodrigues

38-40

AIJRHASS 15-818

A Study to Assess the Knowledge of Adults Regarding the Health Hazards of Global Warming In Selected Urban Areas of Mangaluru: A Descriptive Study Ms. Ashwini crasta, Ms. Ayisha.c , Ms.Bhavya D souza, Mrs.Vani.R

41-45

AIJRHASS 15-819

Impact of Values on Personality of Urban and Rural Youth Mayurakshee Gangopadhyay , Dr. Debomita Sikdar

46-50

AIJRHASS 15-820

Habitation and habiting practices in slums of Constantine Nadra NAIT AMAR

51-54

AIJRHASS 15-822

Environment in Ṛgvedic Imagery Dr. (Smt) Subhasree Dash

55-59

AIJRHASS 15-823

Victims wedged in the Vicious Circle of Criminal Justice System: a possible solution, the need to recognize Victims’ Rights as human rights Garima Pal, Tokmem Doming

60-70

AIJRHASS 15-826

Correlation Between Female Literacy and Child Sex Ratio In Satara Disrtict (Maharashtra): A Geographical Analysis Dr. T. P. Shinde

71-73

AIJRHASS 15-829

Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Development in Satara District of Maharashtra State K.S.Surwase

74-77

AIJRHASS 15-830

A Study of Self-Confidence of Senior Seconadry School Students In Relation To Socio-Economic Status Dr. (Mrs.) Meena Sharma

78-80

AIJRHASS 15-832

81-86

AIJRHASS 15-833

Folk Narratology:Propp’s Improved Actants and Functions Nasim Afsari, Shamsoddin Royanian

87-92

Issue 13, Volume 2 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-834

Going beyond the enigma of annual performance appraisal Ruchi Pathak, Meghna Sharma

93-96

AIJRHASS 15-835

Rememorizing the Past and Dreams from the Other World: Time in Tony Morrison's Beloved (1987) and Ben Okri's The Famished Road Shafagh Farhi, Shamsoddin Royanian

97-102

AIJRHASS 15-838

Influence of Women Enterprise Fund credit access on socio-economic empowerment of rural women of Moiben Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya Rael Jerop Ngelechei

103-107

AIJRHASS 15-839

Women Empowerment – A Powerful Tool Dr. Suniti Ahuja

108-110

AIJRHASS 15-840

Sports and Violence Narender Duggal

111-114

AIJRHASS 15-841

Quality of Life and Stress Profile of Mothers and Fathers of Children diagnosed with Autism Dr. Sunayan

115-120

AIJRHASS 15-842

Alcohol and alcohol-related Crime and Violence in Bayelsa State, Nigeria Nkereuwem Stephen Ekpenyong, Lawrence Udisi

121-129

AIJRHASS 15-843

Parent's Attitude towards Girls Education in Haryana Prof. Kiran Mor, Ms. Savneet Sethia

130-135

AIJRHASS 15-844

Clarifications on the Works of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi Qaisar Mohammad

136-138

AIJRHASS 15-846

The Development of Legal Profession in Colonial Madras Gautam Chandra, Pranjali

139-142

AIJRHASS 15-848

Some Notes on the Life of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi Qaisar Mohammad

143-150

AIJRHASS 15-849

Chemical Composition of different types of Sausage Dr. Siham Abdelwhab Alamin

151-154

AIJRHASS 15-850

Delegation Powers between Headmaster and Staff (A Case of Senior High Schools (SHS) in Kumasi Metropolis) Annan A. Abraham, Robert K. Antwiadjei-Manu, Maxwell B. Asare

155-161

AIJRHASS 15-852

Impression Management and Identity Manipulation In A Social Network Website: A Study of the Niger Delta University Students Ekpenyong, Nkereuwem Stephen, Ubebe Ebimobowei Fred

162-177

AIJRHASS 15-853

To Examine the Extent of Crop Diversification in Chhattisgarh Bhupendra Joshi, D. P. Singh and P. K. Awasthi

178-181

AIJRHASS 15-854

Iris Murdoch's Quest of Morality in ‘The Philosopher's Pupil‘ Dr. Richa Tripathi

182-186

AIJRHASS 15-859

The Effect of Adding Sweet Potato as filler on Cooking Loss of Sausages of Camel, Beef and Goat meat Dr. Siham Abdelwhab Alamin

187-190

Issue 13, Volume 3 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-864

An Introduction to the Nur Community of Turkey Qaisar Mohammad

191-195

AIJRHASS 15-865

Contributions of savings services offered by Women Enterprise Fund on socio-economic empowerment of rural women of Moiben Sub-County, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya Rael Jerop Ngelechei

196-199

AIJRHASS 15-866

The Effects of the Student Team Achievement Division (STAD) on Improving EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension Shahnaz Rahimi

200-203

AIJRHASS 15-868

Study Habits among Nursing Students of a Selected Educational Institute in Mangaluru, India Anju Narayanan, Anu P.J, Anusha P.N, Devina Rodrigues

204-206

AIJRHASS 15-870

Exploitation of Women and Patriarchal Domination in Vijay Tendulkar's Silence! The Court is in Session Shailja Chhabra

207-210

AIJRHASS 15-871

The Tragedy of Rural Indebtedness in Colonial India Dr. Hareet Kumar Meena

211-216

AIJRHASS 15-872

A Hybrid Land Cover Classification Of Landsat-7 & 8 (OLI) ETM+ Data For Resourceful Vegetation Mapping - Akole Thasil Dist- Ahmednagar,M.S,India Gadekar Deepak Janardhan, P. H. Mhaske

217-221

AIJRHASS 15-873

Differential in awareness and comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS and its determinants among youth in India: A population based cross-sectional study Jeetendra Yadav , Subhash Gautam and Kh. Jitenkumar Singh

222-230

AIJRHASS 15-874

Impact of War against Terrorism (WAT) on Pakistan's Domestic Policies during Musharraf Regime Dr. Mazher Hussain, Dr. Shahid Hassan Rizvi, Dr. Aftab Hussain Gillani

231-234

AIJRHASS 15-875

Spiritual Role of Sarsara in Management of Stress Free Society Pintu Mahakul

235-238

AIJRHASS 15-877

Identifying Product Innovation Supportive Aspects of the Personalization: Manufacturing Paradigm of the Future C.M Suwandaarachchi, H.D.S.S Karunarathne, I.N Manawadu

239-243

AIJRHASS 15-879

The Dichotomy of Be(ing) and Non Be(ing): A Study of Shakespeare's Caliban as (An) other in a Masculinized World Nadia Sarwar, Sharmin Sultana

244-247

AIJRHASS 15-880

Contemporary Forms of Crimes: Issues and Challenges: corporate crimes (Techno Crimes: Intellectual Property Rights) Munnazzar Ahmed

248-252

AIJRHASS 15-881

Effects of Incorporating Chicken's Gizzards on quality characteristics and total bacterial count of beef sausages Maha .M.M, Hassan .E.H

253-257

AIJRHASS 15-882

Marketing Channels, Value Added and Value Share of Broiler Meat in Khartoum State Tamador Elkhansaa Elnour Angara, Gidaa Abdel Ella Ahmed

258-262

AIJRHASS 15-883

Family and School Dropouts: A Socio-psychological Observation O P Monga, Anubhuti Monga, Om Prabha Monga

263-266

AIJRHASS 15-884

John Barth's The Floating Opera as a Postmodern Novel Nooshin Elahipanah , Parisa Rostami Balan

267-271

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Climatic Tragedies in Bangladesh: What Should Government Do? Zayeda Sharmin1, Mohammad Fakhrus Salam2, Md. Sharif Hasan3 Associate Professor, 2Assistant Professor,3Thesis Student, Department of Political Studies, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh.

Abstract: Today’s global climate change and its adverse impact is the great event of emitting a huge volume of greenhouse gases and CO2 by developed countries. But unfortunately poor countries are bearing its disgrace value. Like other developing countries, for Bangladesh the impacts of global climate change are most critical and vulnerable to a range of natural hazards. Already, the human suffering and cost to development is massive to this country and its people who are victims of human induced global warming. So the Government of Bangladesh should consider climate change as a priority concern and has to commit for taking urgent and long term actions to reduce the vulnerability. On this ground this paper has recommended some potential ways of forwarding from adverse impact of climate change on the basis of secondary sources which will assist the Government body for determine strategies for building climate resilient country perfectly.

I. Introduction Climate change in Bangladesh is an extremely crucial issue. The international community has recognized that Bangladesh ranks high in the list of most vulnerable countries on the earth as the severe impact of climate change. Its adverse affects - especially High Temperature, Sea-level Rise, Cyclones and Storm Surges, Salinity Intrusion, Heavy Monsoon Downpours etc. has aggravated the overall Economic Development scenario of the country to a great extent. Bangladesh’s high vulnerability to climate change is due to a number of hydrogeological and socio-economic factors. As a disaster-prone country, the country has various experiences of disasters like tropical cyclones, storm surges, coastal erosion, floods, and droughts almost every year - causing heavy loss of life and property and endangering the development activities (Ali, 1999). Since 1970, according to a statistics, about 39 million people have been displaced by major natural calamities like flood and cyclone in the country till 2009. Experts warn that about 6-8 million more people of Bangladesh could be displaced due to increase in global temperature and sea-level rise by 2050 (Nasreen, 2011). Now is the time to need both a vision and actions for a better, cleaner, and more sustainable country in world. To this end it is imperative for the government to maintain specific and veritable strategies in the national and international level. For overcoming all ventures occurring by climate change these strategies will make the government indulgence and confident. On this ground this research article is predominantly related with suggesting equitable acts and deeds of government as the aim of fighting against all forecasting hazards due to global climate change. II. Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of this paper are given below: a. b.

To discuss about retrospective climatic tragedies in Bangladesh. To determine the enforceable tasks for the Government.

III. Methodology This paper has prepared through a comprehensive consultation process under secondary data sources. So usually information was collected from documents available mainly in electronic database. Some documents were retrieved from the database (websites) of several national, and international agencies were browsed. IV. Climate Change and the Experience of Bangladesh Bangladesh is affecting seriously by the environmental degradation due to global climate change, ozone layer depletion. The country has already begun to feel the effects of climate change as flood periods have become

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Sharmin et al. , American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 13(1), December, 2015-February, 2016, pp. 01-05

longer and the cyclones, droughts and earth quakes that hit the country cause greater devastation and adversely affecting the country's agriculture and land, and challenging water resources, food, health, energy etc (Climate Himalaya, 2011). Historical trend shows that the country experienced 30 damaging floods between 1954 and 1998, of which 12 were severe and 5 were catastrophic. The occurrence of flood experienced by Bangladesh is deemed to be the worst in the globe, both in terms of duration and damage. Abnormal floods submerge about 60 percent of the land, damage crops, property; disrupt economic activities and cause diseases and loss of life beyond all proportion (Nasreen, 2004). According to government statistics, 298 people died and 10,211,780 people were badly affected by it. 56,967 houses were damaged by the floods up to 13 August 2007. In 2004, around 30 million Bangladeshis were affected by flood (Biswas, 2013). Between 1991 and 2000, 93 major disasters were recorded in Bangladesh, resulting in nearly 200,000 deaths and causing US $ 5.9 billion in damages with high losses in agriculture and infrastructure. Because of sea level rise coastal Bangladesh has already experienced the worst impacts especially in terms of coastal inundation and erosion, saline intrusion, deforestation, loss of biodiversity and agriculture, and large scale migration. About 830,000 million hectares of arable land is affected by varying degrees of soil salinity. During the period 1973–1987, about 2.18 million tons of rice was damaged due to drought and 2.38 million tons due to flood. However drought affected annually about 2.32 million hectares and 1.2 million hectares of cropped land during the Summer (November to June) and Winter (July to October) seasons respectively, while soil salinity, water logging and acidification affect 3.05 million hectares, 0.7 million hectares and 0.6 million hectare of crop land, respectively in the country (Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Department of Environment, 2007). Experts from home and abroad observed that alarming decrease in water flow down the rivers caused high salinity in both water and soil of Sundarban, causing a massive change in faunal composition of the forest. Sundarban, which lies across the outer deltas of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, is the largest mangrove forest in the world. The number of timber producing big trees such as Sundari is decreasing at the proportionate rate at the increase of salinity (Mahmood, 2012, p. 239). V. Evaluating the changing climate pattern in Bangladesh: An assessment It is important to evaluate how climate has varied and changed in the past. The monthly mean historical rainfall and temperature data can be mapped to show the baseline climate and seasonality by month, for specific years, and for rainfall and temperature. In the following charts show mean historical monthly temperature and rainfall for Bangladesh during the time period 1960 to 1990 and 1990 to 2009 respectively 30 and 19 years. The dataset has collected from the Climate Change Knowledge Portal of World Bank. This paper here firstly has comparatively assessed the average temperature of these two sessions and secondly rainfall. Temperature

Figure: Average Monthly Temperature for Bangladesh (author) Rainfall

Figure: Average Monthly Rainfall for Bangladesh (author)

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From above assessment we can say that temperature is increasing in both monsoon and winter period and rainfall indicate more rains during monsoon and lesser during dry periods. It is known that very small changes in the temperature, rainfall or sea level rise can lead to severe consequences for our country like Bangladesh and already has stressed environmentally, socially and economically. Also, the variations can be quite significant when downscaled for a location. In addition, there may be more than one impact at any given period which can lead to grave circumstances. Further, climate change induced impacts may trigger a chain of consequences due to non-climatic activities and their outcomes. In this phase the study has mentioned the most profound impacts of climate change in Bangladesh which are predicted by experts. 1. Rising Sea Level 2. Disappearing Under the Waves 3. Increasing Flood Risk and Salinity 4. Agricultural Production 5. Damaging Availability of Fish Supply 6. Prevalence of Diseases VI. What should government do? To understand climate impacts and hazards, some potential queries need to be answered. These are: Which types of hazards may become more frequent and intense? What will their altitude of enormity? Which locations are most vulnerable? What is the feasible time of occurring hazards? What will be the possible impacts of its aftermath? In the light of above queries a figure is given below:

Figure: Understanding Climatic Impacts and Hazards (author)

Development practitioners, professionals and policy makers gather knowledge about potential issues of the state before any blueprint or action, obviously that will help them to perform the aim on the whole. In this study it has denoted as assessment based understanding. Such assessment based understandings will be able to facilitate key actions to fill knowledge gaps in addressing adaptation to climate change and its impacts on the life and livelihoods. It will also help to explore new adaptation options for the community to adapt with changing situations. In this way the researchers, stakeholders and policy makers have to think about climatic hazards and should formulate viable adaptation policies and strategies at national and international level. Hope these types of good practices will show better ways for adaptation to climate change and variability as well as improved livelihood options in the backdrop of climate change impact. VII. Strategies for Adaptation This study here has established the strategies of government into two basic directions named respectively national and global level response. Then each basic direction has elaborately discussed in the light of some potential core points. National Level Response Research and scientific based study We think that only subject based pervasive research will be able to expose the possible destructive image of global warming and helpful for the exploration of new adaptation options for the community to adapt with the impact of climate change; sharing experiences with relevant stakeholders on good practices for adaptation to climate change and variability. So our Government should be needed to motivate its internal experts for research and scientific based study in the perspective of climate change issue. Mainstreaming climate change into development plans and processes The Government of Bangladesh has to engage climate change issue as a mainstream in a systematic, comprehensive effort to reduce the negative impacts of climate change through integration into overall national development and planning process of the country.

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Internal Fund Formation Our Government can take initiative for a public fund formation internally which may be treated as state fund with the cooperation of other government and non-government agencies. Monthly or yearly installment system may introduce for the aim of collecting money.

Figure: Strategies for Overcoming the Adverse Impacts of Climate Change (author)

Building Adaptive Capacity and Reducing Vulnerability Building adaptive capacity to climate change and managing climate risks should be addressed through the mainstreaming of climate risk into sustainable development strategies. Protecting the Man-Made Environmental Destruction The utmost environmental risks are covering Bangladesh gradually with its great fear due to global climate change and adversely impacting both human and natural systems. In fact man-made environmental destructions like deforestation, pollution of air and water, land erosion, over fishing encroachment of rivers, construction of building, over-utilization of ground water, adverse use of chemicals etc are greatly liable to make the impacts of climate change even more severe in our country. Proper Management of Trans Boundary Rivers and Ecological Issues There are many trans-boundary riversâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and ecological issues between Bangladesh and India that needs to be resolved. Bangladesh and India should take into consideration during their discussions and reach ecologyfriendly, win-win solutions (Mahmood, 2012, p. 235). Global Level Response Consensus Building among Wider Groups The South Asian countries, particularly the poorest in the countries, are already suffering from negative impacts due to extreme events and variability of climate change. Thus this consensus wider group will persuade all responsible countries take on mitigation targets. However they will call large developing countries, for example, USA and China, to reduce their emissions as well as ensuring that the principles of equity, right, justice and entitlement are integral to a future agreement. Fund Formation for the Victim States The UN-led talks in Cancun in December 2010 agreed on a full accord to fight global warming, including the creation of a Green Climate Fund to help developing countries. The funding would rise to 100 billion dollars annually by 2020, as experts warn that the world's poorest nations are already suffering the consequences of extreme weather triggered by climate change (Mahmood, 2012, p. 233). As a third world country obviously we are eligible for the assistance from this green fund. However Bangladesh is one of the most effected climate prone countries, we believe that the share would be appropriately distributed for Bangladesh by them. So Bangladesh Government should continue its participation in future international agreement and frameworks to respond to climate challenges. Commitment for Reduction of CO2 Emission Our Government can be built a alliance group with disaster porn countries where they will represent climate change as an international agenda in upcoming UNFCCC (The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) sessions and always have an endeavor to remind the commitments of rich countries for the reduction of CO2 and green house gases.

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Ensuring Good Governance In the case of world response and their commitment towards climate change issues, our Government has to represent Good Governance in the world stage for all nations. Ultimately the consequences of inactions will challenge the integrity of the global community in securing the right to be able to cope with climate impacts and maintain well being of life on this planet (Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Department of Environment, 2007). VIII. Conclusion Government should guide and coordinate all the national and international responses and processes to integrate climate risk into development plans and processes. Government’s plans and policies will be enriched with inclusive and comprehensive approaches where these will perfectly address the needs and priorities of the country and will come into practice with mainstreaming climate risk management and adaptation using the country framework as an operational tool. These plans will facilitate policy makers to consider concerns specific to sectors, locations and levels of development activities and processes. Side by side the Climate Change Policy and Action Plan will facilitate co-ordination among the country’s development partners to address necessary investments to make Bangladesh climate resilient. References Ali, A. (1999). Climate change impacts and adaptation assessment in Bangladesh. Climate Research, 12, 109-116. Retrieved from http://www.intres.com/articles/cr/12_2/c012p109.pdf Asian News Net. (2010). Food production in Bangladesh to feel climate heat. Retrieved from http://www.asianewsnet.net/home/news.php?id=14822&sec=1 Biswas, M. (2013). Report on climate change and its impacts on Bangladesh. Retrieved from http://www.bip.org.bd/SharingFiles/journal_book/20140128164211.pdf Climate Himalaya. (2011). Adapting agriculture to climate change. Retrieved from http://chimalaya.org/2011/01/02/adapting-agriculture-to-climate-change/ Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Department of Environment. (2007). Climate Change and Banglagesh. Retrieved from http://www.infokosh.gov.bd/download-attachment/1433/806 Global Climate Risk Index. (2011). Who suffers most from extreme weather events? Weather-related loss events in 2011 and 1992 to 2011. Retrieved from https://germanwatch.org/en/5696 Hari, J. (2008, June 20). Bangladesh is set to disappear under the waves by the end of the century. The Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/bangladesh-is-set-to-disappear-under-the-waves-by-the-end-of-the-century--a-special-reportby-johann-hari-850938.html. International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research. (2011). Our Strategy. Retrieved from http://www.icddrb.org/what-wedo/publications/cat_view/52-publications/10043-icddrb documents/10055-annual-report/10056. International Energy Agency. (2009). Green house effect. Retrieved from http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/newsdetails.php?nid=213792 Kafiluddin, A.K.M. ( 2005). Human Health, Disease and the Environment. Dhaka, DH: National Institute of Preventive and Social Medicine Press. Mitchell, J. F. B., Karoly, D.J., Hegerl, G.C., Zwiers, F. W., Allen, M. R., Marengo, J., & 28 others. (2001). Detection of climate change andattribution of causes. New York: NY: Cambridge University Press. Mahmood, S.A.I. (2012). Impact of Climate Change in Bangladesh: The Role of Public Administration and Government’s Integrity. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment, 4(8), 223-240, http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/JENE11.088 Masihate, J. (2010). Causes and Consequences of Global Climate Change. Scholars Research Library: Archives of Applied Science Research, 2 (2), 100-108. Retrieved from http://scholarsresearchlibrary.com/archive.html Nasreen, M. (2011, March 31). Major disasters and management issues. The Daily Star. Retrieved from http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2011/anniversary/part6/pg10.htm Nasreen, M. (2004). Disaster Research: Exploring Sociological Approach to Disaster in Bangladesh. e-journal of Sociology, Volume 2, number 2. Retrieved from www.bangladeshsociology.org. Pew Center on Global Climate Change. (2006). The Causes of Global Climate Change. Retrieved from http://www.c2es.org/docUploads/PewSB1-Attribution-SMALL_102606.pdf Practical Action. (2011). Promoting Adaptation to Climate Change in Bangladesh. Retrieved from http://practicalaction.org/technicalinformation-service/disaster reduction/docs/advocacy/Adaptation_to_climate_change_Bangladesh.pdf Pictures of Climate Change Effects in Bangladesh (2015). Illusions [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com.bd/search?q=pictures+of+climate+change+effects+in+bangladesh&biw=1366&bih=623&site=webhp&tbm=isch& tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDounF9vTJAhWFcY4KHTkRDoMQsAQIGQ&dpr=1 Swai, G., Ndangalasi, H., Munishi, P., & Shirima, D.D. (2014). Carbon stocks of Hanang forest, Tanzania: An implication for climate mitigation. Academic Journals, 6(3), 90-98. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.5897/JENE2013.0418 The World Bank. (n.d.). Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Retrieved from http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical_climate&ThisRegion=Asia&ThisCCode=BGD

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A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY TO ASSESS THE KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE OF STAFF NURSES REGARDING PALLIATIVE CARE IN SELECTED HOSPITAL, MANGALURU Neethu Thomas1, Nimmy Nixen1, Ramshida T.A1, Gireesh G R2 Student, Fourth Year B.Sc. Nursing, Yenepoya Nursing College, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, Karnataka, INDIA 2 Associate Professor, Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, Yenepoya Nursing College, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, Karnataka, INDIA 1

Abstract: Palliative Therapy is given improve quality of life for both the patient and the family .It is provided by a team of physicians, nurses, and other health professionals who and it work together with the primary care physician and referred specialists to provide an extra layer of support2.A descriptive study was conducted to assess the knowledge and attitude of staff nurses regarding palliative care. Hundred staff nurses were selected by non-probability, convenient sampling technique from selected hospital mangaluru. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The result of the study revealed that 60% of staff nurses had average knowledge, 24% of them had good knowledge, 12% had poor knowledge and remaining 4% had excellent knowledge. And also Majority of the staff nurses (84%) had positive attitude towards palliative care and 16% had negative attitude. There is significant association between level of knowledge and demographic variables such as age(x 2=11.023, P>0.05), marital status(x2=9.079, P>0.05) and academic qualification(x2=8.738, P>0.05). There is significant association between level of attitude and demographic variable i e. source of information(x2=9.4,P>0.05). Key Words: Palliative care, knowledge, attitude I. INTRODUCTION The concept of Palliative care is relatively new to India having been introduced only since the mid-1980s. However when we look at the Indian history, the Eighteen institutions built in India by king Ashoka (273 -232 BC) had characteristics very similar to modern hospices. In 1986 professor D ’Souza opened the first hospice, Shanti Avedna Ashram in Mumbai. At the same time pain centers were established at the regional cancer centre Trivandrum, Kerala with the assistance of WHO subsidy and at Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Bangalore, and Karnataka. From the 1990s onwards there was a significant increase in the movement of development of Hospice and Palliative care. But even today there are many states in India where Palliative care facility do not exist3. One of the important factors influencing a successful delivery of palliative health care is the health care professionals ‘knowledge, attitude, beliefs and experiences, which determine not only their procedures but also their behaviour during evaluation and treatment of patients. After physicians, the nurses are the most valuable palliative care team members who address the physical, functional, social, and spiritual dimensions of care. Studies have documented that the nurses and other health care professionals are inadequately prepared to care for patients in pain. Several reasons have been indentified including inadequacy, education, absence of curriculum content related to pain management and faculty attitudes and beliefs related to pain.7 The concepts of palliative care is not new, most physicians have traditionally concentrated on trying to cure patients. Treatments for the alleviation of symptoms were viewed as hazardous and seen as inviting addiction and other unwanted side effects2 The focus on a person's quality of life has increased greatly since the 1990s. In the United States today, 55% of hospitals with more than 100 beds offer a palliative-care program, and nearly one-fifth of community hospitals have palliative-care programs. A relatively recent development is the palliative-care team, a dedicated health care team that is entirely geared toward palliative treatment.2 It is estimated that around 3.4 million people suffer from cancer at any given time in India. Eight lakhs persons were diagnosed to have cancer in the year 2000 and of this 550,000 died in the same year. Almost 80% of patients reach hospital in advanced stages of the disease. The majority needs palliative care, whereas only minority of the needy receive this input.4 There are many studies that show the benefits of palliative care. Studies have shown that patients who had hospital-based palliative care visits spent less time in intensive care units and were less likely to be re-admitted

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to the hospital after they went home. Studies have also shown that people with chronic illnesses like cancer who get palliative care have less severe symptoms. They have better quality of life, less pain, less shortness of breath, less depression, and less nausea. Their medical care tends to better align with their values, goals, and preferences. Their families also feel more satisfied. Palliative care may also increase survival. A 2010 study of lung cancer looked at patients who were given palliative care alongside cancer treatment. The patients who received palliative care along with cancer treatment lived nearly Three months longer than the patients who received the cancer treatment without the palliative care2 A descriptive study was conducted to assess the knowledge about palliative care, a descriptive cross sectional survey design were used. The sample consisted of 190 registered nurses working in 5 Jordanian government hospitals. Most participants were male (54%) and younger than 30 years (59%). They were working in surgical (32%), medical (28%) and critical care (22%) units. The total mean score of palliative knowledge was low at 8.3(SD 2.80), ranging from 0 to15. The findings of the study demonstrate that nurses have insufficient knowledge about the essence, philosophy and principles of palliative care. This study shows that nurses have insufficient knowledge and misconceptions about palliative care. Hence, basic education is needed for all nurses working in government hospitals. This education needs to be comprehensive to cover the basic principles of palliative care and symptom management. In addition, it should address the misconceptions identified in this study6 A Descriptive cross sectional study was conducted to assess the nurses’ knowledge and attitudes towards palliative care among nurses working in selected hospitals Palestine. .A purposive sampling consisted of 96 nurses invited to participate in this study. Data collected through, nurses’ socio demographic characteristic, knowledge level, and attitude level towards palliative care which is developed by the researchers. Validity and pilot study were examined. The study results have shown that 20.8% of the respondents had good overall knowledge towards palliative care, 59.4% had training of palliative care and 6.2% of participants had good attitude towards palliative care. There was a significant difference between nurses ‘qualification, experience and training of palliative care towards knowledge of palliative care. Thus the study concluded that the nurses had poor knowledge, but their attitude towards palliative care was moderate 7 II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A descriptive approach with non-experimental descriptive design was used for the study.Non probability convenient sampling technique 100 staff nurses were selected from hospital at mangaluru. After obtaining informed consent, the data were collected using structured knowledge questionnaire and attitude scale. III. RESULTS Section 1: Description of sample characteristics Majority of the staff nurses (61%) in this study were in the age group of 21-25 years. Majority of staff nurses (89%) included in this study were females. Highest percentage of staff nurses (62%) belongs to single. Most of the staff nurses (50%) are GNM. Most of the staff nurses (49%) had 1-5 years of experience. Most of the staff nurses 53% had≤1 years of experience in present ward. In this study shows that 84% of staff nurses got information about palliative care. Majority of the staff nurses (69%) got information from CNE, 29% got information from newspaper and 2% are got information from internet and other sources Section 2: Distribution of subjects according to level of knowledge Level of knowledge scores frequency Percentage(%) Excellent 18-24 4 4% Good 12-17 24 24% Average 6-11 60 60% Poor 0-5 12 12% The table 2 shows that 60% of staff nurses had average knowledge ,24% of them had good knowledge ,12% of them had poor knowledge and remainig 4% had excellent knowledge Section 3: Association between the level of knowledge and selected demographic variables 1.

Demographic Variable Age a) 21-25 years

< Median

>Median 24

26-30 years

31-35 years

2 38

8 52

d) >36 Gender a) Male b) Female Marital status a) Single

Chi-square value

11.023*

1.846

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b) Married c) Divorced d) Widowed Academic Qualification a) ANM b) GNM c) PBBsc d) BSc Professional Experience in years a) ≤1 b) 1-5 c) 5-10 d) >10 Years of Experience in Present ward a) ≤1 b) 1-3 c) 3-6 d) >6 Any Source Of Information a) Yes b) No Source a) CNE b) Newspaper c) Internet source d) Other Source

12 0 0

19 1 0

9.079*

2 19 2 18

3 25 4 27

8.738*

18 18 2 2

17 34 9 0

7.698

20 17 2 1

26 25 5 4

5.411

35 5

53 7

0.014

21 12 2 0

41 13 0 0

6.429

*significant table values-3.84, 7.82;p>0.05 Data presented in Table 4 shows that there is significant association between level of knowledge and demographic variables such as age(x2=11.023, P>0.05), marital status(x2=9.079, P>0.05) and academic qualification(x2=8.738,P>0.05). There is no significant association with other demographic variables like gender,professional experience in years, and years of experience in present ward and source of information. Section 4: Distribution of subjects according to level of attitude Category Positive attitude Negative attitude Neutral

Score

Frequency

percentage

34-50 16-33 1-17

84 16 0

84% 16% 0

Table 3 reveals that 84% staff nurses had positive attitude towards palliative care and 16% had negative attitude towards palliative care. Section 5: Association between attitude and selected demographic variables Sl no

Demographic Variable

Age a.

21-25 years

26-30 years

31-35 years

2 44

8 46

34 11 1 0

d. >36 Gender a. Male b. Female Marital status a. Single b. Married c. Divorced d. Widowed Academic Qualification a. ANM b. GNM c. PBBsc d. BSc Professional Experience in years a. ≤1 b. 1-5 c. 5-10 d. >10 Years of Experience in Present ward a. ≤1 b. 1-3 c. 3-6 d. >6

< Median

>Median

Chi-square value

2.177

3.022

35 19 0 0

2.521

4 21 1 20

1 24 4 25

3.09

15 27 4 0

20 25 7 2

2.986

22 22 4 1

23 23 2 3

2.802

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Any Source Of Information a. Yes b. No Source a. CNE b. Newspaper c. Internet source d. Other Source

40 5

47 8

25 17 0 0

36 8 2 0

0.257

9.4*

* Significant, table values -3.84, 7.82; p>0.05 Data presented in Table 5 shows that there is significant association between level of attitude and demographic variable i e. source of information(x2=9.4,P>0.05).There is no significant association with other demographic variables like age, Gender, marital status, academic qualification, professional experience in years, years of experience in present ward. IV. DISCUSSION A descriptive study was done to assess the knowledge and attitude of staff nurses regarding palliative care in selected hospitals Mangaluru.Non probability convenient sampling technique was used to select 100 staff nurses who had completed nursing and were working in various departments of the hospital. Data was gathered through structured knowledge questionnaire and attitude scale .The result revealed that 60% of staff nurses had average knowledge and Majority of the staff nurses (84%) had positive attitude towards palliative care and 16% had negative attitude. The following study supports findings of the current study A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted to investigate the knowledge and attitude of nurses toward palliative care in a tertiary level hospital in Nigeria. The questionnaire sought information about the socio demographic profile of respondents, their knowledge of definition and philosophy of palliative care among other things. Descriptive statistics was used to obtain the general characteristics of the study participants, while chi square was used to determine the association between categorical variables. A two sided p<0.05 was considered as significant. A total 100 questionnaires were returned with a female preponderance among the respondents with F: M ratio of 9:1. Regarding the definition of palliative care ,71.8%(48/66) of the respondents understood palliative care to be about pain medicine ,55%(33/60) Thought it to be geriatric medicine, while 90.2%(83/92) felt palliative care is about the active care of the dying. Exactly 80.5 %( 66/82) respondents agreed that palliative care recognizes dying as a normal process while 84.1 %( 74/80) respondents were of the opinion that all dying patients would require palliative care. The use of morphine would improve the quality of life of patients according to 68.9 %( 42/61) of respondents. The study concluded that most of them have opinion that all dying patients require palliative. REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15].

Twycross R, Sanjeev A. An Indian Hand Book of Palliative Care. 2nd edition. Clicut; Indian Association of Palliative Care: 2000. 1,19,30-42. Walsh D,GombeskiWR,GoldsteinP.Palliative care. Palliative medicine journal.2011;43(6) :784-93 DavidS, Ajithakumari K, Burn G, Saraswathi D P, Rachel K , Clare S. Palliative care .India.Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine .2000; 93: 292-95. Venkateswaran C, Kumar TM. Psycho-oncology in India. Emerging trends from kerala.indian Journal of palliative care.2006;12(01):34-38 Murphy EK. Barriers to palliative care and supportive care.Nursing Clinics Of North America.200; 36: 843-51. Mohammad Al, Qudire R N.A study to assess the knowledge of staff nurse about palliative care.Journal of Hospice and palliative Nursing February 2014, volume 16 Number 1, page No;23-30. Ahammed A, Dr Sumaya S, Lubna H ,Dr Imad F , Nurses knowledge and attitude towards the palliative care,Palestine Journal of education and practice ISSN 2222-1735[Paper]ISSN 2222-288X[onlin] vol.6,NO.4,2015 Venkateswaran C, Kumar TM. Psycho-oncology in India. Emerging trends from Kerala .Indian Journal of Palliative care.2006; 12(01): 34-38 Basavanthappa BT .Nursing Research. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Publication; 2007.92. BertalanffyLodwig. General System Theory :foundations, development applications.2012 May 11,vol 13:134-45 Wayne A,Maike R.Can a pain management and palliative care curriculum improve the opioid prescribing practices of medical residents.Journal Gen Intern Med.2002;17(8):625-631 Kathy J,Peter A.Music therapy reduces pain in palliative care patients.Journal of pain and symptom management.May 2013.Vol 45:822-831 A randomize trial on reflexology.Availablefrom:URL,.http://www.reflexology Research .com/control.html.Accessed on 16, august, 2009 Harding R,,D.Karus,V.H.Ravier,I.J.Higginson.Does palliative care improve outcome for patients with HIV/AIDS.2003.Vol 13:123-145 Kessing S,Rosenwax L.Is occupation missing from occupational therapy.2011 oct;58(5):329-36

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We express our love and sincere gratitude to our dear parents and teachers for their whole consent, encouragement, support, funding and unconditional love. We are immensely grateful to my guide for his continuous support, encouragement, valuable suggestions. Our special thanks to all the participants who enthusiastically participated in the study and for being very co-operative, without whose support this study not been possible.

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Optimal Land Use Planning in Mojo Watershed with Multi-Objective Linear Programming Zelalem Biru Gonfa1, Devendra Kumar2 P.G. Student, Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Technology College, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India 1 Dean, Agribusiness Management College, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, India2 Abstract: To generate basic technical information on optimal land use planning for stakeholders and decision maker a multi-objective linear programme optimization model was developed for Mojo watershed having a total area of 2017.21 km2 situated in central Ethiopia. In the process of model development annual sediment yield and amount of net income per unit area in each land-used is considered as coefficient of decision variables and area under each land use is taken as a constraint. On solving the problem using a Goal computer program net income from the watershed is increased by 29.91 % and soil erosion decreased by 16.14 % with the reduction of dry land farming by 18.45 % and increasing the current rangeland 946.36 ha to 15419.74 ha and 45.96 ha under irrigated agriculture to 25526.69 ha. Keywords: Soil erosion; Net benefit; Land use; Watershed; Multi-Objective; Goal programme; I. INTRODUCTION Ethiopian economy is mainly based on smallholder agriculture that provides over 85 % of the total employments and foreign exchange earnings and approximately 55 % of Gross Domestic product EEPA (2012). On the other side this sector is seriously affected by soil erosion (Alemneh, 2003). The severity of the geological erosion in Ethiopia is due to a combination of an aggressive climate, steep topography, and erodible soil types. Human activities in the catchments, including land clearing for agriculture and particularly overgrazing and firewood stripping, have resulted in a rapid acceleration of the erosion processes (Sileshi, 2001). The rapid population growth has further worsened the soil erosion and deforestation. Improper land use, which is essentially a function of human activities and soil and agro-climatic characteristics, intensifies the problems. A lack of adequate land use planning can contribute to severe soil erosion and increased sediment yield, creating major environmental problems and threatening the sustainable development of economies and societies (Zhang, et al. 2014). The underlying purpose of appropriate watershed management planning is to strive toward efficient, sustainable and intelligent solutions to watershed issues. Among different watershed issues land use planning and utilization is the first step in preventing and controlling land degradation due to soil erosion. Land use planning has become a central prerequisite for any development that aims to reduce soil erosion and the subsequent siltation rate of reservoirs thereby maximizing the benefits from the watershed. Therefore, at this stage a suitable optimization technique that is capable of solving complex watershed issues are the fundamental processes needed to achieve these objective. Nevertheless, watershed planning process is community-driven and requires support, opinions and knowledge of the residents of the watershed it has to be founded on the basic principles and technical information of the watershed. So far in Ethiopia to mitigate soil erosion more attention was given to the application of physical conservation measures, mainly soil bund, as the main strategy. In many parts of the country non-scientific and arbitrary management methods in land applications eventually have caused considerable rise in runoff, soil erosion and remarkable decrease in profitability of the land. Other studies in many countries on optimal land use planning and watershed management also showed that the application of optimizing knowledge, which is based on multiobjectives linear programming in land allocation can reduce sediment yield effectively and increase profitability from the watershed ( Huang et al., 2013; Karcher et al., 2013; Vafakhah, and Saravi 2011; and Owji et al. 2012). Misgana et al., (2005) developed an integrative computational methodology for the management of nonpoint source pollution from watersheds based on an interface between evolutionary algorithms and a comprehensive watershed simulation model, and are capable of identifying optimal or near-optimal land use patterns. The incorporation of optimal land use planing into effective watershed management planning has emerged as a promising research area attracting planners, policy makers and other resource managers ( Wang et al., 2004 &

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2006; Gitau et al., 2004; Sadeghia et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2009; and Sunandar et al. 2014). Under this circumstance to generate basic technical information on optimal land use planning for stakeholders and decision maker a multi-objective linear programming model was developed to recommend most appropriate land use plan for minimization of soil erosion and maximization of net income from the watershed. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Location Mojo watershed having a total area of 2017.21 km2 is situated in central Oromia Regional state, Ethiopia, Fig. 3.1. Geographically it is located between latitudes of 8° 16´ N and 9° 18´ N and longitude of 37° 57´ E and 39° 17´ E. The watershed drains to Mojo river and to Koka hydroelectric power dam and finally into Awash River. The mean annual rainfall of the area ranges from 858.50 to 1073 mm with more than 85 % of annual rainfall falling during June to September. The mean maximum temperature of the watershed is ranging from 210 C to 270 C the highest being recorded in the month of May and the lowest in July. The mean minimum temperature ranges from 80 C to 120 C where the minimum and maximum are occurring in the month of December and April respectively. The altitude of the watershed ranges from 1592 masl at the river bed to 3065 msl at the upper part the watershed. Out of the total area about 41.71, 38.48, 11.56, 5.88 and 2.36 % are under slope class of 0-3, 3-8, 8-15, 15-30 and greater than 30 % respectively.

Optimization model formulation Agricultural activities in the watershed, including crop farming, forestry, livestock husbandry, and fishing to some extent, dominate the local economy. Within this subsystem, at present crop farming like teff, wheat, lintels, haricot beans and vegetables dominates the farming system. Therefore, for effective and economical utilization of the existing resource of the watershed multi-objective linear programming is chosen in which the objective function is to minimize soil erosion and to maximize economic return from the watershed. According to Giuseppe (2008) direct definition of multi-objective optimization, the general form of the optimization problem for the watershed is written as:

Min Z1  i 1 Ci X i n

; and maximizing benefit from the watershed

Max Z 2  i 1 ai X i ; Where i  1, 2,..., n n

Subject to: n

X i 1

 A Sum of the area under each land use must be equal to the total watershed area,

Xi ≤ bi Area under different land use can be less than maximum area allocated to each land use, Xi ≥ bj Area under different land use can be greater than current area allocated to each land use, Xi ≥ 0 the areas allocated to each land use must be positive, Xi2 = Xi1 Urban area cannot be larger from the present area, Erosion ≥ 0 Erosion from each land use is positive but minimizing to zero



i 1

Erosion  TSL Total soil loss after optimization should not over the limit (TSL)

Ii1≤ Ii2 Total income from the land should not be less than the value before optimization,

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Where; Z1 = Annual sediment yield from the whole watershed (the objective), Z2 = Annual net income from the whole watershed (the objective), Xi = area allocated to each land use (Decision variable), bi = maximum area under different land use (right-hand side coefficient) bj= current area under different land use (right-hand side coefficient) and A = Total watershed area, Ci and ai = the objective function coefficient; i.e., soil erosion t/ha/y from each land use and net income in each hectare from different land use. Estimation of soil erosion from different land use The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to predict soil erosion from different land use at a watershed scale. SWAT is spatially distributed and is capable of simulating long time periods on a continuous daily time-step. In SWAT, a watershed is delineated into multiple subbasins based on topography from a digital elevation model. Subsequent subbasins are further divided into hydrologic response units (HRUs), which are areas of homogeneous land use, soils, slope, and management practices. Sediment yield is calculated at the HRU level, aggregated to the subbasin level, and routed through the river network. Soil erosion caused by rainfall and runoff is calculated using the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE), presented in Equation 1 (Williams 1995). 0.56 (1) SedMUSLE  11.8  QSurf  q Peak  areaHRU   K USLE  CUSLE  PUSLE  LS USLE  CFRG Where, SedMUSLE sediment yield on a given day (metric tons), Qsurf is surface runoff volume (mm/ha), qpeak is peak runoff rate (m3/s), areaHRU is the area of HRU (ha), KUSLE is soil erodibility factor (0.013 metric ton m2hr/(m3-metric ton cm)), CUSLE is the USLE cover and management factor, PUSLE is the USLE support practice factor, LSUSLE is USLE topographic factor, and CFRG is coarse fragment factor. Estimation of benefit of different land use Benefit of each land use was evaluated through discussions made with different offices at the district level, field observations as well as reviews of secondary data. Accordingly, to determine the net income of dry land farming first data of yield, price and area of each crop was collected. Then, the total cost was assessed based on the costs of crop cultivation, management care, harvest and transport to the market. Finally, the net income was estimated from the difference between gross income and the total cost. The net income of the range land was computed using the potential of hay and livestock feed production study in the region. Economic analyses were done taking into account the rangeland production cost and income per hectare. Unlike the cultivated areas, due to communal ownership, no cost was considered for these rangelands. For the estimation of benefit from forest land the guideline prepared by Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise based on the current costs of the activities implemented in the process of plantation management starting from seedling production to the marketing of forest product were used. Estimation of each land use area Areas under rural and urban settlement were subtracted from the total area and the remaining area is considered for optimization. To identify different land suitability classes of the watershed a Land Capability Classification Manual for the soil and water conservation purpose is used. Data related to land suitability classification were extracted from SWAT model out put and coded for each HRU, land unit. Then, land suitability classes of each HRU were determined according to Tana Beles WME Reports (2012). Determining water requirement in the study area Human and domestic animals water requirement were estimated based on information obtained from socieconomic studies of the study area and world health organization recommendations pre capita. Also, dryland farming water requirement were estimated based on the previous study on crop water requirement made by Yibeltal et al., (2013) considering the area under different crop. Erosion cost estimation of different land use There is no uniform standard to evaluated economic losses due to soil erosion up to now, but there are different approaches to measure the on-site costs of soil degradation such as replacement cost approach and productive change approach, though both the approach do have their own limitation. Therefore, to estimate the economic losses due to sediment yield from the study area according to Nikkami (1999) the lost soil to the eroded area based on the depth of the root zone in each land use were applied in each land use. The depth of the lost soil in each land use was calculated by considering the amount of sediment yield in that land use, the appropriate rooting depth of the vegetation, and the soil bulk density as follows:

A

E RS

(2)

Where, A is Lost Areas (m2 ha-1), E is erosion rate (t ha-1), R is root zone (m), and S is soil bulk density (t m-3) Then, estimated lost areas were multiplied by the economic net income of each land use to estimate the economic cost due to sediment yield in each Land use.

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III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSEDION Water requirement estimation in the study area Knowledge of the current status of water availability and trends of water demand in the watershed is very important for successful water management planning. Accordingly, the summary of estimated sectorial water demands within the watershed is shown in Table 1. The total available water from the watershed is 530.8 M m3 per year whereas the total water demand estimated is about 115.25 M m3 of which agricultural water demand takes the lion’s share with about 89.61 % followed by domestic water demand 7.85 % and livestock water demand 2.29 %. Table 1: Water requirement in the study area Water Requirement 1) Domestic animal  Cattle  Hoarse/donkey  Goat/sheep  Others 2) Human demand 3) Irrigation demand Total

Total

Norm

Mm3/year

84146 30188 54321 100670 362683 6360

55 lit/day 30 lit/day 5 lit/day 15 lit/day 25 lit/day 16281 m3/ha

1.670 0.330 0.098 0.544 9.067 103.547 115.248

(Data source Woreda Agr. office for total population) Estimated decision variables coefficient and constraints In this study annual sediment yield and amount of net income per unit area in each land-used is considered as coefficient of decision variables and area under each land use is taken as a constraint. Soil erosion rate from each major land use Soil erosion rate for each land-used and land-used distribution under different slope classes are directly taken from the SWAT model output result as shown in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively. Table 2: Soil loss from each major Land use of the watershed Area (ha) Soil loss Total soil loss (t/ha/yr) (t/year) Intensively cultivated 191283.30 20.76 3971041.31 Grass land 946.36 11.5 10883.14 Forest land 724.06 3.5 2534.21 Irrigated land 45.96 2 91.92 Table 3: Land use distribution (ha) of the watershed in different slope Slope (%) INCL IRRA DEGL URBS OBSL PLAF 0-3 97529.4 45.9615 1195.57 2543.19 3-8 84413.2 1644.29 1308.59 8-15 9339.68 1114.68 238.962 165.612 15-30 623.223 584.002 372.965 81.8146 196.743 351.091 > 30 Total 191282 45.9615 4659.58 4090.74 946.357 724.056 Land use

Dryland farming net income There are 191283.30 ha intensively cultivated dry land in the watershed currently used for the production of crops like Teff, Wheat, Lentils, Haricot bean and Chick pea under rain-fed agriculture. For the cost and benefit estimation of dryland farming in the watershed these major crops are considered. Generally, expected benefit from dryland farming is estimated to be 21,362.65 birr/ha/year. Irrigated land net income The availability of high water resource throughout the year and the existing suitable land feature for irrigation make Mojo watershed high potential area for small scale irrigation agriculture. Moreover, accessibility and availability of market for the product nearby the watershed are some of the favourable condition to attract farmers to used irrigation for crop production. The major crops that can be grown within the watershed through irrigation are Maize, Haricot beans, Potato, Onion, Tomato, Banana, Avocado and Papaya. Expected benefit from small scale irrigation agriculture is estimated as 49101.07 birr/ha/yr. Rangeland net income Livestock farming is an important and integral part of the agricultural sector of the study area. It also serves as a source of additional income for small holder farmers. Under small holders farmers livestock production systems are mainly dependent on variety of feed resources, which vary both in quantity and quality. Dawit et al., (2013) estimated annual feed dry matter under different feed recourses per housed hold, which is equivalent to 3.1 t dry matter (DM) per hectare. According to Kidus and Shapiro (2015) dry matter requirement in the low land and agro-pastoral area of Ethiopia is 1.86 metric tons per head per year. Therefore, 1.67 animal units per hectare are fed by rangelands every year. Also, the average weight of traded animals around the study area is 291 kg (Teressa, 2006). Thus, the total weight of live animal units is 485.97 kg/ha. Based on the this information, considering the price of live bull as 32 birr/kg (AGP-LM DP, 2013) the economic benefit from rangeland would

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be 15551.04 birr/ha/yr. In case of livestock production being the rangeland is belongs to the farmers and all the process are handled by them no cost is taken in to account. Forest land net income Cost benefit analysis of forest land was adopted form Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE, 2012). Cost benefit analysis of the forest land were made based on most commonly used plant specious, eucalyptus plantation, a guideline prepared to calculate the proportion of benefit to be shared between both OFWE and forest user community groups. The number of seedlings produced for one hectare of land was taken as 3000 and the average cost of one man day was taken as Eth Birr 15. The average estimated selling price for the Eucalyptus plantation for east shoa zone was 48000.00 Eth birr per ha. If it is assumed the plantation is harvested every five years for ten times considering average life span of fifty years the total selling price would be 480000.00 birr per ha. Therefore, net benefit from the plantation would be 471988.72 birr per ha for fifty years and 9439.78 birr per ha in one year. Erosion cost estimation in different Land use Despite the fact that cost of land degradation due to soil erosion include a number of direct and indirect costs, in this study being others are more difficult to estimate only cost due to soil are considered for the estimation of erosion cost from different land use. Table 4 presents erosion rate, root zone, soil bulk density, lost area and cost per hectare corresponding to different land use. Economic loss due to sediment yield for each land use is estimated multiplying lost area by the corresponding net benefit from the land use. Land use Dryland farming Irrigated land Rangeland Forest land

Table 0: Economic losses due to sediment yield in Mojo watershed Erosion rate Root zone Soil bulk density Lost area t/ha/yr (cm) (gm/cm3) m2/ha 20.76 30 1.4 49.43 2.00 30 1.3 5.13 11.50 30 1.5 25.56 3.50 100 1.3 2.69

Cost Birr/ha 50.01 9.76 55.89 2.00

Constraint determination Total area under settlements is deducted from the total area of the watershed for the purpose of optimal land use planning. Thus, the total watershed area to be considered is 197658.25 ha. Present land use distribution in different slope given in Table 3 and the result of land capability classification is taken as a base for setting the constraint. Generally, seven constraints are formed for the developed optimization model. The constructed constraints and their justifications are discussed below: Constraint 1: X1 ≤ 155987.76 Constraint-1 is referring to the total area under arable land in the watershed based on land capability classification result. As long as there is no possibility of increasing the land under arable land, the total area of dryland farming in the watershed cannot be more than 155987.76 ha. Constraint 2: X2 ≤ 25526.69 Constrain-2 is referring to the total area suitable for small scale irrigation agriculture within the watershed. In this case the total available water for irrigation and availability of suitable land for irrigation is considered. The total available water from the watershed is 530.8 M m3 per year out of this 115.248 M m3 is required for domestic and livestock use. Therefore, 415.6 M m3 is available for irrigation; taking irrigation requirement as 16281 m3/ha the current area under irrigation 45.96 ha can be increased to 25526.69 ha, because the area under intensive agriculture with 0-3% slope can be shifted to irrigation agriculture. Constraint 3: X2 ≥ 45.96 Constraint 3 refers to the current area under irrigated agriculture. As long as there is sufficient water resource and suitable land for irrigation with in the watershed the current area under irrigation can be increased from the present 45.96 ha. Constraint 4: X3 ≥ 4659.58 Constraint-4 is in relation to range land in the watershed. In most cases fallow land are considered as a grazing land as such there is no separate area for grazing land. For this reason the current area under degraded land and open bush land can be considered as grazing land. On the other hand since open grazing system is prevailing in the region there is no restriction for grazing land. Therefore, grazing land can be more than 4659.58 ha, the current degraded land. Constraint 5: X4 ≤ 2209.84 Constrent-5 refers to the total area suitable for plantation based on land capability classification. Total area more than 30% within the watershed is considered for forest land in addition to the current forest land, degraded land and open bush land under 15-30 %. Thus, the total area to be under forest in the watershed should not be more than 2209.84 ha. Constraint 6: X4 ≥ 724.06 Constraint-6 is in relation to forest land in the watershed. An area having slope more than 30% within the watershed must be changed to forest land. Therefore, the current area under forest can be greater than 724.06 ha. Constraint 7: X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 = 197658.25

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This constraint is the area limitation of Mojo watershed after subtracting the area under settlement. Sum of the area under four Land use should neither increased nor decreased from the current available 197658.25 ha land in the watershed. Constraint 8: X1, X2, X3, X4, ≥ 0 This is a non negative variable, which means the area allocated to each Land use must be positive. Finally, the general form of optimization Multi-objective Linear Programme for the watershed can be written as: Objective-1: (Maximizing the income from the whole watershed) Max (Z1) = 16.18X1 + 49.10X2 + 15.55X3 + 9.44X4 Objective-2: (Minimizing sediment yield from the whole watershed) Max (-Z2) = -20.76X1 – 2X2 – 11.5X3 – 3.5X4 Subject to the following constraint: X1 ≤ 155987.76 X2 ≤ 25526.69 X2 ≥ 45.96 X3 ≥ 4659.58 X4≤ 2209.84 X4 ≥ 724.06 X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 = 197658.25 Where, Z1 is net income from the whole watershed (103 birr/year), Z2 is annual sediment yield from the watershed (t/year), X1 is the area allocated to dryland farming (ha), X2 is the area allocated for Irrigation agriculture (ha), X3 is area allocated for grazing land (ha), and X 4 is area allocated to forest land (ha). Summarized objective function and their constraints discussed above are shown in Table 5 as multi objective simplex tableau. Equation Objective 1 Objective 2 Constraint 1 Constraint 2 Constraint 3 Constraint 4 Constraint 5 Constraint 6 Constraint 7

Table 5: Linear Multi-objective function simplex tableau of Mojo watershed X1 X2 X3 X4 Type 16.18 49.10 15.55 9.44 Max -20.76 -2.00 -11.50 -3.50 Max 1 0 0 0 ≤ 0 1 0 0 ≤ 0 1 0 0 ≥ 0 0 1 0 ≥ 0 0 0 1 ≤ 0 0 0 1 ≥ 1 1 1 1 =

RHS 0 0 155987.76 25526.69 45.96 4659.58 2209.84 724.06 197658.25

In this table column 2 to 5 present decision variables, column 6 indicate the maximization and minimization form of the objective function and the last column gives the right hand side (RHS) value. Whereas, rows 2 and 3 represent decision variable coefficient for net benefit per hectare (Birr “000”) and sediment yield per hectare (t/ha) respectively. Number 1 and 0 in the remaining rows show the presence and absence of the decision variables in the constraint respectively. Optimization model output The formulated linear multi-objective function shown in Table 5 is solved using a Goal computer program. The newly proposed area for dry land farming (X 1), Irrigation agriculture (X2), Rangeland (X3), and Forest land (X4) for maximum benefit and low sediment yield from the watershed are given in Table 6. The result of present study show that a reduction of dry land farming by 18.45 % and increasing the current rangeland 946.36 ha to 15419.74 ha and 45.96 ha under irrigated agriculture to 25526.69 ha would increase the net income and minimize soil erosion from the watershed by 29.91 % and 16.14 % respectively without making much difference of the current forest land.

Optimiz Current Erosion rate ation Land & net benefit output use

Land use

Table 6: Optimal net income and total soil losses from Mojo watershed after optimization. Dryland Irrigated Forest Rangeland farming Agriculture land Erosion (t/ha/yr) 20.76 2.00 11.50 3.50

Total

Net income (103 Birr/ha/yr)

16.18

49.10

15.55

9.44

Area (ha) Total Erosion (106 t/yr) Net income (106Birr/yr) Area (ha) Total Erosion (106 t/yr) Net income (106Birr/yr)

191282 3.97 3.09 155987.8 3.24 2.53

45.96 0.000092 0.0023 25526.69 0.051 1.26

946.36 0.065 0.015 15419.7 0.18 0.24

724.06 0.0025 0.007 724.06 0.003 0.007

197658 4.03 3.11 197658 3.47 4.04

Fig. 2(a) to 2(c) show the comparison between, sediment yield, total net benefit from different land use and area allocated to different land use of Mojo watershed before and after optimization.

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Sediment Yield Before

Sediment Yield After

4.5

3.5

Net income (106 Birr/yr)

Sediment Y (106 t/ha/yr)

4.5

2.5 2 1.5

Net income Before

Net income After

2.5 2 1.5

0.5

0.5 0

0 Dryland

Irrigated

Rangeland Land use

Forest

Dryland

Total

Irrigated

(a)

Rangeland Land use

Forest

Total

(b)

200000

Area Before

Area After

180000 160000 140000

Area (ha)

120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 Dryland

Irrigated

Rangeland Land use

Forest

Total

(c) Fig. 2: Sediment yield (a) Net income (b) and Allocated land use (c) in Mojo watershed before and after optimization The results indicated that after applying land use optimization, the amount of sediment yield has decreased 4.03M t/ha/yr to 3.47 M t/ha/yr (16.14 %) and the net income would be increased from 3.11 M birr/yr to 4.04 M birr/yr (18.45 %) as can be seen from Fig. 2 (a) and Fig. 2 (b) respectively. It can be seen that there is no serious change in forestland areas whereas very small area under irrigated agriculture has been increased from 45.96 ha to 25526.69 ha and an area under dry farming reduced from 191282 ha to 155987.76 ha. All these possible changes brought 16.14 % reduction of sediment yield and 18.45 % additional net income from the watershed. The allocated areas for different land use before and after optimizations are shown in Fig. 2 (c). IV. CONCLUSION Ethiopia is one of the sub-Saharan countries where soil erosion is seriously affected agricultural productivity. So far in Ethiopia to mitigate soil erosion more attention was given to the application of physical conservation measures, mainly soil bund, as the main strategy. But, this study proves that the integration of hydrological model with suitable optimization technique is capable of minimizing soil erosion and optimizing net income from the watershed simultaneously. In this regard, a multi-objective linear programming developed for the watershed considering minimizing soil erosion and maximizing benefit as an objective function and area under different land use as a constraint result in an increase of net income and minimize soil erosion from the watershed by 29.91 % and 16.14 % respectively with the reduction of dry land farming by 18.45 % and increasing the current rangeland 946.36 ha to 15419.74 ha and 45.96 ha under irrigated agriculture to 25526.69 ha without making much difference of the current forest land. Generally, the approach can be used at regional and national level for optimal land allocation, though the present study specific to Mojo watershed. References AGP-Livestock Market Development Project 2013. Agricultural Growth Project - Livestock Market Development, Available online at: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB025.pdf.

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Alemneh, D. 2003. Integrated natural resource management to enhance food security. The case for community-based approach in Ethiopia. Working paper No. 16, FAO, Rome. CSA (The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency). 2015. Agricultural sample survey. Volume I report on area and production of major crops. Available online at: http://www.csa.gov.et/images/general/area_and_production_report_2014_2015_2007_e.c. EEPA (Ethiopia Environmental Protection Authority). 2012. National Report of Ethiopia, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. P73. Gitau M. W., T. L. Veith, and W. J. Gburek. 2004. Farm–level optimization of bmp placement for cost–effective pollution reduction. Transactions of the ASAE, 47(6): 1923−1931. Giuseppe, N. 2008. Multi-Objective Optimization-A quick introduction. Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University: Available online at cims.nyu.edu/~gn387/glp/lec1.pdf. Huang T.W., H.-Fu Kuo, and K.W. Tsou. 2013. A Multi-Objective Spatial Optimization Method for Land Use Allocation in High Flood Risk Areas. International J. of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, 3 (3): 196. Karcher S. C., J. M. VanBriesen, and C. T. Nietch. 2013. Alternative Land-Use Method for Spatially Informed Watershed Management Decision Making Using SWAT. J. Environ. Eng.,139: 1413-1423. Liu Y., Y. Yu, H. Guo, and P. Yang. 2009. Optimal Land-Use Management for Surface Source Water Protection Under Uncertainty: A Case Study of Songhuaba Watershed (Southwestern China). Water Resour Manage, 23: 2069–2083. Misgana K. M., and J. W. Nicklow. 2005. Decision Support for Watershed Management Using Evolutionary Algorithms. J. of Water Resources Planning and Management, 131 (1): 35 - 44. Nikkami, D. 1999. Optimizing the management of soil erosion using GIS. Ph.D. Thesis. Concordia University, 108pp. OFWE (Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise) .2012. Guideline to calculate the production of benefit sharing for plantation forest in Oromia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Owji M. R., D. Nikkami, M. H. Mahdian and S. Mahmoudi. 2012. Minimizing Surface Runoff by Optimizing Land Use Management. World Applied Sciences J. 20 (1): 170-176. Sadeghia S.H.R., K. Jalili, and D. Nikkami. 2009. Land use optimization in watershed scale. Land Use Policy, 26: 186–193. Sileshi, B. 2001. Investigation of water resources aimed at multi-objective development with respect to limited data situation: The case of Abbaya-Chamo Basin, Ethiopia. Thesis, Ph.D. Technical University of Dresden, Germany. Sunandar A. D., E. Suhendang, Hendrayanto, I. N. S. Jaya, and Marimin. 2014. Land Use Optimization in Asahan Watershed with Linear Programming and SWAT Model. International J. of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research, 18 (1): 63-78. Tana-Bales WME. 2012. Land capability classification manual for the SWC purpose. In: Kombolcha Training on GIS-Land capability classification manual for the SWC purpose. August 20 – September 01 2012, Kombolcha (Wello), Ethiopia. Vafakhah M., and M. M. Saravi. 2011. Optimizing Management of Soil Erosion in Orazan Sub-basin, Iran. J. Agr. Sci. Tech., 13: 717726. Wang L., W. Meng, H. Guo, Z. Zhang, Y. Liu and Y. Fan. 2006. An Interval Fuzzy Multi-objective Watershed Management Model for the Lake Qionghai Watershed, China. Water Resources Management, 20: 701–721. Wang X, S. Yu , and G.H. Huang. 2004. Land allocation based on integrated GIS-optimization modeling at a watershed level. Landscape and Urban Planning, 66: 61–74. Williams, J. R. 1995. Chapter 25. The EPIC Model. p. 909-1000. In: Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology. Water Resources Publications. Highlands Ranch, CO. Yibeltal, T., Belete B., Semu A., Imeru T., and Yohannes T. 2013. Synthesis report- Awash river basin water audit. GCP/INT/072/ITA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 129. Zhang X., R. Srinivasan and D. Bosch. 2009. Calibration and uncertainty analysis of the SWAT model using Genetic Algorithms and Bayesian Model Averaging. Journal of Hydrology 374: 307–317. Zhang C., C. Jinggang, and F. Guangtao. 2012. Sobol0’s sensitivity analysis for a distributed hydrological model of Yichun River Basin, China. J. of Hydrology 480: 58–68. Zhang S., Y. Liu, T. Wang. 2014. How land use change contributes to reducing soil erosion in the Jialing River Basin, China. Agricultural Water Management, 133: 65– 73

Authors Biography Mr. Zelalem B. Gonfa is a Lecturer in the program of Water Resource Engineering at Adama Science and Technology University, Ethiopia, and currently he is a Ph.D. candidate in Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. He obtained a M.Sc. Degree in Soil and Water Engineering from Haramaya University, Ethiopia, and a B.Tech. degree in Agricultural Engineering from Kerala Agricultural University under Indo-Ethiopian cultural exchange programme. He can be reached at: zgonfa@yahoo.com

Dr. Devendra Kumar, is an alumnus of GBPUA&T, Pantnagar and IIT Kharagpur and carries a professional experience spanning over more than three decades in the areas of teaching, research, extension and consultancy. He has worked as professor in the Department of Soil & Water Conservation Engineering, College of Technology, Pantnagar. He has guided number of students in M.B.A., M.Tech. and Ph.D. Programmers in addition to having more than seventy research publications in refereed national and international journals of repute. He is fellow of number of Professional Societies. Presently he is serving as Dean of College of Agribusiness Management. He can be reached at: Kumar_drdevendra@rediffmail.com

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

A STUDY TO ASSESS THE KNOWLEDGE REGARDING THE ILL EFFECTS OF SMOKING AMONG THE STUDENTS OF SELECTED PRE-UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MANGALURU Alpha Stephen1, Amrutha Thomas1, Anjaly Jose1, Nithyashree B V2 Basic B.Sc. Nursing Student, Yenepoya Nursing College, Yenpoya University Deralakatte, Mangaluru DK 575018, Karnataka, India 2 Lecturer, Department of Community Health Nursing, Yenepoya Nursing College, Yenpoya University Deralakatte, Mangaluru DK 575018 Karnataka, India 1

ABSTRACT Background of the study: Smoking is one of the most common recreational drugs. Tobacco smoking is the most popular form, being practiced by over 1 billion people globally, of who the majority are in the developing country like India. The aim of the study was to assess the knowledge on ill effects of smoking among Pre University students in Yenepoya Pre University College Mangaluru. Objectives of the study were  to assess the knowledge regarding the ill effects of smoking among Pre-University students  to find out the association between level of knowledge and selected socio-demographic variables Methodology: To accomplish the objectives of the problem under study, descriptive research design was adopted. The sample of 100 Pre University students of Yenepoya Pre University College Mangaluru, were selected by using simple random sampling technique. And the data was collected by using socio demographic proforma and a structured knowledge questionnaire regarding ill effects of smoking. Result: The mean percentage of knowledge regarding the ill effects of smoking was77 %and SD is 3.534. In the present study it revealed that, 58% of students had adequate knowledge, 41% of students had moderate knowledge and 1% had inadequate knowledge. It’s found that there was a significant association between knowledge score with the selected socio demographic variables like gender and father’s occupation. Conclusion: The present study was aimed to assess the knowledge among Pre University students regarding ill effects of smoking. The result revealed that 58% of respondents had adequate knowledge and 41% had moderate knowledge and 1% had inadequate knowledge. As adolescent age group are in transitional stage and attracted towards the new adventure which will lead them to choose bad habits like smoking, alcoholism, drugs etc. Smoking is a major public health problem causing lung cancer, oral cancer with high associated morbidity and mortality. It is necessary to create awareness among the adolescents through effective teaching programmes. Keywords: Knowledge, ill effects, smoking, Pre University students I. INTRODUCTION Good health is a precious gift to human being, gifted by God. As a proverb Health is a wealth, it’s our prime duty to preserve it to lead a healthy life. Good health is a principal capital asset. Some people, for seeking temporary pleasure fall into bad habits such as smoking tobacco, alcoholism, use of drugs etc. The personal decisions on behaviour affect the prospects for good health1. Smoking is recognized as the third biggest health risk for Indians. Despite of all the anti-tobacco and smoke-free laws in India there are 110 million smokers.10 The National Survey on Drug Use and Health estimates that each day, over 4,000 people under the age of 18 try their first cigarette. This amounts to more than 7,30,000 new smokers each year. The Final Report of the National Commission on Drug-Free Schools indicates that children and adolescents consume more than one billion cigarettes every year. According to economist Kenneth Warner, the tobacco industry needs 5,000 new young smokers every day in order to maintain the total number of smokers.15 Investigators personally observed adolescents who were smoking, when the reason was asked to them, they have responded like for enjoyment and curiosity they smoke. Tobacco smoking is considered as one of the major preventable causes of death and disability worldwide. The Pre University students are in transitional stage of life hence Investigators found it relevant to assess the knowledge regarding ill effect of smoking among pre university students. Study findings will help to know the awareness among adolescents and will also help to conduct intervention measures in future. Problem Statement: A study to assess the knowledge regarding the ill effects of smoking among the students of selected Pre-University College of Mangaluru.

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Objectives of the study were:  to assess the knowledge regarding the ill effects of smoking among pre-university students  to find out the association between level of knowledge and selected socio-demographic variables II. METHODS A descriptive survey approach with non experimental quantitative descriptive design was adopted. Reliability, of the tool was tested on 10 Pre University Students of Hira Pre University College, Bumbukatte. Split- half method using Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the tool. Correlation coefficient was found to be 0.74. Since the knowledge reliability co efficient for the scale r ii>0.70 the tool was found to be reliable and feasible. 100 Pre University students of Yenepoya Pre University College Mangluru, were selected by using Simple Random Sampling technique. The data was collected by using structured knowledge questionnaire regarding ill effects of smoking. Data was analysed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The data was tabulated, analysed and interpreted using descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The data was presented under following headings: Section 1: Description of samples based on socio demographic characteristic Section 2: Grading of knowledge of Pre-University students regarding the ill effects smoking Section 3: Association between knowledge of Pre University students regarding the ill effects of smoking with selected socio demographic variable Section 1: Description of samples based on socio demographic characteristics In the present study majority 74% were in the age group of 16 years. 50% Respondents were from male and female gender respectively. Most of the students (99%) were from I PUC. The distribution of subjects shows that 80% of the students were belongs to Muslim religion. A majority student (74%) belongs to from nuclear family. Nearly (47%) of student’s father’s completed high school education. Most of the student’s mothers (36%) completed high school education. Most of the student’s fathers (49%) had business. Most of the student’s mothers (86%) were homemaker. The data collected on the income of the family showed that majority (42%) had a family income of Rs>15001, only (8%) had a family income Rs<5000. Most of the subject (48%) had no family history of smoking, 40% had history of smoking in relatives. Only 1% have acquired knowledge regarding smoking by contact with health personnel, 2% acquired from news paper or magazine,3%have acquired from parents or relatives,9% have acquired from friends or neighbours,18% have acquired from TV/Radio and most of them (67%) have acquired knowledge from all of these sources. SECTION 2: Grading of knowledge of Pre-University students regarding the ill effects smoking Table 1: distribution of samples according to knowledge scores N=100 Level of knowledge

Category

Frequency

Percentage

Inadequate knowledge

<50%

1-10

Moderate knowledge

51-75%

11-20

41%

Adequate knowledge

> 75%

21-30

58%

100

100%

Total

score

Table 1 depicts the distribution of samples according to knowledge scores. Data shows the level of knowledge regarding ill effects of smoking among Pre University students that 58% of students had adequate knowledge, 41% had moderate knowledge and 1% with inadequate knowledge regarding ill effects of smoking. KNOWLEDGE GRADING 70

Percentage

60 50

40 30 20 10

0 Inadequate knowledge

Moderate knowledge

Adequate knowledge

Range

Fig. 1: Percentage distribution of sample according to knowledge scores

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Table 2: Area wise knowledge scores of Pre University students N=100 SL. NO.

AREAS

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE SCORE

1 2

General Physical, physiological and psychological effects of smoking Socio economic effects of smoking Environmental effects of smoking Total

3 4 5

MEAN

MEAN PERCENTAGE

STANDARD DEVIATION

11 14

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE SCORE obtained 11 13

6.88 10.32

62.55% 73.71%

1.991 1.775

1.49

74.5%

0.611

2.10

70%

0.759

20.79

69.3%

3.534

Table 2 shows the area wise mean score percentage on knowledge of Pre University College students regarding the ill effects of smoking with highest mean percentage of 74.5% was fond in the area of socio economic effects of smoking with standard deviation 0.611,In the area of physical, physiological and psychological effect of smoking the mean percentage was73.71% with standard deviation 1.775, In the area of environmental effects of smoking the mean percentage was 70% with the standard deviation of 0.759 and in the area of general questionnaire the mean percentage was 62.55% with the mean standard deviation of 1.991. The mean of the total score is 20.79 with mean percentage of 69.3% with the SD 3.534. SECTION 3: Association between knowledge of Pre University students regarding the ill effects of smoking with selected socio demographic variable. The obtained chi square value regarding Gender(χ2 = 4.6167,df = 1,table value = 3.84), Father’s occupation (χ 2 = 10.496,df = 4,table value = 9.49), found significant. Thus hypothesis H1 accepted. Age (χ2 = 1.5788,df = 3, table value =7.82) Class of studying (χ2 = 0.7935,df = 1, table value = 3.84),Religion (χ 2 =2.7697,df =3 table value = 7.82), Type of family (χ 2 = 7.07,df = 3, table value = 7.83) , Father’s education (χ 2 = 7.5259,df=5, table value = 11.07) Mother’s education (χ2 = 9.7546,df= 5, table value = 11.07 ) Mother’s occupation(χ 2 = 4.3999,df = 4, table value = 9.49) Monthly income(χ2 = 7.7225,df= 3, table value = 7.82) Family history of smoking(χ 2 =4.7016,df = 3, table value = 7.82) Source of information (χ 2 = 4 .6123,df= 5,table value = 11.07) found non significant association with the knowledge score, and hypothesis rejected. It shows that the knowledge was influenced by gender and father’s occupation, and there is no association between other socio demographic variables like age, class, religion, type of family, father’s education, mother’s education, mother’s occupation, monthly income, family history of smoking and source of information. IV. CONCLUSION The present study was aimed to assess the knowledge among Pre University students regarding ill effects of smoking. The result revealed that 58% of respondents had adequate knowledge and 41% had moderate knowledge and 1% had inadequate knowledge. It is necessary to create awareness among the adolescents through effective teaching programmes. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With sincere gratitude and humility we acknowledge the Almighty God who has showered his blessings. We express our sincere gratitude and respect to Dr.( Prof.) Asha P Shetty, Dean/ Principal, Yenepoya Nursing College, for her constant inspiration, guidance and encouragement for the completion of the study. We sincerely thank Prof. (Mrs.) Devina E Rodrigues, HOD, Community Health Nursing, and research coordinator for her constant support. It’s our pleasure to thank our guide Ms. Nithyashree B. V. Lecturer, YNC for being constant support and providing timely help and guidance. Heartfelt thanks to all who helped us directly and indirectly.

REFERENCES [1]. [2].

[3].

Shridhar G Pujari. Nightingale Nursing Times. 2015 May. vol 11(2) p. 51-3. Number of smokers up by 35 million in 30 years, study finds: The times of India [Online].Available from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Number-of-smokers-up-by-35-million-in-30-years-studyfinds/articleshow/28530274.cms Youth smoking from Wikipedia. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth-smoking.

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Determining the Strategic Situation and Sports and Touristic Strategies alongside the Shores of Mazandaran Province 1

Hasan Rahmani Kafshgari1*, Seyed Mohammad Hosein Razavi2, Saeed Amirnejad3 Department of Physical Education, Shirgah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shirgah, Iran 2 Department of Sport management, Mazandaran University, Mazandaran, Iran 3 Department of Sport management, Shomal University, Amol, Mazandaran, Iran

Abstract: This article tries to develop strategies through performance of studies and analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threads on littoral tourism of Mazandaran Province. A number of 384 tourists, 24 managers and vice presidents of department of tourism, 24 managers and vice presidents of youth and sports departments and 96 managers and vice presidents of committees of football, volleyball, handball, lifeguarding and water sports have filled out a researcher made questionnaire. The validity of the mentioned questionnaire was determined by 25 experts of management and sports management through content validity methods. In addition, the reliability of the questionnaire was also calculated as 96% through Cronbach’s alpha test. Data analyses are performed by descriptive and inferential statistics within the environment of SPSS 16.0 software. Results of research indicated that in terms of strategic positioning in internal and external matrixes, littoral tourism of Mazandaran province with emphasis on sports activities is located in conservative area. Furthermore through SWOT matrix analysis method a total number of 23 strategies were developed which included 6 SO strategies, 7 ST strategies, 5 WO strategies and 5 WT strategies. Keywords: Littoral Tourism, Littoral Sports, Strategy, Mazandaran Province I. Introduction Nowadays tourism is the main body of economy of certain countries and in fact in these countries, it is considered as an economic and employment generator. The industry of tourism plays an important role in global economy, in a way that according to anticipations of the World Tourism Organizarion, more than 43% of jobs around the globe will be related to the industry of tourism by the year 2020 (World Tourism Organization). With respect to necessity of reinforcement and development of industry of tourism for obtaining its actual place and credibility in international contexts, one of the important sections which is capable of becoming a trans-sectional section in the industry of tourism is sports which is recalled as tourism sports (Ghiami rad, Moharram Zadeh, 2008). In today’s world, sports tourism is a source filled with income and benefits, in a way that this factor has become a serious and deployed competition among different countries for becoming the host for great international matches and every country who is able to provide itself with possibility of utilization of this source will be benefited with its many gifts and advantages (Hadavi, Ehsani, Ghasemi 2005). Sports that are dependent on natural, littoral and marine resources are the most important parts in the context of tourism. If littoral resources and recreational sites are chosen as sportive sources, this type of tourism will be called coastal or littoral tourism (Rahmani, Razavi, 2011). Murphy and Bernal (2008) have performed a study on economic impacts of surfing in Spain’s Monaco. Results of analysis of their population indicated that their annual income was approximately 40.000 US dollars (26.000EU) and daily expenses of tourists were approximately 120 dollars per day. Wall (2007) in his study on tourism in coastal areas of China has pointed out that coasts are interesting environments for tourists and tourism planners in which marine, atmospheric, earthly and humane elements are joined to each other. Ramallal (2010) has performed a research termed as sports and tourism and regarding this study, he has stated that Costa Rica is a country with sunny beaches and unique and reach natural resources which have no similar in the area. Most prevalent activities of tourists of this area include watching the coasts, hiking in nature, watching animals and plants and watching birds. Spyri don et al. (2009) in their research have reported that public tourism indicates that operators of tourism tours are currently offering less prices and for realization of this goal, sea, sun and sands are ideal purposes. Tasadoghi (2007) has carried out a research under the title of ‘discussing sports tourism in Mazandaran Province”. In this research, first of all he has mentioned effective elements on increase of tourism in the province of Mazandaran such as environmental and climatic attractions, being adjacent with Caspian Sea and rare biological diversity and local sports. Afterwards he has stated elements of development of sports including urban and sub-urban trips, utilization of sports tourism tours,

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sports exhibitions throughout the province, drawing bulletin, proper informing, formation of tourism and sports tourism information banks and etc. Isfahani (2010) has performed a research aimed at analysis of effective elements on development of domestic and foreign industries of tourism and sports tourism and development of a strategic model. He has reported that the place of domestic and foreign sports tourism in Iran, according to SWOT axis is located in Weakness area and in terms of its matrix; it’s placed in WO position. Sanaei (2011) has performed a research regarding the status of recreational sports alongside the coasts of north of Iran and has compared it with the status of a few selected countries. He has reported the most major problem of people regarding their tendency towards sports activities on coasts as insufficiency of facilities for water and coastal sports, contamination of sea water, weakness of financial strength of tourists, expensiveness of residential and recreational sites and lack of sufficient budget and credits. With respect to previous analyses, Iran is among the world’s first ten countries in terms of tourism attractions but the share of the industry of Tourism of Iran in GDP is only 0.1 percent (Shafi Zadeh, 2009). According to fourth plan of development, tourists of Iran should reach the number of 20 million per year by the year 2024 and in this regard, the share and place of sports and holding sports tournaments could not be ignored (Varvani, 2008). Every year, hundreds of thousands of people come to Mazandaran from almost every part of Iran in order to spend their holidays and with respect to the long life of the Caspian Sea, currently 248 kilometers of the total 338 kilometers of Mazandaran’s coastal line has been subjected to construction by public firms and organizations. From the remaining 90 kilometers, 75 kilometers are currently hedged by private, governmental and military owners and only 15 kilometers is free (Statistics, 2004). The reason for lacking a determined definition of sports tourism in coasts with respect to their potentials might be lying in the fact that we lack a strategic plan for sports tourism alongside the beaches of our country, especially in Mazandaran. On this basis, the present research has tried to develop strategies through performance of studies and analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threads on littoral tourism of Mazandaran Province so that with respect to the necessity of planning for moving towards global development, the present research may become a proper model for benefaction from held events throughout the coasts of Mazandaran with emphasis on the industry of sports tourism. If this is realized and plus that, we have a strategic and well defined plan, then the contexts for development of tourism in general and sports tourism in specific will improve along the coasts of Mazandaran. II. Material and Methods With respect to the subject and purpose, the present research is considered as a strategic and context finding research carried out under a field approach and through descriptive-analytic methods; in other words the recognition of the current status of SWOT is described and results have been subjected to analysis. With respect to limitation of our population, a number of 24 managers and vice presidents of department of tourism, 24 managers and vice presidents of youth and sports departments and 96 managers and vice presidents of committees of football, volleyball, handball, lifeguarding and water sports have been selected as the sample in addition to a number of 384 tourists according to Morgan’s table. For the purpose of determination of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Mazandaran’s coastal tourism with emphasis on sport activities and also for determining the validity of questionnaires, we have sought the help of 25 experts and after performance of the entire reformation suggestions and necessary changes, the researcher has used technics such as determination of averages, determination of rank, prioritization and utilization of severity indexes in order to extract each element. The researcher made questionnaire included four sections with the first section dedicated to strengths (25 questions), the second section to weaknesses (30 questions), third section to opportunities (19 questions) and fourth section was also dedicated to threats (18 questions). Each question in each section had 9 choices in the way that the choices 1-9 each revealed a level of importance from low to high. In addition, the reliability of the aforementioned questionnaire was determined as 96% through Cronbach’s alpha test. For ranking the points (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) the Freedman’s ranking test was employed. Ultimately for the purpose of determining Mazandaran’s coastal tourism strategy with emphasis on sport activities, the SWOT analysis was employed. In addition, for the purpose of determination of Mazandaran Province’s coastal tourism’s strategic status with emphasis on sport activities; the internal evaluation matrix, external evaluation matrix, internal elements matrix and external elements matrix were used. Furthermore, for codification and extraction of strategies the SWOT analysis and binary comparison for determination of WT, WO, ST and SO strategies were utilized. III. Results The findings of this research are respectively prioritized in three parts. These parts include effective elements of costal tourism with emphasis on sport activities, SWOT analysis for codification of a strategy for coastal tourism with emphasis on sport activities and Mazandaran’s coastal tourism strategies with emphasis on sport activities. With respect to diagram 1, results indicate that in terms of strategic positioning and in terms of internal and external matrices, Mazandaran’s coastal tourism with emphasis on sport activities is located in conservative area; in other words, by utilizing current opportunities in external environments, the internal

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weaknesses could be improved. It means that outside the environment, there are several potential opportunities for promotion of Mazandaran’s coastal tourism with emphasis on sport activities; however as a result of weakness in internal environments these opportunities cannot be exploited. In addition, strategies of interest were extracted with their items through analysis of SWOT matrix. In this step, a total of 23 strategies including 6 SO strategies, 7 ST strategies, 5 WO strategies and 5 WT strategies were codified. Conservative

Offensive

Defensive

Competitive

Weakness

Strength

Opportunity

Threats Fig 1. Strategic positioning of Mazandaran’s coastal tourism with emphasis on sport activities Table 1. The results of internal and external matrices and strategies WO strategy Development of proper transportation infrastructures for urban and provincial transportations W2,O19,O2 Providing adequate contexts for attracting owners of industries inside the province towards financial support of sport events W25,O17,O15,O18 Providing suitable contexts for utilization of public’s potentials for development of coastal tourism W7,W20,O11 Preparation of suitable human resources for development of coastal sports tourism W3,W15,O11 Making use of experiences of successful countries in terms of development of coastal sports tourism and applying them in coasts of Mazandaran W11,W10,W9,O17,O10 WT Strategy Creating a centralized management and oversight in the coastal tourism sector T16,T18,W12,W18 Policy making and culture in order to prevent water pollution of rivers, sea, environmental degradation of beaches by the public and industrialists T2,T10,W27,W1,T7 Establishing Facilities and accommodations (qualitative and quantitative ), with approval rates in the coastal cities W5,W21,W26,T18 Creation or establishment of sports tourism in the Department of Youth and Sports General Directorate of Tourism Region W23,W14,T16 Promotion and creating opportunity to learn foreign languages for officials and people involved in coastal tourism W6, T17

SO strategy Having good natural condition and tourism attractions along the coasts for development of coastal tourism S1,S3,S4,O2,O16 Policy making and orienting for attraction of investments of private section for execution of recreational projects S8,O7,O9,O17 Development and deployment of effective advertisements for familiarization of sports and recreational attractions S4,S5,S6,S15,S18,S24,O1,O5 Development of policies related to acceptance and holding sport events related to coast and sea S9,S13,S20,O4,O14,O18 Making policies in terms of holding matches and public recreational, cultural and sports festivals S23,S17,S16,S14,S10,S19,O1,O16 Adopting an adequate policy for attracting different domestic and foreign teams for training 22,S21,S25,S2,O10,O17,O19,O2O ST Strategy Legislation to prevent uncontrolled construction and decentralization on the beaches T1,T7,T11,S1,S17,S18 Policy-making in developing various competitive and recreational beaches in appropriate seasons of the year T8,T6,S2,S9,S14,S15,S16,S19 Enhancements in the areas of health plan available to sports and recreational activities (swimming) T3,T17,S18,S19 promoting and training residents and those who are responsible for promoting the adoption of tourists due to the attraction of sports and recreational beach towns T5,S3,S4 Constructing spaces and sports facilities for women to address various national and international sports competitions of the coast T13, S19, S20,S22 Development and implementation of government policies (such as long-term loans with low interest

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income, subsidized facilities) and law of foreign investment in the development of coastal tourism in the province T14,T12,S8,S3 Reducing negative insight of foreign tourists by increasing their knowledge and skills to the security of tourism T4,S22 IV. Conclusion and Discussion The aim of this study was to determine the strategic positioning and strategies of sports tourism in the littoral of Mazandaran province. The results of this study showed that among the 25 strength answered from the perspective of tourists, items to use the beaches for a swim in the warm months the highest importance and infrastructure facilities such as scuba diving and least important item in the weakness of lack of beach sports international events for women as the highest and weaknesses of Communications and Transport (the problem of communication to the northern coast of the country), the lowest importance and among all the items outlined in opportunities, items and facilities to create a suitable conditions for leisure of residents of the highest importance and international exhibition of the items created and beach sports equipment while holding sports competitions province least amount of importance and among all the items mentioned in the threats part, variable items and the lack of tourist accommodation price and the lack of price approved as the highest among all the statements expressed in this sporting event in the coastal provinces adjacent has the least threats toward coastal tourism Mazandaran province with an emphasis on sports activities. Despite having a coastline and sea in the north and south of Iran and taking into account conditions which are suitable and varied water, unfortunately a small share of sea tourism revenues is allocated to it in the world and the Middle East and one of the coastal tourism tourist is one of the most important missing link and its infrastructures does not exist in our country. Although Persian Gulf countries do not have natural resources enough to promote marine tourism, but they have developed marine and coastal tourism through their diversified actions. One of the suggestions arising from this research to increase the share of coastal tourism is through sports activities using the experience of successful countries in this field. For example, Bahrain, the neighbor in southern of Iran, has been able to invest immensely in the field of sports complexes - very modern and fully equipped diving and water sports and has attracted the international games committees that use the experience of this country to reduce the shortcomings and weaknesses in the province’s coast. In this regard, according to the magazine TTG (sport’s tourism), due to hold an international competition beach sports in the country’s, Oman could fix its position in terms of industry and sports tourism in this particular area in the world which using these experiences we can reduce external threats (sports competition on the beaches of neighboring provinces) and various countries to the province’s tourism industry. The results of Rahmani Kafshgari and Razavi’s study (2010) shows that tourism demand for the use of natural environment such as the beach and sea for physical activity lead to the construction of other infrastructure facilities like car parking, toilets, places of residence, dining halls, road signs, road, marine docks and creating safe places and thus can increase the strengths. In another aspect of the study and among the threats, item (changing price of accommodation and lack of approves price) had been the highest point of threat in the view of the respondents. The results of Zubairi and Gholami (2005) suggests that the reluctance of the private sector to invest in tourism due to lack of profitability, lack of basic facilities such as proper accommodation and health services, lack of proper land-grant by governmental expense, additional formalities to build hotels and facilities and the lack of proper and adequate roads and transport facilities are the problems and shortcomings of Iran’s tourism industry. In this regard, Sanai (2010) also observed in a study that one of the major obstacles in the tendency of people to engage in recreational sports activities on the beaches is the weak financial base of tourists and expensive residential and recreational sites. One of the tourism development strategies in the coasts is creating promenade for tourists. A promenade provides a wide range of tourist services and facilities including recreational facilities. The plans and programs offered in hotel can have a tremendous impact on attracting and inviting tourists. These centers with developing and implementing programs to meet the needs of tourists can attract and increase their numbers, their stay and their return. Some developed countries offer the major corporate facilities, tourism, accommodation under various price levels to market so that we can attract customers and compete with each other (Alvani and Dehdashti, 1994). Residing places can be developed and promoted by using advanced technology in order to book room for the passengers, investigation to determine tourists’ attitude toward service quality in residential centers, holding training seminars for owners of hotels on the importance of professional management, collaboration with an international hotel management and control of related organizations, offering diverse prices and offering discounts at different seasons of the hotels in the coastal cities. Ramezani (2010) has shown that the coastal strip in Anzali to Rezvanshahr in the months of June, July, August, and September are the best climate zones for the rest and are best for water sports and swimming on June, July, and August (Rahmani & Razavi 2010). By creating artificial recreational facilities

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along the coast and holding various sports competitions and tours such as windsurfing and sailing yachts, jet skiing, water sports, volleyball, soccer and beach walking, triathlon, horse riding on the beach and Rally maritime and a lot of sports that can be played on the beach (badminton, martial arts, local wrestling) as well as the possibility of teaching and learning increase the rate of these raptures and increase a greater number of tourists attracted to beach regions. The results indicate that the coastal Mazandaran’s tourism with an emphasis on sport activities is placed in conservative region in terms of internal and external strategic position in the matrix area; in other words, according to the obtained results, we can improve the internal weaknesses using opportunities in the external environment. Also, according to Deery & Jago (2005) the major problem of sport tourism management in most countries is being separated and distinct domains of tourism and sport. The importance of strategic planning and management has been emphasized to a large extent in the industrial sector and universities. In 2002, a research project has been performed for the development of sport tourism in Australia entitled “Towards a National Strategy Sport Tourism” with the support of the Ministry of Sports and Tourism Australia that one of its strategies is to facilitate the development of national unit, communication and coordination in order to help the development of sport tourism. Therefore, according to the stated guidelines, the strategy and the results of different studies, it seems that in order to perform and operate the leas suggestion of present study, it is necessary that a particular agency implements, pursues, and organizes the activities related to sport tourism to avoid a sufficient lack of coordination between agencies and ministries involved in tourism and parallel organizations. And due to the necessity of planning to move in line with global development and the country’s vision 1404, being prepared for international sport events on the shores of the Caspian Sea, we can take steps, while taking advantage of the susceptibility to different regions and different conditions in terms of economic development and job creation step and create proper environments for coastal tourists. V. References [1]

Alvani, Seyed Mehdi, Dehdashti, Z. (2004). Principles of tourism. Tehran. Publication of Department of Economy and Planning of Mostazafan Foundation.

[2]

Amar, Teimor. (2003). Tourism Potential of Chabksar with an Emphasis on Geographic features. Collection of scientific conferences and research of humanities groups. 1st volume. Chalus. Islamic Azad University, Chalus & Noshahr.

[3]

Avdimiotis, Spyridon. Bonarou, Christina. Dermetzopoulo, Athanasios. Karamanidis, Ioannis & Mavrodontis. (2009). homas.A report Produced for TOUREG project , Deliverable D.2.1 by the Department of tourism Management of the Alexander Technological Educ ational Institue of Thessaloniki , creece & The Tecnichal Univercity of Crete,pp 8 , 39 , 126.

[4]

Ghyami Rad, Amir, Moharramzadeh, M. (2007). A comparative study of factors affecting the development of tourism from the perspective of managers and practitioners of the sport in Iran and Australia.

[5]

Hadavi, F., E., M., Ghasemi, H. (2004). Marketing and Tourism in Sports. Sports Economics. Hamshahri Magazine

[6]

Isfahani, N. (2009). Analysis of internal and external factors affecting the development of sports tourism industry and a model of strategic planning in the country. Ph.D Thesis . Tehran University.

[7]

Jago , L , Deery M. (2005). The management of Sport Tourism. Sport in Society. Vol , 8, No 2 , PP 378-389.

[8]

Murphy, Mellisa. (2008). The Impact of Surfing on the Local Economy of Mundaka Spain. College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences Organ State University. Commisioned by Save the Waves Coalition, September 2008.

[9]

Rahmani Kafshgari, H., Razavi, Syed Muhammad Hussain. (2010). The role of sport in the development of coastal tourism. The first international scientific conference on fitness and aerobics. Tehran. Shahid Beheshti University.

[10] Ramallal, Gonzalez. Eduardo, Manuel. Rodriguez, Marrero. Rosa, Josefa. Turegano, Santana & Angel, Manuel. (2010). Sport and Tourism: a potentially conflictual relationship.The case of Marinas in Tenerife. Pasos, Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121. Vol. 8 Nº2 págs. 265-269. [11] Ramezani, G, B. Foroughe, P. (2010). Climatic potential of sport tourism in Anzali-Rezvanshahr coastal belt, South-west of Caspian Sea, Iran. Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences. Vol. 8 No.1 pp. 73~78. [12] Sanai, M. (2010). Status of sport in the coastal towns north of Iran (Gilan and Mazandaran) and comparing it with three countries of the world Collection of papers on the National Conference of Physical Education and Sports Science. Educational and cultural center of Sama Ghaemshahr. [13] Shafizadeh, S. (2008). Offering a view to check the status of the tourism industry in Iran with a focus on Porter Competitive Diamond Model, National Conference of Sports Management. Tehran. [14] Tasadoghi, Z. (2006). Study of Sports Tourism in the Mazandaran Province. Conference on Physical Education and Sport in Mazandaran province. Challenges and opportunities. Mazandaran University. [15] Vorvani, M. (2007). Iran’s negligible share of the sports tourism in the world. Iran newspaper. No. 3710. [16] Wall, Geoffrey. (2007). Tourism in the Coastal Zone: Perspectives from Hainan, P.R. China. JRAP, 37(3), P193. [17] Zubairi, Hoda, Gholami, M. (2006). Factors affecting the development of the tourism industry in Iran. Islamic Azad University, Firoozkooh Branch in cooperation with the Department of Economics of Tehran South Branchh. Collection of the conference on Iran’s economic capacity with special emphasis on Iran’s Tourism situation in the context of globalization. 1st volume, Firoozkooh publication.

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Colonialism and the Decline of Indigenous African Industries: The Example of Cloth- Weaving in Esanland, Edo State, Nigeria Dr Julius O. Unumen, Department of History and International Studies, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria. Abstract: The paper examines the boom in the Esan cloth-weaving in colonial Nigeria and its dramatic decline in the last decade of colonialism. Cloth-weaving was the most popular, widespread and perhaps, most important indigenous industry in pre-colonial Esan. It was entirely a female industry, which origin predated the introduction of cotton into the area in the 15 th century. In spite of the often over–dramatized influx of cheap European and Asian factory manufactured cloth, the Esan cloth-weaving industry experienced a boom up to 1950. Available evidence suggests that the industry suffered a dramatic decline only in the last decade of colonialism. The paper establishes a nexus between the rational economic behaviour of women and the decline of cloth-weaving in Esan. The Decline of cloth weaving in Esan was, thus, largely due to the rational economic behaviour of the women weavers, who abandoned cloth-weaving for, what they considered, other more modern, more lucrative, more respectable, more adventurous and less stressful economic activities, as colonialism became more encompassing. Keywords: Colonialism. Cloth-weaving. Indigenous. Decline. Industry.

I. Introduction A major theme in African historical studies is the impact of colonialism on indigenous African arts, crafts and industries. There is no doubt, whatsoever, that colonialism impacted negatively on indigenous African arts, crafts and industries in terms of reduction of their local production in different African societies within the colonial situation. With regard to cloth-weaving, the decline of the industry in often attributed to mainly the importation of cheap European factory manufactured cloth and discouragement from colonial administrators. With particular regard to cloth weaving, scholars often attribute this negative impact mainly to the importation of cheap European and Asian factory manufactured cloth and deliberate discouragement by colonial administrators. One of the most popular African scholars that held this position is Walter Rodney in his book: How Europe Undeveloped Africa1. According to Walter Rodney, when European cloth became dominant on the African market, it meant African producers were cut off from increasing demand of their product. He argued that as a consequence of this situation, crafts producers either abandoned their tasks in the face of cheap available European cloth or they continued on the same small hand work instrument to create styles and pieces in localized markets.2 On his part, Bonat, who studied the decline of indigenous industries in Zaria Province of Nigeria, argued that the British Colonial Administration in Nigeria deliberately discouraged the indigenous industries, including cloth weaving, in the area through taxation, competition, legislation, structural changes in the economy as well as a dependent educational system. Bonat argued further that the destruction of the indigenous industries was necessary for the British Colonial Administration because their existence was diametrically opposed to the aims of British colonialism. According to him, the aims of British colonialism included tapping available raw materials, capturing and monopolizing the local market for British goods and creating avenues for British capital.3 While the attempt in this paper is not to contest the findings of the above-named scholars, Esan experience presents a very peculiar and interesting study. Available evidence suggests that in Esanland the cloth-weaving industry experienced a boom until the last decade of colonialism when the industry suddenly declined. The major focus of this paper is the factors that contributed to the apparent boom in cloth weaving in Esanland up to 1950 and its decline in the last decade of colonialism. Esan is a cultural/linguistic group. The people, their land and their language are known as Esan. The Esan language is a sub-group of the Edoid language family. The Edoid language is a sub-group of the of the larger Niger-Congo language family.4 In the pre-colonial period, the area was made of chiefdoms, which paid allegiance to the Oba of Benin.5 The rulers of the initial sixteen chiefdoms in Esan, Enijie (Singular – Onojie)

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were imposed on the people in the 15th century by Oba Ewuare of Benin as a power of patronage.6 Pre-colonial Esan society was strictly divided along sex lines. Sex was the basis of role allocation, opportunities and privileges.7 In the colonial period, due to the inability of European officials to pronounce Esan correctly, Ishan, Isa and Isan were variously used to refer to the people.8 Esan was a division of Benin Province and was officially called Ishan Division in the colonial period. In an effort to reduce the power of the existing Enijie, sixteen more chiefdoms were created from the existing ones, making a total of 32 chiefdoms. The area is presently made up of five local government areas in Edo State, Nigeria. These are Esan West, Esan Central, Esan North-east, Esan North-West and Igueben Local Government Areas.9 The area is a land of 1,858 square kilometers, located to the north east of Benin City, capital of Edo State. Esan land is bounded to the north by Etsako West and Akoko Edo Local Government Areas of Edo State, to the south by Ika and Oshimili Local Government Areas of Delta state and to the west by Orhimwon, Owan and Uhumwode Local Government Areas of Edo State.10 The area is separated from the neighbouring Delta and Benue States on the north-east by the River Niger.11 The population of Esan has grown over time from 143, 069 in 1931 to 194, 891 in 1953 and 372, 122 in 1991. It rose to 591, 534 by 2006.12 II. Colonial Era Up to 1950: The Period of Boom Colonialism was formally imposed on Esanland in 1900, like most other parts of Southern Nigeria. Records of Esan cloth weaving industry for the period between 1900 and 1926 suggest that it was by far the largest industry. In 1926, it was reported that good cotton was grown throughout the district, known as Esan cotton and cloths were woven from it by women. The report also attested to the fact that these cloths were strong and durable and found ready sale at good prices in every district.13 It was also reported earlier, in 1923, that “excellent specimens of Ishan cloth were sent to the British empire exhibition where it attracted many admirers”.14 Indeed, the 1928 “Assessment Report” on Ishan Division shows that women in the area derived their major income from weaving. Uromi women obtained the highest average income of five pounds from weaving. Ubiaja and Ewohimi women received an average of two pounds and three pounds from cloth weaving respectively. Women from Irrua and Ekpoma had an average of two pounds, ten shillings and two pounds respectively from cloth weaving. However, compared to the income derived from the sale of yams, the income of the women weavers was relatively small. Adult male in Irrua and Ewohimi derived an average of twelve pounds from the sale of yams. For Ekpoma district, it was ten pounds. “Ubiaja-East” had an average of seven pounds and “Ubiaja -West” had eight pounds from the sale of yams.15 Available evidence also suggests that the Esan cloth weaving industry experienced a boom throughout the 1930s. The intelligence report written in 1936 on Uromi by H. L. M. Butcher reported that a “considerable amount of cotton” was grown and that much weaving was done. The report also gave the indication that there was a high demand for the locally manufactured cloth. The report revealed that all the uniforms of the boys in the schools were produced in “toto” with Esan cloth.16 Indeed, up to the 1940s, some primary schools in Esan were still using Esan cloth for their uniform. In addition, the police, prison inmate and the warders in Ishan Division were using the special Esan Uzelu, which has khaki texture, for their uniforms.17 Cloth weaving still enjoyed a boom in the division in the 1940s. In a memorandum by the education department in Benin province, the Senior Education Officer of the province, Mr. Speer, reported in 1948 that in the province. The chief local industry at the moment, meaning those in which the largest number of persons are engaged, are logging and rubber tapping in Benin Division and the spinning and weaving of cotton in Ishan and Kukuruku Divisions (emphasis mine).18 Speer also added that indigenous cloth from the province enjoyed a boom during World War I and I1. These evidences suggest that up to 1950, cloth weaving in Esan enjoyed a boom. Writing on local crafts in West Africa, Hopkins, advanced three main reasons for the survival of traditional manufactures in the twentieth century. Firstly, certain products were protected by their proximity to the market and by low over-head at the manufacturing stage. Secondly, some products continued to sell, even though they competed directly with cheaper European imports, because they were highly regarded by customers. Some crafts survived by employing new techniques. Thirdly, and in the case of weaving industry, because they were able to secure a “niche as special lines in a differentiated product market”. 19 Hopkins argued that: Consumers bought imported and domestic textiles because there were hundreds of varieties of cloth, and not all served the same or suited the same tastes. Indeed, as the colonial period advanced, traditional textiles became increasingly fashionable as an index of status

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and as a symbol of identification with African culture and with the nationalist movement.20 The boom in the cloth weaving industry in Esanland at this point in time could be attributed to many factors. One of the major factors was high demand. In addition to the local demand for utilitarian and ceremonial purposes, Esan cloth was used for school uniform as well as uniform for prison warders and inmates. In addition, the depression of the 1930s, World War I and the consequent rise in prices of factory manufactured imported cloth in the division, increased the demand for Esan cloth. Moreover, after the World War II, the demand for Esan cloth continued to rise up to the end of the 1950s. 21 Another factor that contributed to the boom in the local industry within the period under review was the fact that women weavers had no better alternative occupations and better means of earning a living. Available evidence shows that women in Esan were not fully integrated into the colonial cash economy until the last two decades of colonialism.22 Women’s economic activities were, thus, carried out, more or less, along traditional lines until towards the end of colonial rule. The 1928 “Assessment Report” for Ishan Division, for instance, did not give any indication that women derived any income from trading or other occupations directly connected with the colonial economy. Apart from weaving, the major income of Esan women was derived from the sale of “women’s crops” such as corn, cotton and what was called “minor crops”. 23 The implication of this situation was that women continued along the lines of the pre-colonial production process until the 1940s. They relied entirely on their traditional means of earning a living, different from the men who had been fully integrated into the colonial economy and had started to earn income from the new cash crops such as cocoa, rubber and coffee. Closely related to the late integration of women into the colonial economy was the fact that female education was frowned at until the last two decades of colonialism. 24 In fact, the popular opinion among Esan people when education was first introduced, was that educated females would turn out to become “rascals”. 25 The belief that an educated woman would become a “rascal” discouraged many parents from sending their female children to school. The import of this situation to the point being made is that womenfolk, both young and old, were readily available to service and sustain the weaving industry within the period under review. Again, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that contrary to popular opinion, colonial officers in Esan encouraged the cloth weaving industry. In the first instance, teaching of indigenous weaving was encouraged in the schools in the Division.26 The teaching of weaving in schools helped to popularize the occupation. As a consequence the interest of young women in the occupation was kindled and sustained. This situation contributed to the boom that the industry experienced within the period under consideration. III. The Period of Decline: 1950-1960 Cloth-weaving suffered a dramatic decline from 1950. From that period, the majority of weavers were merely old women, who had not had formal education or had no access to other opportunities that then abound for women empowerment. Many women weavers abandoned the business of weaving.27 Unfortunately, Esan was excluded from the colonial scheme of modernizing traditional cloth weaving in some parts of the country starting from 1947. In 1947 and 1948, territorial development centres were set up at Ado-Ekiti, Oyo, Auchi and Mingibir (Kano Province) for training weavers to use the newly introduced broadlooms. 28 The exclusion of Esan from this programme could be attributed to the realization by the Colonial Government that Esan weavers were individualistic and would, therefore, not fit into the new scheme. Indeed, in Benin Province, there is evidence that the Colonial Government put forward a plan to improve the indigenous cloth weaving industry. The government contemplated the introduction of “European and Indian types of spinning wheels and European model of broadlooms” in an effort to promote the weaving industry.29 However, it was found out that Esan weavers preferred to go on “in their traditional way to taking trouble required to acquire a new technique”, as they were unconvinced that the new way was any better than the old. The report by the Senior Education Officer, Speer, concluded that unless they could see evidence of immediate out put and higher quality, without the expenditure of any trouble on their part, they would not be convinced that the new way was better than the old.30 When it was obvious that many women were abandoning cloth weaving, Speer explained the idea of promoting weaving among men. He believed that if women could be persuaded to use the new spinning wheels there were distinct possibilities of establishing a “cottage” industry in which men used the thread spun by the women. For obvious reasons, this idea was rejected by the men.31 In this area, weaving was traditionally an exclusive occupation of women and men would have nothing to do with it. It was in this regard that at independence in 1960 only a few women in Uromi were still engaged in cloth weaving even on a part-time basis.32 Many fundamental factors than the mere influx of European and Asian factory manufactured cloth could be advanced to account for the dramatic decline of the cloth weaving industry in Esan in the last decade of colonialism. Evidence from weavers points to the fact that the large scale abandonment of cloth weaving in the area was part of the rational economic decision by the weavers. By the 1950s women found other economic activities that were not only more lucrative but more prestigious, more profitable, more modern and more adventurous. According to Madam Amamewalen Ajayi, a former weaver and the odion Ikuo Idumu (leader of

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married women) there were other occupations that became more remunerative than weaving that attracted women weavers in Esan. Such included the processing of palm oil, cassava and rice, trading, teaching, nursing, midwifery and even sewing.33 Trading, especially long distance trading, was a major competitor with cloth-weaving within the period under consideration. While in the pre-colonial period the women were not involved in long distance trading, the imposition of “pax Britannica”, construction of good roads, abolition of the “custom” of seizing women and the changes that were taking place in the traditional marriage system, made women to enter long distance trading. They started trading to Benin, Warri, Sapele, Agbor and Onitsha.34 Other occupations that attracted women within the period under consideration were the processing and marketing of agricultural produce such as palm oil and palm kernel. In Esan, the processing and marketing of oil palm produce had always been women’s business prior to the imposition of colonial rule. The only male activity was harvesting the palm punch. From pre-colonial period to the first two decades of colonialism, palm produce was only produced for domestic consumption and for sale in the periodic markets. The Benin Provincial Annual Report of 1924 stated, for instance, that Esan palm oil was of excellent quality but was not produced in sufficient quantities for export.35 However, from the 1940s, increased demand coupled with increase in the prices of oil palm produce motivated the men to harvest more and the women to process more palm oil and kernel. In Nigeria, there was an annual average increase of 7.6 and 5.8 percent for palm oil and palm kernels respectively over the period 1949-1954.36 A noticeable increase was recorded in palm produce purchase from 1949 in Esan. From 4646 tons in 1948, sales of palm kernel increased remarkably to 5627 tons in 1949. Between 1949 and 1956, with the exception of 1951 sales that were as low as 707 tons, palm kernel trade in Esan stood at 5,000 tons and above. A peak was reached in 1956 when the purchases were 5,939 tons.37 The increase in purchase during this period was due to two major factors. First, the increase in total production was a reflection of rise in the price of produce. Between 1946 and 1947, there was a 50 percent increase in the price of kernel.38 Another increase took effect from March 12, 1948 when palm kernel price became twenty pounds per ton and that of palm oil thirty-one pounds and five shillings per ton from the 1947 price of sixteen pounds, fifteen shillings per ton.39 Second, was the re-organization in marketing that resulted in stability of prices of palm produce.40 It was in this situation that many women weavers abandoned weaving for the more lucrative oil palm produce processing and marketing. In fact, weavers even discouraged their daughters from taking up the profession. Madam Rachael Imoluamen, for example, was a cloth weaver before the World War II. According to her, she had to abandon weaving for the highly profitable palm oil trade after the war because her mother encouraged her to do so.41 This situation is hardly surprising considering the fact that not much was earned as cash from weaving compared to the competing occupation. Closely related to the processing and marketing of oil palm produce was the processing and marketing of garri. The Benin Provisional Annual Report for 1955, noted that: Today Lorries can be seen in any small market in Asaba division loading up garri for Lagos, Ibadan or the Eastern province. This applies even more to the major markets such as Uromi in Ishan or Jattu in Afemai. The production of foodstuff for external markets is now, perhaps, the most important single source of wealth in the Asaba, Ishan and Afemai divisions.42 More importantly, the revolution that took place in female education in Esan in the 1950s negatively affected the cloth weaving industry. As alluded to earlier, at the beginning of colonial rule, female education was very unpopular in Esan. The first female was enrolled in Ishan Division in 1917, almost twenty years after the introduction of Western education in the division.43 By 1921, there were only eleven females in primary schools in Esan.44 However, by 1953, the number of females in primary schools in the area increased to 2,237.45 By 1955 there was a remarkable increase to 13, 882. At independence in 1960 female enrolment had risen to 22, 507 from a figure of 18, 058 in 1957. This trend was replicated in the enrolment figure in the modern, teacher training colleges and adult schools, popularly known as “night schools” in Esan.46 Finally, within the colonial situation and the many new areas opened for women to earn a living in the modern sector of the economy weaving became comparatively outdated and unattractive. Madam, Ajayi who was a former cloth weaver, made a statement that summarized the attraction offered by Western education and the opportunities it offered for securing paid government employment and getting married to the emerging educated elite when she said that “when I come back (reincarnate) I will not do dirty job such as weaving, I will go to school and will work in an office”.47 The spread of Western education among girls meant that the young women who could have taken over from the older weavers could not learn the art of weaving. This was particularly important in the last decade of colonial rule when adult education programme was launched in the division and free primary education introduced.48 Many Esan women also became employed as teachers in these schools.

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Thus, there is no doubt whatsoever that the last decade of colonialism was a period of significant economic change for Esan women. More than ever before, women became fully integrated into the colonial modern economy. It was in this regard that cloth weaving became unattractive. Many women abandoned cloth weaving for the more modern, more lucrative, more attractive and more prestigious occupations. The few women who remained in the industry were old women who had no access to education and wealth. Indeed, some of these women remained in the industry because they gained aesthetic satisfaction from it, and not necessarily because it was profitable anymore. Madam Omonuwa Okoduwa, an old weaver of Uromi explained in 1988 that she was still doing it not because of money but because it was her only profession and as such, she could not leave it. According to her, she derived pleasure from weaving and felt uncomfortable if she stopped weaving.49 IV. Conclusion It has been demonstrated in this paper that cloth-weaving industry in Esanland experienced a boom up to 1950. Local and “international” demand, lack of better alternative means of earning a living by women weavers, encouragement by the colonial administrators and the fact that female education was frowned at in Ishan in the first three decades of colonialism, have been identified as factors that were responsible for the boom up to 1950. However, the last decade of colonialism witnessed the dramatic decline in the industry. The paper argues that the most prominent factor in the decline of cloth weaving in Esan within this period was the rational economic behaviour of the women weavers. In the traditional Esan production relation, an industry that was entirely a female business, in which weavers wove cloth free for family members and other relations, could survive. However, with the highly monetized colonial economic system, in which cash was needed by both men and women for payment of children and wards school fees, building of block and zinc houses, acquisition of modern household and beauty items, the industry suffered a devastating set back. More importantly, women in their great numbers moved into the modern sector that yielded the much-needed cash to survive in a highly monetized economy. Trading, processing and marketing of palm oil, garri and rice became new attractions. The revolution that took place in female education in the last two decades of colonialism also had its toll on the industry. Thus, it is plausible to argue that the decline of the Esan cloth weaving industry in the last decade of colonialism was due, essentially, to the rational economic behaviour of women weavers who abandoned cloth-weaving for other more lucrative, more modern, more “respectable”, more adventurous and less stressful economic activities, as colonialism became more encompassing. The abandonment of cloth weaving was part of the economic change that occurred among Esan women starting from the 1940s. The revolution in female education also meant that female children who could have continued to perpetuate the occupation of cloth weaving were sent to school. The attempts by the Colonial Administration to encourage men to take up weaving failed because in Esan weaving was a traditional occupation of women, which men considered to be beneath them. It is plausible to argue that the non-existence of weavers’ guild, an obvious demonstration of resistance to “state” control from Benin, also led to the inability of the industry to survive when competitions from other “modern” occupation arose. These changes where compounded as colonialism became more pervasive, intricate and more encompassing. References

[13].

Walter Rodney. (1966). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. , London: Boyle – L’ Over Publications, pp. 113-114. Rodney (1966). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, p. 114. Z. A. Bonat. (1988). “Colonialism and the Destruction of the local Industrial System; A Case Study of Zaira Province 1902 – 1945”, Savannah, Vol. 9, No. 2, December, pp. 6-7. M. O. Omo-Ojugo. (2004). Esan Language Endangered? Implications for the Teaching and Learning of Indigenous Languages in Nigeria, Inaugural lecture. Edo State Ambrose Alli University Press., p. 4. H. L. M Butcher. (1938). “Some Aspects of the otu System of the Sub Tribes of the Edo Peoples of Southern Nigeria”, Africa, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 149 – 162. C. G. Okojie. (1960). Ishan Native Laws and Customs. Benin City: John Okwesa and co., Pp. 30 – 37. Julius O. Unumen. (1988). “The Impact of Colonialism on Ishan Women, with emphasis on Marriage, Education and Work”, M. A. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Ibadan, December, pp. 12 – 13. Julius O. Unumen. (2010). “Colonialism and the liberation of Esan women, Edo state, Nigeria,” A paper delivered at the “International Conference on Colonial Africa and Its Legacies; A Re-Appraisal” Department of History and Archaeology, IBB University, Lapai, Niger State, December 28 – December 1, p. 2. Unumen (2010). “Colonialism and the Liberation of Esan Women”, p. 2. A. I. Okoduwa. (1997). “A geography of Esan” A. I. Okoduwa. (ed.) Studies in Esan History and culture: Evolution of Esan Polities, Vol 1. Benin City, Nigeria : Omo Uwessan Publishers Ltd. 1997, p. 1. National Archive Ibadan (hereafter reference to as N. A. I.) Ishan Div. 1, file I.D. 48/1932, p. 19. See Census of Nigeria 1931, Vol. III, Mill Bark, 1932; Population Census of the Western Region of Nigeria 1952, Government printers, June 1953, Ukhun Christopher E. Inegbedion Nathaniel A., “Cultural authoritarianism, Women and Human Right Issues among Esan People of Nigeria”, African Human rights Law Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2005, p. 134. The 2006 figures were obtained from the National Population Commissionion (NPC) Area Office, Ekpoma, Edo State. Quoted in J. B Webster. (1985). “A Model and Methodology for Chiefdom Studies: the Example of Uromi”, A paper deliveredd

[14].

at “Occasional Seminar of Staff and Final Year Students, History department, Bendel state University, Ekpoma, p. 13. N.A.I. (1982). Intelligence Report on Ishan Division of Benin Province. Ibadan: National Archive, Ibadan. p. xix.

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N.A.I., CSO 26, File 09127, “Assessment Report, Average Income of Adult Male and Wife in Ishan Division”, 1928, p. 36. N.A.I., Intelligence Report on Ishan Division, p. 239. Oral Interview with Iyamah, C. A., at Ekpoma, 2/4/88; Aizonofe, Grace, 23/3/8; Oboh, P. E. Igueben, 1/5/88. N.A.I., Ishan Div. l, File I. D. 819 “Memorandum from the Residential Education Office to the District Officer, Ishan Division titled: Development of Education in Benin Province”, p. 79. A. G. Hopkins.(1973). An Economic History of West Africa. London: Longman, pp. 250-251. Hopkins (1973). An Economic History of West Africa, p. 251. N.A.I; Ishan Div. l, File 1.D., 814, p. 79. Unumen. (1988). “The Impact of Colonialism on Ishan Women”, p. 151. N.A.I., CSO 26, File 09127, p. 36. For details see Unumen (1988). “The Impact of Colonialism on Ishan Women”, pp. 76-88. N.A.I., Ishan Div.l, File I. D. 352, “Annual Report 1936 by Captain Pullen”, p. 36. Unumen. (1988). “The Impact of Colonialism on Ishan Women”, p. 151. N.A.I., IBIMED 1/2, File C. I. W. 161 Vol. 1., C.M.S School Ekpoma, Annual Report, 1944, p. 38; Oral Interview with Omohimen, M. I., at Ubiaja , 28/9/88; Oral Interview with Akhilomen, Semion, at Ujoelen 21/9/88; Oral Interview with Edeko, E. O., Eguare-Ekpoma, 5/5/88. Unumen, “The Impact of Colonialism on Ishan Women”, p. 150. See N.A.I., D.C.I 1/1, File 403/5/5. Textile Development Sectional Paper; N.A.I., D.C.I 1/1, File 295/5.4, Textile Development: Training of overt Lookers and Weavers for Textile Mills; N.A.I., D.C.I 1/1, File 403/5.5, Textile Development: Progress Report; N.A.I; D.C.I 1/1, File 150/5.3 Vol. 1, Tons of Inspection-Chief Textile Officer; N.A.O. D.C.I, File 150/5.201: Tons of InspectionTextile Officers. N.A.O., IBIMED ½, File C.I.W., 605B, “Education Development in Benin Province”, p. 27. N.A.I., IBIMED ½, File L.I.W; 605B, “Education Development in Benin Province”, p. 27. N.A.I, IBIMED ½, File L.I.W; 605B, “Education Development in Benin Province”, p. 27. Oral Interview with Egogo, Ebaerewe at Ekpoma, 18/3/88; Otaigbe, Anna, at Ujoelen, Ekpoma, 17/3/88; Okoduwa, Omonuwa, at Uromi, 21/9/88; Chief Omohimen, at Ubiaja , 20/9/88 and Prince Ukohhuemon, at Ekpoma, 5/5/88. Oral Interview, Ajayi Amamewalen, at Irrua, 9/4/88. See Unumen, “Colonialism and the Liberation of Esan Women”, pp. 10-16. N.A.I., Ben Prof. 2/1 File B.P. 138/14 Annual Report, Benin Province, p. 5. Eno J. Usoro. (1974). The Nigerian Oil Palm Industry, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, p. 74. N.A.I., I.D.943, “Palm Kernels Produce Inspection Grading Figures’. Western Regional Government (1949). Annual Report of the Commerce and Industries Department 1947-48: Lagos: Government Printers, p. 9. Usoro (1974). Nigerian Oil Palm Industry, p. 24. Oral Interview with Imoluamen, Rachael, at Iguelen, 24/3/88. N.A.I., B.P 1650, “Annual Reports Benin Province, 1955”, pp. 23-24. Many factors including infant marriages contributed to the unpopularity of female education in Esan in the first three decades of colonialism. N.A.I., D.D.W., Vol. I and II (IBIMED 1/1). N.A.I., Ishan Div. 1, File I.D. 727, Annual Reports, Ishan Division, 1953, p. 33. Figures obtained from Ministry of Economic Planning and Community Development, Statistics Division, AnnuaL Abstract of Education Statistics, 1955-60, pp. 19-61. Oral Interview, Ajayi Amamewalen, at Irrua, 9/4/88. N.A.I., Ishan Div. 1, File I.D.814, Mass Education. Oral Interview with Okoduwa, Omonuwa, at Uromi, 21/9/88.

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Pathology of Smuggling in the Customs of Kurdistan Province and Suggesting Preventive Ways Fariba Javaherneshan1, Shahram Mohammadi2* Student Master of Criminal Law and Criminology, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran 2 Assistant Professor of Criminal Law and Criminology, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran

Abstract: The aim of this study was to review and the pathology of smuggling, causes and the ways to prevent it in the customs of Kurdistan province. This research was a descriptive and Meta-analysis study which has been done by using library and documents methods. Smuggling phenomenon of commodities and currencies cause many challenges in any society. In economic field, cases such as the lack of economic policies efficiency and at the same time existing smuggling, imposing currency costs, increasing the cost of official imports, currency problems of the government to import basic commodities, debilitation of local production, reducing production and per capita income, the expansion of hidden economic culture, money laundering and losing consumer rights; In socio-cultural dimension, exacerbating the social gap, devaluation of social values by extension of alien culture, tendency to outlawing, increasing social disordering, undermine the social acceptability, reducing feeling of social security in citizens, uncaring about religious and moral beliefs of the people in that society are some of detrimental effects of smuggling which shall to be mentioned. Among harmful examples of smuggling in political fields are decreasing public security, increasing illegitimate wealth, power and bribery, reducing public confidence, undermine the economic security and wasting national resources, development of lawlessness, illegality and its extending to the other sectors of the society and reducing social security ratio. Keywords: Smuggling, Prevention, Customs, Solution, Kurdistan Province I. Introduction Today, economy is a priority for every country that has a fundamental role in administrating the society and it could act as a legislative power and even orient the policy. So it is clear that economic crimes are having particular importance. In the field of economy, statements of "economic crimes" and "smuggling" are not only indicative of a category of behaviours that to be punished but the term actually crosses three areas of economy, criminal law and politics. It is obvious that development of human life are more dependent on economy and if we study this index especially in competition between the countries to promote it, it would becomes clear that economic relations and consequently economic crimes to what extent are extensive, diverse and complex. In these circumstances criminalization of such behaviours will be valuable (Aghazadeh, 2006). Economic is a response to the shared human needs, so determining territorial boundaries has never been able to immune economic activities within these borders. Although, the governmental face of economic activities are going to privatization, but statesmen have still retained their relationship with these area. In addition to the adverse effects of smuggling over the economy, this phenomenon has been mentioned as a great economic and social challenge; also it is a serious threat in the way of free trade and imposes heavy costs on the economy of the countries (Bayat, 2010). The most important interpretation challenge in economic crimes especially in terms of smuggling is its conceptual challenge. Definition and place of smuggling in Iranian criminal law has always been in ambiguity and was a controversial issue. Smuggling is one of the economical and organized crimes which is seen in all countries, but nowhere is and exists like our country (Iran) in these dimensions of great size, complexity and various types. Today, commodities such as weapons, drugs and human trafficking are among illegal business activities in the world and the issue of goods smuggling is largely cancelled. But in Iran, smuggling is a complex problem for various reasons (Bayrami, 2010). Since in criminal law the principle is based on legality of crime and punishment; as the explanations of key words in this context strongly influenced by the law, it has to be said that smuggling should foresight to be identified in the law. Now this question arises that foresight in the law means mentioning just the term or its meaning could also be a definition of that rule; In other words, according to the types and characteristics of economic crimes in various criminal laws which had been anticipated can it be said that The Iranian lawmakers endorsed smuggling in sense of direction? The answer to this question will depend on the quality and legal

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nature. Legality is based on manifestation and adhere the text and basically the legality is unfamiliar with the meaning and essence. If the law do not create or anticipated a word, it cannot be used as one of the key words. Fulfilling the law by all including the officials is legality requirements, so the right to interpret do not mean to derogate an apparent rule or law. Interpretation is not equal to create a term; however, it can only use and appropriately put the existing legal vocabularies in their rightful place with regard the real intention of the legislator (Mossalla, 2003). About the term of "smuggling" which is mentioned in various criminal laws, we see that it had not been clearly defined and just some examples were addressed. This issue was resolved by the adoption of anti-trafficking law. Originally "smuggling" is a Turkish word and it cited as "fugitive" in amid dictionary. Smuggling has an extensive scope and because of traversing territorial boundaries and its complexities; it is counted as the most important violation behaviours of economic security. As Beccaria said "Trafficking is a crime that really causes disadvantages for the Government and the people too. This crime is because of the law, i.e. the more customs, the more profit would achieved, so temptation to do smuggling will increase and the ease of doing it in line with protection of the borders and reducing the amount of goods import will arise. Anticipation of confiscated prohibited goods and belongings as a punishment entirely fair; but this would be more effective when lesser customs exist as human beings risk about the things they hope to gain profit by doing them successfully regard their plans (Beccaria, 1995). In a study by the entitle of "Methods of confronting and preventing smuggling crime", Omidi (2007) writes smuggling has harmful and adverse effects on the dimension of economic, social and cultural of the countries; therefore, for real support of the economy and prevent from adverse effects of this devastating economic phenomenon Identifying the criminal nature of the smuggling, analyzing contexts, causes of its increasing and defining control solutions for this crime has always been considered by the officials and and domestic and foreign scholars (quoted from Puriaie, 2008). Gholizdeh, Alipur and Zowghi (2010) in study entitled causes and consequences of smuggling in Iran after the Islamic Revolution conclude that smuggling exists in a massive context in Iran that covered many parts of the country and has adverse effects on its economy. In expanding the smuggling various reasons have involved which knowing them would be very important in confronting it. Smuggling might be illegal import and export from the border include everything such as human, antiques, weapons, commodities; so that it would affect a large part of the economy which is the same international and overseas economy based on import and export. It is why that Becerra defines trafficking as economical lawlessness. Therefore, in the definition of smuggling all aspects should be considered, but if it used lonely in common language, they mean commodity smuggling involve conditional allowed products, prohibited and banned ones to export. Smuggling might do in borders or in any part of the country if it is discovered, it will mention as smuggling and according to the law would be confront with it (Akreman, 2005). Entering and exit of the goods to/from the country illegally often takes place in order to gain profit and illegitimately, so it would gradually become a big cycle and a significant percentage of the social labor force will be engaged; and in a manner that smuggling makes one of the main matters of underground economy and its impact on the economy is inevitable (Mossalla, 2003). Also studies of smuggling show that distribution of this phenomenon in Iran can be vary regard the conditions, requirements and economical and political structures; therefore any plan to confront it must be done with consideration of these factors. Because of the complexity of this phenomenon and using the rules and existing opportunities by the investors, the action of the police and other confronting organizations will be limited so that by changing the alternative methods of trafficking in this process, the scope of action and different taking steps of the smugglers will expand. The status queue of the country and the growing number of smuggling cases imply endorsement of this issue. According to the expressed statements and the importance of the issue, the present study has been done by the aim of investigation and pathology of smuggling, causes and the ways to prevent it in the customs of Kurdistan province. II. Material and Methods Compilation and data collection depending on the type of the research were library, field work and analytical methods; accordingly, by referring to scientific literature, including books, magazines and library periodicals, documentation and legal and economic issues as well as authentic websites of research and scientific articles, the required information have been collected for the study. At the stage of note taking we used from reference techniques by scientific method in order to validity of the research. Also, we have been used from statistics and research data obtained in the investigation from General Administration of Customs of Kurdistan province along with the interviews with the relevant authorities.

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III. Results The economic outcomes of smuggling in Kurdistan province It is a while that home appliances import from the borders of cities like Sardasht, Baneh, Mariwan, Saqqez and etc. to Kurdistan border markets and they easily sent to other cities of Iran especially Tehran; e.g. Baneh has changed to a centre of such commodities that have no warranty. However, all the goods are sold 50% below the cost of similar goods that import from official borders and by recognized international agencies. Although, import of these goods from informal borders have negative consequences; but caused to economic boom of such border cities. For example, border markets of Baneh caused to the city's economic boom such as increasing property prices especially shops, also the activity of mall construction and selling household appliances have significant growth. Generally, the importing goods from Baneh and Marivan are made in China, Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Japan and Turkey which entered via Dubai and Turkey to Iraq then informally entered Iran across the border. These products are include audio and video equipment, mobile phones, electronics appliances, home appliances, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, automobile parts and accessories, decorative, clothing and shoes which are abundantly found and sale in a variety of models and brands in the crowd market of Baneh. The major aim of every community that is interested in progress is to improve its people's lives. One of the factors that have the most influence over the welfare of society is creating jobs and having a productive structure in the society. Work is the source of wealth and people are forced to do it to survive and increase their capabilities. Although, Kurdistan province has good potentials and capabilities in the fields of water resources, forests and meadows, mineral resources and tourism; despite these issues the cities are still have fundamental problems for growth and development and in comparison with other parts of Iran have not gain much contribution from the benefits of national development so that these cities have always has the weakest link to the rest of the country in regard national supply chain and other economic activities. Above conditions have adverse effects on the growth of other industrial mineral and agricultural parts. In this area some types of illegal trading are done which is called smuggling. This issue is not only exists in Baneh, Saqqez, Marivan and other cities of the province but also in other regions at the West of Iran. For years it is exist in the northern and southeast cities of the country and it is mainly because the residents of border areas are those who have not often been successful in finding proper fields of employment. This fact should be considered when there is no a proper plan for entrepreneurship. People to continue their living and provide food for families will have to participate in pseudo-jobs; and those who are seeking a healthy income from economic activities are mainly migrated to big cities. In recent years, the amount of foreign goods significantly increased in most cities of the country that most of them are import into the country by smuggling. West of Iran and mostly Kurdish regions are participating in these affairs. According to be a border city and high ranking of unemployment, Baneh has the most statistics for smuggling. In all these years, lack of attention to the importance of geographical and favourable conditions of the region for agriculture, livestock and investments for establishment of factories and workshops have not been caused to absorb the potential powers of the area. On the other hand, Deprivation is seen at the province. Due to the lack of working facilities in this area people have to do businesses through illegal channels that have very little profits to them, but they make their breasts as a shield in front of bullets and even sometimes lose their lives on this way. To meet their basic needs of life and having income, they are participating in import goods through smuggling under compulsion. West regions of the country because of the war years and close to the borders have experienced great deprivations. In these area, most families are excluded which do not have any suitable facilities for employment. In addition to formal and legal exchanges, boundary and geographical position of the region has caused informal and hidden exchanges in a largely scope to be done. Although it is not possible to estimate the amount of exchanges easily; but considerable sections of labour force are busy in these transaction activities due to the lack of employment opportunities. Most of the people enter the informal economy because they are unable to find jobs or to start new businesses in the formal economy. Indeed, a large percentage of those who work in the informal economy are poorer than those who are engaged in the formal economy. Their jobs are generally unstable, having low income and non-continuous. Except organizing these interactions by intelligent management which guarantees the survival and territorial integrity and economic independence especially for border cities despite their weak economic foundations and on the other side, their isolation and marginalization compared to other great and central cities and existing development axes, they have been faced with many problems. In such a proper strategic situation to develop border cities of Kurdistan should be based on maximum use of available resources and potentials made appropriate plans and decisions. In short to medium term and by following this strategy the activities of Baneh is led to the economic and social development of this city which they are in an appropriate manner so their expanding and strengthening would cause to solve some issues and problems of this city such as smuggling. Due to profitable potentials and the background of business transactions with neighbouring countries, trading sector of Kurdistan's border towns are the most significant parts. By strengthening and providing development

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of other sectors in a long-term period in order to the economic growth of border cities of Kurdistan province, some of the problems in these areas could be solved. Preventive Ways A) Public education and awareness promotion Basically, success or failure of anti-trafficking strategies at the national level is largely dependent on the level of public awareness in relation to the costs of this crime and its consequences and aligning public opinion in protection of anti-trafficking measures requires public support are from high standards of health and administrative performance and confronting with this phenomenon in all areas that are prone to corruption. In case of such supporting, anti-trafficking strategies would be effective. For this purpose, it is necessary for prevention of this phenomenon to educate people in the community with the subject of smuggling nature; consequences and the need for cooperation of people. In this regard, various social groups could be covered by information with specific media tools. For example, production and distribution of information brochures by the subject of ethical standards for users of administrative services can be used in the related areas. Also comprehensive tools for targeted linking with specific groups who are directly exposed to this crime can be useful. The main points regarding these trainings should be followed; no distortion of reality and considering factors such as level of education and social awareness, language, and an appropriate culture are for offering such programs. B) Postural preventive actions against smuggling Postural prevention refers to the actions that directly affect in disturbing the opportunities to commit a crime. Some of these postural preventive actions are macro and micro and related to the law legislatives. Although, postural preventive actions applies to those behaviours that legislature or other related organizations to stop the crime have been predicted but before addressing this issue legislative should be faced with preventive subjects. This issue, especially in economic crimes, is more important than other crimes. However, corruption based on law or the actions of legislative never explicitly understands as crimes but it can be corruptive and even cause to expansion of economic crimes over the country. The idea of postural prevention is based on cure events before bits and it can be any type of remedy that comes to mind. On one hand, prevention is concerned with the probability of future criminal behaviours and on the other hand, it is based on some ideas which shaped criminal behaviours that have not happened yet. Scale, amount and its framework is in hands of those who use and utilized it. Thus, postural prevention could be extremely dangerous and limited and also to be a gadget at the hands of rulers. Therefore, implementation of postural preventing about the crimes related to security situations it is actually indefensible in non-democratic and outlawed countries; because inevitably will lead to the restriction or suppression of freedoms and ignoring rights in real and cyberspace. In other words, situational prevention means entering to the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s privacy and despite people have not committed a crime but they lose some parts of their freedom. (Najafi Abrand Abadi, pleadings 2004). Obviously, in the case of economic offenders regard their significant power of adaptation with society and also their high sense of confidence might lead to weaken the influence of social prevention. To prevent crime, the next step is postural prevention. According to what is discussed, it concluded that the border regions are one of those sensitive points of the country. The necessity of providing and maintaining security of border cities is one of the most important issues in each country. Undoubtedly, controlled borders and areas without tension and establishing security and sovereignty of each country's government has a key and guidance role and reduce abuse and the involvement of internal and external enemies; it seems planning to provide stability and prevent from imbalance is essential and vital for Iran. Recognizing the impact of social, cultural, political and economical factors over the security of the region are considered as the most important matters to perceive security vulnerabilities in order to avoid any tension and anti-security actions. According to be a boundary province and its vulnerability in terms of development and security, It can be said that smuggling is undeniable in the region. The most important security challenge in the region is unemployment and people's dissatisfaction from economic activities. These factors make people for subsistence and maintaining themselves at a minimum level to participate in a variety of unofficial and pseudojobs which in this situation they would be the last chance. One of the informal activities is increasing unofficial cross-border trading (i.e. smuggling). These exchanges that meet the need of people who live in boundary regions have long been matter in this risk. Complex economic problems in the region provide a platform to crime and illegal transportation to the other side of the border cause ill-security consequences and maintaining security discipline and controlling these regions have been faced them with problems and threats. People who live in boundary regions are more economically vulnerable in comparison to the other parts of the country. If people of these areas economically secure then destructive effects of political and security significantly decreases. The establishment of border markets by the government in recent years were very helpful for the habitants. Most of boundary points till that time considered as security regions, after that business transactions organized and formally changed.

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Trafficking and especially smuggling of goods and its expansion have various effects in border areas. This problem leads to different effects in different times and places that considering them is essential in order to eradicate them. Considering this phenomenon regardless of its status in different parts of the country and even in other countries and international level would be a useless work. Exchanging goods at the borders have not a problem itself and may also have positive effects to economic boom of the country and the region. In the past few years, in Kurdistan a project have been done entitled closure of the border. The project aims was to create a physical gap between the border of Iran and Iraq, especially in areas where there was no possibility of police presence and almost use as a way for mules for liquor smugglers. This highly cost plan was used as postural prevention and caused to reduce traffic of these areas. It was also associated with outcomes so that carriers and mules sometimes were shot and due to lack of access to obliterate the carcass, environmental pollution were created. Also by creating border passages and crossings to control entry and exit of foreign goods that belongs to boundary people in this province are solutions to replace illegal transactions with the state-controlled trade activities. Although, domination over these border crossings is difficult because of the situation in the region such as climate, outlying and lack of interest in police officers to serve in these areas; but it can be considered as preventive actions of the government against smuggling. Providing appropriate infrastructure in the official borders of Bashmaq and Seyranband are considered as those promotions planning’s by traders and active economic actors. Wide road construction that are safe and proper to driving, establishment of rail guards for legitimate shipments to prevent siphoning, providing passenger facilities at the border to prevent illegal crossings at Bashmaq, entry and exit of goods as well as X-ray machines are such actions. X-ray and gamma ray devices is suitable for cargo on the borders as a means of controlling through which it can examine the contents of the containers and prevent from entry of imported goods that does not exist in transit papers or smuggling. Using experienced, honest and trained staffs can also prevent from illegal entrance or exit shipments. Exact scale devices can be used as preventive devices. Intermittent use of police officers and employees in sensitive border areas can also be effective to prevent threatened or bribed them. Off-course, security of officers' livelihoods should be in priority of actions in order not to get in circumstances that by providing bribery let to illegal enter or exit of goods because of their hard living conditions. The informal and illegal form of trading is smuggling. If not organized and controlled, it would cause negative and harmful effects for the country and also to the region; so for developing the economy, income and employment for border residents in order to achieve sustainable development in this regions planning is strongly felt. If so, by proper strategies for each border region in the country regard to actual and potential powers as well as its practical implementation, we see reduction and even elimination of smuggling and ultimately the development of these regions. Kurdistan province which co-borders with Iraq, such as the rest of the boundary regions of Iran, smuggling is being done extensively that have brought positive and negative effects to urban residents. Smuggling has positive economic impacts such as increased in income, reduction in unemployment and increasing the employment and have brought negative effects such as negative impact over other sectors of the region’s economy to residents. Using the potential of long dusty common border can become be an opportunity rather than a threat in organizing border transactions As the official border of Bashmaq that has changed from a border market to an official border in recent years which almost customs procedures have been done there. It ranked as the third transit border of Iran and can be economically exploited in this way and if some condition of promoting this route deployed at the border such as transit roads with high standards, efficient and honest human resources, electro-technical equipment, e.g. X-Ray then caused to the economical boom of Kurdistan province and livelihoods of its boundary people. IV. Conclusion and Discussion Increasing economic crimes globally is one of the main today concerns that the shadow of such crimes is expanded over developing countries like Iran. In fact, increasing corruption and economic crimes including smuggling do not mean its growth in all countries but inability of some countries to control this issue.  Educational institutions in socialization of children, adolescents and young adults and internalize the values and norms of society and acquaint them with the rights, duties, obligations and the role of citizens have to take effective steps.  Educational and cultural institutions should try to make culture and cultural contexts for real encountering against smuggling by developing long-term planning.  Fields of active participation in the issue of social, political, security, economic, cultural and etc. have to be created to facilitate encountering with smuggling by people's association.  A comprehensive plan to encountering smuggling has to be developed with the participation of all relevant organizations so that a united sight will create.  By creating logical employments in boundary regions smuggling in youth will reduce.

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 Training workshops to familiar people with the disadvantages of using contraband goods and explaining security risks of economical cultural by educational organizations should plan and implement.  In planning of development to enhance the quality of domestic goods more attention is required to the mid and long-term strategies.  Cooperating with the countries of the region, particularly with the neighbouring countries, has to be done in the fields of customs agreements in encountering with smuggling.  Presidency of centre of encountering with smuggling in collaboration with relevant organizations such as Education, Science, Research and Technology, Culture and Islamic guidance, Broadcasting and etc. have to provide proper conditions in field of making culture in importance of locally-produced goods by training, advertisement and television programs. In this part some proposals is presented to improve the status-que and achieving development in Kurdistan: 1. Focusing on the development of the region based on natural resources such as water, soil, vegetation and mines. 2. Using human resources and indigenous knowledge and strengthen it through professional training and its promotion. Because these resources are very rich in some areas of Kurdistan and by proper management can be reach to sufficient economic exploitations. 3. Emphasising on reducing the role of state administration in the border regions and giving it to the local people. People who live in border regions have proven repeatedly their sympathy with their government in recent years. Despite having the minimum facilities and income, they also have shown their faithfulness and won’t allow any enemy to invade them. 4. According to abundance of young people in the region it can use of them in industry. For this purpose, training has to be done in this area then provided them with the necessary equipment. In addition to provide convenient and efficient means of communication, suitable and permanent energy, education of modern methods and other infrastructures and required facilities for them. 5. Due to the high potential of the area in this context, agriculture required more attention. Digging wells in order to use them in cultivated land with water and increasing their production is necessary. Using the wells and water turn dry land to productive ones which this will increase the incentive of farmers to invest more; then production will increase and their incomes rises, and finally cause the agricultural development of the area. 6. Proper and righteous awareness through the mass media to inform people from negative effects of smuggling in the country and region and finally, encouraging them to suitable alternative jobs as if they understand the harms of smuggled goods, demand of such goods will decrease. 7. Proper planning for development of tourism in the region regard its potentials in ecotourism and trading tourism will create jobs and increase the income of its residents. V. References [1]

Ackerman, Rose et al. (2005). Government of corruption and social opportunities, adverse consequences of Firouzjaie, Mokhtar, smuggling (of goods and currencies), Ghanon Publication, first edition, Tehran, pp. 47-9.

[2]

Aghazadeh, Ali Reza. (2006). Smuggling, Asar Andisheh publication, first edition.

[3]

Bayat Sarmadi, Samira, Mansoureh Abbasi. (2010). Europe Union and the phenomenon of trafficking, Journal of the hidden economy, No. 12.

[4]

Bayrami, Moses. (2010). Study of smuggling, causes, consequences and solutions in Kurdistan Region; lectures and proceedings of the smuggling conference, Bureau of Applied Research in Kurdistan province Police.

[5]

Beccaria, Caesar. (1995). Crimes and punishments essay, translated by Mohammad Ali Ardabili, Shahid Beheshti University Press, second edition, p. 122.

[6]

Bi Sokhan, Omid. (2008). The impact of border markets in changing the economic and physical structure of city (Case Study of Piran Shahr), M.A. thesis, University of Zanjan.

[7]

Gholizdeh, Alipur, Zoy Barani, Gholizdeh, Seyed Ibrahim, Ali Pour, Abbas, Zoy Barani, Kazem. (2010). causes and consequences of smuggling in Iran after the Islamic Revolution, Journal of Police, No. 12, (p. 4 Issue 49).

[8]

Ijtihadi, Abdul Hamid. (2001). The investigation of crimes and penalties for smuggling (of goods and currencies) and the ways of addressing them in Iranian criminal law; M.A. thesis of Law, Tehran University, Higher Education Complex of Qom.

[9]

Mossalla, Gholam Reza. (2003). Assess the security vulnerabilities of the border city of Marivan, M.A. thesis of commanding and police management, Tarbiat Moddaress University.

[10] Pouryaie, Ghasem. (2008). Causes and consequences of trafficking, border closure plan, and West Azerbaijan police headquarter of commanding.

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Knowledge and habits regarding the management of plastic waste among homemakers of urban area in Mangalore, India Mrs. Chaithra Nayak1 Lecturer, K.Pandyarajah Ballal College of Nursing, Mangalore- 575021, India. Prof. Devina E Rodrigues2 Professor, Yenepoya Nursing College, Mangalore-575021, India. Abstract: A descriptive survey was conducted to assess the knowledge and habits of homemakers regarding management of plastic waste management. The study was conducted in Ullal C Basti Padupu area from 2210-2012 to 17-11- 2012. Multi stage, Random sampling technique was used in selection of the sample. The data were collected by face to face interview using a structured knowledge questionnaire with 24 items on knowledge regarding management of plastic waste and 3 point rating scale to elicit the self reported habits regarding plastic waste management. The content validity of the tool was done by 11 experts, the reliability of the knowledge questionnaire was assessed for internal consistency using split half method and Crohnbach’s alpha coefficient was used to test the tool related to habits regarding plastic waste management. The calculated value was .87 and 0.81 respectively. The overall knowledge indicated that 71% of the subjects had inadequate knowledge and rest had adequate knowledge related to plastic waste management. Least possession of the knowledge was in the area of use and reuse of plastics (33.71%, SD 1.34); in the area related to disposal of plastic was also had inadequate knowledge (51.5%±1.26). Homemakers had adequate knowledge on effect of plastic on health & environment with mean% 68.9±1.04. The overall habits on management of plastic waste indicated that 60% of the subjects had moderately healthy habits and 24% with poor habits. The area wise habit score had revealed that subjects had moderately healthy habits concerning reduction in use of plastic as well as habits related to disposing of plastic with mean 56.57% and 64.9% respectively. There was a significant positive relationship between knowledge and habit score (r = 0.0.7662 df= 98, P= 0.209). Found a significant association between knowledge and educational status, monthly income, source of knowledge regarding management of plastic (chi square = 9.305, 4.753, 5.525 respectively). Chi square test was also revealed a significant association between habits scores and family income (x2 = 5.657).The study highlights the need to impart knowledge through community educational approach. Keywords: knowledge, habit, homemakers, plastic waste. I. Introduction In India, the use of plastic has attracted criticism, though the actual problem lies not in its use, but in the manner in which it is handled and disposed of. It is very appropriate at this time seriously deliberate on latest developments in this area in scientific manner, i.e. reuse and safe disposal of polymeric wastes, which need to be expeditiously examined with innovative eyes. Presently, the study was to address the knowledge on plastic waste management and their habits in the use and management of plastic waste. The study was conducted under Ullal PHC has a population of 60,010 and consist of 8 sub areas. It has 5 urban areas out of which Ullal C was selected randomly. This area has 5 sub areas, out of which Basthi Padav was chosen by the application of random sampling technique, which has 175 households, and again selected 100 houses by generating computer assisted random numbers as a study sample. The investigators have witnessed and observed malpractices in use and dispose of plastic bags in Ullal community during their community clinics. It is common practice by many to litter plastic all around. Hence, it has motivated the investigators to assess knowledge and home makers on management of plastic use at home. II. Methods The study design adopted was descriptive survey design. The population comprised of homemakers who are having a chief role in the determining household management of plastic waste. Multi stage, Random sampling technique was used in the selection of 100 subjects. Pretesting and reliability of the tool was ascertained before the pilot study. A written consent was obtained from the Ullal Medical officer and also from the subjects after explaining the purpose of the study. Each day interviewed around 6-7 homemakers using a face to face interview with the help of a structured knowledge questionnaire comprise about 24 items, habit scale having 24 items. The data was analyzed with the help of SPSS-17 package. The descriptive statistics such as Frequency, %, mean, mean %, SD was used to describe the socio- demographic variables & overall, area wise scores related to knowledge and habits of homemakers. The relationship between the variables was elicited with the help of

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Karl Pearson Correlation coefficient and chi-square and Yates correction to find out the association between research variables and socio-demographic variables. III. Results& Discussion Main finding are discussed under the following headings: 1. Overall and area wise knowledge scores on management of plastic waste: Table 1: Area wise and overall knowledge scores N = 100 Area General information Use and reuse of plastic Disposal of plastic Effect of plastic on environment Overall

health

Mean 4.33 2.36 3.09 3.49

SD 1.25 1.34 1.26 1.04

Mean% 72.17 33.71 51.50 68.90

13.27

2.80

55.30

The overall knowledge indicated that 71% of the subjects had inadequate knowledge and rest had adequate knowledge related to plastic waste management. Least possession of the knowledge was in the area of use and reuse of plastics (33.71%, SD 1.34); in the area related to disposal of plastic was also had inadequate knowledge(51.5%±1.26). Homemakers had adequate knowledge on effect of plastic on health & environment with mean% 68.9±1.04. The study conducted by Shafee Mohammed, Kasturvan N and Nirupama on knowledge regarding waste management among Para medicals is in consistent with the present study, which indicated 53.2% had adequate knowledge4. The study conducted in Chandigarh on knowledge and practices of patients and relatives on plastic waste management is incompatible with the present study, which had indicated 77% relatives and 36% of patient had good knowledge1.The study conducted by Basu M, Das Pand Pal R had also revealed more than 1/4 th ( 29.5%) of the study population had adequate knowledge in the area of disposal of waste (z=14.52,p=0.05) and it is also revealed that all most all the population (98.8%) had knowledge on the effects of plastic on health and the environment 2. 2. Overall and area wise habit scores on management of plastic waste: Table 2: Distribution of habit scores of home makers- area wise and overall: N = 100 Area wise Reduction in use of plastic Disposing of plastic Overall habit

Mean 16.97 11.68 28.65

SD 3.63 2.60 5.64

Mean % 56.57 64.90 59.70

The overall habits on management of plastic waste indicated that 60% of the subjects had moderately healthy habits and 24% with poor habits. The area wise habit score had revealed that subjects had moderately healthy habits concerning reduction in use of plastic as well as habits related to disposing of plastic with mean 56.57% and 64.9% respectively. The findings of study on habits related to management of plastic conducted by Sharp A, Hoj S, Wheeler M in Adelaide, Australia, which indicated overall (80%) of the respondents had good habits related to usage of plastic3. 3. Significant relationship between knowledge and habit score: Variables Knowledge & habit

r 0.7662*

df 98

P value 0.209

Significant =*: At <0.05 level of significance. There was a significant positive relationship between knowledge and habit score (r = 0.7662 df= 98, P= 0.209). The r values indicates positive correlation hence, it can be described that, increase in knowledge tends to increase habits among homemakers.

Figure 1: Relationship between knowledge and habit score

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The study conducted by Rosario V, Tatlonghari and Serlie B indicated a positive relationship between knowledge and habits8 ( r = (98) =0.57.p â&#x2030;¤ 0.05).Similar results were observed by Karout and Altwajili their study indicated that post test knowledge scores influence on habits4 (r= 12.9.p=0.001). 4. Significant comparison between knowledge and habit with selected socio- demographic variables Found a significant association between knowledge and educational status, monthly income, source of knowledge regarding the management of plastic (đ?&#x2018;Ľ 2 = 9.305, 4.753, 5.525 respectively). Chi square test was also revealed a significant association between habits scores and family income (x2 = 5.657). The study conducted in Ghana by Asuamah SY,Kumi E, Kwarteng E also revealed there was a significant relationship between educational level, source of information with knowledge of waste management ( chisquare p= 0.638) F=3.343:p= 0.07)respectively. This study also revealed a significant association between income and willingness to recycle5 (0.432, p=0.001). IV. Conclusion In the context of this study finding it can be said that homemakers do not possess adequate knowledge. The habits related to use and reduction of plastic waste is not desirable among most of the home makers. The study empirically justifies that greater knowledge scores lead to the adoption of healthy habits. It is statistically significant. The study thus can be concluded saying that there is a complex relationship between knowledge formation and sustaining of habits. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Ullal Primary Health Centre for giving permission to carry out this study under their community area. References 1.Kaur H, Walia I, Sarin C. Knowledge and Practices Regarding Waste Disposal: A Study among Patients and Their Relatives of PGIMER, Chandigarh. Nursing and Midwifery Research [internet].2008 Jul [cited 2013 Jan 27]; 4(3):87-91. http://medind.nic.in/nad/t08/i3/nadt08i3p87.pdf 2.Basu M, Das P, Pal R. Assessment of future physicians on biomedical waste management in a tertiary care hospital of Kolkata, West Bengal. J Nat Sc Biol Med [internet]. 2012 Jan 17[cited 2013 Jan 18];3(1): 38-42. doi: 10.4103/0976-9668.95945. 3.Sharp A, Hoj S, Wheeler M. Proscription and its impact on anti-consumption behaviour and attitudes: the case of plastic bags, Adelaide, Australia. Journal of Consumer Behaviour[internet]. 2010[cited 2012 Dec 28]; 9: 470â&#x20AC;&#x201C;484. Nov.â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Dec. 2010. DOI: 10.1002/cb. http://docs.business.auckland.ac.nz/Doc/Proscription-and-its-impact-on-anti-consumption-plastic-bags-Sharp-et-al-JCB-2010.pdf 4. Rosario V, Tatlonghari, Serlie B, Jamias. Village level knowledge, attitudes and practices on solid waste management in Sta. Rosa City, Laguna, Philippines. Journal of Environmental Science and Management [internet]. 2010 June [cited 2013 Jan 15]; 13(1):35-51. http://journals.uplb.edu.ph/index.php/JESAM/article/viewFile/425/382 5.Karout N, Altuwaijri S. Impact of health education on community knowledge, attitudes and behaviour towards solid waste management in Al Ghobeiry, Beirut. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal [internet]. 2012[cited 2013 Feb 4]; 18(7): 777-85. http://applications.emro.who.int/emhj/v18/07/2012_18_7_0777_0785.pdf?ua=1 , 6.Asuamah SY, Kumi E, Kwarteng E. Knowledge and attitude toward Recycling and Waste Management-a survey of marketing students in Sunyani Polytechnic, Ghana. Advances in Arts, Social Sciences and Education Research. 2012 May [cited 2013 Jan 16];2(5); 158 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 167. http://ejournal.sedinst.com/index.php/asedu/article/viewArticle/88/67

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A Study to Assess the Knowledge of Adults Regarding the Health Hazards of Global Warming In Selected Urban Areas of Mangaluru: A Descriptive Study 1

Ms. Ashwini Crasta, 1Ms. Ayisha.C , 1Ms.Bhavya D souza 1 Basic B.Sc. Nursing, Yenepoya Nursing College, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, Karnataka, INDIA. 2 Mrs.Vani.R, 2 Lecturer, Department of Community Health Nursing, Yenepoya Nursing College, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, Karnataka, INDIA. Abstract: Introduction: Global warming is one of the most discussed topics in present world. Global warming is increasing day by day because of the changing climate and human malpractices against the environment. Industrial revolution has increased the amount of green house gases in atmosphere leading to increased radioactive forces from carbon dioxide, methane, troposphere ozone, chlorofluorocarbons and Nitrous oxide. Global warming is all about adverse climate change caused by the trapping of green house gases (like carbon dioxide) in the earth’s atmosphere that affects biodiversity and poses a serious health hazard many deadly diseases such as malaria and those that cause diarrhea, which are particularly sensitive to climate change. Objectives: This study attempts to assess the knowledge of adults regarding the health hazards of global warming. To find the association and knowledge of adults regarding the health hazards of global warming and selected demographic variables. Method: this is a descriptive design with purposive sampling was used to collect the data from 100 adults regarding the health hazards of global warming. Data was collected using a structured knowledge questionnaire. Results were described by using descriptive and inferential statistics. The data was analyzed using SPSS version 13 and the results expressed as proportions.The theoretical framework for the study was modified and adopted from general system theory. Results: Out of 100 respondents, majority 76% had showed moderate knowledge level regarding the health hazards of global warming, 16% of the samples had inadequate knowledge and only 8% of them had adequate knowledge. Overall Mean Knowledge score obtained by the respondents was 15.38 and SD was 4.271. Conclusion: The overall findings of the study clearly 76% had showed moderate knowledge level regarding the health hazards of global warming. Thus to conclude the investigator has achieved the objective for assessing knowledge of adults regarding the health hazards of global warming Key words: knowledge, adults, health hazards of global warming, SD: Standard deviation I. INTRODUCTION Climate change is the biggest threat to nature and humanity in the 21st century. Climate change is everywhere. Today we are seeing the impacts of climate change around the globe - melting glaciers, rising sea levels, stronger storms, and higher floods, less snow north and more droughts south. Currently malaria, diarrhea, malnutrition flows related to climate change cause about 150,000world death annually, according to WHO. Global warming also increases the chance of air pollution. Higher temperature, increases ozone concentrations, the major component of “smog” changing weather pattern may also result premature mortality and cardio pulmonary diseases. Ozone is a particular concern because of its association with the following even for short exposure; they are air way irritation, coughing, reduction in lung function, aggravation of asthma and worsening of emphysema and bronchitis. Prolonged exposure may lead to permanent structural and cellular damage to the respiratory tract. Many diseases- carrying insects have time for additional reproductive cycles and have become more efficient at spreading diseases. A survey was carried out in Australia to assess the public’s knowledge of global warming. The data were collected from a randomly recruited national sample of 810 Australian adults

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via telephone using a CATI (computer assisted telephone interviewing) system and IQCA accredited (interview quality control Australia) interviewers. The results revealed that 51% of the samples had average knowledge regarding global warming. 37%of the samples had poor knowledge and 3% of the samples had very poor knowledge regarding global warming. This suggested the importance of giving education regarding global warming to those populations. An epidemiological study was carried out in east Siberia to assess the relationship with extreme temperature and mortality. The long-term distributions of daily mean temperatures and daily mortality rate from all nonaccidental causes, coronary heart diseases and cerebrovascular causes were analyzed during the study period of 2002 to 2010. Coronary heart disease mortality increased more than two-fold during the period of temperature waves, while non-accidental mortality increased by approximately 50%. The time lags between the temperature wave and observed increase in mortality varied between 8 and 14 days, which indicated that the health effects of temperature extremes were delayed rather than immediate. According to Indian meteorological department 2010 censes the annual green house gas emissions as follows , industrial processes 16.8% , power stations 21.3% , waste disposal and treatment 3.4% , land use and biomass burning 10.0% , residential , commercial and other sources 10.3% , fossil fuel retrieval, processing and distribution 11.3%, Agricultural byproducts 12.5%, Transportation fuels 14.0%.Each of us can reduce our contribution to global warming by using less greenhousegas-producing energy: driving less, choosing fuel efficient cars and appliances (like refrigerators and water heaters), and using solar energy. We can encourage our political and business leaders to institute policies that will save energy and develop alternative energy sources that do not release carbon dioxide. We can preserve existing forests and plant new ones. In view with the above need the investigator has taken a study to assess the knowledge of adults regarding the health hazard of global warming using structured knowledge questionnaire. If the adults gain knowledge regarding health effects of global warming, they will be able to teach their relatives & other members in community. II. METHODS A non-experimental descriptive survey design was used & Non -probability purposive sampling technique was adopted for 100 adults residing in urban areas of Mangaluru. Data was collected using a structured knowledge questionnaire, which consists of the 30 knowledge questions. Results were described by using descriptive and inferential statistics. III. RESULTS & DISCUSSION Out of 100 respondents, majority 76% had showed moderate knowledge level regarding the health hazards of global warming, 16% of the samples had inadequate knowledge and only 8% of them had adequate knowledge. The aspect wise mean knowledge scores of respondents knowledge regarding general information about global warming is 23.33%, Causes of global warming is 20%, effects of global warming is 40%& Preventive measures is 16.66%.The Overall Mean Knowledge score obtained by the respondents was 15.38 and SD was 4.271. Table 1: Socio demographic characteristics of respondents Sl.no 1

Demographic variables Age in years 18- 24 25- 31 32- 38 39- 45 Gender Male Female Religion Hindu Christian Muslim Educational qualification No formal education Primary education Secondary education Higher secondary education Graduate Post graduate and above Type of family Nuclear Joint Extended Single parent family Occupation Government service Private service

Frequency(f)

Percentage (%)

30 31 16 23

30.0 31.0 16.0 23.0

46 54

46.0 54.0

30 18 52

30.0 18.0 52.0

2 14 17 39 19 9

2.0 14.0 17.0 39.0 19.0 9.0

33 37 8 22

33.0 37.0 8.0 22.0

4 22

4.0 22.0

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Business Unemployment Family income <1000 1000- 2500 2500- 5000 >5000 Number of owned vehicles One Two More than two No vehicles Previous knowledge Yes no

28 46

28.0 46.0

11 19 26 44

11.0 19.0 26.0 44.0

46 21 10 23

46.0 21.0 10.0 23.0

37 63

37.0 63.0

The frequency and percentage distribution of demographic characteristics of adults showed that, regarding the age most of them (31%) were in the age group of 25 - 31 years and majority 54% were females and 52% of the adults were belong to Muslim religion, 39% of the respondents had completed higher secondary education and 37% of them belongs to joint family, 46% of adults were unemployment, 44% of adults were having income >5000 rupees, Most of the adults, 46% owned only one vehicle, 63% of the respondents not had previous knowledge regarding health hazards of global warming. Fig 1: Distribution of respondents according to knowledge level regarding the health hazards of global warming 8%

16%

adequate modearate 76% inadequate

Knowledge level

Data presented in fig 1; shows that majority of respondents (76%) had showed moderate knowledge level regarding the health hazards of global warming, 16% of the samples had inadequate knowledge and only 8% of them had adequate knowledge. The data is also presented in the form of pie diagram Table 2: Association between Demographic variables and Knowledge level regarding health hazards of global warming among adults n=100 Sl no. 1

Demographic variables

Median (<16)

Median (â&#x2030;Ľ16)

Chi-square Value (x2)

P value

0.9795

7.82

0.0094

3.84

Age in years 18-24

25-31

32-38

39-45

Male

Female

Gender

Religion

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Ashwini Crasta et al. , American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 13(1), December, 2015February, 2016, pp. 41-45 Hindu

Christian

Muslim

No formal education

Primary education

Secondary education

Higher secondary education

Graduate

Post graduate and above

Nuclear

Joint

Extended

Single parent family

1.0153

5.99

14.2154*

11.07

4.4697

7.82

0.5580

7.82

0.5013

7.82

1.2836

7.82

5.6359*

3.84

72.088*

9.49

Educational qualification

Type of family

Occupation Government service

Private service

Business

Unemployment

Family income <1000

1000-2500

2500-5000

>5000

One

Two

More than two

No vehicles

Yes

Media

Magazines

Neighbours and friends

Health personnelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

Any other

Number of owned vehicles

Previous knowledge

Source of information

The data presented in Table 2 shows that there is a significant association between knowledge score and demographic variables, i.e, educational qualification (x2= 14.2154, p= 11.07), previous knowledge (x2= 5.635, p= 3.84) and source of information (x2= 72.088, p= 9.49).The knowledge score is independent of all other variables, like age, gender, religion, type of family, occupation, family income, number of owned vehicles. Hence research hypothesis accepted for some variables such as educational qualification, previous knowledge and source of information. IV. CONCLUSION In the present study, the most of the subject (76%) had moderate knowledge, 16% has inadequate knowledge and 8% has adequate knowledge. The mean percentage of knowledge on the health hazards of global warming 51.266. There is a significant association between the knowledge and demographic variables i.e. educational qualification (x2(1) = 14.2154, table value x2(1) = 3.84), previous knowledge (x2(1) = 5.635, table value x2(1)= 3.84) and source of information (x2(1)= 72.088, table value x2(1)= 3.84). There is no significant association with other demographic variables. REFERENCES

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Ashwini Crasta et al. , American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 13(1), December, 2015February, 2016, pp. 41-45 [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12].

“Climate change 2014: synthesis Report.summary for Policymakers.The evidence for human influence on the climate system has grown since the Fourth assessment Report (AR4). Retrieved 7 march 2015 Generating the funding needed for mitigation and adaptation, world Development Report 2010:Development and climate change”.Washington, D.C, USA: 2010 March p.no: 262-263 Peter Proksochi D&J Huber; Wing chipoon; Climate change is the biggest threat to nature and humanity. China, {231-48} Reiter, P. et al, Texas Lifestyle limits transmission of dengue virus. Emerging Infectious Disease, 2003.9(1):p.86-89 Knight, J.; Kenney, J.J.; Folland, C.; Harris, A.; Stott, P. “Do Global Temperature Trends over the Last Decade Falsify Climate Prediction? (In “State of the Climate in 2008.) Vol.90(8): P no S75-S79 N.Sasikumar, Awareness of global warming among the graduate teacher trainees, research center for research in education. Journal of education and practice, JSSN2222-1735, Vol 2, No 9, 2011 ^Kirby, Alex (Science academies back Kyoto”. BBC News. Retrieved 27 luly 2011. Pope, C. A. et al, Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long- term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA, 2002. 287(9): p. 1132-41 “Intergovernmental panel on climate change: Principles and procedures”. IPCC 19 November 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2016. Diaz JH, “influence of global warming on natural disasters and their public health outcomes” (online). 2007 Jan-Feb; 2 (1):33-42. Johnson EJ, Local warming: daily temperature change influences belief in global warming. In 2011 Columbia University, New York, Psychol Sci. 2011 Apr; 22(4): 454-9. Epub 2011 Mar 3. Matthies F, Prevention and management of health hazards related to heatwaves. In 2009 in Europe. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2009 Feb; 68(1):8-22.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We owe our heartfelt thanks to Dr. Asha P Shetty, Principal, Yenepoya Nursing College, for her inspiration, encouragement and constant support. We express our deep sense of gratitude to Mrs Devina.E.Rodrigues, Head of the Department of Community Health Nursing, for giving her expert guidance, keen interest and valuable suggestions in conceptualizing and completing the study. This study has been completed under the guidance of Mrs. Vani R, Lecturer Department of Community Health Nursing, and Yenepoya Nursing College. We express our sincere gratitude to Madam for her inspiring guidance, constructive suggestions, constant care and concern and encouragement to undertake and complete the work successfully. Our special thanks to all the participants who enthusiastically participated in the study.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

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Impact of Values on Personality of Urban and Rural Youth Mayurakshee Gangopadhyay1, Dr. Debomita Sikdar2 1 Research Scholar, 2Assistant Professor Department of Home Science University of Calcutta, Kolkata West Bengal, INDIA Abstract: The aim of this present study is to find out the impact of values on personality of youth. To serve this objective a sample of 100 youth are selected by random sampling. They are college students aged between 18-21 years. A general information schedule, Personal Values Questionnaire by Sherry and Verma (1978) and Multi-Dimentional Assessment of Personality (MAP) by Vohra (1993) were administered on the samples. The findings reveal that there is significant difference between rural and urban youth in terms of values and personality. There exists significant impact of values on personality. For this the adaptability, boldness, imagination, innovation, leadership, maturity, mental health, morality, self control and social warmth can be the responsible components. Thus values play a significant role in shaping the personality of individuals and it is one of the main components of any society and culture. Key Words: Youth, Values, Personality. I. Introduction In India 27.5% are the youth population aged between 15 to 29 years (according to National Youth Policy 2014). This is true time for search for identity. Often it is time for value change and a time of adjustment to new social situations. Here it is already being discussed that every individual remains in the influence of values whether consciously or unconsciously. So the personality development and personality characteristics get influenced by values to a great extent. Knowingly and unknowingly we follow certain norms and beliefs that gradually shape our behaviour and we know personality is depicted through behaviour. Thus our values and personality are closely related. Few previous research works on the impact of values on personality proves the relationship. The findings of the study by Bilsky and Schwartz (1994) and Nwoke (2012) reveal both meaningful and systematic associations of value priorities with personality variables. The results of the study conducted by Herringer (1998) underscore the commonalities between traits and values and raise questions about their respective conceptualizations. Triandis and Suh (2002), Hofstede and McCrae (2004) and Wilson et al (2013) have found in their study that personality is significantly and substantially correlated with cultural dimension. Olver and Mooradian (2003) indicate in their study that personal values are influenced in predicted patterns by Openness/Intellect, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness as well as, more moderately, by Extraversion. A study done by Heaven and Ciarrochi (2007) reveals that the participants higher in hope, joviality, psychological acceptance and mindfulness also tended to be higher in religious values. Based on these studies and finding the research gap here in this study a focus is made towards finding the impact of values on personality of youth dividing the sample in rural and urban category to make out the existing difference in value system and influence of the same in the personality development. There is paucity of research in India in this area of study. The present scenario of our country implicit a lag in respect for our culture and values and therefore exhibit a different attitude of youth which is quite deviated from the earlier and expected standard of them set by the traditional society. That does not mean the youth are lagging behind from progress but progress does not mean forgetting of tradition. Feeling the urge to decipher what the exact situation is and how values are influencing the personality of youth of both rural and urban community and also to find a way forward the present study was undertaken. The specific objectives of this study are as follows:  To find out the influence of area on different dimensions of values and personality of urban and rural youth.  To find out if there is a relationship between the different dimensions of values and personality among urban and rural youth.

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Based on the objectives the following hypothesis can be framed:  Area has significant influence on the different dimensions of values and personality of urban and rural youth.  There is significant relationship between the different dimensions of values and personality among urban and rural youth. II. Methods Sample: Samples of 400 college and university going youth were selected using Stratified Random Sampling method from the colleges in Kolkata and adjacent rural areas. The age range of the samples was between 18 to 21 years. Data were collected by using the following tools: Tools used:  General Information Schedule: The General Information Schedule was used to get the demographic data. A questionnaire has been prepared to acquire knowledge from the sample such as age, type of family, rituals within family, influencing person in the individual’s life etc.  Personal Values Questionnaire: Dr. G.P. Sherry and Prof. R.P. Verma (1978) PVQ is prepared to assess human values in the indigenous cultural milieu of India. It contains 40 questions based on 10 types of values like religious, social, democratic, aesthetic, economic, knowledge, hedonistic, power, family prestige and health value.  Multi-Dimentional Assessment of Personality (MAP) by Vohra (1993) This scale intends to measure twenty personality dimensions. It has 147 items with three choices to answer each item. Statistical Analysis: Descriptive Statistics, Anova, and Correlation are being applied for the verification of hypotheses. III. Result and Interpretation Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Variables I N D E P E N D E N T

D E P E N D E N T

Mean Urban

Religious value

Rural

Std. Deviation Total

Urban

Rural

Total

Social value

10.52 13.85

15.60 17.24

13.06 15.54

3.05 3.66

3.28 3.64

4.06 4.02

Democratic value

16.91

14.08

15.49

2.77

2.70

3.08

Aesthetic value

13.43

12.36

12.90

3.18

2.77

3.03

Economic value

13.68

11.83

12.75

2.62

2.26

2.61

Knowledge value

13.77

11.28

12.53

2.33

2.31

2.63

Hedonistic value

13.02

11.30

12.16

1.75

2.10

2.11

Power value

13.44

9.67

11.56

2.22

3.08

3.27

Family prestige value

12.69

15.45

14.07

3.13

2.83

3.28

Health value

10.19

12.11

11.15

2.34

1.90

2.34

Adaptability

9.91

11.49

10.70

1.61

1.04

1.57

Boldness

11.62

9.72

10.66

1.43

1.26

1.57

Imagination

11.54

8.93

10.25

1.23

1.51

1.85

Innovation

10.84

8.69

9.89

0.96

1.64

1.50

Leadership

11.47

9.17

10.32

1.06

1.38

1.68

Maturity

11.46

8.89

10.17

1.08

1.53

1.84

Mental health

11.00

8.83

9.91

0.77

1.34

1.54

Morality

9.16

11.19

10.17

1.45

0.90

1.58

Self control

8.91

10.91

9.91

1.56

0.90

1.62

8.50 200

10.59 200

9.54 400 (N)

1.42 200

1.33 200

1.73 400 (N)

Social warmth

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics i.e. the mean and standard deviation of the samples in both the areas, i.e. urban and rural and also of the total sample. It reveals that the means of different dimensions of values like democratic, aesthetic, economic, knowledge, hedonistic and power value and different dimensions of

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Mayurakshee et al. , American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 13(1), December, 2015February, 2016, pp. 46-50

personality like boldness, imagination, innovation, leadership, maturity and mental health are higher in case of urban youth than rural youth. And for other dimensions of values like religious, social, family prestige and health value and the other dimensions of personality like adaptability, morality, self control and social warmth the mean values of rural youth are higher than that of the urban youth. Table 2: Summarized Result of One Way ANOVA for Values and Personality of Entire Sample with respect to Area variables

Religious value

398

256.02**

Social value

398

85.91**

Democratic value

398

106.78**

Aesthetic value

398

12.82**

Economic value

398

56.61**

Knowledge value

398

114.58**

Hedonistic value

398

78.75**

Power value

398

197.15**

Family prestige value

398

84.91**

Health value

398

80.69**

Adaptability

398

136.15**

Boldness

398

183.07**

Imagination

398

406.45**

Innovation

398

266.74**

Leadership

398

346.67**

Maturity

398

373.82**

Mental health

398

387.39**

Morality

398

282.09**

Self control

398

242.23**

Social warmth

398

231.00**

**p<0.01 The findings of One Way ANOVA indicate that the influence of area on the different dimensions of values and personality have been found to be largely significant. That means based on area, i.e. urban or rural the value system changes and thus also influences the personality of youth. Therefore the hypothesis I is accepted. Table 3: Relationship between different dimensions of values and personality among urban and rural youth adaptability boldness imagination innovation leadership maturity Religious value

Correlation

Social value

Correlation

N N

.389**

-.300**

-.459**

-.402**

-.423**

-.467**

Mental health

Self morality control

-.502**

.465**

Social warmth

.453**

.476**

400

.339**

-.193**

-.391**

-.245**

-.200**

-.355**

-.336**

.390**

.414**

.393**

400

-.278**

.219**

.392**

.268**

.209**

.271**

.272**

-.380**

-.374**

-.250**

Democratic value

Correlation N

400

Aesthetic value

Correlation

.018

.174**

.081

.132**

.134**

.160**

.141**

-.007

.024

-.022

400

-.206**

Economic value

Correlation

Knowledge value

Correlation

Hedonistic value

Correlation

Power value

Correlation

N N N N

-.154

.174

.222

.274

.250

.235

.259

-.155

-.108

400

-.231**

.424**

.369**

.348**

.377**

.305**

.297**

-.268**

-.290**

-.351**

400

-.233**

.199**

.276**

.212**

.299**

.353**

.348**

-.289**

-.253**

-.248**

400

-.314**

.367**

.467**

.438**

.430**

.419**

.357**

-.374**

-.381**

-.427**

400

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Mayurakshee et al. , American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 13(1), December, 2015February, 2016, pp. 46-50

Family prestige value

Correlation

Health value

Correlation

.325**

.007

-.300**

-.179**

-.230**

-.354**

-.341**

.374**

.317**

.292**

400

.264**

-.131**

-.239**

-.228**

-.309**

-.360**

-.320**

.217**

.220**

.263**

400

**p<0.01 Correlation has been found to be highly significant between the dimensions of values and personality among urban and rural youth. Religious value, social value, democratic value, economic value, knowledge value, hedonistic value, power value and health value have significant relationship with adaptability, boldness, imagination, innovation, leadership, maturity, mental health, morality, self control and social warmth. Aesthetic value has significant correlation with boldness, innovation, leadership, maturity and mental health. Family prestige value has significant correlation with adaptability, imagination, innovation, leadership, maturity, mental health, morality, self control and social warmth. IV. Discussion It is a known fact that Indian culture is full with its assets of traditional values that frame different cultural practices in different community throughout the country and naturally there exists a significant difference in practicing these rituals or norms among all these various places and people as well. But mainly the youth generation has the responsibility to carry forward the culture of India. Therefore to know the present scenario of value system the youth generation can be focused on. It is another known fact that this value system has great impact on the well being of every person mainly on their personality because in many cases people do lots of things and take decision driven by their innate values. Therefore values and personality have an interrelationship. This relationship can be positive or negative. There is also difference in value system between rural and urban areas and also some fine discriminating features between the personality features that evokes from a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s appearance between the rural and urban people. It can be said that the values influence the personality such a way that often the personality gets shaped based on the preaching of those values. It is true that personality is a mixture of both innate and environmental factors and it is also true that values are not only acquired from the surroundings but also it is ingrained within us being human. Mostly it is being seen that there exists significant difference between rural and urban youth in terms of their personal values. The study conducted by George and Uyanga (2014) is mention worthy to draw the connection with the findings of this study. They found in their study that Youths must be committed to imbibing moral values and upholding them through life as these values will shape the ways they think, speak and even act. Moral standards can rise in contemporary societies if the zeal of youths brings about the restoration of moral values. The values and personality are interrelated. It depends on each other and influences each other. It is being found out in the study too that there exists significant correlation between values and personality of youth. In support of this finding also a few previous studies are needed to be mentioned. Heaven and Ciarrochi (2007) in their study have revealed that both personality and personality change predicted religious values and the specific effects depended on gender. Participants higher in hope, joviality, psychological acceptance and mindfulness also tended to be higher in religious values. Study done by Bilsky and Schwartz (1994) relates with the findings of this study is that both meaningful and systematic associations of value priorities with personality variables exist. V. Conclusion The analysis of the findings reveals that there is significant difference between urban and rural youth in terms of personal values. Cultural practices, family traditions, traditional social values and practices are reasons behind this difference. And there is significant impact of values on personality of youth. Adaptability, boldness, imagination, innovation, leadership, maturity, mental health, morality, self-control, social warmth etc. are key influencing factors in this regard. Therefore it can be said that the personal values of an individual shapes the personality of that individual and they are closely related with each other and one influences the other. The social norms, practices, customs, traditional ethics are related factors in shaping oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s values and invariably in framing the personality of that individual. VI. Implication of the study In every family different value system exists and it has impact on the youth. So a healthy family environment with good value system should be inculcated from the beginning for better human development. Therefore it is our earnest duty to protect the Indian culture and heritage through our own practices.

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        

References Bilsky, W. and Schwartz, S. (1994). Values and Personality. European Journal of Personality, 8, 163-181. George, I.N. and Uyanga, U.D. (2014). Youth and Moral Values in a Changing Society. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 19 (6), 40-44. Heaven, P.C.L. and Ciarrochi, J. (2007). Personality and Religious Values among Adolescents: A Three Wave Longitudinal Analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 98, 681-694. Hofstede, G. and McCrae, R. (2004). Personality and Culture Revisited: Linking Traits and dimensions of Culture. CrossCultural Research, 38, 52-88. Nwoke, M. B. (2012). Impact of Cultural Value System on the Personality Development of Ogoni Adolescents. Asian Social Science, 8(3), 100-112. Parks, L. and Guay, R. P. (2009). Personality, Values and Motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 675-684. Swami, Y. (1989). Values and Ourselves, Calcutta:Vivekananda Nidhi, 13-27, 56-60, 110-114. Triandis, H. C. and Suh, E. M. (2002). Cultural Influences on Personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 133-152. Wilson, J., Ward, C., and Fischer, R. (2013). Beyond Culture Learning Theory: What can Personality Tell Us about Cultural Competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(6), 903-922.

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Habitation and habiting practices in slums of Constantine Nadra NAIT AMAR SeniorLlecturer Faculty of Architecture and Urban planner University of Constantine3 Constantine, Algeria Abstract: The human being must find a dwelling and protect himself against the vicissitudes of nature. He has to adapt himself to the contemporary world and to his environment. Sometimes, he should accept unwittingly extreme situations dominated by inhabitability and as such abandon his plot of land and properties and to get into the city where he has to refuge into spaces that any human being enjoying a minimum of living conditions would not accept: the slum. For the time being, he does his best to make his environment enjoyable and to transfer his existence into something of a temporary happiness by trying to make order in these inhospitable places in order to create a sort of happiness that he is the only one who can measure its real impact. Throughout this essay, we are trying to present this human habitation that we often meet in Constantine. Key words: Constantine, slums, lifestyle, urbanity, habitation. I. Overview of realities in Constantine Constantine, as all the other cities and regions in Algeria, has not escaped the events that the country witnessed since the conquest war until now. It has endured the impact of crises and tensions that the country had undergone. In fact, the upheavals that shook Algeria during the period of colonization and in the aftermath of the national liberation war have taken their inevitable toll, and as the days passed, they made the country go into lethargy. Being a capital for many centuries, first for a kingdom than for a large region, its image has been altered by various singular phenomena, including that of slums which have flourished on her steep slopes, in spite of the time and the campaigns raged against them. They continue to harass and defy the environment up to now. Today, in spite of many projects carried out or being implemented to oxygenate the city and save it from this lethargy, Constantine seems suffering from an incurable disease, and fears that it will know an even more severe degradation in the future. Besieged by natural events, irresponsible practices and carelessness of man, it has to bear a heavy burden. II. Growing slums in Constantine A. Causes of slum formation and origin of their residents The massive flow towards the city is the product of population surplus, mainly from rural areas, victims of disorganization of their traditional economy, or threatened by wars, food shortages, and terrorism, or simply attracted by the opulence of big cities. The exhaustion of welcoming structures has led millions of persons to confine themselves far from the city, in shanties constructed hastily, with corrugated steel, breeze blocks, boards and other varied materials. In front of the growing number of individuals, the implementation or the extension of this dwelling in the urban tissue is very quick. This is becoming a real “surprise bag”, whereby the city, contrary to the imaginary’, does not embody solely the “good life” and a space where the individual may fulfill his desires and can use all advantages, but also its incapacity to ensure the minimum for the new comers led it not to receive them but rather to closet them in irregular, spontaneous and non-plannified population settlements, “where they have to fight relentlessly for survival”1 However, the bankruptcy of the rural communities is not the only “tank” that supplies the slums. In fact, in addition to the temptation of the city especially for the young, the declassified city residents, living under the constant threat of mass movements and the risk of collapse of old dwellings, take refuge, too, with the rural residents in precarious and unhealthy shacks until they can get, as all unfortunate people, a new social housing. The insecurity in economic resources or the regression of living standards of the heads of families constitutes another cause which may sometimes lead to adopt extreme solutions. Actually, it gives raise to social insecurity and leads to privations and the obligations of some heads of the families to not honour their commitments, pay

J.P. Laffite and all, « The City », Paris, Vuibert, octobre 1995. P.18.

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their dues and meet their children’s needs. Having been tipped into poverty, they are obliged to abandon their hard-wall accommodation whose charges are excessive, and settle in shanty towns where they think they do not have to spend much. Moreover, the slums are not only supplied by the rural exodus, downgraded citizens and those whose revenues have been severely curtailed, but also filled and sought after by crooked and shameless grabbers. After selling their state-attributed house, they infiltrate in these illegal spaces, and construct by themselves, on the quiet, in the dark away from prying eyes, their shanties waiting for a new allocation from the local authority housing. Unfortunately, their schemes have been unraveled, and the departments in charge of relocation have changed their methods of allocation in such a way as to identify eventual intruders. The importance of urban growth, housing deficit and demographic explosion are also factors that have amplified the deficiencies and have brought about this form of urbanization. Next to this population, cohabitate another category of residents composed mainly from employee couples who could neither pay for the rent of a decent housing nor engage in a real estate transaction. Thus, many individuals from different horizons including a high percentage of rural inhabitants participate in this clandestine phenomenon and represent an important population without financial resources to build a qualifying home or opt for one of the forms put on place by the state for the purchase of a residential property. B. Penetration and increase of shantytowns Slums are born where classical buildings do not fit. This illegal habitation, generally built on a land of the public domain, sometimes on the edge of wadis, takes place in interstices improper for urbanization, in unusable zones because of pollution, environmental nuisance, wastes. The sites used are often situated on sloping ground, eroded soils, and in landlocked places away from the view. If the French word “Bidonville” (“slum”) was used for the first time before the WWII, the date when these tepid shacks made their first appearance in Constantine is not known. Yet they go back far in the past if we just consider the long series of ordeals endured by the country whereby whole populations were obliged to abandon their lands and their regions to take refuge in her suburbs or at least outskirts. Already, in the course of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, slums welcomed many people fleeing the war, the bombings, and the actions of the armed forces. The figures submitted by A. Hafiane in his book “Le défi de l’urbanisme” (“The challenge of urbanism”), illustrate the extent to which this phenomenon has developed and explains the surge of a massive influx of immigrants across Constantine. The shacks, the very basic constructions, and the hard wall accommodations which polluted this city, raised in 1959 to 17 600 units with a population of 104 900 indigenous. Those sobering figures confirm the magnitude assumed by these shelters and also by the flood tide of dislocated people from the countryside. Shacks represented 60% of dwellings and hosted, alone, 62% of the city global population. These ghettos, which have continued to grow around the city, have reached an intolerable level. In fact, in the early 1990s, public authorities presented the figure of 18000 constructed shacks. Over 73 sites counted on December 2000, totaling 9331 precarious shacks occupied by 9477 households, twenty were eradicated. The remaining 53 sites registered in 2006 (Map), were home for 6266 households or 35 772 individuals. Faced with population increase among the category of the disadvantaged, and faced with a rapid grow of hovels, the extension of this type of habitation is taking place more rapidly than that of the urban tissue, attributing wrongly to this city “unique in many respects, the misfitted title of a big village made of a concentration of anachronistic habitations, attempting to delete a history, however ancestral with an aura and prestige alive for more than two millennium”. This extension is based not only on the number of populations coming everyday to “plant” their shelters, but also on the natural growth in households. In fact, it has been observed, in the majority of the visited slums, that many households whose number increased through time, have been obliged to extend and build other shanties nearby the original shack because of the limited size of this latter which has been the home for many generationssometimes hosting twenty individuals including children, grand children and great grand children. III. Slums and lifestyle A. Overview of the situation and impact on the inhabitants The visitor who happens to penetrate for the first time the majority of excluded and marginalized quarters is confounded with the desolation around him, the nauseous odor emanating from the waste which his nostrils are forced to tingle. Misery is what characterizes this environment which offers a staggering and distressing spectacle, as if one is living in another age where time has suddenly stopped. This kind of habitation reflects the degradation of the individual, who found himself withered on his own without any resources, and who was obliged to refuge in these wicked substandard housings. Basic facilities such as water, electricity, sewage system, public lighting seem to be luxury means for these inhabitants who are now used to live without these basic urban equipments and services. These desolate and poor conditions have harmful consequence on households and their health. Moreover, the lack of hygiene aggravated by all sorts of nuisance caused by exogenous agents, severely affects the quality of life already harmed by a mental condition affected on one hand by their dislocation and the atmosphere they endure, and on the other hand by the frustration and the deception which characterize their spirit once they left their original homes. These inhabitant are exposed to many diseases such as waterborne illness, skin infections and respiratory troubles…Promiscuity, with its negative impact on

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the individual’s social life, is another consequence of such exiguity and densification that these families are forced to bear. B. The slum, a social space We find in the slums populations from the same milieu and the same region. In fact, it has been observed that residents of these locations are allocated according to their family and regional origin. These groupings do not bear to live far from one another. On the contrary, this precariousness, exclusion and marginalization they share, created between them a powerful solidarity. These links and relations they weaved between themselves and their mutual help make them more ready to struggle against the vicissitudes of life and to ease their sufferings. The use of the existing common parts facilitates their exchange and helps them discover one another. Thus, the absence of any of them is rapidly noticed by the community, who, out of worry, hastily proceeds to search for him and offer help when needed. Furthermore, this help is also manifest during happy or unhappy events when these residents hastily offer their precious help and support in strained domestic chores. Fig n°1: Slums in Constantine

Fig n°1/2: The waste in slums in Constantine

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IV. Conclusion To live in a slum is not a choice, but an absolute necessity caused by some particular serious conditions. The rural population confronted to precariousness and searching for better living conditions, and the dislocated citizens fleeing unpredictable conditions, are confined in small shanties and shacks, entwined with one another, without having any legal existence. They live in a total uncertainty, sometimes even sharing their shelter with domestic animals. This situation which seems transitional at the beginning is not ready to disappear however harsh it is to the environment. Its disappearance is tightly linked to the economic situation, stability in the rural environment, improvement in standards of living, creation of new jobs and increase in housing. This poverty and misery reigning in these slums enclose a space full of affection and solidarity. These qualities form the core ethos of those marginalized inhabitants. The comforting atmosphere appeases the spirit of these residents and increases their determination to overcome their difficulties and to improve their living conditions. V. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

References

D ALKAMA and all, The problems of urbanism of Algerian cities in the national seminar on architecture, Biskra les 10 ET 11novembre 1997 (In French) B BELAADI, The Slum History of a Concept, In Journal of Humanities, Université Mohamed Khider Biskra,N°1, Novembre 2001 (www.webreview.dz/IMG/pdf/15.pdf) (In French) DESCLOITRES R. and all: The Algeria slums third world in quotes, 127p (In French) B GRANOTIER , Planet of Slums, Paris, Seuil, 1980. (In French) JP PAULET , Urban Geography , Paris, Armand colin, 2000, 315p. (In French) N NAIT AMAR: Habitat and live in the slums of Constantine. Conditions and developments. Memory Doctorate, under the direction of Pr Cherrad SE, 2016, 320p. (In French)

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Environment in Ṛgvedic Imagery Dr. (Smt) Subhasree Dash Assistant Professor in Sanskrit Ravenshaw University, Cuttack-753003, Odisha, India. Abstract: Environment plays a significant role in shaping human history, culture, and literature. The Ṛgvedic poetry presents the description and worship of nature in metaphorical renditions expressed through imagery culled from the environment. Imagery often transcends personal experiences to universal measures where the empirical universe is transmuted to a spiritual one. The arts, artifacts, technical and scientific knowledge of the time get expressed through poetic images. This article attempts to explore environment depicted in Ṛgvedic poetry with subtle examination of the imageries that stand true across times and spaces. Key words: Ṛgveda, imagery, environment, metaphor, poetry. Environment plays a significant role in shaping human history, culture, and literature. It has been the source of inspiration for the poets of all times and climes. The worship of the environmental natural phenomenon begins in India with the hymns of the Ṛgveda, the most ancient poetry of mankind. There every piece of poetic art is made up of images that make concrete the sense and awareness. Powerful human feelings are made visible at every step in every image. Imagery is the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or extra-sensory experience. An image does not mean only a mental picture. Most of the images are conveyed by figurative language, as in metaphor, simile, synecdoche, onomatopoeia, and metonymy. To psychologists and many critics imagery is the expression of sense experience in any poetic art channeled through visual, olfactory, tactile, auditory, gustatory, abstract and kin aesthetic experiences which impress upon the mind to recall the original sensation as vividly as possible. It is the decorative device as well as the essence of intuitive language (Cuddon 413). Through imagery a poem represents feelings in a transmuted form. The literary devices raise the chaotic feelings and sensation of human heart to the status of images that reveal the special genius of the language. The above devices familiarize the unfamiliar by comparison and contrast and contribute to the beauty of the poem. Comparison in poetic language is universal, but disparities between two objects are significant when they are brought together by an anterior perception of their resemblances (Fogle 14). Good imagery is richly evocative and John Middleton Murry terms it as “the instinctive and necessary act of the mind exploring reality and ordering experience” ( Fogle 23). With the above points and parameters in view this paper intends to discuss the figurative elements of Ṛgvedic poetry influenced by the environments. Whether natural phenomenon alone influenced Vedic life and poetry? Whether the Vedic poets advanced images from the day to day elements of use and support? Have the scientific elements of the time been reflected through the poetry of the age? The objective of this research is to answer such queries through textual interpretation by application of various cultural and linguistic norms. The figures of speech, considered to be the vehicle of images, reflect the Vedic environment and capture the interest and attention of the readers. With the limited scope of this article a few figures of speech have been noted for appraisal. In poetic art Upamā (simile) is the primary figure of sense. It is the resemblance between two things (subject of description and object of comparison) expressed in a single sentence and un occupied by statement of difference (Kane 89). Yāska enumerates the opinion of Gargya and says that when an object bears (some) resemblance to another, which is otherwise dissimilar, is denoted by a simile. Yāska in the Nirukta, 3.13 postulates that function of simile (Upamā) is to compare an inferior quality, or an unknown object, with a higher quality, or a very well known object. Besides there is also comparison of the higher with the inferior. Durga Singha commenting on Yaska notes that such definition may be relevant to the Vedas only (Sarup 47). The Vedic seers are fully familiar with the terms like upamā, upāmānam, pratimanām, īdṛśa, sadṛśa, yathā etc and the particles like cit, nu, vat, ā, etc. which promote the spirit of comparison in the figure of speech like simile(upamā). In the Ṛgveda, 1.124.7 the novel use of similes by the Vedic seers may be seen as follows: abhrāteva puṁsa eti pratīcī gartārugiva sanaye dhanānām I jāyevapatya uśatī suvāsā uṣā hasreva niriṇīte apsaḥ II (Trivedi, 2:25) “She seeketh men as she who hath no brother, mounting her car, as’twere to gather riches. Dawn, like a loving matron for her husband smiling and well attired unmasks her beauty”(Tr. Griffith 86 ).This is the humanized

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description of Uṣā(early dawn). One meets with a crescendo of similitudes when the subject of description(Uṣā) is compared to numerous objects of comparisons like abhrāteva(like a lady having no brother), gartārugiva (like a lady mounting her car) jāyeva (like a loving matron), and hasreva (like a smiling lady). Here is seen the description of erotic sentiment with familial, kin aesthetic, social, and erotic images respectively. Another domestic image of our living environment is seen in the poetic lines presented in the figure of sense upamā in the description of Indra’s valour in killing the demon Ahi in the Ṛgveda 1.32.02: ahannahiṁ parvate śiśriyāṇaṁ tvastāsmei vajraṁ svarjaṁ tatakṣa I vāśrā iva dhenavaḥ syandamānā anjaḥ samudramavajagmurāpaḥ II (Trivedi,I.276). “He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭar fashioned. Like lowing kine in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean.”(Tr. Griffith 20). Sāyaṇa in his commentary explains Ahi as Megha or the cloud: “parvate śiśriyāṇaṁ āśritaṁ ahiṁ meghaṁ ahan hatavan…… Tvaṣṭa viśvakarmā etc.” The weapon wielded by Indra was prepared by Tvaṣṭa or the creator himself. Like a lowing cow with flowing milk moving speedily towards the calf, the water of the cloud (Ahi being killed) rushed forth towards the ocean. The object of comparison is the speedly movning lowing cow for the calf in the evening. It is a very powerful domestic image, ever fresh and new, evoking emotions in the hearts of the connoisseurs. Another familial image (simile) is seen in the invocation to Agni(Ṛgveda,1.1.9) when the poet-seer sings: sa naḥ piteva sunave’gne supāyano bhava I sacasvā naḥ svastaye(Trivedi,1.46). “Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son: Agni, be with us for our weal”(Tr.Griffith 1). Besides an instance of fully developed upamā(simile) and viśeṣokti(Peculiar Allegation) may be read in the Ṛgveda,10.71.04 as follows: utatvaḥ paśyannadadarśa vācamutatvaḥ śṛṇvannaśṛṇotyenāṁ I utotvasmeitanvaṁ visasre jāyevapatya uśatī suvāsāḥ II (Trivedi, 8.155) “One man has never seen Vāk, and yet he seeth : one man hath hearing but never heard her. But to another hath she shown her beauty as a fond well-dressed women to her husband” (Tr. Griffith 584). Here first half of the poem is an illustration of viśeṣokti as inspite of the existence of cause, the effect is absent- “sati hetau phālabhāve viśeṣoktiḥ” (Sāhityadarpaṇa,10.67). The second half is a clear instance of simile (purṇā śrautī vākyagā upamā) Rūpaka (metaphor)) is a basic figurative device in any literature where one thing is described in terms of another. Usually a comparison in metaphor is implicit where as in simile it is explicit. Its definition attempted by Mammata in the Kāvyaprakāsa, 10.93 may be read as follows: “Where there is non-difference between the ‘object compared to’ and the ‘object compared’, it is Metaphor. What is meant by ‘non- difference’ is that the idea of non-difference which is based upon extreme likeness between two objects, where difference is not entirely concealed. In cases where what is imposed upon, so the objects imposed also are directly mentioned by words, it is that Metaphor which is called ‘Universal’ – in the sense that the whole (samasta) of what is imposed (nyasta) is its expressed objective(viṣaya)’ (Tr. Jha 369). The linguist Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) through his study of aphasia (a language disorder resulting from memory loss), promotes the theory that language disorder acts on the two axes of the language in different ways so that those suffering from a ‘continuity disorder’ tend to use substitution (i.e. metaphor) and those suffering from ‘similarity disorder’ tend to use association (i.e. metonymy). The structuralist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) described language as ‘a system of interdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simultaneous presence of the others’. He also admits two dimensions in the relationship of words: (a) the syntagmatic or ‘horizontal’ relation as seen in the use of ‘metaphor’; (b) the associative or vertical relations which is also described as paradigmatic and is seen in the use of ‘metonymy’ (Cuddon 507&891). Keeping the above theory of figure of speech in view metaphorical use of the language in some important figures of speech in Ṛigvedic poetry may be accepted for analysis. The Ṛgveda, 5.54.12 reads as follows: taṁ nākamaryo agṛbhī ruśatpippalaṁ maruto vidhūnutha I samacyanta vṛjanātitvaṣanta yatsvarantighoṣaṁ vitatamṛtāyavaḥ II (Trivedi,4.110-11) ‘Maruts, in eager stir ye shake the vault of heaven, splendid beyond conception, for its shining fruit. They gathered when they let their deeds of might flash forth. The pious ones send forth a far-resounding shout’. In any Indian literature Pippalaṁ is used as a metaphor for worldly riches and enjoyment. When Griffith notes ruśatpippalam as shining fruit of the heaven Sāyaṇa interprets the same as the shining water bodies of the sky and pious mighty deeds can only meet such prosperous objects of enjoyment. In another mantra both Agni and Pṛśni are presented as Bulls, the metaphor of power, valour and strength: “Agni the Bull, the manly, hath been sprinkled with oil upon his back, by law eternal. He who gives vital power goes on unswerving. Pṛśni , the bull has milked the pure white udder” (Tr. Griffith 202). Here in vṛṣabhaḥ Agniḥ and vṛṣā Pṛśni the Bull is used as a universal metaphor (q.v.). However, the words for the Bull- vṛṣabha and vṛṣā have been interpreted by Sāyaṇa differently as abhimataphalavarṣaka (showering favourable fruits on the worshipper) and apānivarṣaka (showering water by milking the sky) respectively. The line ‘sukraṁ duduhe pṛśṇirūdhaḥ’ is interpreted by Sāyaṇa as “pṛśni (the sun-god) milked the ūdhaḥ (the udder), which stands as a metaphor suggesting either the sky or the cloud

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(Trivedi,3.381). Both the interpretations above show that Vedic language was metaphorical and most of the metaphors were drawn from natural environment. Atisayokti (hyperbole) is figure of sense and Mammaṭa in the Kāvyaprakāśa, 10.100 attempts the definition as follows: “It is to be known as the Hyperbole- (a) when the object to be described is indicated as swallowed up by the other; - (b) when the object to be described is presented as another;- (c) when there is an assumption introduced by some term meaning ‘if’; - and (d) when there reversal of normal order of sequence between a cause and its effect.(Tr. Jha390) A mantra with bird imagery in the Ṛgveda,1.164.20 reads: dvā suparṇā sayujāsakhāya samāṁ vṛkṣaṁ pariṣasvajāte I tayoranyaḥ pippalaṁ svadvattynaśna nnanyo abhicākaśīti II (Trivedi,2.271) “ Two Birds with fair wings, knit with bonds of friendship, in the same sheltering tree have found a refuse. One of the twains eats the sweet Figtree’s fruitage; the other eating not regardeth only”(Tr.Griffith111). Here in the above instance the objects of comparison (viṣayin/upamāna/aprastuta) dvā sūparṇā (two birds) have completely swallowed up (taken the place of) the subjects of description i.e. ātmā (individual soul) and paramātmā (Supreme soul) respectively. The fruitage of the sweet fig tree is a metaphorical description symbolizing the enjoyment of worldly riches. Another instance of hyperbole may be outlined in the Ṛgveda, 4.58.3 as follows: catvāri śṛṅgā trayo asya pādā dve śīrṣe saptahastāso asya I tridhā baddho vṛṣabho roravīti mahodevo martyāṁ āviveśa II (Trivedi,3.627-28). “Four are his horns, three are the feet that bear him; his heads are two, his hands are seven in number. Bound with a triple bond the Steer roars loudly: the mighty God has entered in to mortals” (Tr.Griffith 236). Numerous interpretations have been attempted on these lines. As per Patanjali’s grammatical school of interpretation (Tripathy, 30-33) the viṣayas or the linguistic subjects of description like four types of words (nāma, ākhyāta, upasarga, nipāta), three divisions of time (past, present, future), two characteristics of words (shoṭa - the idea which burst out or flashes on the mind when a sound is uttered, dhvani-suggestion), seven bibhaktis (caseendings),three places of stoppage ( uraḥ-chest, kanṭhaḥ - throat, śīrṣaḥ - head ) have been completely swallowed up by the viṣayins (objects of comparison) like four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands, three stoppages respectively. The roaring of vṛṣabha (the steer) is a metaphorical presentation of the articulated language. But Sāyaṇa interprets the same with reference a symbol of sacrificial imagery where the viṣayas like four Vedas, three savanas (sacrificial libations), two categories of sacrifice (Brahmaudana, Pravargya),seven Vedic metres, three sources of sacrifice (Mantra, Kalpa, Brāhmaṇa) have been replaced respectively by the viṣayins noted supra. So this description completely corresponds to the figure of speech atiśayokti / hyperbole (q.v.). In the hymns to Indra – Agni (Ṛgveda, 6.59.6 cf. Trivedi,4.595) the reader meets with the mystic elements in poetry in the description of Uṣas. The maid (uṣas), the footless has come un to those who have feet. Stretching her head and speaking loudly with her tongue, she has gone downward thirty steps (Griffith 322). The steps here symbolize thirty days of a month. Indra in Soma’s rapture rending the slow steeds of Uṣas with his rapid courserers crushed her car with his thunderbolt (Griffith 140: Ṛgveda,2.15.6). This metaphorically presents the gradual extinction of Uṣas (Dawn) at the advent of the day (Indra / Sun). Thus the above descriptions show that Vedic poets gave birth to elusive nature of symbolic poetry. In Ṛgvedic India people lived a very active and cheerful life and visualized art and beauty in their surroundings as well as in their fellow beings. In this pastoral golden age of poetry the figurative language was drawn from rearing of cattle, lowing of the cows and bull, milk and butter, sword and skin, shipping and gold, gods and music, women and angels, art and nature. The entire environment sans tiger and ficus indica got reflected in poetry (Sastri 281). The original images drawn from these sources give vent to complex human feelings and experiences. The galloping horses of Indra are compared to rivers and at the same time with swiftly moving birds attracted towards the bait: “Speeding like rivers rushing down a steep descent, responsive to the urging call. That come like birds attracted to the bait, held in by reins in both the driver’s hands”(Tr.Griffith 312. C.f. Ṛgveda, 6.46.14). Indra urges charges to the speed of the horses on the toilsome path like falcon, eager for renown (Ṛgveda, 6. 46.13: Trivedi 519). The night and dawn are invoked as gods in human forms: “Night and Dawn lauded, hither come together, both smiling, different are their forms in colour” (Tr. Griffith 162). The hymns are said to be the ships for Aswinas, the heaven is also their wide vessel and their chariot waits on the shore of floods (Griffith 30). Agni is prayed to fulfill the day to day environmental necessity like chariot and boat with moving feet and constant orage (Griffith 97). The thunder-armed Indra is prayed to make the heroes militant with missiles to conquer the embattled foes. With some drinks the belly of Indra swells like ocean in the war. He is prayed to grant excellence of wealth like a ripe branch to the worshipper (Griffith 5). Savitar, the sun-god, is the Vedic god of nature. Born on his golden chariot he comes to take care of every creature and gives rest to both mortals and immortals. The god from the far distances chases from the people all distress and sorrow. In his heroic march his chariot is decked with colors, pearls, golden poles and like a mighty warrior invades and conquers the darksome regions. His white footed horses draw the car and manifest light to all the peoples. The golden handed Savitar goes on his way between earth and heaven. Dispelling gloom the god drives away sickness, the Rākṣasas and Yātudhānas. (Griffith 23-24).

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Uṣas (the early dawn) is the daughter of the sky, who is red-hued, who is also compared to a dappled mare (Griffith 19). Soma-juice is the herbal product of the natural environment. Soma is prayed as a glorious Vedic God to flow on to the singers to enrich them and to drive their enemy away. Again he will send down rain from heaven, a stream of opulence from earth and to grant victory in the war (Griffith 475). Indra, Soma, Savitar, Agni, Uṣas etc. are the natural phenomena personified as Vedic Gods. Poets gave figurative decoration to nature. In the observation of P.S. Sastri : “The moon is a lover and the stars and moon light are his beloveds. Even the sun is a star. The year is a grand wheel and the seasons and months are the spokes. The seasons are twins, and the days and nights are children. Heaven and earth are the grandparents and painters. Day and Night are sisters and lovers. The poets drag in the imagery taken from women, and bequeath a rich poetic heritage” (Sastri 315). The exploits of the weapons of war are seen in the Ṛgveda, 6.75.1-19. Two arms of the bow meeting like a woman and her lover bear their child upon their bosom. Here child is the metaphorical presentation of the arrow. Iṣudhi (quiver) is called the father of many sons and daughters since the word iṣu (arrow) belongs to both masculine and feminine genders. He vanquishes all opposing bands and enemies. Arrow is the personified Vedic deity who is dressed in eagle’s feathers, and bound with cow-hide. She is prayed for shelter and protection in war (Griffith 331). The images of occupations are wrought in poetry. The praises of song for Indra is compared to a well designed chariot (Ṛgveda,161.4-Griffith 40). The new prays offered to Indra is like fair and well-made robes and again it is a car prepared by a deft crafts man (Griffith 249/Ṛgveda,5.29.15). The smelting of the metal by an artisan simultaneously signifies purification and sanctification. The Gods like Angiras are purifying their humanity as the ore is purified by smelting. They enkindle Agni and exalt Indra and come encompassing the stall of cattle (Griffith 201). Gold plays a prominent role in the figurative language of the Vedas. This is also a symbol of prosperity signifying beauty, sanctity and happiness. The God Savitar is gold-eyed and offers treasures to the worshipper. He is golden-handed who offers abundant gold to the worshipper (yajamānebhyo dātuṁ hiraṇyaṁ haste dhṛtavān-sāyaṇa : Trivedi,1.314). Maruts the increaser of rain with golden fellies drive forward the clouds like wanderers on the way and move to the places of sacrifice (Ṛgveda 1.64.11 : Trivedi,1.533). Maruts come with golden footed horses wield thunder and wear swords of gold (Ṛgveda 8.7.27 & 32). The images of animals and birds enrich the poetic comparison of some important gods like Indra, Agni, Sūrya, Dyāus, Viṣṇu, Rudra, Bṛhaspati, Marut etc. They are valorous like bulls. The cloud is a wild boar hunting through the mountains. In the hymn to Viśvedevas the bird image is very much striking: suparṇa eta āsate madhya ārodhanodivaḥ I te sedhanti patho vṛkaṁ tarantaṁ yahvatīrapovittaṁ me asya rodasī II “High in the mid ascent of heaven those Birds of beauteous pinion sit. Back from his path they drive the wolf as he would cross the restless floods”. Sāyaṇa interprets suparṇa as the symbol for rays of the sun and vṛka (wolf) as the symbol for the moon. The light is driving out the moon from the heaven. With the image of birds and animals this may be considered a very wonderful symbolic poem (Tr. Griffith 68 cf. Ṛgveda,1.105.11-Trivedi, 1.714). Maruts are very bright, self strong like mountains and glide swiftly. Assuming strength among the bright flames they consume the forest like wild elephants. Exceedingly wise they roar like lions. All possessing they look very beautiful like antelopes and destroy the foes of the worshippers (Ṛgveda,1.64-7-08 : Trivedi, 1.531). God Soma viewing heaven and earth runs like a darting deer. The cows sing for Soma with joy as a woman to her love (Ṛgveda 9.32.4-5). Asvinas are said to have come to the place of sacrifice like a pair of deer or a pair of wild cattle to the mead (Ṛgveda 5.78.2). God Soma, like a swan, makes all his company to sing his song of glory (Ṛgveda 9.32.3). Asvinas fly to the place of sacrifice like two swans to their place of food/ juice (Ṛgveda, 5.78.3). They are described to reach the distressed Atri with the speed of a falcon (Ṛgveda, 5.78.4). The moon is the purple-tinted Eagle who looks down on the waters (Ṛgveda 10.30.2: Trivedi 7. 506). The bird-imagery (q.v.) symbolizes purity, beauty, loveliness, swiftness with lofty and high soaring ideals of life. Besides, we get images from the useful objects and articles of day to day life. In the hymn to Jñānam it is noted that the men of wisdom have created dignified and purified language like men cleansing corn flour in a scribble. The fruits, blossoms and riches of Vāk (language) are never enjoyed by the ignorant (Ṛgveda 10.71.2 & 5). The god’s supreme and sole dominion, the heaven and earth are mighty mothers, and the cows are the rain clouds. The heavy clouds pour out their fertilizing rain like cows yielding their refreshing milk. As cow is a metaphor for rainclouds, the Bull is the metaphor for Indra, who is Parjanya the god of rain clouds (Griffith 194 c.f. Ṛgveda, 3.55.16-17). It is observed that imagery of the Vedic poets culled from environment are of universal acclaim. They familiarize the unfamiliar and make the personal experience of the poet universal. Vāmana observes the poetry to be the happy marriage of sound and sense realized through figurative speech which is the secret of its charm and lusture (Vāmana, 1.1 & 2 : Jha, Bechan 3 & 6). Ṛgvedic poetry presents the description of the landscape, animation and worship of nature through metaphorical language which sheds light on Vedic life and environment. Winternitz observes that ‘some pearls of lyrical poetry, which are charming by virtue of the beauties of nature’ repeatedly set their mark in the Ṛgvedic songs of love (Winternitz 83). The natural

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environments get humanized forms and at many a point the empirical universe gets transmuted to a spiritual one through imagery. All aspects of human life embraced by imagery reveal that Vedic people experienced pastoral as well as rich urban civilization. Human life was meaningful when linked to the life of nature, and nature cut off from human life and animal-dom was considered meaningless. The day to day articles and utensils like cribble, sword, gold, ship, chariot etc.; the scientific improvisations like smelting of oars, melting of gold etc.; martial and technical systems like spinning, weaving etc. also enriched and influenced imagery which comes through the poetry of the age. Vedic imagery was symbolic and suggestive of ethereal beauty which influenced post-Vedic poets like Asvaghoṣa, Kālidāsa, and Māgha. Such descriptions surpass the spatio-temporal barriers for human communion with the sublime. In post-Ṛgvedic incantations people continue to invoke peace and bliss in the environment, which is relevant even today: dvauḥśāntirantarikṣaṁśāntiḥ pṛthivīśāntirāpaḥśānti roṣadhayaḥṣāntiḥ I vanaṣpatayaḥśāntiḥrviśvedevāḥśantirbrahmaśāntiḥ sarvaṁ śantiḥ, śāntirevaśāntiḥ sā mā śāntiredhi II (Yajurveda 36.17 : Vedantatirtha 466). ‘Let there be balance in the space, let there be balance in the atmospheric region(sky), let there be peace on earth, let there be calmness in waters, let there be preservation of plants, let there be growth in the trees, let there be grace of Gods in the universe, let there be bliss in the Supreme Spirit, let there be balance in all the objects, let there be rule of peace and peace alone, let the peace from all sources dwell in our heart’. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Cuddon, J.A. ed. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary theory, New Delhi: Maya Black Well, 1993. Fogle, Richard Hartor. The Imagery of Keats and Shelly: A comparative study, USA: The university of Carolinapress Chapel Hill, 1949. Griffith, Ralph T.H.(Tr. with popular commentry). ṚgVeda(Ed. J.L. Shastri), Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass publishers pvt Ltd., 2004(Print). Jha, Bechan. ed. Kāvyālamkarasūtra of Vāmana, Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Bhawan, 2013. Jha, Ganganath. ed.&tr. Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammata (with English translation),Delhi: Bharatiya Vidyaprakashan, 2005. Kane, P.V. ed. The Sāhitya Darpaṇa (with Eng. Tr & notes). Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass pvt.ltd.,1995(Print). Sarup, Laksaman. ed & tr. Nighantu Samanvitam Niruktam, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, 2002. Sastri, P. S. Ṛgvedic Aesthetics ,Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 1998. Tripathy,Jaya Shankarlal.ed.Vyakarana-Mahabhasya of Patanjali, Vol.I, Varanasi: Krishnadas Academy, 1989. Trivedi. Ramagovinda. ed. Ṛgveda Saṁhitā. Vol.I,II,III&IV (With Sayana’s commentary and Hindi Tr. by the editor), Varanasi: Chowkhamba Vidyabhawan, 2011. Vedantatirtha, Acharya. ed. Yayurveda, Delhi: Manoj publication, 2014 (Print). Winternitz, Maurice. A History of Indian Literature, vol.I, tr. V.S. Sarma, Delhi : Motilal Banarasidass, 2009.

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Victims wedged in the Vicious Circle of Criminal Justice System: a possible solution, the need to recognize Victims’ Rights as human rights 1,2

Garima Pal1, Tokmem Doming2 Assistant Professor, Symbiosis Law School, Pune, Maharashtra, INDIA

I. Introduction In our Criminal Justice System which is based on Anglo-Saxon adversarial pattern, the victim of crime (who is the witness of the state against the offender) is very often forgotten and neglected. When a citizen commits a crime, he questions the authority of the state. In the process, the focus of the state has shifted from the victim, who has had to suffer loss and injuries to the offender. The victim has been marginalized and the state stands for the victim only to punish and prosecute the offender. This has often discouraged the victims from reporting crimes to the law enforcement authorities. The official crime data published by the government of a state constitute an authenticated source of reported crimes. But scholars in the field of criminology and victimology, during the last four decades have felt that there are clear disadvantages in relying on the official data alone. The volume of reported crimes represents tip of the iceberg and there is a need to find other methods of assessing the true volume of crimes occurring in a society. Many crimes are not reported and many reported crimes are not registered by the police. The attitude of the victims and the public in non-reporting of crimes is not confined to the Indian society but prevails in all societies, though there might be some variations. Most of the researches done, all over the world, are concerned mainly with the crime, and etiology of crime. Victims of crime have hardly been the subject matter of research. There is a lack of a nationwide survey of victimization so far has not been done. The present micro-level attempt is a small step towards the larger goal of nationwide victim survey in future. The present study is conducted with a view of assessing rate of victimization in Delhi and NCR region. Its main objective is to the determine nature and extent of victimization, social response towards law enforcement agencies and attitude and response of law enforcement agencies towards the victims of crime and the second half of the paper will focus on need to recognize victim’s right as human rights. Over the last three and half decades much interest has been developed among the academicians, who have forged ahead to think of a new discipline Victimology. The main focus of the discipline is the victim of crime. In the field of victimology, most of the work has been done as early as in 1937. Benjamin Mandelsohn, the doyen of victimology, has published his first work in the year 1937. His main focus was on the similarities between the victims and the offenders and particularly, on the resistance offered by the rape victims at the time of commission of the offence. In India, the criminal justice system is based on Anglo-Saxon adversarial pattern. In the prevailing criminal justice system of our country, the key assumption is that, it is the primary duty of the state to protect the citizen from any injury, harm to life and property. In this process, the focus of the state has shifted from the victim, who has suffered loss and injuries towards the offender. Criminal law becomes mainly concerned with the accused. It is the civil law, which is supposed to take care of the monetary and other losses suffered by the victim. The victims were marginalized and the state stood for the victim only to punish and prosecute the offender. In the 20th century, there has been far reaching changes regarding the rights of the accused during investigation of the crime, prosecution of the offender and punishment to be imposed in the event of conviction. Statistics on the offenders,(Reference required) details of arrest by the police, release of the criminals from penal institutions are kept, but collection of various aspects of information relating to the victims is often neglected. During 19th and 20th century, some scholars focused on the concept of victims’ role in a criminal situation. In 1940, the concept of victimology came into light. The term “Victimology” was coined by Benjamin Mendelssohn in (1956). According to Mendelssohn, “Victimology” is a science parallel to “Criminology” or reverse of “Criminology”. 1 Other scholars, who contributed in the field of victimology were – Hans Von Henting, who had drawn attention to the role of victims in the causation of the crime and to understand the phenomenon from the victims’ angle. 2 Drapkin and Viano (1973), defined it as “a science dealing with the Benjamin Mendelsohn (1956).” The origin of the Doctrine of Victimology”, Excerpta Criminologica, Vol 3, PP. 239-244, quoted in Allen, Harry E, Friday ,Paul C , Roebuck, Julian B and Sagarin , Edward (1981) , Crime and Punishment – An Introduction to Criminology (Free Press , New York), p.253 2 Hans Van Henting (1979), “The Criminal and His Victim” , (Schocken : New York), in Ibid. 1

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problems of the victims”. During 60s and 70s, concerted international efforts have been made to modify the earlier emphasis in the Criminal Justice system from the perspective of the victim, taking into account his losses and his rights to remedy.3 There has been enormous growth during the last four decades through empirical studies, seminars, conferences and workshops at national and international level. Thus, victimology began to embrace a more compassionate view of the victims. In England, the penal reformer, Margery Fry, in 1955, started a movement 4 for the recognition of victims of crime, deserving more effective remedies than the traditional practices of winning a civil suit. There is also an increasing demand for victim participation in the sentencing process. This was associated with the studies, which documented the victim’s alienation from the criminal justice process. II. International Perspective Von Henting in his book "The Criminal and his Victim" (1948) emphasised the demographic and the personality characteristics of the individuals, who are more susceptible to criminal victimisation than others or there are other characteristics which may contribute to their own victimization. On similar lines, in the year 1955, Ellen Berger, a psychiatrist by profession, developed the ideas of Mendelsohn and Von Hentings and suggested that there is likely to be psychological bond between the victim and the offender, which may contribute in bringing about their own victimisation. Another classic study needs to be mentioned is that of the Marvin Wolfgang in "Patterns of Criminal Homicide", in the year 1958, published exactly after 10 years. The study shows that in approximately one fifth of the homicides in Philadelphia, the victims may have precipitated their own victimisation. It may be pointed out here that Wolfgangs work gave support or justification for the ideas put forward by the pioneer writers in the field of crime-victim studies and the role of victims in the perpetration of crime. Gradually, a growing number of countries have initiated victimisation service to assess national or local crime problems. Such surveys ask representative samples of the general public about selected offences they may have experienced over a given time. The resulting victimization rates constitute a better indicator of the level of crime than the number of crimes reported to and recorded by the police. If the research methodology used is standardized, surveys also offer a new opportunity for the collection of crime statistics that can be used for cross-country comparative purposes. III. USA Survey The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEEA) in the US and the United States Bureau of the Census (USBC) in the year 1973 began a continuing series of victimisation surveys. The survey reports and annual reports provide information on the extent of victimisation for selected crimes and bring out year by year changes, and specialised reports on topics such as public attitudes about crime and costs of victimisation (Report of the US Department of Justice, 1977). The methodology used to conduct these surveys has been much criticised, but the result of these continuing researches are the best source of data regarding criminal victimisation in the USA. The United States has the longest and the most extensive experience with the surveys of citizens, inquiring about their sufferings from crime. Under sponsorship of the LEAA of the Department of Justice, the Bureau of Census has been continuously testing the questions and the survey methods. The National Crime Survey (NCS) now surveys every six months predecided number of households (Nattler, 1984). On the heels of this, a proposal to conduct International Victimisation Survey was launched by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (DECD) in the 1970s. First, the pilot surveys were organised in the USA, the Netherlands, and Finland. A meeting of the Standing Committee of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe was held in the year 1987 in Barcelona. In this meeting, a working group was created and started developing the survey methodology and questionnaire (Van Digk, Mayhem and Killias, 1970). The impact of crime on the victims and their families range from serious physical and psychological injuries to mild disturbances. The Canadian Centre of Justice Statistics states that about one third of violent crimes resulted in victims having their day-to-day activities disrupted for a period of one day (31%), while in 27% of incidents, the disruption lasted for two to three days (Aucoin & Beauchamp, 2007). In 18% of cases, victims could not attend to their routine for more than two weeks. A majority of incidents caused emotional impact (78%), irrespective of the type of victimization. Overall, victims felt less safe than non-victims. For example, only a smaller proportion of violent crime victims (37%) reported feeling very safe walking alone after dark than non-victims (46%). Just less than one-fifth (18%) of women who had been victims of violence reported feeling very safe walking alone after dark when compared to their male counterparts. In 1976, the USA took lead in conducting National Victimization Surveys. They were conducted both in rural and urban areas, which have proved to be of immense use in assessing the volume of the crime and enabled the researcher to compare the data with official statistics. IV. Indian Perspective Despite the fact that law enforcement officers and social scientists in India have been admitting in academic and other forums that the actual volume of crime is considerably greater than what is reported in official crime

3 4

Drapkin, I. and Viano, E. (1973) “Victimology: A New Focus, Lexington, D.C. Health & Co., London. Penal Reform League 1921

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statistics, prior to 1992 no victimization survey has been conducted in the country. In 1992, Dr. Dr. D.R. Singh of Tata Institute of Social Sciences has done one study restricted to Bombay only. One of the recommendations of the victim survey conducted in Bombay was that victimization surveys must be conducted on a regular basis in order to obtain a more precise data of crime. The main focus of the victimization survey conducted in Mumbai was on perception of the common man towards crime and law enforcement agencies. Some limited studies have been conducted mainly focusing on certain issues. The Bureau of Police Research and Development under Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India had done a study on Victims of Some Violent Crimes (1993): A Study in Victimology. The main objective of the study was to rectify imbalances in the policies of criminal Justice system and in creating separate institutional arrangements to guarantee a fair deal to the victims in the Criminal Justice Process. The Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS), had undertaken two crime victim surveys. One with respect to homicide victims in Bangalore and Delhi and the second with respect to those killed in motor vehicle accidents in Delhi. These two surveys yielded a rich harvest of data. They indicated that majority of the cases of homicides are single–assailant and single victim phenomena, committed during the evening hours by using sharp-edged weapons. The proportion of homicide victims belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is higher than their census proportion. Most of the victims were bread-winners for their families and belonged to lower and middle – income groups. In 88 per cent of homicides in Bangalore and 58 per cent in Delhi, victims and offenders had prior interaction. The police have not been responsive to the emotional trauma of the victims and the latter nurse a sense of grievance against the police. Further, majority of these families face acute financial crisis by losing their bread-winners. Not many individuals and volunteer organizations had come forward to help the distressed families. Apparently, people in the two cities are not insurance conscious. Only a small proportion of the victims had life insurance cover of varying values. Only a negligible number of victims have been provided relief by the government. Studies on “Victims of Dacoit gangs in Chambal valley”, by Singh (1978) 5 , “Impact of Criminal Justice System on Society”, by Rao and Singh (1981)6 and “Some personal and situational aspects of rape victimization”, by Bajaj, Joshi and Krishna (1963) were also conducted. In August 1992, a forum was founded to discuss the problems of victims to disseminate knowledge and awareness of the plight of crime victims and to mobilize support for creating a new law for victims. The name of the organization was the Indian Society of Victimology, and it was located in the University of Madras. In 1984, for the first time in India, an exclusive three-day Seminar on Victimology was organized involving researchers and academics.7 After 1990, the Department began to offer Victimology as one of the courses for its Master's degree in Criminology and many students took interest and opted to study the subject of Victimology. Many students, who joined for doctoral research worked on victim related topics such as Fear of Crime Victimization, Rape Victims, Sexual Harassment of Women Victims, Victims of Human Rights Violations etc. to mention a few, earned their doctoral degrees from the University of Madras. Besides, many Master's degree students in Criminology also did projects on victimology topics and made empirical investigations adding to the victimology literature. Another study done by Prof. K. Chockalingham 8 in four major cities in southern India focused on three areas: - the extent of criminal victimization, the reporting behaviour of victims and victim’s perception of police behaviour. The conclusions drawn from the study were as follows:- many crimes go unreported , secondly, crimes, which are mostly reported, are cases where there is material loss or damage and finally, the victims are not satisfied by the behaviour of police personnel. All the study was followed by the famous Justice malimath Committee report on Victims’ Right (which has been discussed in later part of this research paper). Before deliberating on further rights of victim the authors would be presenting a brief statistics of crime committed in Delhi and NCR Region and the responses of the law enforcement agencies and victims trapped in vicious circle of criminal justice system.9 Nature of Crime

Nature

Percentage

Personal theft

Burglary/ robbery

Crime on person

No response

1 104

Total

D. R. Singh & D.P. Krishna, “Compensation to the Victims of Dacoit gangs in the Chambal Valley”, Indian Journal of Criminology, Vol 8 (1) (1980) PP. 21-80 6 V.G. Rao and D.R. Singh, “Impact of Criminal Justice System on Society, Indian Institute of Public Administration,(1981) New Delhi 7 K. Chockalingam, “Problems of Victims of crime and their families, in readings in Victimology, Raviraj Publications, Chennai (1985) 8 K. Chockalingam, “Victimisation Survey in Four Major Cities in Tamil Nadu-a Research Project, Report Submitted to the University Grants Commission, New Delhi.(2001) 9 This study is based on Empirrical research conducted in collaboration with NHRC Delhi 5

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Nature of Crime PERSONAL THEFT

BURGLARY/ ROBBERY

CRIME ON PERSON

NO RESPONSE 1%

22%

14%

63%

The basic principles of justice for victims of crime are that the victims should be treated with compassion and respect. They are entitled to access the mechanisms of justice and prompt redressal of the harm that they have suffered. But in most cases, proper care and consideration was not provided to the victims at the police station level. This section of the report provides some insights in to victimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences with law enforcement personnel. Table 1 reveals the status regarding reporting of crime to the law enforcement agencies. 51% of the total 578 respondents said that they did not report the crime suffered by them to the police. Only 45% mentioned that they had visited the police stations and reported the crime to the police. Table 1:Status Regarding Reporting of Crime to police Crime reported to police Yes No No response Total

Percentage 45 51 4 100

When asked about the reasons for not reporting the incidence of crime to the police, lack of trust in law enforcement agencies came as the first reason for not reporting the crime to the police, as 39% of the total number of respondents mentioned this reason. Fear of going to the police station (19%) is another vital cause of not reporting the crime to the police. Lack of awareness was also another important factor for non-reporting of crime as 26% respondents cited this reason. 12% cited shame and stigma as the reason for not reporting the crime to the police and 6% mentioned lack of access to the police station as the reason for not reporting the crime to the police. 10% of the respondents refrained from giving any response to the question posed to them. About 1 per cent of the respondents cited other reasons which included lack of time, physical absence or lack of proper documents like license etc. for not approaching the police to report the crime. Table 2: Reasons for not reporting incidence of crime to police Reasons Fear of going to police Shame and stigma Lack of trust in law enforcement Lack of awareness Lack of access Others No response Total

Percentage 19 12 39 26 6 1 10 100

Delay in registering any case is a major factor, which compels the victim to shy away from police station. 29% respondents mentioned that there was delay on the part of the police in registering the case where as 57% replied in the negative. Table 33 below highlights this point. Even here, 14 percent responded neither way. Table 3: Status regarding delay by police in registering the case Delay by police Yes No No response Total

Percentage 29 57 14 100

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Delay by Police

14% 29% YES NO NO RESPONSE 57%

Of the respondents, who mentioned that there was delay in registering the case by the police, 45% informed that police were not interested in registering the case, 15% complained that the police gave lame excuses like being busy with other activities. 13% felt that the police were influenced by the culprits. 25 percent of the respondents gave various reasons such as incompetence of the police, lack of evidence, demand for bribe and inability of the police to take action despite repeated phone calls, etc. Table 34 and a pie chart given below highlight these aspects. Table 4: Reasons for delay by police in registering the case Reasons Police were not interested in registering the case Busy with other activities Influenced by culprits Others No response Total

Percentage 45 15 13 25 12 110

Reasons for Delay by Police POLICE NOT INTERESTED

BUSY WITH OTHER ACTIVITIES

INFLUENCED BY CULPRITS

OTHERS

NO RESPONSE

11%

41% 23%

12% 13%

Table 5: Status regarding police intimating about the progress of the cases Intimation of police Yes No No response Total

Percentage 24 63 13 100

The graph below is also representing the intimation by police about the progress of the cases.

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Intimation by Police about Progress of the Case YES

NO RESPONSE 0%

13% 24%

63%

Experience with Court: Perception about Judicial System The judiciary, one of the important segments of the criminal justice system, has equal responsibility in protecting and upholding the rights of the victims. This section of the report throws some light on the victimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceptions on the functioning of the judiciary in upholding the rights and helping the cause of the victims. When asked to the respondents whether their cases have gone to the court for trial, most of them (71%) said no, 20% gave no response. Only 9 percent of the respondents said that their cases have gone for trial in the courts. The data were given in the table below. Table 6: Status regarding cases going for court trial Trial in court Yes No No response Total

Percentage 9 71 20 100

Respondents were also asked to indicate how many times they visited the courts for attending the trial of their cases. According to the table no.44, five to ten visits to court is the common trend for victims (30%) to attend the trial of their cases. 26% said that they visited the courts about 10 to 15 times and equal percentage of the respondents i.e. 26% said they visited the courts only twice to attend the trial of their cases. Table 7: Number of visits to courts by victims for trial Number Twice 5 times 5-10 times 10-15 times 15-20 times More than 20 times No response Total

Percentage 26 9 30 26 0 0 9 100

Reacting to the question on the perception about services provided by the prosecutors and judges, 26% rated the behaviour as cooperative, 30% felt it was sympathetic and 26% rated the behaviour as indifferent (Table 8). Table 8: Perceptions about services provided by prosecutors/ judges Perception Cooperative Non-cooperative Sympathetic Indifferent Intimidating Abusive No response Total

Percentage 26 9 30 26 0 0 9 100

The respondents were also asked to rate the services provided by the courts. A mixed response came out of it as 35% said unsatisfactory and 35% said satisfactory. However, 17% of the respondents rated the service provided by the courts as very good. (Table no. 9)

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Table 9: Rating of services provided by courts Rating Very bad Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good Very good No response Total

Percentage 0 35 35 9 17 4 100

Based on the above responses, when asked, whether the respondents were satisfied about the progress and outcome of the trial, 48% of the respondents, whose cases have gone to the courts for trial mentioned that they were satisfied with the outcome of the cases and equal percentage of respondents were not satisfied with the outcome as shown in table no. 10. Table 10: Status regarding victimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; satisfaction about progress and outcome of trial Satisfaction Yes No No response Total

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Percentage 48 48 4 100

V. FINDINGS Majority of the victims belonged to Hindu religion. Among the minority communities, most of the victims belonged to Islamic religion. Victims belonging to minority communities feel that police are biased against minority communities and tend to behave rudely with them. Very less number of females reporting crime due to fear of being victimized. Females are more vulnerable to sexual crimes as compared to males. Majority belonged to a strata of lower income. People between the age group of 20-40 yrs have experienced more crimes. The reason could be they are more mobile and so more vulnerable to victimization. Most of the people never even thought of reporting crimes such as pick pocketing and chain snatching to the police. Even if they report such crimes to the police, the victims never expect that police will be able to recover the stolen items. Of the total respondents, surveyed 51 per cent never reported the crime to the police. When reporting patterns of males and females were compared, it was observed that majority of women avoid reporting the crime occurred to them to the police. Majority of the people, irrespective of the nature of the crime, sex of the offender etc, do not like to share their traumatic experiences of crime with strangers. It could be observed during the survey that people accompanying the victims really intend to assist the victims. Their services include calling the police, providing food, water etc. or medical aid. In urban areas, educated people hailing from middle and higher income groups are well aware of the legal procedures to be followed while reporting the cases to the police. On the other hand, uneducated people belonging to lower income groups, and people living in rural areas lack awareness. They even lack access to the police. Though in some cases the victims acknowledged and appreciated that some police personnel had been helpful but in general there was lack of trust in the law enforcement agencies. People do not repose confidence in law enforcement personnel. In their perception the law enforcement personnel seek bribes, function under the influence and pressure of politicians, sometimes under the influence of rich and otherwise more powerful culprits. Among the 578 people surveyed, 39 % expressed lack of trust in law enforcement, 26 per cent mentioned lack of awareness, 19 per cent reported fear of going to the police and 12 per cent mentioned shame and stigma as reasons for not reporting the crime to the police It has been observed that police treat the victim properly in metros like Delhi and its neighbouring places; however when it comes to delivering results, they fail badly.(refer tables 36,37,38,39) In majority of the cases, the police fail to catch the culprit. In most of the cases, they never even bother to inform the victims about the progress of investigation. Most of the time, the victims are not satisfied with the court proceedings. Majority of cases do not reach the trial stage. Very often, the victims are unhappy about the outcome of the cases as in most of the cases, the victims feel that justice has not been done to them. In majority of cases that go to trial in courts, the proceedings take inordinately long time and victims have to make a number of infractus visits to the court. However in few cases, where trial has been completed, majority of the victims rated the court officialsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behaviour as sympathetic and cooperative.

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16. 17. 18.

Of the few victims, whose cases have gone to courts felt satisfied by the outcome of the cases and services rendered by the courts. Though there is a chance of recurrence of crime at home yet the victims are not scared to stay alone at home. Many respondents were quite reluctant in answering interviewers’ questions, as they felt such surveys are futile efforts

VI. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the survey, the following actionable recommendations are made to protect the rights of the victims and to provide justice to them. Suggestions and Recommendations: 1. Need to Recognised Victims’ Rights as Human Rights in harmonization with international norms 2. All victim assistance providers and policy makers should properly understand the impact of victimization with a view to promoting understanding of the need for assistance to the victims. It has to be borne in mind that the goal of the victim assistance programme is to assist victims in dealing with emotional trauma suffered by them and cope with the problems associated with victimization. 3. There is a prime need for proper sensitization of the law enforcement agencies as well as other functionaries of the criminal justice system. It has been noticed that sometimes law enforcement personnel display racial and ethnic biases in investigating crimes and dealing with victims of crime. Hence concerned agencies have to take urgent steps to educate and sensitize the field staff so that they can overcome biases and frozen attitudes. 4. Police officers, as well as court officers, should also know the developments in the field of justice and service to the victims. At present, many of them are blissfully ignorant of the international developments in the field of victimology. Seminars, workshops and training programs highlighting the need for justice to victims should be held to create this awareness . 5. The present survey also spotlights the need for change in the patriarchal mindset of the law enforcement personnel. Many of them with a strong patriarchal mindset lack sensitivity to deal sympathetically with the victims of crime. About 6 per cent of the total respondents of the survey perceived the behaviour of the police as intimidating and abusive(refer to table 37). Hence, there is an urgent need to instil in them a human rights culture and help them to develop a sympathetic attitude, particularly, towards female victims. Some of the habitually abusive officers have to be pulled up. 6. The survey also highlighted that certain crimes take place in certain localities during certain hour. Alert patrolling, and focussed surveillance in those affected spots will reduce crime and instil confidence among the residents. This will also help the police to round up criminals and potential criminals. Of the 578 respondents surveyed, 35 per cent were victims of pick pocketing/bag snatching, 36 per cent reported as the victims of mobile phone theft, followed by vehicle theft (14%), vehicle accessories theft (13% ) and chain snatching (12%). The survey also showed that the victims suffer not only physically and financially but also remain haunted by the fear the crime. This, in turn affects their lifestyle and activities. Hence, frequent interaction between the police and residents as well as community policing initiatives to control crime and criminals can be useful. 7. There is a need to create greater awareness among common public regarding the rules and procedures to be followed when a crime occurs. The survey revealed that of 578 respondents, 26 per cent of the respondents mentioned lack of awareness as the main reason for not reporting crime to the police. They simply have no clues about what is to be done. Another 6 per cent mentioned lack of access as the reason for not reporting and it was also noticed that many respondents initially thought that the crime that occurred may not be worth reporting. Thus, there is an urgent need to educate public and create among them a greater awareness of what is to be done and how to seek help of the police, whenever a crime occurs. 8. Some of the police officers interviewed during the survey pointed out that cases are not registered because the complainants fail to establish the ownership of the lost or stolen items by producing cash memos, bills etc and , hence police do not register cases. Again, in crimes involving kidnapping or body assault etc, police have to make some preliminary enquiries before coming to a conclusion. This plea of the police is unsustainable .If the report submitted by the victim makes out a cognisable case, the police will have to register a FIR. They cannot take the plea that FIR will be registered only after completing a preliminary enquiry. This is not permissible under the law. 9.

Justice for Rape Victims: The complainants of sexual assault cases should be provided with a victim’s Advocate, who is well acquainted with the CJS to explain to the victim the proceedings, and to assist her in the police station

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10.

11.

and in Court and to guide her as to how to avail of psychological counselling or medical assistance from other agencies; (ii) Legal assistance at the police station while she is being questioned; (iii) The police have to inform the victim of his/her right to be represented by a lawyer before any questions are asked and the police report should state that the victim was so informed; (iv) A list of advocates willing to act in these cases should be kept at the police station for victims, who need a lawyer; (v) The advocate shall be appointed by the Court, in order to ensure that victims are questioned without undue delay; (vi) In all rape trials, anonymity of the victims has to be maintained; (vii) It is necessary, with regard to the Directive Principles contained under Art. 38 (1) of the Constitution of India, to set up a Criminal Injuries Compensation Board. Rape victims frequently incur substantial financial loss. Some, for example, are too traumatized to continue in employment; (viii) Compensation for the victims shall be awarded by the Court on conviction of the offender or by the Criminal Injuries Compensation Board whether or not a conviction has taken place. The Board will take into account the pain, suffering and shock as well as loss of earnings due to pregnancy and the expenses of childbirth as a result of the rape. The survey also revealed that victims are treated shabbily in the courts. Cases get frequently adjourned and victims are not kept informed. Victims have to repeatedly come to the courts for deposition incurring financial losses and hardship. In the courts of law also, officials often cold shoulder them. In many cases, victims are not happy with court experiences. The UN Handbook on Justice for Victims also states that “the dignity and healing of victims depends on the respect and assistance extended to them by the professionals and others who come in contact with them. These include the police and other law enforcement personnel, prosecutors, victims’ advocates, legal aid providers, judges, correctional personnel, medical staff, mental health providers, elected officials, ombudsmen, spiritual leaders, civil organizations, traditional leaders, the media and others.” This ideal remains unrealised, Victims feel disgruntled and frustrated. There is a need for implementing the schemes of victim compensation. Under Section 357A, through an amendment of Criminal Procedure Code, there is now provision of compensation to crime victims. There is also need for introducing government schemes towards victim support and services. Needless to point out, that compared to many other countries. India is lagging behind in the way of comprehensive forms of victim assistance schemes. We should also think of devising concrete mechanisms of victim justice. In many developed countries, advocates of the victims are continuously pushing for victim helplines, victim special officers, baby sitters, counselling and referral services to other concerned agencies and providing transport facilities to and from courts etc. Such facilities are not existing in India. Time has come to gradually introduce these facilities.

VII. Need to recognized victim’s right as human rights Human rights are basic rights which is inherent in a person by virtue of his birth without which a human would not be able to develop to its full potential. The major characteristics of human rights are Universality, Inherentness, Indivisible and Inalienability. The characteristics gives a very clear understanding of human rights. By universality we mean that such rights apply to all human beings wherever they are, by inherent we mean rights are intrinsic to being human and codifications are not required to validate such rights. The fact that Human rights are interdependent and interrelated and one cannot prioritize one right without affecting another makes it indivisible and finally the inalienable nature of rights prescribes that human rights cannot be taken away. Post world war II, the notion of human rights concept developed and the world community has consented towards a need for Universal recognition of such rights. A very important International development led to the creation of UDHR 1948. The UN created a Commission on Human Rights, which wrote the UDHR. (IGNATIEFF 2001). The heart of UDHR is declaration of Moral Individualism and respect for human dignity. The UDHR consist of all rights related to human, though it does not define victim perse but several articles do state “every one charged with a penal offence” The basic rights provides for a fair trial and related rights. The core of UDHR is to respect dignity of human which generates a proposition why can vicctim’s right be recognized as a human rights. Victim’s Rights Rights empowers the powerless. Inorder to address and improve the plights of victim the UN General Assembly in 1985 adopted The UN Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power-(1)1985, - the Declaration recognized the following rights of the victims of crime:-

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Access to justice and fair treatment- this right includes access to the mechanisms of justice and prompt redress, right to proper assistance throughout the legal process and right to protection of privacy and safety. Right to be treated with respect and dignity. 2. Restitution- including return of property or payment for the harm or loss suffered; where public officials or other agents have violated criminal laws, the victims should receive restitution from the state. 3. Compensation- when compensation is not fully available from the offender or other sources, the state should provide financial compensation at least in respect of violent crimes, resulting in bodily injury, for which national funds should be established. 4. Assistance- victims should receive necessary material, medical, psychological and social assistance through governmental, voluntary and community- based means. Police, justice, health and social service personnel should receive training in this regard 10 The general assembly lamented victim’s rights not be recognized adequately. The main aim of the declaration is “to assist Governments and the international community in their efforts to secure justice and assistance for victims of crime and victims of abuse of power.” The right to assistance has been granted in order to make the victims aware about the criminal justice system and their role in it. An instance is right to receive notification about the progress of the case, another si right to express their views and and concerns at appropriate stages in the criminal justice process and one of the most important rights based on compensatory justice has also been recognized. However, the UN Declaration of 1985 is non-binding. This declaration is a vivid instance of International law being a soft law. The Provisions in declarations guides the Government and is there is non-applcation of the provisions, no liability can be imposed on the Governments making the declaration a subject to scholarly criticism. After a decade in 1995, the UN conducted a survey to assess its implementation. The results mirrored that very few nations have amended their justice system in accordance with the declaration. (Groenhuijsen, 1999) Similar Findings were shown by the Malimath Committee and Study conducted. It was only in the year 2008, in India that Victims were recognized under Criminal procedure code of 1973 UNDER SECTION 357 which provides for compensation to victims. A very interesting provision in the UN declaration is Article 3 which states that Victim’s have a rights to “express their views and concerns at appropriate stages of the criminal justice procedure, when their personal interests are concerned”. This article raises a question as to what are the appropriate stages for intervention by the victim which is left unanswered because of the abstract nature of the declaration. The idea of viewing victims through a human right lens has its root as early as in 1985. Robert Elias argused for a “Victimology of Human Rights” Elias warned that victimologists risked becoming pawns of abusive governments if they limit their object of study to victims of crime. Instead, he argued, victimologists should study all man -made victimizations, which includes crimes as well as gross violations of human rights such as genocide, torture and slavery. Hence, while Elias proposed that human rights violations should be included in the field of victimology, he did not see crime as a violation of the victims’ rights11 Another legal scholar Sam Garwake argues that Victim;s Rights are in fact human rights. He argues that the poor treatment of victims should be viewed as a matter of human rights protection. He also proposed for a formation of UN Convention on Victims Rights (2005) introducing a monitoring mechanism of victim’s rights. He porposed that while dealing with victims right state must move away with the welfare approach and instead adopte the right based approach. 12 Another effort is by the European Nations. The European Convention of Human Rights has encouraged national law makers and the judiciary to consider victim’s rights as a form of human rights. The introduction of Human Rights Act in the UK is a good instance were the laws relating to human rights has been upheld. It offers the victims of convention the recourse in national courts in UK. The law enforcememnt agency, the court and the fuctionaries of criminal justice system are under as per the convention and respect their human rights. 13 VIII. Mallimath Committee on Victims of Crime The Committee on Reforms of the Criminal Justice System was constituted under the Chairmanship of Justice V.S. Malimath, former Chief Justice of Karnataka and Kerala High Courts, by the Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs by its order dated 24 November, 2000, to consider measures for revamping the 10

Adopted by UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 40/34 of November 29, 1985

Sam Garkawe, “Victims rights are Human rights” 20th anniversary celebration of the 1985 UN Victim Declaration, Canberra, 16 th November 2005 13 Doak, “Victim’s Rights and criminal justice” 2008 12

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Criminal Justice System. In the Report, submitted by the committee, a chapter has been included on justice to victims, details of which are as following: IX. Justice to Victims of Crime Referring to the state of criminal justice in India today, the Government Notification constituting the Criminal Justice Reforms committee observed: People by and large have lost confidence in the Criminal Justice System. Victims feel ignored and are crying for attention and justice ….. There is need for development of a cohesive system, in which, all pats work in coordination to achieve the common goal. Very early, in the deliberations of the Committee, it was recognized that victims do not get at present the legal rights and protection they deserve to play their just role in criminal proceedings which tend to result in disinterestedness in the proceedings and consequent distortions in criminal justice administration. In every interaction, the Committee had with the police, the Judges, the prosecution and defences lawyers, jail officials and the general public, this concern for victims was quite pronounced and a view was canvassed that unless justice to the victim is put as one of the focal points of criminal proceedings, the system in unlikely to restore the balance as a fair procedure in the pursuit of truth. Furthermore, it was pointed out that support and cooperation of the witnesses will not be forthcoming unless their status is considerably improved along with justice to victims. This perception was strengthened while the Committee examined the systems prevalent in other jurisdictions. The U.N. system also wanted member countries to guarantee rights of victims of crime through their respective legal systems. In the circumstances, the Committee resolved to give adequate importance to the idea of justice to victims of crime in the scheme of reform to be recommended. This chapter of the report specifically addressed the rights of victims with a view to obtaining their maximum support to criminal proceedings and to restore the confidence of people in Criminal Justice System. Using the Human rights structure we can identify specifics rights of victims that are substantive and procedural. Deliberating over the nature of substantive right, any crime in which a victim is trapped can be a violation of his “right to liberty and security of person provided in article 3 of UDHR, violation of right to property under Article 17 of UDHR, violation of dignity and respectable treatment provided in Article 1 of UDHR and violation of Article 21 of Indian Constitution that provides for Right to live a dignified life. A victim is entitled to this right by virtue of being recognized as a moral and legal person.14 Article 6 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights states “everyone has the right ti recognition everywhere as a person before the law”, by virtue of this provision victim’s participation and rights in procedural laws are validated. As per this provision victims are not only viewed as evidence but also as a person possessing personal, individual and independent stand in a criminal trial.15 Victims’ rights, like human rights, are only meaningful if they confer entitlements as well as obligations on people. Otherwise, they are not rights and they will ultimately fail to empower victims. Legal protection of rights is necessary in order to defend victims’ rights (Kilpatrick, Beatty, Smith Howley, 1998). It is the ability to exercise our rights, using our free will and rational choice, which gives meaning to the notion of ‘human dignity.’ Without this ability, victims will remain voiceless objects of the criminal justice system who are forced to forfeit their individual human rights in the interest of the society.16 X. Towards a concluding beginning It will be perhaps useful to have a comprehensive survey on crime victims in different regions of the country. A large scale survey can provide a wealth of details on demographic characteristics of the crime victims, including, whether the offender was known to the victim. Such a study will contribute towards accepting victims as an integral part of the Criminal Justice Administration and help in developing pragmatic policies towards victim justice through involvement of the government and voluntary agencies. This will bring the forgotten victims in the centre stage of our Criminal Justice System. The above study reflects the state dominating the power in the criminal justice process which contributes in silencing the victims and depicting them as mere witnesses. This approach fails to recognize the reality of victims: They directly experienced the crime and, as such, it constitutes a violation of their human rights. The victims’ movement has introduced victims’ rights in an effort to improve the plight of victims. However, up until now it has stopped short of viewing them as human rights. It is time to move victims’ rights to the next level. We need to acknowledge the victim as a person before the law with rights and privileges.

Jack Donnelly, “Universal Human Rights in theory and in Practice” Cornell University Press, (2003) S. Walther, “Victims’ Rights: Procedural and Constitutional Principles for Victims, 2011 participation in Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Victim Participation in Justice: International Perspectives, Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press 99. 97-111 16 JO-Anne Wemmers, “Victims rights are Human Rights: the Importance of recognizing victims as pewrsons”, 2012 available online at http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/1450-6637/2012/1450-66371202071W.pdf 14 15

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

CORRELATION BETWEEN FEMALE LITERACY AND CHILD SEX RATIO IN SATARA DISRTICT (MAHARASHTRA): A GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS. Dr. T. P. Shinde Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Mudhoji College, Phaltan, Dist. – Satara, Maharashtra, India Abstract: Female Literacy and Child Sex Ratio are two important demographic characteristics of population. Female literacy plays a very important role in upliftment of the sex ratio. (Keshwa, 2013).Literacy is considered as one of the most important social aspects of any society’s development,especially of rural area and it denotes essential criterion of human development. It indicates the socio cultural states of any society, in any geographical unit and change in literacy reflects the socio-cultural and economic transformation of the society. Literacy is a essential for eradicating poverty and mental isolation for cultivating peaceful and friendly international relations and for permitting the play of demographic process (Chandna, 1980&Krishan, 1978). In the present paper an attempt has been made to bring out the the correlation of Female Literacy and Child Sex Ratio in satara district.(2011) The study is based on primary and secondary data.. Key wards: Literacy, Child Sex ratio, Correlation, Co-efficient Index, Tahsil, District. I. Introduction Female Literacy and Child Sex Ratio are two important demographic characteristics of population. Female literacy plays a very important role in upliftment of the sex ratio. (Keshwa, 2013).Literacy is considered as one of the most important social aspects of any society’s development, especially of rural area and it denotes essential criterion of human development. It indicates the socio cultural states of any society, in any geographical unit and change in literacy reflects the socio-cultural and economic transformation of the society. Literacy is a essential for eradicating poverty and mental isolation for cultivating peaceful and friendly international relations and for permitting the play of demographic process (Chandna, 1980&Krishan, 1978). In the present paper an attempt has been made to bring out the correlation ofFemale Literacy and Child Sex Ratio in Satara District (2011). The study is based on primary and secondary data. II. Study regions Satara District is one of the most popular district of Maharashtra. Satara District is located in thesouth western part of Maharashtra, lies between 17° 5’ to 18° 11’ north latitudes and 73° 33’ to74° 54’ East longitudes (Fig. no.1 Fig. 1

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III. Objectives The present paper has main objectives are fallows. 1. To trace the Spatial Pattern of female literacy rate in Satara district. 2.To examine the Spatial Pattern of Child sex ratio in Satara district 3. To analyze the correlation between spatial pattern of female literacy and child sex ratio of study region. IV. Database and Methodolgy The present study is based on the secondary data. The Secondary data obtained from the records ofcensus of India (2011). And Socio-economic abstract of Satara District (2011)The spatial Pattern of sex ratio and literacy in Satara district is shown by different graphs and maps. Literacy rate been computed for the population above 6 year. For analysis of the correlation of female literacy and child ratio the Karl pearasns correlation Spatial Pattern of female Literacy Rate in Satara Districts: Sr.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Tehsil Mahabaleshwar Wai Khandala Phaltan Man Khatav Koregaon Satara Jaoli Patan Karad

Female Literacy in % 75.56 79.57 79.05 74.74 64.06 73.25 80.89 84.23 71.57 66.86 78.66

Satara District as a74.10 percent literacy in 2011 .The spatial distribution of female literacy is uneven through the district. The tehsil wise literacy rate has been computed in to three categories with the help of statistical techniques. For showing tehsil wise variation in female literacy in study area. High rate of Female literacy region High Literacy Rate above 75 percent are included in the tehsils namely Mahabaleshwer.Wai, Khanadala, koregaon,Satara and Karad due to availability of educational facilities, high urbanization development of transport and communication. Moderaterate of Female literacy region The teshils which have literacy rate lies between 70-75per cent are included in this Category.Moderate rate of Female literacy was recorded Phaltan, Khatav and Jaolitesils due to Moderate educational facilities Low rate of Female literacy region The teshils which have literacy rate below 70 per cent is low female literacy region .This region includes man and patan tehsils due to lack of educational facilities Spatial Pattern of Child Sex Ratio: Sr.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Tehsil Mahabaleshwar Wai Khandala Phaltan Man Khatav Koregaon Satara Jaoli Patan Karad

ChildSex Ratio (0-6yes) 921 909 883 864 886 892 911 889 935 947 880

High Child Sex Ratio: High level of Child Sex Ratio (920) includes in the tehsils namely Mahabaleshwer, Jaoli ,Patan and Wai due to discrimination against girl child is not strong inthese district ,lesser accessibility, less availabity of medical facilities and awareness about .scanning centers may be the main reasons, which are responsible of high child sex ratio in these teshils ModerateChild Sex Ratio: Moderate child Sex Ratio (920-880) has recorded in the tehsil of Khandala, man and Kathav.It is because of shortage of clinic, low literacy rate and not well transport system are main reasons ,which are responsible for moderate child sex ratio in these teshils.Koregaon and Satara

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Low Child Sex Ratio Low child Sex Ratio (less than 880) has recorded phaltan and Karad due to easily available of medical facilities and awareness about scanning centers the patriarchal system is very strong and rapid growth of pre-natal diagnostic test center has added to decline of child ratio. Correlation between Literacyand Sex ratio: Correlation between child sex ratio and female literacy in Satara District. Spearman s rankcorrelation is measure of relationship between two variatiables using the ranking data. The correlation between child sex ratio and female literacy is -0.46.it is a moderate negative correlation.The child sex ratio and female literacy have moved opposite direction in satara district. The child sex ratio and female literacy in tehsil the sex ratio has been found to be highest is tehsil, which have low female literacy. Most back word region of the district, Man and Patan tehsils, has registered female literacy of (64% & 66%). But it has the highest child sex ratio 888and 945 . V. Conclusions Present study found that there are regional disparities in distribution of the child sex ratio and Satara tehsil has highest female literacy rate of 84%f followed by koregaon, Wai and karad .Due to people are matured and discrimination against girl child is not Strong in these tehsil. It is clear from the pattern of literacy that tehsil adjoining to district place have recorded high Literacy rate. It is because of better education facilities and awareness of peoples towards education. The study reveals that correlation between child sex ratio and female literacy is -0.46.it is a moderate negative correlation. The child sex ratio and female literacy have moved opposite direction in satara district. In 2011 census data shows correlation between child sex ratio and femaleliteracy in tehsil the sex ratio has been found to be highest is tehsil, which have low female literacy. Most back word region of the district, Man and Patan tehsils, has registered female literacy of (64% & 66% ). But it has the highest child sex ratio 888and 945 .It suggests that decline in child sex ratio are contributed more female literacy and economically better of segment of population. It requires stringent action from the state authorities and mass movement to change the mindset and equal order of the patriarchal society. References [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9].

Arnoald,ferd, kim,m.andRoy,T.K.(1998) “ Son preference,the family building Process and child mortality in India”Population Studies Great Britain , pp301-315,. Baneree,M. (1977) “The pattern of Sex Ratio in Singhbum district Bihar,” Population and Development Review of India, 28, pp759-785. Barakade,A.J. (2012) Declining Sex Ratio: An analysis with special reference to Maharashtra”Geosciences Research, Vol.3, No.1 pp.92-95. BarakadeA.J.andSule B. M. (2012) “Correlation between Literacy & Sex Ratio InSolapur district of Maharashtra: A geographical Analysis”, Social Growth, vol. I Iissue IV, may2012. Gosal GS (1979) “Spatial Perspective on Literacy In India” Popuation Geog, Vol.1 (1-2), pp41-67. Godas.J.M and other (2014)Literacy and Sex Ratio in Satara disrrict (Maharashtra).Research Front vol. 2 Issue 1 pp29-34. Hassan, M.I.(2005)Population Geography, New Delhi, Rawat. Siddique, Mohammd(1977) “The Geography of literacy in Uttar Pradesh”, Geographical Review of India,vol.39,pp.374-388. Shinde T.P (2015) Human Resource Development in Satara district: A Geographical Analysis Vol.III, Issue.5 August 2015.PP.5878-5886.

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IMPACT OF IRRIGATION ON AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN SATARA DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA STATE K.S.Surwase Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Mudhoji College, Phaltan (Maharashtra), INDIA. Abstract: Irrigation is very important input of agriculture and most of the successful green revolution areas in India also concede with high irrigation intensity areas, since adequate and timely moisture supply is a sine-qua-non in the new agriculture its success is linked very closely with the development of irrigation. The problem of low agricultural productivity can be tackled by improving farm facility irrigational facilities. Differences in the provisions of irrigation facilities account for a substantial amount of variation in agricultural output between regions. If constant supply of water is ensured transformation and expansion of agriculture can take place. Without irrigation very little can be expected from extensive cultivation. Besides, irrigation helps greatly in raising the yield of land. In the foregoing analysis an evaluation of the aspects of irrigation in Satara district, has been made in detail in order to understand the role and impact of irrigation in the development of agriculture and its efficiency. Keywords: Agriculture Land Use, Net Sown Area, Source of Irrigation. I. INTRODUCTION Irrigation is an age old art. Historically, civilizations have followed the development of irrigation. Most men who are well-informed of irrigation are certain of its perpetuity, as it is intelligently practiced. Others think that a civilization based on agriculture under irrigation is destined to declined sooner are later with disappearance of water resources. Civilizations have evolved on irrigated lands; they have also decayed and disintegrated in irrigated regions. Most ancient cultures depending upon irrigated agriculture declined because of the lack of political and community stability, essential to sustain agriculture. The duration of civilization depend on many factors, of which permanently profitable agriculture is vitally important. Some of the principles and practices essential for permanent and profitable agriculture under irrigation have been considered in this paper. Agriculture without irrigation in areas having less than fifteen centimetre’s rainfall is a suicidal uneconomic venture. The increasing demand of water for agriculture may be met by intensive and extensive use of the available water resources. Thus, one of the major purposes of enquiry of the available water resources is to define the regional pattern of their quality, quantity and utilization. In fact there are three sources of water available to men i.e. surface water, ground water and ocean water. Thus, the surface water in the form of rivers, streams, and lakes are the most important sources to be used for irrigation purpose. The uses of irrigation are conditioned by several variables. “While low rain fall and its variable nature necessities the development of artificial means of moisture supply, the increasing use of fertilizers and to some extent of improved variety of seed make timely needs of water prerequisite.” There is little wonder that, most of the successful green revolution areas in India are of the high intensity irrigation, adequate and timely moisture supply is a sin-quanon in the new agriculture and its success in linked closely with the development of irrigation. The problem of low agricultural productivity can be tackled by improving farm facilities and irrigation facilities. Irrigation disparity accounts for a substantial amount of variation in agricultural output between regions. If constant supply of water is ensured, transformation and expansion of agriculture can take place. Without irrigation very little can be expected from extensive cultivation. Besides, irrigation helps greatly in raising the yield of land. This aspect is of more significant in case of Satara district. In the foregoing analysis, an evaluation of the aspects of irrigation in Satara district has been made in detail, in order to understand the role and impact of irrigation in the development of agriculture. II. STUDY AREA Satara district lies at the western limit of Deccan table of the Southern Maharashtra. The district extends between 17°5’ to 18°11’ north latitudes and 73°33’ to 74°54’ east longitude. The district has component shape with a west street of about 144 km and the north-south 120 km. It covers an area about10, 480 sq.km. This is 3.4

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% of the area of Maharashtra State. Among 35 district of the state it ranks 15th in the terms of area. The district consists of Eleven Tahsils. The district bordered by the Pune district to the north, Sangli districts to the south, Solapur district to the east and Ratnagiri district to the west. It has very short boundary of Raigad district to the northwest. Although the boundaries are main administrative line along with several lines this considered with physical features. The study area is distributed in three important river basins viz. the Krushna, the Koyana basin which covers Mahabaleshwar and Karad Tahsils, and the Venna covers Koregaon and Satara tahsils. The Manganga river, the Banganga river basin which covers the Man and Phaltan Tahsil. These three tributaries drain about 27 percent of the total area under study, and play an important role in the irrigation facilities of the area. On the agricultural front, the presence of black soil helps in raising crops like Sugarcane, wheat, rice, jowar and oilseeds and that of red soil is more suitable for paddy (fig-1).

Fig-1 III. OBJECTIVES The main objectives of the study are: 1) The spatial and temporal distribution of irrigation and its impact on tahsilwise development agriculture in the study area. 2) To locate the areas logging in irrigation facilities and the causes thereof. IV. DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY Secondary data has been collected for the district, for the year2001-01 and 2010-11. Simple techniques have been used to analysed secondary data and based on the results, maps and diagrams are shown. V. DISCUSSION In Satara District, the irrigation varies from one tahsil to another. As per the figure made available by Bureau of Economics and Statistics, the district has a geographical area of 10, 480 sq.km. The net sown area of the district during 2010-11 is708971 hectares and net irrigated area is 230778 hectares. During 2000-2001, the net sown area was 697136 hectares and 230702 hectares of land under irrigation. The net irrigated area has increased to 11835 hectares during study period. The increase in net irrigated area over a decade is not uniform in all the Tahsil of the district have increased their land under irrigation. However, the increase in the net irrigated area in the district is a positive feature for the agricultural development. VI. SURFACE IRRIGATION Surface is the major irrigation system in the district (Table- 1). During 2001-2011 the area under Surface irrigation was 65248 hectares (28.27 percent). The net increase of area under surface irrigation is 10352hectares

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(35.53 percent). The Koyana is major project, which have a resulted in the increase in area under surface irrigation. In the eastern region Phaltan tahsil shows more land 34120 hector during 2011 (52.97 percent) under surface water irrigation. Man and Khatav tahsil show increase in land under surface water irrigation. Man, 20316 hectors and Khatav 27301 hectors. The western part of the study area Patan, Jawali, and Wai tahsil showing increase in land under surface water irrigation. VII. WELL IRRIGATION Well Irrigation is the negligible source of irrigation in the district, in 1999-2000 the area under well irrigation was 552 hectares(1.26%), but in 2009-10the well irrigation is absent, because insufficient of rain fall, the ground water table is goes on decreasing. At present (i.e. 2009-10) the wells irrigation is not practiced by the farmers in the district. Well irrigation is dominant in eastern region of study area. Near about (48.69 percent) area is irrigated by well irrigation, Man and Khatav tahsil having 10425 hector and 9852 hectors land under well irrigation. There is reduction in area under well irrigation in Phaltan tahsil because of other sources of irrigation like canal in 2000-01. Western part of study area receiving more rain then also area under well irrigation recorded in Patan tahsil 51.63 percent, Jawali (67.08 percent) and Wai (56.50 percent) only. Mahabaleshwar has highest area under well irrigation due to rigid and rugged topography, mountainous soil with dense forest. In the central part of study are Karad recorded more area under well irrigation i.e. 12453 hectors (42.74 percent). In some areas it was less but now a day it is increasing. VIII. IRRIGATION BY OTHER SOURCES Other sources of irrigation consist rainfall and moisture in the air where there is no chance to get water from canal or lift irrigation, even though well is not possible in such area rain is one and only one source of irrigation in the study area. This area can be bringing under lift irrigation. Eastern part of the study area Khatav and Phaltan shows of irrigation in Khatav 6658 hectors land was under other sources of irrigation during 2001. Phaltan had 9136 hector during 2011.In Man tahsil land under surface water irrigation shows 5862 hectares 27.41 percent. Western region of Satara district well known for rain but in recent year there is also less percent of rain but land under other sources of irrigation increased from 1135 hector (1980-81) to 3166 (2011). In Jawali tahsil 440 hector increased up to 2846 hector (1980-81) in percentage 15.30percent. Mahabaleshwar show very little increase in land under other sources irrigation. Table-1: Area Irrigated By Different Sources in Satara District-2011. (Area in Hectares) Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Tahsils M.shwar Wai Khandala Phaltan Man Khatav Koregaon Satara Jawali Patan Karad Total

Surface 931 3596 3189 9034 5097 5810 8029 7608 3277 8325 10352 65248

Percent 19.76 17.72 19.54 29.48 23.84 26.03 37.41 34.37 17.62 35.04 35.53 28.27

Wells

Percent

3325 11469 6478 12477 10425 9852 10296 10846 12478 12265 12453 112364

70.58 56.5 39.69 40.71 48.75 44.14 47.97 48.99 67.08 51.63 42.74 48.69

Others 455 5233 6654 9136 5862 6658 3140 3683 2846 3166 6333 53166

Percent 9.66 25.78 40.77 29.81 27.41 29.83 14.63 16.64 15.3 13.33 21.73 23.04

Net irrigated area 4711 20298 16321 30647 21384 22320 21465 22137 18601 23756 29138 230778

Source: Socio Economic Abstracts Satara District- 2001 and 2011. Intensity of Irrigation: The intensity of irrigation is controlled by various factors such as source of irrigation, types of crops grown, cropping season, quantity and quality of water supply and density of network of water channels etc. The benefits of intensity of irrigation are reflected in the cropping pattern, productivity of land, land use efficiency and method of cultivation. In an agricultural region other things being equal, intensity of irrigation will increase with decrease of rainfall and vice-verse. The intensity of irrigation will always remain low and negligible in rain fed areas. The intensity of irrigation is worked out by using the following formulaFormula, Net irrigated Area Percentage = x 100 Net sown Area Table -2: Intensity of Irrigation, 2011 Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Name of the Tahsil Mahabaleshwar Wai Khandala Phaltan Man Khatav Koregaon Satara

N.S.A.

N.I.A. 22700 50112 40903 64419 55851 83428 68817 92158

Percent 4711 20298 16321 30647 21384 22320 21465 22137

20.75 40.51 39.9 47.57 38.29 26.75 31.19 24.02

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9 10 11

Jawali Patan Karad Total

45355 92950 92278 708971

18601 23756 29138 230778

41.01 25.56 31.58 32.55

Source- Socio Economic Abstracts Satara Dist.- 2001 and 2011. The intensity of irrigation refers to more and more use of water for the same piece of land to cultivate different types of crops or more number of crops in a year or an agricultural season. The areas which are provided by assured water supply like river canals may be thrusting to cultivate single crop like sugar cane which needs not less than a year period. In such situation the intensity of irrigation does not arise. The intensity of irrigation therefore refers to cultivate more number of crops in a year such as rice, groundnut, Sunflower, etc., In such situation it is interesting to underline that these crops may consume less water than sugar cane cultivation while the total number of crops grown will add to more income of the farmer and it may be suitable to farmers for diversified needs than that of sugar cane cultivation. Therefore, the intensity of agriculture will support to farmers localized interest such as subsistence needs of food crops, animal needs like fodder, and use of animal products like dung for bio mass fertilizer production, milk production, meat production, leather of the animals etc., Therefore the high index of intensity of irrigation in a region can definitely show the agriculture development in an Indian context. The intensity of irrigation is not uniform in Satara district. The district as a whole intensity value was 32.55 in 2011. The net increase in the intensity of irrigation is 11835 hectares (Table2). In view of the depleting water table from year to year it is very essential at this juncture to plan and implement the following measures to restore the water table and to conserve the ground water potential for future exploitation. 1) De-silting of existing tanks to provide augmentation of recharge to ground water body. 2) Creating artificial recharge by the way of construction of natural ground water harvesting structures like, check dams, subsurface, dykes, gully, plugging etc. wherever possible. 3) Judicious utilization of ground water and its conservation for the future by the way of deployment of drip and sprinkler irrigation system. 4) Conjunction in the use of surface and ground water Critical shortages of underground water due to limited natural recharge, small surface storage capacity, and over use have stimulated efforts to recharge ground water reservoirs with surface water. Thus, it provides water to seep into the underground reservoirs. Flow of streams, sewage and industrial water may also be utilized for recharging these reservoirs. Full conservation of available water supply requires and integrated use of surface and underground water and storage facilities. Crops cultivation to a large extents and rearing livestock depend upon the resources of their immediate environment. Therefore, land owners and cultivators will have to select appropriate and adaptable crops to the existing physical environment. Since agriculture is directly related to physical environment variations, this in turn also affects agricultural land use. Thus, agriculture is not only an economic activity, but also a form of applied ecology. The crop production potentiality of an area always depends primarily on the prevailing climatic and soil conditions. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Ali Mohammad (1978): Studies in agricultural Geography, Rajesh Publications New Delhi. Barooah.S.R(1993) :Agricultural Research and Development. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Bhall.G.S and Alagh.Y.K (1977): Performance of Indian Agriculture A district wise study Sterling Publisher New Delhi Bhatia.S.S (1967): A new measurement of agricultural efficiency in U.P Economic Geography vol .43 No 3 pp 242-260. | Deshapande.C.D. (1990): Land and Water Management; some aspects of Human intervention. The Indian Geographical Journal, Vol 65, No 1, pp 1-6. District Socio-economic Abstract- (2001 and 2011). Ganguli .N.B. (1938): Trends of agriculture and Population in the Ganga Valley London P 93 Government of Maharashtra: District at Glance 2011. A.S. Wagh., (2009), “Irrigation and its impact on cultivated area a case study of Satara district”, M.Phil Desertation submitted to SUK.

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A STUDY OF SELF-CONFIDENCE OF SENIOR SECONADRY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN RELATION TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Dr. (Mrs.) Meena Sharma Associate Professor, G.B. College of Education, Rohtak, Haryana, INDIA Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the self-confidence of senior secondary school students in relation to socio-economic status. Survey method was used. A sample of 180 students of senior secondary school was selected from Rohtak district. The investigator used Socio-economic status scale (2006) developed by Rajbir Singh, Radhey Shyam, Satish Kumar and Self-Confidence Inventory (1987) developed by Dr. Rekha Agnihotry (ASCI).Finding of the study showed no significant difference in selfconfidence of those male and female students who belong to high Socio-economic status and low Socioeconomic status . I. INTRODUCTION Self-Confidence is the positive attitude of one-self towards one’s self concept. It is an attribute of a perceived self. It refers to a person’s perceived ability to tackle situations successfully without learning on other and to have a positive self- evaluation. It is a widely used concept both in popular language and psychology. Selfconfidence is generally considered the evaluative component of the self-concept, a broader representation of the self that includes cognitive and behavioral aspects as well as evaluative or affective ones. It refers to an individual’s sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself. The most broad and frequently cited definition of self-confidence within psychology is Rosenberg’s (1965), who described it as a favourable or unfavorable attitude toward the self. Self-confidence is an attitude which allows individuals to have positive yet realistic units of themselves and their situations. Self-confident people trust their own abilities, have a general sense of control in their lives, and believe that, within reason, they will be able to do what they wish, plan and expect. Having self confidence does not mean that individuals will be able to do everything. Self confident people have expectations that are realistic. Even when some of their expectations are not met, they continue to be positive and to accept themselves. People who are not self-confident depend excessively on the approval of others in order to feel good about them. They tend to avoid taking risks because they fear failure. They generally do not expect to be successful. They often put themselves down and tend to discount or ignore complaints paid to them. By contrast, self confident people are willing to take risk the disapproval of others because they generally trust their own abilities. They tend to accept themselves; they don’t feel they have to conform in order to be accepted. Essential Domains of Self-Confidence are Socio-Economic Factors, Personality Factors and Mental Health Factors from Family, Friends and Significant others and Gender are essential domains of self-confidence. It is also necessary to mention that in the past, researcher only investigated levels of explicit self-confidence. Dhall and Thupral (2009) investigated intelligence as related to self-confidence and academic achievement of school students. The result of the study revealed that intelligence is significantly and positively related with selfconfidence and academic achievement. Wankhade and Rokade (2011) conducted a comparative study on selfconfidence of rural and urban students studying in 8th standard of various schools of Amravati. It was found that the average self-confidence of rural and urban, boys and girls are almost same and the rural boys were superior in their self-confidence in comparison to rural girls. The self-confidence of both sexes from urban areas found almost same. Selvaraj and Gnanadevan (2014) conducted a study on self confidence and stress among higher secondary students of Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu This study reveals that there is a significant and negative relationship between self-confidence and different dimensions of stress such as, academic stress, interpersonal stress, intrapersonal stress, environmental stress and total stress. II. NEED OF THE STUDY In adolescence a child experiences many physical, mental and emotional changes. Therefore, he is always under stress and strains. As he grew, he faces many problems. In such circumstances it is very important to inculcate AIJRHASS 15-830; © 2015, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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self confidence. Self-confidence is essential factor of personality. With the strength of self-confidence one can solve the difficulties in social, intellectual, educational, individuals and economic field etc. Intelligence is significantly and positively related with self-confidence and socio-economic status (Dhall and Thukral, 2009 and AI-Hebaish, 2012). The individual with profound self-confidence can faces the conflict fearlessly. Selfconfidence is affected by socio-economic status. So the researcher decided to study the topic effect of socioeconomic status on the self-confidence of senior secondary school students. III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY To compare the self-confidence of male and female students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status. To compare the self-confidence of male and female students of senior secondary school with low socio-economic status. To compare the self-confidence of male students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status. To compare the self-confidence of female students of senior secondary school with high socioeconomic status and low socio-economic status.

1. 2. 3. 4.

IV. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY There is no significant difference in the self-confidence of male and female students of secondary school with high socio-economic status. There is no significant difference in the self-confidence of male and female students of secondary school with low socio-economic status. There is no significant difference in male students of senior secondary school with high economic status and low socio-economic status. There is no significant difference in female students of senior secondary school with high economic status and low socio-economic status.

1. 2. 3. 4.

senior senior sociosocio-

V. SAMPLE The sample for the present study comprised of 11th class students from Rohtak city. A total 180 students have been selected through random sampling technique.

1. 2.

VI. DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOL Socio-economic status scale (2006) developed by Rajbir Singh, Radhey Shyam, Satish Kumar. Reliability of the scale was 0.944. Self-Confidence Inventory (1987) developed by Dr. Rekha Agnihotry (ASCI) Reliability of the scale was 0.91 by split-half method.

VII. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED Mean, S.D. and t-value were used to find out the effect of socio-economic status on self-confidence of senior secondary school students. VIII. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA A. Comparison the self-confidence of male and female students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status. Table 1.1 Mean, S.D. and ‘t’ value of Self-Confidence scores of Male and Female students of senior secondary school with High Socio-economic status Variable Groups Mean S.D. ‘t’ value 28.0 9.90 Self-Confidence Male Female

26.0

9.16

0.84

Table 1.1 shows that the mean score of self-confidence of male with high socio-economic status is 28.0 while mean score of self-confidence of female with high socio-economic status is 26.0. The obtained‘t’ value is 0.84 which is not significant at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the null hypothesis “There is no significant difference in the self-confidence of male and female students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status.” is accepted. The investigator found that the two groups do not differ significantly in self-confidence.

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B. Comparison the self-confidence of male and female students of senior secondary school with low socio-economic status. Table 1.2 Mean, S.D. and ‘t’ value of Self-Confidence scores of Male and Female students of senior secondary school with Low Socio-economic status Variable Groups Mean S.D. ‘t’ value 26.0 8.73 Self-Confidence Male Female 23.0 10.16 1.22 Table 1.2 shows that the mean score of self-confidence of male with low socio-economic status is 26.0 while mean score of self-confidence of female with low socio-economic status is 23.0. The obtained‘t’ value is 1.22 which is not significant at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the null hypothesis “There is no significant difference in the self-confidence of male and female students of senior secondary school with low socio-economic status.” is accepted. The investigator found that two groups did not differ significantly in self-confidence. C. Comparison the self-confidence of male students of senior secondary with high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status. Table 1.3 Mean, S.D. and ‘t’ value of Self-Confidence scores of Male students of senior secondary school with High Socio-economic Status and Low Socio-economic Status Variable Groups Mean S.D. ‘t’ value 28.0 10.05 Self-Confidence Male Male 26.0 8.73 0.86 Table 1.3 shows that mean score of self-confidence of male with High socio-economic status is 28.0 while mean score of self-confidence of male with Low socio-economic status is 26.0. The obtained‘t’ value is 0.86 which is not significant at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the null hypothesis “There is no significant difference in male students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status” is accepted. The investigator found that the two groups did not differ significantly in self-confidence. D. Comparison the self-confidence of female senior secondary school students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status. Table 1.4 Mean, S.D. and‘t’ value of Self-Confidence scores of Female students of senior secondary school with High Socio-economic Status and Low Socio-economic Status Variable Groups Mean S.D. ‘t’ value 26.0 9.16 Self-Confidence Female Female 23.0 10.16 1.20 Table 1.4 shows that mean score of self-confidence of females with High socio-economic status is 26.0 while mean score of self-confidence of females with Low socio-economic status is 23.0. The obtained‘t’ value is 1.20 which is not significant 0.05 level of significance. Thus the null hypothesis “There is no significant difference in female students of senior secondary school with high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status.” is accepted. The investigator found that the two groups did not differ significantly in self-confidence. IX. Findings and Conclusion The present study found that no significant difference in self-confidence of those male and female students who belong to high Socio-economic status and who belong to low Socio-economic status and also found that no significant difference in self-confidence of those male students who belongs to high Socio-economic status and Low Socio-economic status. Another finding was found that no significant difference in self-confidence of those female students who belong to High socio-economic status and those female students who belong to Low Socio-economic status. The investigator found that the two groups did not differ significantly in self-confidence. References [1] [2] [3] [4]

Al-Hebaish, Mohammed, S. (2012). The correlation between general selfconfidence and academic achievement in the oral presentation course. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(1), 60-65. Dhall, S. and Thukral, P. (2009). Intelligence as related of self-confidence and academic achievement of school students. Journal of all India Association for Educational Research, 21(2). Selvaraj, A., Gnanadevan, R. (2014). Self-confidence and stress among higher senior secondary students of Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu. Journal of Community Guidence and Research, 31(1), 71-77. Wankhade, N.A., Rokade, Meena, K. (2011). A comparative study of selfconfidence of rural and urban students studying in standard VIII of various schools of Amravati District. Journal of Education and Psychology, 67(1), 36-38.

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Ideology of Singh Sabha Movement: Initiation into Modern Hermeneutics (As Revisited in Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation (2009) by Arvind-Pal S. Mandair) Dr. Sukhwinder Singh Creating a rupture from ongoing discipline of Sikh studies, Arvind-Pal S. Mandair emerged as a leading academician with his innovative research work, Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Post coloniality, and the Politics of Translation (2009) (hereafter as Specter). The work has received sober remarks not only from Sikh studies but also from disciplines which are not directly related with this. It is first time in the history of Sikh speculative thought that insights of influential philosophers have been deployed for remapping the impact of colonial encounter between South Asia and West. It tries to understand the construction of colonized subjectively by the colonizer’s symbolic order through the strategy of translation. Mandair has made effort to highlight gaps of western understanding in relation to religion, language, translation and politics. His thesis is also an attempt to indentify the limitations of postcolonial discourse that is being considered an authentic response to the phenomenon of globalization because Postcolonialism in itself is under the spectral influence of meta-narrative based on the dualism of secular principle. He also unveils the invisible connections between state, media and academy. His critical approach, to resist secular dialectic in fact challenges the established framework. It motivates reader to know the “…relationship between three intellectual formations: (1) historical consciousness (2) the assumed secularity of critical thinking (or critiques the critical attitude etc.) and (3) western civilization identity (I have termed the comparative imaginary of the west).”1 Most importantly book poses a question whether Sikh universals are possible in the domain of epistemology where from these can be circulated in public sphere. Comprehensive area of book transcends the formal limits of issues pondered upon within it. History of religions, postcolonial theory and continental philosophy has been rendered and intersected logically and precisely. The book not only encourages eastern psychology to contest or enter into the discursive space monopolized by west but to prepare a ground for exchanging epistemological categories while at the same time revitalizing the original character of tradition. Arvind-Pal S. Mandair, himself states that, “My aim throughout the book has been not simply to re-enter the currently globalatanized discursive space of the public/political sphere (which colonized groups managed well), but to negotiate the meanings and articulation of indigenous concepts.”2 Distinction of the book lies in handling many disciplines simultaneously with a mature sense of objectivity. Due to its scholarly assessment, the book has impressed leading academicians from concerned disciplines in international universities. It has been reviewed in some symposiums which later on published in international journals. In these reviews, the book has been described as an, “essential reading in the fields of South Asian and Sikh Studies, postcolonial studies and contemporary theory.”3 The book has received praise for, “a graphic example of the rich possibilities of interdisciplinary work.”4 Brian Pennington declared it, “an authoritative accounts of that dramatic (colonial) shift and its impact on Sikh tradition.”5 and for Gavin Flood the work indeed is directed to “develop a non-colonial “Sikh theology.” ”6 According to Sian Hawthorne’s views, Specter is an call, “…to rethink the uneasy relationship between religion and secularity.”7 She also further expresses risk of applying Lacanian theory on Sikh experience. Ruth Mas examines that, “Mandair is critical of the invisibility with which the schematizing…”8 of generalized version of ‘religion’ is circulated as cultural universal. She basically talks about Derrida’s theory of translation rather than Specter. Micheal Hawley suitably remarks that book, “…is broad in its theoretical scope, yet goes beyond and applies in new.”9 Complex and informal idiom also have been criticized. From language viewpoint, it has been reviewed as ‘slippery and dizzying.’ Some critics also raised question that if Eastern subject is untranslatable to Western sense of academy then why Mandair seeks supports from it and why colonized subject is unable to produce its own theoretical frame work. Author has answered all such questions published in different journals. The Specter not only contests westernized version of gurmat but also challenges the boundaries and patterns being followed by modern Sikh studies. It opens new doors to enjoy relations with well established discourses in academy disrupting the prevalent patterns of Sikh studies. The book displays a variety of discourses undertaken in and masterfully used them to deduce thesis. Due to a wide range of areas discussed in the book, it is very difficult for a researcher to address the book as a whole. In this paper, I would fix myself, only on (trans)formation of Sikh subject during the colonial rule as Mandair highlights.

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Singh Sabha was a primarily reformation movement initiated by native Sikh elites to highlight Sikh identity as compared to other ‘religions.’ And for this purpose, they also interpreted Sikh tenets to preach the message of Sikh Gurus. Mandair mentions that colonizer entrapped land of India and Punjab, as well as psychology of elites who were representatives of people. All this happened through the network of Anglo-vernacular schools which introduced them a new terminology and idiom. He states that, “If these Anglo-vernacular schools mere in effect factories for manufacturing a new subjectivity for the native elites, a subjectivity that had been religiously, linguistically, and racially corrected according to the English type…” 10 Being educated in these schools native Sikh elite started to translate their own tradition embracing colonizer’s terminology in response to objections raised by Orientalists. With these exchanges, this idiom adopted a generalized form in intellectual circles and possessed the space as standard, authentic and universal framework of knowledge. In this process, key term ‘religion’, identified as cultural universal and subscribes a social empirical identity to a set of beliefs, played a central role to make Sikh tradition a subservient one. Penetration of ‘religion’ in native intellectual exercise influenced not only then scenario, even present living and thinking styles are being inspired by the similar colonial narrative unconsciously. Due to the conformity to this narrative by indigenous tradition, on the one hand reduced spiritual signifiers just to socio-cultural context and on the other hand, this adoption prevented Sikhi(sm) to participate into public spheres by fixing it strictly to private affairs. A detailed survey of early Christian missionaries and travelers as presented by Mandair, confirms Orientalists understanding of Sikhism as Deism in which rationality and morality are stressed as natural religion. H.H. Wilison and Earnest Trump’s descriptions presented Sikhism as a faith that lacks sense of history of civilization. It totally changed the mindset of native elites from pre-colonial understanding of their own tradition. They started to interpret, sikhi, gurmat, akal purkh etc. in terms of Sikhism, Sikh theology, God etc. Native elites were forced to realize that Sikhism has been degraded from its ‘natural stage’ and it must be resurrected. They were imposed with terminology and framework incompatible to their own traditions. It altered the meanings of key terms of indigenous originality. In pre-colonial subjectivity, there was a consciousness about the sovereignty of Sikhi(sm) but it was not absolutely alienated from its surrounding counterparts. It had very fluid demarcation with others in preference to a determinate cultural identity of religion. So Sikhism, Hinduism and Islam were sharing a deep relationship in pre-colonial social environment whereas later on took their position as opponents under the umbrella of ‘religion’ as a cultural universal. Thus Sikhs endeavored to be enlisted into the category of ‘world religions’ by leaving aside versatile spirit of Sikh experience. During British rule master signifier was of Christian that was later on substituted by Hinduism. That’s why after Britishers, Sikhs were in sharp contrast with Hinduism. To have a break with Hinduism and to evolve the Sikh tradition as a new beginning in history, the reformists stressed rationality and morality. Explaining the strategy of Singh Sabha ideologues, Mandair states that, The movement from the pre-narrative stage of bhakti reformers to the narrative stage of Nanak and his successor Gurus indicates a new beginning…As such in the movement from pre-narrative to narrative the origin corresponds to the movement from immoral chaos to a moral order. The moral order is the representation of the origin because the origin unfolds as the worldly activity of Nanak, this narrative can be imitated and repeated. By contrast, the quietism of the bhakti reformers (because it is pre-narrative) does not allow for a repetition in the sense of being able to participate in a moral order.11 To achieve their goal Singh Sabha ideologues consciously translated term ‘Guru’ as ‘prophet’ not as avatar and “<>” and “Akwl mUriq” particularly interpreted with emphasis to establish break from Hinduism.12 In fact Mandair is facing the questions as to whether interpretation of Sikhism other than Singh Sabha ideology is possible. Is it possible to float Sikhism in public sphere, a space already occupied by secular dialectic and its political incarnation namely nation state? Can a new interpretation be invented based on aporetic relationship, while sustaining the sovereignty of Sikh doctrines? He wants to set free not only Sikh ideals/concepts but also the process of conceptualization and its pragmatic implications motivated by metaphysical ideology of Hegel because colonialism has worked in both directions. “…He (Hegel) is directly responsible for reformulating the matrix of knowledge power in relation to Asian cultures, and partly because this very matrix, if not name “Hegel”, continues to influence not only the production of theory in the humanities but the way this theorization continues to be put into practices.”13 Hegel’s metaphysical structure poses itself as universal or legitimate to the extent of self-referencing phenomenon and promotes the supremacy of West. Being assimilation to great extent in Eastern traditions, its presence can’t be negated even when discourse is against or not about west. It works in a subtle, latent and silent manner. This is what has been called ‘specter of the west.’ To avoid the serious misunderstanding, from the critical analysis of Specter, it cannot be assumed that Sikh identity was invented in the colonial rule; rather there happened a radical transformation in it. Arvind Pal S. Mandair writes that, The enunciation of Sikh identity does not begin in the colonial period, and it would be wrong to adduce this from my analysis above. A Sikh identity, however amorphous it might have been had already emerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Rather what changes in the colonial period is the way in which identity was conceived. As I stated earlier, it is logic of identity that changes in the colonial period. In the pre-colonial period

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articulation of Sikh identity was never articulated through the dualistic logic of either/or (e.g. A=A, B=B but AB) the logic of Sikh identity (indeed of Hindu identity) prior to colonialism, and as far back as the sixteenth century, was articulated in terms of a complex or relational logic, according to which it would be perfectly valid to suggests that A=B, the implication of which would be the existence of relatively fluid social and individual boundaries. In other words, the logic of identity changes from complex or relational to dualistic. And this change resulted from of politics of religion-making driven by ontotheology the first victim of which was the signifier “Hindu.”14 This is the basic shift occurred during the colonial period in the context of identity politics. In pre-colonial interpretation Guru Nanak was both a pir for Muslims and a guru for Hindus. But afterwards in Singh Sabha discourse, he is emphasized as a founder of Sikhism completely in alienation as compared to others. According to Mandair though Bhai Vir Singh, Jodh Singh, Teja Singh etc. worked out very sincerely yet their efforts unconsciously favored the ontological argument of Anslem, Aquinus, Descartes, Kant, Hegel and Marx. Interiorization of this argument and appropriation of gurmat to this framework latently worked in the subjectivity of these scholars that is ‘unconscious hermeneutic of modernity.’15 Out of such Deistic mechanism, they tended to systematize the Sikh doctrines under the structure of theology. After independence, this structure was adopted by next generation of Sikh theologians and historians namely G.S. Talib, Kapur Singh, Daljeet Singh, Jasbir Singh Ahluwalia, Kushwant Singh etc. “These writers simply assumed the historical narrative and theological proofs the Singh Sabha writers had so painstakingly worked out.”16 Main characteristic of the colonial schema is that it first of all assumes its own opposite or an ‘other’ to sustain its existence, and then exercises/imposes its enunciation declaring it universal/legitimate. Once we are agreed or compelled to interact with, it starts to function extensively upon its ‘other.’ This schema produces the networks of identity politics and nation state. It automatically takes on concepts of comparison, separation, interfaith dialogue etc. Mandair has named it ‘comparative imaginary of the West.’ In this way, Sikhs are transformed as nation, as a racial/ethnic group leaving aside their versatile image of panth or dharma. After realizing ‘effect of shame’ Indians gave up their native way of experiencing dharma rather started to conceptualize their own experience and doctrines along with European lines. Singh Sabha scholars like other Indians articulated Sikhism according to rational and moral principles to establish it a valuable ‘ism’ before colonizer. In this way a process started to construct Sikh history and theology. It is a contradictory category of ‘religion’ that on one side subscribes it a temporal phenomenon but on the other side transcendentalizes religion by preventing to share a public sphere. It proves a fact that why Sikhs are so far unable to regulate a compatibility with modern democratic set up of nation state. When Sikh tradition came to be identified as one of the ‘religions’ under the anthropo-historicist/secular frame, it gave up its claim over temporal sovereignty that is an important aspect of Sikhism. Miri-piri bhakti-shakti, sant-sipahi, granth-panth etc. are inseparable pairs of indigenous lexicon which become meaningless in the colonial processing. Impact of project taken up by Singh Sabha movement is not confined to then circumstances rather it also extended over the period of post independence. Its symptoms can be diagnosed from nature of modern Sikh studies. Educational Institutions and universities have also taken up themes proposed by Singh Sabha writers. W.H. McLeod, a forerunner of Sikh studies in western universities, can be seen as continuation of colonial legacy. Like Trump, he claims that Singh Sabha writers did not show any interest to have systematized set up of theology.17 Mandair suspects of his intention that why a historian is interested in the formation of Sikh theology?18 One of the reviewers from Punjab, perhaps out of misunderstanding, found Mandair as a propagandist and in sound consonance with W.H. McLeod19 but Mandair’s critique on McLeod’s analysis shows an opposite side. However he also accepts the limitations of Singh Sabha discourse to solve the problem of nirgun and sargun and “how the sense of divinity that animated the living Guru was transferred to the written word?”20 and how God communicates with man. Mandair is not proposing the idea that Singh Sabha writers clothed their own nativity by taking a shelter of western categories consciously or knowingly. But they were forced to realize the ‘economy of lack’ and by engaging themselves with colonial translations accidently they overlooked the principle of sovereignty of their native language. Thus substantial and indigenous nature of language employed in Sikh texts was disturbed by the interference/imposition of colonial idiom and translations about Sikhism. By doing so, they transcendentalized the key terms of Sikhism. Misunderstanding of conceptual linguistic equivalence generated work of translation, exactly speaking ‘representation’. Resultantly, terms such as ‘Sikh theology’, ‘Sikh History’, ‘Sikhs as nation’, ‘Sikhism as world religion’ subscribe to the logic of A=A and more surprisingly these are being understood as native categories of knowledge. With the passage of time, this reformist interpretation is shifted to modern academy. Through this description, Mandair wants to highlight the idea that on the one hand Singh Sabha wants entry of Sikhism into the category of ‘World Religions’ that is secular mode of religiosity enunciated by modern nation state to control the religiosity of different traditions but on the other land, methodological frame under which Singh Sabha writers started to represent Sikhism, prevents participation of Sikhism into politics and violence by declaring ‘ism’ or ‘religion’ a pacific phenomenon. If ‘religious’ claims any type of its political authority it will be recognized as deviation from religious spirit. In this way, Mandair brings into light the distortion of Sikh

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spirit occurred accidently due to colonial structures of knowledge promoted by Singh Sabha Scholars unknowingly. Because formation named ‘religion’ is based on the contradictory dualism of spiritual and secular. W.H. Mcleod put forward the similar hegemonic mechanism of colonial interpretation and his most famous book Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion points out towards this transference. Mandair notes that roots of McLeod’s writings can be found in above mentioned western enunciation and colonial categories. Mandair has afforded a full chapter on the analysis by W.H. McLeod on Sikhism and particularly on Guru Nanak’s life and teachings, who especially emphasizes the nature of Guru Nanak’s following as religious community. Mandair explains reasons that why McLeod is stressing Sikhism as a community of interior spirituality rather than organized/institutional form of religiosity. On one hand he wants to co-relate Sikhism with sant tradition of Medieval India, but on the other hand imposes category of ‘religion’ on Sikhism as a secular enunciation. According to that, public sphere is strictly prohibited to interior religion. And more importantly by categorizing it to mystic fold; it is easy for McLeod to declare Sikhi(sm) a non-rational and deprived of moral mechanism. Thus he tries to show contradictions between teachings of earlier four Gurus and other subsequent successors. Borrowing term from Mircea Eliade, Mandair calls it ‘religious hermeneutic’ that McLeod is trying to construct under the project of theology. Question arises that what’s wrong with this if McLeod wants to systematize the teachings of Guru Nanak applying historical methodology. Problem is not with ‘systematic form’ of teachings of Sikh Gurus but with the concepts, methods and conclusions which are deduced through this process. So Mandair should not be considered a radical critic of Western methodology rather he highlights consequences which happen due to this neo-colonial interpretations and which are extrinsic to the text/data/object upon which critical analysis is being constructed by McLeod. Under such pattern, panoramic image of Guru is reduced to ‘a study of a man Guru Nanak’ and his teachings are termed as mere theology. By referring writings of McLeod, Mandair notes that his commentary on Sikhism serves to establish the idea of ‘generalized translation’. According to that, spoken words may differ from one person to other, yet the mental experiences are same. According to this pattern of thought “…McLeod’s “creative” hermeneutic: that the body of signifiers known as Adi Granth and regarded as Guru is no more than a vehicle not only for communication God’s truth to man but for translating God’s truth to all men…In other words McLeod’s theological or creative hermeneutic serves primarily as a building block for a broader project of Anthropology” 21 To counter this logic, Mandair re-interpreted the sakhi of vein pravesh taking help from Lacanian model. Mandair thinks that language is being controlled through spoken words by modern man. Humans use language according to his motives either negatively or positively. But according to Lacanian model, as Mandair notes, language exists prior to experience, in spite of subsequent to experience. In this way, Mandair is able to construct a very sound logic as opposed to McLeod’s interpretation but still unable to establish Guru Nanak as a Devine Archetype. Mandair’s counter interpretation of Guru Nanak and his bani are captured by the very another method that is not completely intrinsic to the text, as Sian Hawthrone has pointed out in his review. According to McLeod, the bani of Guru Nanak outwardly does not show any sign of systematic form but ‘such a pattern was present in the mind of their author’. Mandair pronounces that McLeod’s presentation of Guru Nanak, “who successfully negotiated the passage from nothingness to existence…”, in fact had “the faculty of rationality without which he would not be able to communicate with others in the world” 22 Mandair reacts against this argument not to install non-rational aspect of Guru personalities and their sacred hymns. But to deny the hegemony of western model of rationality that passes judgments over other experiences assuming itself as a legitimate/universal narrative. Mandair’s theorization encourages Sikh Studies to understand and confront the modern challenges and crisis faced by subaltern traditions of South Asia, particularly by Sikh tradition. By locating gaps of western theory, he tries to remove the illusion of western supremacy and finds out basic differences between experience of West and that of East. He unveils the subjectivity of West working in disguise of objective methodology, a trauma that always authoritatively governs the space of theory posing itself as rational, historical, humanistic, secular etc. Psychology of Singh Sabha reformists was strictly seized by the “effect of shame” before it and they finally advocated a shift from traditional to modern that influenced Sikh way of life so far. In spite of such conditions under which they had to work accidently did their best by taking initiation into theoretical thought. They struggled to free Sikh spirit from clutches of feudalized and racist orthodoxy that had occupied a dominant space in Sikhism. Such type of orthodoxy took birth during misl period and was fostered by cultural elements that existed within Sikh Panth. It was only Singh Sabha reformists who identified the crisis and questioned the anarchic elements. So firstly, these reformists’ desire for borrowing help from western model of thought in fact was to formulate a system to control these circumstances. Secondly, there does not exist any tradition of discursive thought within Sikh panth that might be considered a precursor of Singh Sabha to provide some guidelines rather they made efforts to take up the task as a challenge. Therefore considering Singh Sabha merely a reactionary outcome to encounter colonizer would reduce its contribution. It would create a problem to understand the overall situation during Singh Sabha period.23 It must be noticed that intellectual exercise of reformists was under the pressures of colonizer, Arya Samaj, Muslim counterparts and feudal/cultural/racial elements within Sikh panth. Thus steps taken by reformists were not natural rather conditioned by several

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reasons. That’s why it cannot be examined as an independent process of intellectual exercise. So, it is an incomplete picture of role of Singh Sabha that Mandair portrays. To some extent, we find his critical evaluation mystifying real spirit of Singh Sabha. Mandair’s comment upon Bhai Vir Singh’s explanation of mool mantra is most weak point of his analysis. A critical examiner can’t deliver his judgment taking up just a piece of writing authored by somebody. Doing so, he would necessarily ignore fundamental spirit of his writings. A scholar, while writing about something can’t ignore total perspective of any person/text that is an important thing to be remembered. To interpret a small section or treat any text partially according to his own requirements may discredit a writer. Bhai Vir Singh penned lives of Ten Gurus and he consciously named them chamatkar (miracle),24 a style of writing that is native in its spirit as opposite to rational and historical method of European experience. He revived native form of sakhi in accordance with Sikh spirit. To work in the colonial period may be a coincidence but his writings cannot be declared fully in conformity to colonial format along with other writers. It is rather an achievement of Bhai Vir Singh who underwent the colonial pressure and never let down the originality of Sikh spirit. Nature and style of his writings display a huge difference from other contemporaries. Personality of Bhai Vir Singh symbolizes traditional spirit that is not in consonance with colonial patterns. It means his writings incorporate seeds of a rebellious epistemology and academic methodology that further can be extended to the critical theory of indigenous experience. It is also a fact that, due to the lack of intellectual exercise directed to outline critical theory, Sikhs are so far deprived of a critical method that may serve to cultivate a sovereignty of Sikhism in the domain of knowledge. It is strange that Mandair wants to derive poetics of the Sikh experience by removing effects of methodological structure borrowed from Europe but himself is unable to see the signs of originality underlying the writings of Bhai Vir Singh. Except this, he cultivated the system of santhya, a native method to study religious texts; rather he correlated spiritual experience with meanings. At that time Sikh orthodoxy has monopolized the very method delimiting it just to shudh uccharan (correct pronunciation). In this way, he was opposing the typical psychology that wanted to hijack the scripture. He also edited the texts such as Sri Gurpratap Suraj Granth by Bhai Santokh Singh, Sri Guru Panth Prakash by Rattan Singh Bhangu, Puratan Janam Sakhi etc. which promoted the traditional style of writing. Till his times Kissa and Sufi poetry were predominant modes of poetic expression and both were alien to Sikh aesthetics. Kissa poetry stressed romantic love preferred by cultural psychology and a great part of Sufi poetry had its mystic roots in Islamic experience and its cultural darbari form. Through his poetry Bhai Vir Singh turned the flow of aesthetics to Sikh spirit. His poetry presents an instance of this forgotten shift. Mandair has also charged Singh Sabha to follow the strategy of ‘a new beginning’ an historical origin of a new religion in terms of a novel identity. For Mandair, incident of Guru Nanak’s meeting with parbraham parmeshar during bath at Sultanpur Lodhi, was reinterpreted by reformists, “…in terms of a pseudo theory based on revelation and embellished with suitable quotation from the Adi Granth.”25 He criticizes that they, for establishing a cemented demarcation between Hinduism and Sikhism, followed Hegelian pattern of evolution from ‘immoral chaos to moral order’. But Mandair’s own interpretation about this incident projects Guru Nanak merely a ‘subject’ transformed by the experience of ‘Word’ (Language=bani).26 It is very surprising that Mandair ordinarily translates sabda or bani as language/text/Word. As a devoted Sikh, he will definitely be conscious about the status of bani, therefore such translation of these terms would be misleading. While exploring alternative meanings of the vein pravesh sakhi, he uses Lacanian/Heideggerian model of language. He presents the psycho-linguistic explanation of this incident. For Sikhs Guru Nanak is not only a ‘self’ or ‘subject’ who undergoes transformation through the meeting with language. Objective image of Guru Nanak found in early Sikh sources presents ‘Him’ as cosmic figure that incorporates entirety of abstract and empirical phenomenon. He covers totality of time and space (Awid-AMiq). Mandair’s explanation fails to note this point. What he missed here is that according to Sikh experience language in itself is a product of some Ultimate Source (parbraham parmeshar), ineffable to describe yet gurbani inspires human for experiencing the akath (beyond linguistic figures) and moreover bani holds the status of Guru as a divine revelation descended from ‘Dur.’ It is still a matter of investigation to conceptualize the source from which bani takes its origin. There are also some critical questions related with the nature of bani that how historicity participates in this sacred expression as we find some historical references in Guru Granth Sahib? We find variation in the nature of bani revealed through different Gurus and bhaktas. It means sacredness may also engage itself with subjectivity, but question is that how it happens? What is difference between subjectivity of occurring within revelation and that of a human being? All these issues must be investigated determining the nature and status of bani. Interpretation by Mandair obviously offers a novel method and meanings to explain sakhis but diversions are also there. Native subjectivity, of course, needs to be set free from colonizer’s models of knowledge. But it must be remembered, that non-colonial claim, that Mandair wants to highlight, out of some fear may also create dialectic of ‘self’ and ‘other.’ This localized subjectivity after attaining privileged right/authority may prove to be hegemonic and of racial disposition. Its over emphasis on localization creates possibilities of anarchic assertion that may fabricate another metaphysical strategy. So it can be postponed until the theoretical construction by native psyche, not only comparable to but also including analogical elements and recognizing creative

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contribution of secular model. Basic problem with this discourse is that it accepts dominating section among oppressed as definitive form of subaltern but denies that within a particular subaltern group may exist oppressed divisions suffered from dominant subaltern subjectivity or class/order. These problems and issues must be addressed otherwise non-colonial ‘subject’ can further constitute a hegemonic narrative. Therefore, looking from Sikh standpoint, Secularism cannot be deleted absolutely from human life. It had, no doubt, some biases against human race particularly South Asian traditions but had also played a significant role to get rid of hegemonic set up of medieval period. Its spirit necessarily incorporates some sense of compassion. At last, I can conclude that in spite of some evident limitations of Specter, Mandair succeeds to point out a complex space that necessarily requires attention of scholars devoted to Sikh studies. This space, being full of complexities, is slippery and risky as Mandair’s analysis has shown us. He has demonstrates the potential of colonized subjectivity driven away from the boundaries of dominant symbolic order. He has handled his area of analysis with intellectual maturity and has identified that how politics of knowledge is fabricated to control other’s creative potential. The Specter helps us to discover invisible interiorization that has become a part and parcel of our existence. Through this thesis, he puts a break on imperial discourse prevailing in Sikh studies so that originality of Sikh nativity can be sustained. It not only enables Sikh terminology on equal footing in private domain but also in public one. Above mentioned break or resistance is not defensive or reactionary in its mode of articulation but a critical examination. As a whole, we can say that Specter has broadened the scope of Sikh studies stretching out its quest to major philosophical discourses. Mandair’s initiative is surely a risky and radical step. References and Notes [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. [21]. [22]. [23].

[24]. [25]. [26].

Arvind-Pal S. Mandair, “A Brief Response”, Interventions, Vol. 13(1), 23 Feb. 2011, Routledge, U.K., p.p. 149-153. Ibid. Anne Murphy, “Sikh Studies and Beyond”, Interventions, op. cit., p.p. 138-142. Mark Elmore, “Responding to Ghosts, or Religion-Making and the Limits of Academic Demonology”, Interventions, op. cit., p.p. 142-146. Brian K. Pennington, “Book Review”, Sophia, Vol. 50(3), May 2011, Springer, Netherlands, p.p. 499-501. Gavin Flood, “Book Review” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, Vol. 23(1), 2011, Brill, Netherlands, p.p. 79-81. Sian Hawthorne, “Is there a (M)other in the Text? Post-theistic Sikh Ontology and the Question of Phallus” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, op. cit., p.p. 160-176. Ruth Mas, “Refiguring Translation in Religious Studies” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, op. cit., p.p. 143-159. Micheal Hawley, “Book Reviews”, Journal of the Punjab Studies, Vol. 18(1&2), 2011, University of California, p.p. 283-286. Arvind Pal S. Mandair, Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality and the Politics of Translation, Columbia University Press, New York, 2009, p. 21. Ibid, p. 210. Ibid, p. 218. Ibid, p. 17. Ibid, p. 236. Ibid, p. 238. Ibid, p. 239. Ibid, p. 259. Ibid, p. 258. G.S. Dhillon, Critique of Western Writings on Sikh Religion and History, Singh and Singh Publishers, Chandigarh, 2014, P. 18. Arvind Pal S. Mandair, op. cit., p. 271. Ibid, p. 281. Ibid, p. 286 Another question important to this discussion that what is driving force behind the working of Singh Sabha? What’s its nature? Is it just a psychological passion or inspired by any spiritual motivation? To my opinion, no doubt, movement may have conditioned psychological fervor but religiosity cannot be deleted entirely. Because all of their efforts were directed to establish sabad guru as an archetype of Sikh way of life. Though they translated it as cultural universal unconsciously but their total devotion and commitment to sabad guru reflect mystical dimension behind their hard work. Guru Nanak Chamatkar, Ashat Gur Chamatkar and Kalgidhar Chamatkar are most valued works of Bhai Vir Singh written during the Singh Sabha Movement. Arvind Pal S. Mandair, op. cit., p. 211. Ibid, p. 367.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Folk Narratology:Propp’s Improved Actants and Functions Nasim Afsari1*, Shamsoddin Royanian2 MA English Literature, Semnan University, Semnan, IRAN 2 Assistant Professor in English Literature, Semnan University, Semnan, IRAN 1

Abstract: Folktales have a world of their own but exploring this world has always been hard due in part to the insufficiency of methods in this field. Although there have been many critics commenting on and at the same time reanalyzing Proppian pioneering formula to theorize a method of their own, this field of study still needs close scrutiny. The focus of this paper is to analyze and evaluate related methods in this field to come up with a theoretical framework, which may be employed in investigating folktale figures and functions in literary works. The narratologists discussed range from Vladimir Propp, as the pioneering theorist in this field, toward his French counterpart Algirdas Julien Greimas, and their American counterpart Emma Kafalenos. The study culminates in Brecht’s famous epigram as the rallying cry for familiarizing oneself with different theories, which seem to result in more methodical studies. Keywords: Actants, C-Actant, Dramatis Personae, Folktales, Functions, Greimas, Kafalenos, Narratology, Propp. I. Introduction Narratology, the English translation of the French term naratologie, the science of narrative or the structuralist study of the narratives, introduced by Tzvetan Todorov in Grammaire du Décaméron (1969), is “a modern theory associated chiefly with European Structuralism” and Russian Formalism (Baldick 166). Since then, the science of narratology underwent massive changes “due to the works of such narratologists as Bremond, Greimas, Barthes, and Genette” (Onodera 13). In addition, the roots of the theories of aforementioned critics can be traced in previous theories as that of “Propp’s study of Russian folktales” and also “the structuralism of LéviStrauss, who had revaluated the Russian formalism” of the early 1900s (13). In the mid-twentieth century a considerable concern was felt “with the general theory and practice of narratives” that gave rise to the antithesis of traditional narratology. The modern narratology is a term used since 1969, the starting point of which seems to be the Russian formalist Vladimir (I͡Akovlevich) Propp’s inspirational book Morphology of the Folktale (Prince 37; Baldick 166; Abrams 181). As one of the leading experts in the field of storytelling, Propp’s Morphology of the Folktale did much to turn attention to the modern narratology. Morphology, in the general sense of the word, refers to the structure and the way something is formed. Morphology of narratives or folklorist morphology is the study of structure and form of the folktales upon which Propp bases his study of Russian fairytales. As he remarks: The word “morphology” means the study of forms. In botany, the term means the study of the component parts of a plant, of their relationship to each other and to the whole—in other words, the study of a plant’s structure. But what about the ‘morphology of the folktale’? Scarcely anyone has thought about the possibility of such concept. (xxv). Thus, the book “with its theory of narrative functions” might be considered the origin of many other influential models of narrative analysis, resulting from reanalysis of Propp’s formula (Baldick 166) (emphasis added). This reanalysis led to diverse opinions the only common ground between which is treating the narrative in an unconventional way. Although the generality of the structures proposed by different narratologists is the same, some dramatic differences can be found: Narratologists, accordingly, do not treat a narrative in the traditional way…. but as a systematic and purely formal construction. The general undertaking is to determine the rules, or codes of composition… and also to formulate the “grammar” of narrative in terms of structures and narrative formulas that recur in many stories. (Abrams 181). Consequently, the tale morphologists are duty-bound to study the tale by breaking it into its component parts and attempting to find an underlying structure relating the fairy tale context works. In other words, the internal relation of the component parts of a narrative paves the way for unfolding different layers of meaning, while without these structures the text before us, in the structuralists’ viewpoint, is void of meaning. By following this line and by dissecting the tale into its component parts, the combination of these elements to form a complete

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tale can be investigated. Moreover, “grounds for comparison with other tales on the basis of a universal structural model” overcomes the difficulty experienced by the early narratologists in comparing the tales (Brooks xiii). II. Some Tale Morphologists The attempt at analyzing “core elements and ideas at play in the narratological modeling of narrative” was made as early as Greek ancient times (Meister 4). Plato in The Republic and Aristotle in The Poetics proposed narratological standpoints which was later considered as the precursors of such theorists as Genette and Friedemann. Such narratologists as Propp, Gérard Genette, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, Tzvetan Todorov and Jonathan Culler to name a few, “equated narrative with literary narrative thus leaving the research on the folktale to specialists” (Meister 5). These narratologists shared common goals in analyzing the narrative structures and theorizing a sequence true for all narratives; a goal that is apparently pursued by all these theorists right to the end. This systematic study led to different theories, concepts and procedures in that some of the theorists, in spite of confessing Propp’s brilliant theory, provided a reanalysis of his theory by offering a reduction of other critics’ reductions. In their view points, Propp’s model cuts short in analyzing some aspects of the fairy tales, while they try to expand the theory to avoid its “purely sequential, mono-linear logic of action” (Meister 6). In general, Russian Formalism and Proppian Morphology paved the way for the modern narratology, while “Saussrean tradition as well as the structural anthropology of Lévi-Strauss” attempted to simplify Propp’s thirty-one-point system (Meister 8). What most of the folk narratologists endeavor to accomplish, seems to give different types of narrative a separate entity in a way that a fairy tale, for instance, stops being a mere fantasy for children. The famous happy ending of the fairy tales is no more considered “the childish escape from harsh reality, but represents deep wisdom and the Divine Comedy of the Soul” (Davidson 157). Consequently and gradually, the attention turns to folk tale literature as one of the “great” kinds by which Sale meant a type of literature “that do and can do what no other kind of literature does” (Sale 372). The result of the international recognition of this revolutionary literary theory is facing with serious challenges that must be dealt with. The aforementioned scholars are not the only ones who are in quest of investigating the underlying structures and elements of narratives. There have been and there are other skillful scholars in this field, but for the sake of clarity and conciseness this thesis limits itself to some examples of the representative narratologists who more or less deal with theorizing a method applicable to folktales. The list commences with Propp as the pioneer of modern narratology and his French counterpart Greimas and ends with his American counterpart Kafalenos. This chapter serves as a quest for finding a theoretical framework for studying folktale figures and functions in literary works. A. Vladimir I͡Akovlevich Propp Not very long ago, the lame excuse of “insufficiency of material” given by Speránskij attempted to blind researchers to the needs of tale analysis (Propp 3). Propp, the Russian structuralist, however, was acutely aware of the basic flaws in the methods of investigation than the amount of material. Consequently, as the idea is also supported by Onodera, Propp “tried to discover general rule of the tale by a morphological approach” which later made him as one of the prominent structuralists who focused on narratology, particularly narrative structure as reflected in fairy tales (15). For developing his theory, he had four fundamental tenets: (1) Functions of characters serve as stable, constant elements in a tale, independent of how and by whom they are fulfilled. They constitute the fundamental components of a tale. (2) The number of functions known to the fairy tale is limited. (3) The sequence of functions is always identical. (4) All fairy tales are of one type in regard to their structure (21-23). Based on these four tenets and by analyzing 100 Russian magic inspired folktales, in his seminal book Morphology of the Folktale (1928), Propp asserts that all fairy tales are based on 31 fixed elements or what he calls, narrative functions occurring in a given sequence 1. As Propp discusses, these narrative functions of the dramatis personae “are basic components of the tale” defined in “a single word”, while the place of the action is significant in the course of narration (21). Function, action or event, is a keyword in Propp’s system and is “defined from the point of view of its significance for the course of the action” (21). Furthermore, “the (uniform) sequence of functions is always identical” and never accidental since “the absence of certain function” does not distort “the order of the rest” (Propp 22). To sum up, with the help of actants and functions, Propp draws the conclusion that “all fairy tales are of one type in regard to their structure” (23). Propp’s theory identifies actants as the seven characters available to fairytale tellers. They are, as Propp believes them to be; “hero, false hero, villain, donor, helper, dispatcher and a sought-for person” (79-80). All these characters could be resolved into seven broad actants in the story by means of which predictable patterns or 1

Manuel Aguirre shares Proppian notion in that “all fairy tales are constructed on the basis of one single strict string of actions or events called functions” (2). (qtd. in < http://www.northangerlibrary.com/documentos/ >).

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functions are enacted to further the plot of the story. Each dramatis persona has a sphere of action that exactly corresponds to his role but sometimes “one character is involved in several spheres of action …. or a single sphere of action is distributed among several characters” (80-81). Proppian actants exerted influence upon Greimas who proposed his theory of actants using the even number of six, subtracting one from the seven actants of Proppian theory. From Propp’s theoretical world, words such as how, and by whom are omitted; the single action although insignificant by its own, gains significance when in relation to other elements. Proppian theory is underestimated by Lévi-Strauss in that “the linear sequential order (utilized by Propp)” is deemed “obvious and superficial” by this French theorist (Dundes 40). Furthermore, it is worth asserting that the applicability of Proppian theory to long non-linear works can be refuted. In case of some longs works as The Faerie Queene, Proppian actants that are either black or white can be found but as for functions, applying 31 of them to a long classic work is a demanding job. Among the theorists to offer a reduction of Proppian reductions, Waller Hastings and Paul Veiko Vehvilainen can be named who have simplified “Propp’s thirty-one functions into a five-point system” that like Propp’s functions “always occurs in the same order” (Bressler 113). Dyck supports the idea and claims that “Vehvilainen found that the majority of the tales he studied” includes five basic actions, appearing in exactly the same order as Propp’s functions (197). The actions proposed by Hastings and Vehvilainen appear to encompass the 31 unchangeable elements theorized by Propp. The reduction of 31 actions come under the headings of 1: I. A lack of something exists. II. This lack forces the hero to go on a quest to eliminate the lack. III. During the quest, the hero encounters a magical helper. IV. This helper is subjected to one or more tests. V. After passing the test(s), the hero receives a reward Although the flaw spotted in Proppian theory of functions seem solved by these theorists’ reduction to five functions, another problem of unavailability of an authentic source explaining these critics’ method is faced. Vehvilainen’s attempt at a method is elaborated in his doctoral thesis entitled “The Swedish Folktale: A Structural Analysis” (1964) which is vaguely unavailable for readers. Thus, the continued investigation brings one to the method of another prominent theorist dealing more or less with folktales. B. Algirdas Julien Greimas (1917- 1992) Influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure’s “concept of difference or the notion of binary oppositions” (Trifonas 1100), and Propp’s theory of actants, and tied to Russian Formalism through both of these theorists, this critic also offers “a reduction of Lévi-Strauss’s reduction of Propp’s actants and functions” (Katilius-boydstun 6). Algirdas Julien Greimas (1917-1992) had the “concept of narrativity and the descriptive procedures of narratology at the very core of his semiotic” (Perron 527). For highlighting the considerable influence exerted on his theories, Greimas’s confession is noteworthy: My theoretical genius, if I can so call it, was a form of "bricolage." I took a little Lévi-Strauss and added some Propp. This is what I call the first stage of semiotics. When I examined Propp's work on folktale and analyzed it, I noticed that four principal segments could be identified, that these segments could be paired, and that two of these pairs made up a Lévi-Straussian schema. It was necessary to go one step further. (541) Although, the theories of the aforementioned critics provided Greimas with a priceless narratological background information, it should not be neglected that “these concepts were not simply borrowed but were modified, transformed, problematized, and redefined” by Greimas (Perron 527). Considered mainly as a semiotician, Greimas has written on a wide variety of subjects which are directly or indirectly related to the domain of “the Russian folktale and the folktale in general” (Perron 523). Greimas as the founder of Paris school, proposes a reduction of Lévi-Strauss’ reduction of Propp’s actants and functions arranged in two pairs. As a case in point of binary opposition is Greimas’s claim that human beings perceive the world in terms of “opposed pairs” (Hawkes 70; Tyson 224). He formed his theory of the binary system based on “Saussure’s and Jakobson’s concept of the fundamental signifying role of binary opposition” (Hawkes 69). Greimas developed his theory of dramatis personae based on Proppian actants. He argues that “these binary oppositions form the basis of a deep-lying ‘actantial model’/modèle actantial” from which an even number is generated (Hawkes 89). Thus, a difference is spotted between these two theories of actantial model. Greimas proposed the formula of actants using the even number of six, subtracting one from the seven actants of Proppian theory. Greimas’ six fundamental actants are paired in Subject/Object, Sender/Receiver, Helper/Opponent. Further investigation of Greimassien actants shows a striking similarities to Proppian ones. As a result, it turned out that one character may serve as the manifestation of two or more actants and several actants may fulfill the tasks of one single actant, which is the same conclusion Propp arrived at (Hawkes 71; Baldick 3). His actantial model is followed:

It is qtd. in Bressler 113, emphasis original.

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Fig 1. Greimas’ Reduction of Proppian Dramatis Personae into an Actantial Model 1

He also summarized Proppian thirty-one functions into a system of binarity first limited into twenty words that are “no easier to handle than the first” (Greimas, Structural 225). While he believes that Greimas criticized Proppian functions in that “what Propp called a function was not a function but a sentence”, with no elaborations on the flaw in considering functions as sentences (Greimas, “On Meaning” 542). He subsequently proposed his theory of functions in single words than sentences. In the first place, the present study approves of limiting the number of functions. Since, applying 31 functions to a tale is really a demanding meticulous task, while it seems to be operative for short texts. In the second place, it is worthy to claim that although 31 functions are so great a number, 6 functions summarized in words are not only too general but simplification of simplifications. By doing so, and having the intention of representing a scientific structuralism, Greimas has seemingly turned the theories into a rather mathematical formula by coming up with syntax “that functioned more or less as a calculus” (Greimas, “On Meaning” 539-43) (emphasis added). Furthermore, what bestows meaning upon Proppian functions is the place of the function in the course of narration. For instance, a wedding can be considered as a “reward only if it occurs at the end of a sequence or of the tale” (5). Thus, Propp further argues that “identical acts can have different meanings, and vice versa” (21). But in the Greimassian sense of binary oppositions several functions are summarized in one word and their place in the sequential narration is of little importance. It seems that the underlying structure that both Greimas and Propp arrived at is the same, but Greimassian structure does not create a meaningful story- in the Proppian sense of the word “meaning”- when elaboration on the place and time of occurrence is avoided. It is worth noting that Propp placed a considerable emphasis on functions while he believed that functions are the single significant component parts of a tale. Greimas shifts this emphasis from functions to “actors (… characters or actants), items (objects), and incidents as minimal units of narrative analysis” (Trifonas 1104). It can be said that Greimas believed in the “intuitive” nature of Propp’s model, which could be “broken down into parts, into important sequences that were covered over by the model” (Greimas, “On Meaning” 543). It can be concluded that, although Greimas’ theory has its own flaws the main one is generalizing and oversimplifying Proppian notions, he shared the Proppian basic tenet that the deep structure are versus the surface structure and even though those stories seem different on the surface, a ‘structural’ analysis reveals that they spring from a common ‘grammar’ (Hawkes 70). Furthermore, the conclusion Greimas reaches after analyzing the discourse seems to be directly influenced by Eugene Vance in whose book he showed that different “ways of understanding the world” is of high importance (Greimas, “On Meaning” 548). Greimas uses his formula to generalize the issues posed in the world of wonder tale to the real world and addressed larger questions regarding humanity than a mere fantasy tale. He considers the idea of quest proposed in the literary world as “more or less man’s quest for meaning of life” either individual or collective (Greimas, “On Meaning” 543). He also used his system to analyze the works of Georges Bernanos and to draw the generalized conclusion about the author’s life “a double-edged sword of joy and pain” traceable in the life of the author who has faced “the conflict between life and death” (Tyson 226). Greimas develops his theory from both Propp and Lévi-Strauss. However, Lévi-Strauss’ criticism is devoted mostly to myths than folktales. In spite of paying special attention to unfolding the story, Lévi-Strauss goes beyond this aim and believes that “If we consider only the syntagmatic sequence-that is, the unfolding of the story-it appears incoherent and very arbitrary in construction” (Dundes 40-41). Hence, discovering these layers turns to be Propp’s pursued priceless goal, but Lévi-Strauss’ unfinished one, while he understates syntagmatic sequence as being meaningless and interchangeable with the paradigmatic one. It can be stated that, Propp for proposing the theory of the structure of the fairy tales endeavors to analyze the Russian tales, one by one, each of which is regarded as an autonomous entity bearing its own significance and meaning. But, it is likely that Lévi-Strauss arrives at the same goal of finding an underlying paradigm by comparing the structure of narratives to language or the life of human beings. It is the same view point Dundes had when considering Lévi-Strauss as “much more of a comparativist than a structuralist” (41). Another reason that the study of the folktales might not draw upon Lévi-Strauss’ theory is that he seems “consistent, that is, consistently mistaken” in theorizing a structuralist method for the mixed genre of myths/tales (Dundes 45). The search toward finding a serviceable model of Proppian functions lead ones to Emma Kafalenos.

For more elaborations see Greimas, Structural xlii.

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C. Emma Kafalenos In her paper entitled “Functions after Propp: Words to Talk about How We Read Narrative” (1996), Kafalenos reduces Proppian functions into a more serviceable method. By having Propp’s main tenets and definitions in mind, Kafalenos states that “the definitions I provide for each function are developed from Propp's” for the sake of theorizing “a smaller and more serviceable model that contains eleven functions” 1 (Kafalenos, “Functions after Propp” 470). What makes the present study to include Kafalenos’ eleven-point system, is that the fairytales on which she applies her method for explaining her theory respond perfectly to this approach. In her viewpoint, “a function names a position in an abstract causal sequence” (Narrative Causalities 3), which is in line with Propp’s attention to “sequence of functions [which] is always identical” (Propp 22). For this very reason she remains faithful to Proppian sequence of functions, which is ignored by Greimas in his reductions of functions. As it is implied, her model encompasses the C-actant’s 2 quest, a character who “plays the same role of protagonist” during all steps of his journey (emphasis original) (Kafalenos, Narrative Causalities 10). Moving from the initial to the final equilibrium, the method traces C-actant’s progression in a causal sequence. Illustration of her model may reveal more:

Fig 2. Kafalenos’ Reduction of Proppian Functions Kafalenos’ model by responding to the readers’ need to interpret some incidents subjectively is also well-known in reader-response approaches. Putting it on other words, for focusing on the deep meaning of allegorical, Postmodern or even nonlinear plot formulas, Kafalenos’ model seem preferable to Proppian functions, seemingly applicable to short narratives, i.e. folktales. Furthermore, in comparing Proppian theory to Kafalenos’ one, it is worth noting that a repetition of Kafalenos’ functions might occur is long works. For instance, when the hero faces several tests, functions D, E, F are repeated several times. Kafalenos uses the subscript “n” “to indicate that this series of events is repeated an indeterminate number of times” (Kafalenos, Narrative Casualties 18). Her theory is influenced by Todorov’s narrative sequence. She “adopt[s] Todorov's definition as a definition of the narrative sequence”, by which she means “one or more or a part of a move from equilibrium to disruption to equilibrium” (Kafalenos, “Functions after Propp” 472). The same as Greimas’ theory which is a bricolage of the theories of Propp and Lévi-Strauss, Kafalenos’ theory is a bricolage of the theories of Propp and Todorov; “My theory of functions is developed from ideas, which I see as interrelated, introduced by narrative theorists Tzvetan Todorov and Vladimir Propp” (Narrative 4). However, by paying special attention to the content of the story and paying heed to reader’s response, her method seems different from her Proppian Todorvian sources of inspiration. III. Conclusion and Discussion In conclusion, it can be highlighted that Propp provided the basis for narratology, and other critics tried their hands at improving his theory. Lévi-Strauss might have started the same study on myth before or at the same time as Propp and they seemingly have published their work unaware of the other ones pre-occupation with the same issue. But, as elaborated, Lévi-Strauss seems to treat the narratives as if the narratives are equivalent of language. Moreover, Greimas’ reduction of Proppian functions, in spite of intending to follow the same path as Propp, is more linguistic than literature based. However, his special emphasis in going one step further from the surface of meaning of literary works, toward a content-based theory puts him among the theorists whose actantial model facilitates a study of folktale figures. In sharp contrast to Lévi-Strauss and Greimas, Hasting’s and Vehvilainen’s five point system remain secure of interference of their critics in the original Proppian 1

In her paper published in 1997, Kafalenos discerns 11 functions containing 6 key and 5 minor functions. But with a subtle difference, in her book published in 2006, 5 major and 5 minor functions are explained. She subtracts function K or “new equilibrium” from her book. 2 Pronounced “C Prime” (Kafalenos, Narrative Causalities 10).

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formula. Due to the unavailability of their discussions, the paper is led to Kafalenos’ model of Proppian functions that remains faithful to its source of inspiration. To sum up it can be said that a theoretical framework can be derived from the aforementioned theories. For investigating folktale figures in literary works and to find their counterparts in folktales, Proppian seven dramatis persona along with Greimas’ actantial model provides the study with both a form-conscious and a content-based analysis of the characters. Moreover, Kafalenos’ functions seem promising in revealing both the surface and deep meaning of the structure of literary works to be compared with folktales. It might seem tempting to choose one of these theories and apply it to literary works to disclose their folktale layers but a combination of theories seem to reveal more about the folktale layers than the application of one theory reveals. Moreover, it is worth noting that every pioneering theory has its own flaws, while the passage of time makes succeeding theories that derive from it more methodical. In line with the mentioned standpoint, Brecht states that “a man with one theory is lost. He needs several of them, or lots! He should stuff them in his pockets like newspapers1”. IV. References [1]

Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Australia: Thomson, 2005.

[2]

Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

[3]

Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. New Jersey:Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.

[4]

Brooks, Peter. Introduction. Introduction to Poetics. By Tzvetan Todorov. Minneapolis: University of Minnesotsa Press, 1981.

[5]

Davidson, H. R. Ellis. Rev. of The Hero with a Thousand Faces, by Joseph John Campbell. Folklore. 80.2 (1969): 156-157.

[6]

Dundes, Alan. “Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/ Lévi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect.”Western States Folklore Society 56.4 (1997): 39-50.

[7]

Dyck, Andrew. “The Witch’s Bed But not Her Breakfast: An Odyssean Paradox”. Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, Neue Folge, 124. 3.4 (1981): 196-198.

[8]

Fuegi, John. Bertolt Brecht: Chaos, According to Plan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

[9]

Greimas, Algirdas Julien. Structural Semantics: An Attempt at a Method.trans. Daniele McDowell, Ronald Schleifer, and Alan Velie. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1983.

[10] On Meaning.” New Literary History. 20.3 (1989): 539-550. [11] Hawkes, Terence. Structuralism and Semiotics. London: Routledge, 2003. [12] Kafalenos, Emma. “Functions after Propp: Words to Talk about How We Read Narrative”. Poetics Today. 18.4 (1997): 469-494. [13] Narrative Casualties. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2006. [14] Katilius-boydstun, Marvin. “The Semiotics of A. J. Greimas: an Introduction”. Lithuanian Quarterly Journal Of Arts And Sciences. 36.3 (1990). Web. 7 Dec. 2015. <http://www.lituanus.org/1990_3/90_3_02.htm.> [15] Meister, Jan Christoph. “Narratology.” The Living Handbook of Narratology. Hamburg http://wikis.sub.uni-hamburg.de/lhn/ index.php/Narratology>.

University Press. 2013. Web. 3 Dec. 2015. <

[16] Onodera, Susumu. “Greimas’s Actantial Model and the Cinderella Story: The Simplest Way for the Structural Analysis of Narratives.” Hirosaki University. 24 (2010): 13-24. [17] Perron, Paul. “Introduction: A. J. Greimas.” New Literary History 20.3 (1989): 523-538. [18] Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. [19] Propp, Vladimir I͡Akovlevich. Morphology of the Folktale. 2nd edition. Laurence Scott, Trans. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968. [20] Sale, Roger. “Fairy Tales.” The Hudson Review 30.3 (1977): 372-394. [21] Trifonas, Peter Pericles, ed. International Handbook of Semiotics. Toronto: Springer, 2015. [22] Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today, A User-Friendly Guide. London: Routledge, 2006.

It is qtd. in Fuegi 174.

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