ISSN (Print): 2328-3734 ISSN (Online): 2328-3696 ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688
Issue 9, Volume 1, 2, 3 & 4 December-2014 to February-2015
American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences
International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR) (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
STEM International Scientific Online Media and Publishing House Head Office: 148, Summit Drive, Byron, Georgia-31008, United States. Offices Overseas: Germany, Australia, India, Netherlands, Canada. Website: www.iasir.net, E-mail (s): iasir.journals@iasir.net, iasir.journals@gmail.com, aijrhass@gmail.com
PREFACE We are delighted to welcome you to the ninth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS). In recent years, advances in science, engineering, formal, applied and natural sciences have radically expanded the data available to researchers and professionals in a wide variety of domains. This unique combination of theory with data has the potential to have broad impact on educational research and practice. AIJRHASS is publishing high-quality, peer-reviewed papers covering topics such as Business administration, Management, Marketing, Finance, Economics, Banking, Accounting, Human resources management, Entrepreneurship, Relationship management, Risk management, Retail management, Linguistics, International relations, Anthropology, Archaeology, Sociology, International business, Tourism and hospitality management, Law, Psychology, Corporate governance, Education, Ethics, Geography, History, Industrial relations, Information science, Library science, Media studies, Philosophy, Political science, Public administration, Sociology, Social welfare, Literature, Performing arts (music, theatre and dance), Religious studies, Women studies, Production and operations management, Organizational behavior and theory, Strategic management & policies, Statistics and Econometrics, Technology and innovation, Management information systems and other closely related field in the disciplines of arts, humanities and social sciences.
The editorial board of AIJRHASS is composed of members of the Teachers & Researchers community who are enthusiastically involved in the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge to discover new paths for maintaining a strong presence in the arts, the humanities and the social sciences which can easily be coupled with the information and communication technologies. These fields respect objective and logical reasoning to optimize the impact of research in social, economic and cultural, quality of life to understand the advancements in humanities, arts and social sciences. These fields are the pillars of growth in our modern society and have a wider impact on our daily lives with infinite opportunities in a global marketplace. In order to best serve our community, this Journal is available online as well as in hard-copy form. Because of the rapid advances in underlying technologies and the interdisciplinary nature of the field, we believe it is important to provide quality research articles promptly and to the widest possible audience.
We are happy that this Journal has continued to grow and develop. We have made every effort to evaluate and process submissions for reviews, and address queries from authors and the general public promptly. The Journal has strived to reflect the most recent and finest
researchers in the fields of humanities, arts and social sciences. This Journal is completely refereed and indexed with major databases like: IndexCopernicus, Computer Science Directory,
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ArnetMiner, Base, ChemXSeer, citebase, OpenJ-Gate, eLibrary, SafetyLit, SSRN, VADLO, OpenGrey, EBSCO, ProQuest, UlrichWeb, ISSUU, SPIE Digital Library, arXiv, ERIC, EasyBib, Infotopia, WorldCat, .docstoc JURN, Mendeley, ResearchGate, cogprints, OCLC, iSEEK, Scribd, LOCKSS, CASSI, E-PrintNetwork, intute, and some other databases.
We are grateful to all of the individuals and agencies whose work and support made the Journal's success possible. We want to thank the executive board and core committee members of the AIJRHASS for entrusting us with the important job. We are thankful to the members of the AIJRHASS editorial board who have contributed energy and time to the Journal with their steadfast support, constructive advice, as well as reviews of submissions. We are deeply indebted to the numerous anonymous reviewers who have contributed expertly evaluations of the submissions to help maintain the quality of the Journal. For this ninth issue, we received 159 research papers and out of which only 74 research papers are published in four volumes as per the reviewers’ recommendations. We have highest respect to all the authors who have submitted articles to the Journal for their intellectual energy and creativity, and for their dedication to the field of humanities, arts and social sciences.
This issue of the AIJRHASS has attracted a large number of authors and researchers across worldwide and would provide an effective platform to all the intellectuals of different streams to put forth their suggestions and ideas which might prove beneficial for the accelerated pace of development of emerging technologies in formal, applied and natural sciences and may open new area for research and development. We hope you will enjoy this ninth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences and are looking forward to hearing your feedback and receiving your contributions.
(Administrative Chief)
(Managing Director)
(Editorial Head)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS), ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 (December-2014 to February-2015, Issue 9, Volume 1, 2, 3 & 4). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BOARD MEMBERS
EDITOR IN CHIEF Prof. (Dr.) Waressara Weerawat, Director of Logistics Innovation Center, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Divya Sethi, GM Conferencing & VSAT Solutions, Enterprise Services, Bharti Airtel, Gurgaon, India. CHIEF EDITOR (TECHNICAL) Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Raturi, Head School of Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala campus, Suva, Fiji Islands. Prof. (Dr.) Hadi Suwastio, College of Applied Science, Department of Information Technology, The Sultanate of Oman and Director of IETI-Research Institute-Bandung, Indonesia. Dr. Nitin Jindal, Vice President, Max Coreth, North America Gas & Power Trading, New York, United States. CHIEF EDITOR (GENERAL) Prof. (Dr.) Thanakorn Naenna, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London. ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Fabrizio Gerli, Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Vit Vozenilek, Department of Geoinformatics, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Praneel Chand, Ph.D., M.IEEEC/O School of Engineering & Physics Faculty of Science & Technology The University of the South Pacific (USP) Laucala Campus, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.
Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Dr. Cathryn J. Peoples, Faculty of Computing and Engineering, School of Computing and Information Engineering, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. Prof. (Dr.) Pavel Lafata, Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, 166 27, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anis Zarrad, Department of Computer Science and Information System, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Md. Rizwan Beg, Professor & Head, Dean, Faculty of Computer Applications, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Engg. & Information Technology, Integral University Kursi Road, Dasauli, Lucknow, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vishnu Narayan Mishra, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath Mahadev Road, Surat, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India. Dr. Jia Hu, Member Research Staff, Philips Research North America, New York Area, NY. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bindhya Chal Yadav, Assistant Professor in Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College, Fatehabad, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. REVIEW BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Joel Saltz, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.
Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Pravin G. Ingole, Senior Researcher, Greenhouse Gas Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, KOREA Prof. (Dr.) Dilum Bandara, Dept. Computer Science & Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. Prof. (Dr.) Faudziah Ahmad, School of Computing, UUM College of Arts and Sciences, University Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman Prof. (Dr.) G. Manoj Someswar, Principal, Dept. of CSE at Anwar-ul-uloom College of Engineering & Technology, Yennepally, Vikarabad, RR District., A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Abdelghni Lakehal, Applied Mathematics, Rue 10 no 6 cite des fonctionnaires dokkarat 30010 Fes Marocco. Dr. Kamal Kulshreshtha, Associate Professor & Head, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Applications, Modi Institute of Management & Technology, Kota-324 009, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anukrati Sharma, Associate Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Natarajan, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, NH 47, Salem Main Road, Komarapalayam, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu 638183, India. Prof. (Dr.) J. Sadhik Basha, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Prof. (Dr.) G. SAVITHRI, Department of Sericulture, S.P. Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shweta jain, Tolani College of Commerce, Andheri, Mumbai. 400001, India Prof. (Dr.) Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar, Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Prof. (Dr.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Manjulatha, Dept of Biochemistry,School of Life Sciences,University of Hyderabad,Gachibowli, Hyderabad, India. Prof. (Dr.) Upasani Dhananjay Eknath Advisor & Chief Coordinator, ALUMNI Association, Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science, Narhe, Pune- 411 041, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudhindra Bhat, Professor & Finance Area Chair, School of Business, Alliance University Bangalore-562106. Prof. Prasenjit Chatterjee , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MCKV Institute of Engineering West Bengal, India. Prof. Rajesh Murukesan, Deptt. of Automobile Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering college, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Parmil Kumar, Department of Statistics, University of Jammu, Jammu, India Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Shesha Prakash, Vice Principal, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Alanahally, Mysore-570 028 Prof. (Dr.) Piyush Singhal, Mechanical Engineering Deptt., GLA University, India. Prof. M. Mahbubur Rahman, School of Engineering & Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth Western Australia 6150, Australia. Prof. Nawaraj Chaulagain, Department of Religion, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL. Prof. Hassan Jafari, Faculty of Maritime Economics & Management, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, khoramshahr, Khuzestan province, Iran Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad , Dept of EC, School of Engg, R.K.University,Kast urbhadham, Tramba, Rajkot-360020, India. Prof. (Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, ( Women's University), Tirupati-517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. P.R.SivaSankar, Head, Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science( AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. Manoj Chouhan, Deptt. of Information Technology, SVITS Indore, India.
Prof. Yupal S Shukla, V M Patel College of Management Studies, Ganpat University, KhervaMehsana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kohli, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, D.A.V.Institute of Engg. and Technology, Kabir Nagar, Jalandhar, Punjab(India) Prof. (Dr.) Kumar Irayya Maddani, and Head of the Department of Physics in SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, State: Karnataka (INDIA). Prof. (Dr.) Shafi Phaniband, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, INDIA. Prof. M H Annaiah, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Soladevana Halli, Bangalore -560107, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shriram K V, Faculty Computer Science and Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham University, Coimbatore, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sohail Ayub, Department of Civil Engineering, Z.H College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. 202002 UP-India Prof. (Dr.) Santosh Kumar Behera, Department of Education, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Urmila Shrawankar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, G H Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur (MS), India. Prof. Anbu Kumar. S, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering) Delhi, India. Prof. (Dr.) Meenakshi Sood, Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Mysore, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka (India) Prof. (Dr.) Prof. R. R. Patil, Director School Of Earth Science, Solapur University, Solapur, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Khandelwal, Dept. of Mining Engg, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur-313 001 (Rajasthan), India Prof. (Dr.) Kishor Chandra Satpathy, Librarian, National Institute of Technology, Silchar-788010, Assam, India. Prof. (Dr.) Juhana Jaafar, Gas Engineering Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering (FPREE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor. Prof. (Dr.) Rita Khare, Assistant Professor in chemistry, Govt. Women,s College, Gardanibagh, Patna, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raviraj Kusanur, Dept of Chemistry, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore-59, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hameem Shanavas .I, M.V.J College of Engineering, Bangalore, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sandhya Mehrotra, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences, Pilani, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Ravindra Jilte, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering,VCET, Thane-401202, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, JKL University, Ajmer Road, Jaipur Prof. (Dr.) Pushp Lata Faculty of English and Communication, Department of Humanities and Languages, Nucleus Member, Publications and Media Relations Unit Editor, BITScan, BITS, PilaniIndia Prof. Arun Agarwal, Faculty of ECE Dept., ITER College, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Prof. (Dr.) Pratima Tripathi, Department of Biosciences, SSSIHL, Anantapur Campus Anantapur515001 (A.P.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudip Das, Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, I.C.A.R.E. Complex, H.I.T. Campus, P.O. Hit, Haldia; Dist: Puba Medinipur, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) ABHIJIT MITRA , Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta , India. Prof. (Dr.) N.Ramu , Associate Professor , Department of Commerce, Annamalai University, AnnamalaiNadar-608 002, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu , India. Prof. (Dr.) Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah, Assistant Professor of Theriogenology , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Beni-Suef University , Egypt. Prof. (Dr.) Ramel D. Tomaquin, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Surigao Del Sur State University (SDSSU), Tandag City Surigao Del Sur, Philippines. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) R.K.Tiwari, Professor, S.O.S. in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.-474011, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sandeep Gupta, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Gr.Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Akram, Jazan University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Sharma, Dept. of Mathematics, BIT, Durg(C.G.), India. Prof. (Dr.) Manas R. Panigrahi, Department of Physics, School of Applied Sciences, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India. Prof. (Dr.) P.Kiran Sree, Dept of CSE, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India Prof. (Dr.) Suvroma Gupta, Department of Biotechnology in Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) SREEKANTH. K. J., Department of Mechanical Engineering at Mar Baselios College of Engineering & Technology, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, India Prof. Bhubneshwar Sharma, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Eternal University (H.P), India. Prof. Love Kumar, Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), India. Prof. S.KANNAN, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar- 608002, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hasrinah Hasbullah, Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhargavi H. Goswami, Department of MCA, Sunshine Group of Institutes, Nr. Rangoli Park, Kalawad Road, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Essam H. Houssein, Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computers & Informatics, Benha University, Benha 13518, Qalyubia Governorate, Egypt. Arash Shaghaghi, University College London, University of London, Great Britain. Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anand Kumar, Head, Department of MCA, M.S. Engineering College, Navarathna Agrahara, Sadahalli Post, Bangalore, PIN 562110, Karnataka, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Venkata Raghavendra Miriampally, Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept, Adama Science & Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia. Prof. (Dr.) Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Director (I.T.), GTU's Ankleshwar-Bharuch Innovation Sankul &Director I/C & Associate Professor, Narmada College of Computer Application, Zadeshwar, Bharuch, Gujarat, India. Prof. Jaswinder Singh, Mechanical Engineering Department, University Institute Of Engineering & Technology, Panjab University SSG Regional Centre, Hoshiarpur, Punjab, India- 146001. Prof. (Dr.) S.Kadhiravan, Head i/c, Department of Psychology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Israr, Principal, Balaji Engineering College,Junagadh, Gujarat-362014, India. Prof. (Dr.) VENKATESWARLU B., Director of MCA in Sreenivasa Institute of Technology and Management Studies (SITAMS), Chittoor. Prof. (Dr.) Deepak Paliwal, Faculty of Sociology, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Anil K Dwivedi, Faculty of Pollution & Environmental Assay Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Botany,DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009, India. Prof. R. Ravikumar, Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, TamilNadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) R.Raman, Professor of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai university, Annamalai Nagar 608 002Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Khalafallah, Coordinator of the CM Degree Program, Department of Architectural and Manufacturing Sciences, Ogden College of Sciences and Engineering Western Kentucky University 1906 College Heights Blvd Bowling Green, KY 42103-1066 Prof. (Dr.) Asmita Das , Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad, Daulatpur, Delhi 110042, India. Prof. (Dr.)Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), CSE Department, Amrita School of Engineering , Amrita Vishwa VidyaPeetham (University), Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram P.O., Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, India Prof. (Dr.) S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty, Prof & Geoarchaeologist, Head of the Department of Sanskrit & Indian Culture, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram 631561, India Prof. (Dr.) Shubhasheesh Bhattacharya, Professor & HOD(HR), Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Hinjewadi, Phase-I, Pune- 411 057 Prof. (Dr.) Vijay Kothari, Institute of Science, Nirma University, S-G Highway, Ahmedabad 382481, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli, Department of Civil Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India.
Prof. (Dr.)B. M. Kunar, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Prabir Sarkar, Assistant Professor, School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Room 307, Academic Block, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) K.Srinivasmoorthy, Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical,Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry university, R.Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science (AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.)P.Raviraj, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641402,Tamilnadu,India. Prof. (Dr.) Damodar Reddy Edla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India. Prof. (Dr.) T.C. Manjunath, Principal in HKBK College of Engg., Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) Pankaj Bhambri, I.T. Deptt., Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana 141006, Punjab, India . Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shambhu Nath Choudhary, Department of Physics, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81200, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Venkateshwarlu Sonnati, Professor & Head of EEED, Department of EEE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Saurabh Dalela, Department of Pure & Applied Physics, University of Kota, KOTA 324010, Rajasthan, India. Prof. S. Arman Hashemi Monfared, Department of Civil Eng, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Daneshgah St.,Zahedan, IRAN, P.C. 98155-987 Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Chanda, Dept. of Jute & Fibre Tech., University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India. Prof. V.S.VAKULA, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUK, University College of Engg., Vizianagaram5 35003, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Nehal Gitesh Chitaliya, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) D.R. Prajapati, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,Chandigarh 160012, India. Dr. A. SENTHIL KUMAR, Postdoctoral Researcher, Centre for Energy and Electrical Power, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. Prof. (Dr.)Vijay Harishchandra Mankar, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Mangalwari Bazar, Besa Road, Nagpur- 440027, India. Prof. Varun.G.Menon, Department Of C.S.E, S.C.M.S School of Engineering, Karukutty, Ernakulam, Kerala 683544, India. Prof. (Dr.) U C Srivastava, Department of Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, U.P-203301.India. Prof. (Dr.) Surendra Yadav, Professor and Head (Computer Science & Engineering Department), Maharashi Arvind College of Engineering and Research Centre (MACERC), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences & Humanities Dehradun Institute of Technology, (D.I.T. School of Engineering), 48 A K.P-3 Gr. Noida (U.P.) 201308 Prof. Naveen Jain, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur-313 001, India. Prof. Veera Jyothi.B, CBIT ,Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. Aritra Ghosh, Global Institute of Management and Technology, Krishnagar, Nadia, W.B. India Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Sirhind Mandi Gobindgarh, Punajb, India. Prof. (Dr.) Varala Ravi, Head, Department of Chemistry, IIIT Basar Campus, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Mudhole, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh- 504 107, India Prof. (Dr.) Ravikumar C Baratakke, faculty of Biology,Govt. College, Saundatti - 591 126, India.
Prof. (Dr.) NALIN BHARTI, School of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shivanand S.Gornale, Head, Department of Studies in Computer Science, Government College (Autonomous), Mandya, Mandya-571 401-Karanataka Prof. (Dr.) Naveen.P.Badiger, Dept.Of Chemistry, S.D.M.College of Engg. & Technology, Dharwad-580002, Karnataka State, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Tauqeer Ahmad Usmani, Faculty of IT, Salalah College of Technology, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman, Prof. (Dr.) Naresh Kr. Vats, Chairman, Department of Law, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Prof. (Dr.) Papita Das (Saha), Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India Prof. (Dr.) Rekha Govindan , Dept of Biotechnology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of technology , Vinayaka Missions University , Paiyanoor , Kanchipuram Dt, Tamilnadu , India Prof. (Dr.) Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.o.Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Kalasad, Department of Physics, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka, India Prof. Rab Nawaz Lodhi, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal Prof. (Dr.) Masoud Hajarian, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, General Campus, Evin, Tehran 19839,Iran Prof. (Dr.) Chandra Kala Singh, Associate professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India Prof. (Dr.) J.Babu, Professor & Dean of research, St.Joseph's College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry, Palai,Kerala. Prof. (Dr.) Pradip Kumar Roy, Department of Applied Mechanics, Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi-835215, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi kumar, School of Electrical Engineering (SELECT), Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, VIT University, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Debasis Patnaik, BITS-Pilani, Goa Campus, India. Prof. (Dr.) SANDEEP BANSAL, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, I.G.N. College, Haryana, India. Dr. Radhakrishnan S V S, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faser Hall, The University of Mississippi Oxford, MS-38655, USA Prof. (Dr.) Megha Mittal, Faculty of Chemistry, Manav Rachna College of Engineering, Faridabad (HR), 121001, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihaela Simionescu (BRATU), BUCHAREST, District no. 6, Romania, member of the Romanian Society of Econometrics, Romanian Regional Science Association and General Association of Economists from Romania Prof. (Dr.) Atmani Hassan, Director Regional of Organization Entraide Nationale Prof. (Dr.) Deepshikha Gupta, Dept. of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,Amity University, Sec.125, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Kamruzzaman, Deaprtment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW-2145. Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil , Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry,Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Sudarson Jena, Dept. of Information Technology, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Jai Prakash Jaiswal, Department of Mathematics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal-India Prof. (Dr.) S.Amutha, Dept. of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620 023, Tamil Nadu-India Prof. (Dr.) R. HEMA KRISHNA, Environmental chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada. Prof. (Dr.) B.Swaminathan, Dept. of Agrl.Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India.
Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) K. Ramesh, Department of Chemistry, C .B . I. T, Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075 Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences &Humanities, JIMS Technical campus,(I.P. University,New Delhi), 48/4 ,K.P.-3,Gr.Noida (U.P.) Prof. (Dr.) G.V.S.R.Anjaneyulu, CHAIRMAN - P.G. BOS in Statistics & Deputy Coordinator UGC DRS-I Project, Executive Member ISPS-2013, Department of Statistics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Sribas Goswami, Department of Sociology, Serampore College, Serampore 712201, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunanda Sharma, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics Y Gynecology, College of Veterinary & Animal Science,Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,Bikaner334001, India. Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Tiwari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009 U.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Praveena Kuruva, Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Rajesh Kumar, Department Of Applied Physics , Bhilai Institute Of Technology, Durg (C.G.) 491001 Prof. (Dr.) Y.P.Singh, (Director), Somany (PG) Institute of Technology and Management, Garhi Bolni Road, Delhi-Jaipur Highway No. 8, Beside 3 km from City Rewari, Rewari-123401, India. Prof. (Dr.) MIR IQBAL FAHEEM, VICE PRINCIPAL &HEAD- Department of Civil Engineering & Professor of Civil Engineering, Deccan College of Engineering & Technology, Dar-us-Salam, Aghapura, Hyderabad (AP) 500 036. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta, Regional Head, Co-ordinator(U.P. State Representative)& Asstt. Prof., (Pharmaceutics), Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) N. Sakthivel, Scientist - C,Research Extension Center,Central Silk Board, Government of India, Inam Karisal Kulam (Post), Srivilliputtur - 626 125,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) K.V.L.N.Acharyulu, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Bapatla Engineering college, Bapatla-522101, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Fateh Mebarek-Oudina, Assoc. Prof., Sciences Faculty,20 aout 1955-Skikda University, B.P 26 Route El-Hadaiek, 21000,Skikda, Algeria. NagaLaxmi M. Raman, Project Support Officer, Amity International Centre for Postharvest, Technology & Cold Chain Management, Amity University Campus, Sector-125, Expressway, Noida Prof. (Dr.) V.SIVASANKAR, Associate Professor, Department Of Chemistry, Thiagarajar College Of Engineering (Autonomous), Madurai 625015, Tamil Nadu, India (Dr.) Ramkrishna Singh Solanki, School of Studies in Statistics, Vikram University, Ujjain, India Prof. (Dr.) M.A.Rabbani, Professor/Computer Applications, School of Computer, Information and Mathematical Sciences, B.S.Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India Prof. (Dr.) P.P.Satya Paul Kumar, Associate Professor, Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University College of Physical Education & Sports, Sciences, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur. Prof. (Dr.) Fazal Shirazi, PostDoctoral Fellow, Infectious Disease, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Department of Museology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Mandeep Singh walia, A.P. E.C.E., Panjab University SSG Regional Centre Hoshiarpur, Una Road, V.P.O. Allahabad, Bajwara, Hoshiarpur Prof. (Dr.) Ho Soon Min, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Applied Sciences, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN, Putra Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia Prof. (Dr.) L.Ganesamoorthy, Assistant Professor in Commerce, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar-608002, Chidambaram, Tamilnadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vuda Sreenivasarao, Professor, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, Bahir Dar University, Bahirdar,Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) Umesh Sharma, Professor & HOD Applied Sciences & Humanities, Eshan college of Engineering, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) K. John Singh, School of Information Technology and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sita Ram Pal (Asst.Prof.), Dept. of Special Education, Dr.BAOU, Ahmedabad, India.
Prof. Vishal S.Rana, H.O.D, Department of Business Administration, S.S.B.T'S College of Engineering & Technology, Bambhori,Jalgaon (M.S), India. Prof. (Dr.) Chandrakant Badgaiyan, Department of Mechatronics and Engineering, Chhattisgarh. Dr. (Mrs.) Shubhrata Gupta, Prof. (Electrical), NIT Raipur, India. Prof. (Dr.) Usha Rani. Nelakuditi, Assoc. Prof., ECE Deptt., Vignan’s Engineering College, Vignan University, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Swathi, Asst. Professor, Department of Information Technology, Vardhaman college of Engineering(Autonomous) , Shamshabad, R.R District, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Chakraverty, M Pharm (Pharmacology), BCPSR, Durgapur, West Bengal, India Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi Kumar, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT-Puducherry), An Institute of National Importance under MHRD (Govt. of India), Karaikal- 609 605, India. Prof. (Dr.) Amitava Ghosh, Professor & Principal, Bengal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, B.R.B. Sarani, Bidhannagar, Durgapur, West Bengal- 713212. Prof. (Dr.) Om Kumar Harsh, Group Director, Amritsar College of Engineering and Technology, Amritsar 143001 (Punjab), India. Prof. (Dr.) Mansoor Maitah, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 21 Praha 6 Suchdol, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Zahid Mahmood, Department of Management Sciences (Graduate Studies), Bahria University, Naval Complex, Sector, E-9, Islamabad, Pakistan. Prof. (Dr.) N. Sandeep, Faculty Division of Fluid Dynamics, VIT University, Vellore-632 014. Mr. Jiban Shrestha, Scientist (Plant Breeding and Genetics), Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. Prof. (Dr.) Rakhi Garg, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ramakant Pandey. Dept. of Biochemistry. Patna University Patna (Bihar)-India. Prof. (Dr.) Nalah Augustine Bala, Behavioural Health Unit, Psychology Department, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, P.M.B. 1022 Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Prof. (Dr.) Mehdi Babaei, Department of Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zanjan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) A. SENTHIL KUMAR., Professor/EEE, VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI Prof. (Dr.) Gudikandhula Narasimha Rao, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., KKR & KSR Inst Of Tech & Sciences, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Dhanesh singh, Department of Chemistry, K.G. Arts & Science College, Raigarh (C.G.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Syed Umar , Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Guntur, A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Rachna Goswami, Faculty in Bio-Science Department, IIIT Nuzvid (RGUKT), DistrictKrishna , Andhra Pradesh - 521201 Prof. (Dr.) Ahsas Goyal, FSRHCP, Founder & Vice president of Society of Researchers and Health Care Professionals Prof. (Dr.) Gagan Singh, School of Management Studies and Commerce, Department of Commerce, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital, Uttarakhand (UK)-263139 (India) Prof. (Dr.) Solomon A. O. Iyekekpolor, Mathematics and Statistics, Federal University, WukariNigeria. Prof. (Dr.) S. Saiganesh, Faculty of Marketing, Dayananda Sagar Business School, Bangalore, India. Dr. K.C.Sivabalan, Field Enumerator and Data Analyst, Asian Vegetable Research Centre, The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar Mishra, Department of Environmntal Science and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Prof. (Dr.) Manisha N. Paliwal, Sinhgad Institute of Management, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune, India Prof. (Dr.) M. S. HIREMATH, Principal, K.L.ESOCIETY’S SCHOOL, ATHANI, India Prof. Manoj Dhawan, Department of Information Technology, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore, (M. P.), India Prof. (Dr.) V.R.Naik, Professor & Head of Department, Mechancal Engineering , Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Dist. Kolhapur), Maharashatra, India Prof. (Dr.) Jyotindra C. Prajapati,Head, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa Anand -388421, Gujarat, India Prof. (Dr.) Sarbjit Singh, Head, Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab,India
Prof. (Dr.) Professor Braja Gopal Bag, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Vidyasagar University, West Midnapore Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Chandra, Department of Management, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Bhilai House, Durg (C.G.) Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) L. Suresh Kumar, Mechanical Department, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India. Scientist Sheeraz Saleem Bhat, Lac Production Division, Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand Prof. C.Divya , Centre for Information Technology and Engineering, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli - 627012, Tamilnadu , India Prof. T.D.Subash, Infant Jesus College Of Engineering and Technology, Thoothukudi Tamilnadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Nassa, Prof. E.C.E Deptt., Dronacharya.Engg. College, Gurgaon India. Prof. Sunny Narayan, university of Roma Tre, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjoy Deb, Dept. of ECE, BIT Sathy, Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu-638401, India. Prof. (Dr.) Reena Gupta, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura-India Prof. (Dr.) P.R.SivaSankar, Head Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P., India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Rai, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Christine Jeyaseelan, Dept of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications , National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) K.V.N.R.Sai Krishna, H O D in Computer Science, S.V.R.M.College,(Autonomous), Nagaram, Guntur(DT), Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Asim Kumar Sen, Principal , ST.Francis Institute of Technology (Engineering College) under University of Mumbai , MT. Poinsur, S.V.P Road, Borivali (W), Mumbai, 400103, India, Prof. (Dr.) Rahmathulla Noufal.E, Civil Engineering Department, Govt.Engg.College-Kozhikode Prof. (Dr.) N.Rajesh, Department of Agronomy, TamilNadu Agricultural University -Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Har Mohan Rai, Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra 136131,India Prof. (Dr.) Eng. Sutasn Thipprakmas from King Mongkut, University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad, EC Department, RK University, Rajkot. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta,Faculty of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) Swapnali Borah, HOD, Dept of Family Resource Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya, India Prof. (Dr.) N.Nazar Khan, Professor in Chemistry, BTK Institute of Technology, Dwarahat-263653 (Almora), Uttarakhand-India Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Sharma, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai (TN) - 600 036, India. Prof. (Dr.) Aparna Sarkar, PH.D. Physiology, AIPT, Amity University , F 1 Block, LGF, Sector125,Noida-201303, UP, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manpreet Singh, Professor and Head, Department of Computer Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sukumar Senthilkumar, Senior Researcher, Advanced Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology, Chon Buk National University, Chon Buk, 561-756, SOUTH KOREA. . Prof. (Dr.) Hari Singh Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), INDIA. . Prof. (Dr.) Poonkuzhali, G., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, INDIA. .
Prof. (Dr.) Bharath K N, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, GM Institute of Technology, PB Road, Davangere 577006, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) F.Alipanahi, Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan Branch, Atemadeyeh, Moalem Street, Zanjan IRAN. Prof. Yogesh Rathore, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RITEE, Raipur, India Prof. (Dr.) Ratneshwer, Department of Computer Science (MMV),Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India. Prof. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, ITM University, Gwalior, M.P., India. Prof. (Dr.)Sudarson Jena, Associate Professor, Dept.of IT, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Binod Kumar, PhD(CS), M.Phil(CS), MIEEE,MIAENG, Dean & Professor( MCA), Jayawant Technical Campus(JSPM's), Pune, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Singh Mehata, (JSPS fellow), Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Mech. Engg., Royal Institute of Management & Technology, Sonipat (Haryana), India. Prof. (Dr.) Siddharth Sharma, University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Satish Chandra Dixit, Department of Chemistry, D.B.S.College, Govind Nagar,Kanpur208006, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Solkhe, Department of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Neeraj Sharma, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) Basant Lal, Department of Chemistry, G.L.A. University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) T Venkat Narayana Rao, C.S.E, Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rajanarender Reddy Pingili, S.R. International Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) V.S.Vairale, Department of Computer Engineering, All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society College of Engineering, Kennedy Road, Pune-411 001, Maharashtra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vasavi Bande, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Netaji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Hardeep Anand, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. Prof. Aasheesh shukla, Asst Professor, Dept. of EC, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. S.P.Anandaraj., CSE Dept, SREC, Warangal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Chitranjan Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur- 313001, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rangnath Aher, Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Parner, DistAhmednagar, M.S. India. Prof. (Dr.) Chandan Kumar Panda, Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Tripura, Lembucherra-799210 Prof. (Dr.) Latika Kharb, IP Faculty (MCA Deptt), Jagan Institute of Management Studies (JIMS), Sector-5, Rohini, Delhi, India. Raj Mohan Raja Muthiah, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. Prof. (Dr.) Chhanda Chatterjee, Dept of Philosophy, Balurghat College, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihir Kumar Shome , H.O.D of Mathematics, Management and Humanities, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Muthukumar .Subramanyam, Registrar (I/C), Faculty, Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Puducherry, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Saxena, Department of Mathematics, Kisan Postgraduate College, Bahraich – 271801 UP, India. Satya Rishi Takyar, Senior ISO Consultant, New Delhi, India. Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Mandi Gobindgarh (PB) Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar, Department of Sports Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Prof. (Dr.) Manish Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GJU, Haryana, India. Prof. Mridul Chawla, Department of Elect. and Comm. Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. Seema Chawla, Department of Bio-medical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Atul M. Gosai, Department of Computer Science, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajit Kr. Bansal, Department of Management, Shoolini University, H.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Vasistha, Mody Institute of Tecnology and Science, Sikar, Rajasthan, India. Prof. Vivekta Singh, GNIT Girls Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India. Prof. Ajay Loura, Assistant Professor at Thapar University, Patiala, India. Prof. Sushil Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Applications, Govt. P. G. College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana, India. Prof. Sube Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Narnaul, Haryana, India. Prof. Himanshu Arora, Delhi Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India. Dr. Sabina Amporful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Pawan K. Monga, Jindal Institute of Medical Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India. Dr. Sam Ampoful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Nagender Sangra, Director of Sangra Technologies, Chandigarh, India. Vipin Gujral, CPA, New Jersey, USA. Sarfo Baffour, University of Ghana, Ghana. Monique Vincon, Hype Softwaretechnik GmbH, Bonn, Germany. Natasha Sigmund, Atlanta, USA. Marta Trochimowicz, Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz, Germany. Kamalesh Desai, Atlanta, USA. Vijay Attri, Software Developer Google, San Jose, California, USA. Neeraj Khillan, Wipro Technologies, Boston, USA. Ruchir Sachdeva, Software Engineer at Infosys, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Anadi Charan, Senior Software Consultant at Capgemini, Mumbai, Maharashtra. Pawan Monga, Senior Product Manager, LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Sunil Kumar, Senior Information Developer, Honeywell Technology Solutions, Inc., Bangalore, India. Bharat Gambhir, Technical Architect, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Noida, India. Vinay Chopra, Team Leader, Access Infotech Pvt Ltd. Chandigarh, India. Sumit Sharma, Team Lead, American Express, New Delhi, India. Vivek Gautam, Senior Software Engineer, Wipro, Noida, India. Anirudh Trehan, Nagarro Software Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Manjot Singh, Senior Software Engineer, HCL Technologies Delhi, India. Rajat Adlakha, Senior Software Engineer, Tech Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Mohit Bhayana, Senior Software Engineer, Nagarro Software Pvt. Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Dheeraj Sardana, Tech. Head, Nagarro Software, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Naresh Setia, Senior Software Engineer, Infogain, Noida, India. Raj Agarwal Megh, Idhasoft Limited, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Shrikant Bhardwaj, Senior Software Engineer, Mphasis an HP Company, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Vikas Chawla, Technical Lead, Xavient Software Solutions, Noida, India. Kapoor Singh, Sr. Executive at IBM, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Ashwani Rohilla, Senior SAP Consultant at TCS, Mumbai, India. Anuj Chhabra, Sr. Software Engineer, McKinsey & Company, Faridabad, Haryana, India. Jaspreet Singh, Business Analyst at HCL Technologies, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.
TOPICS OF INTEREST Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following: Business administration Marketing & Management Finance Economics Banking Accounting Human resources management Entrepreneurship, Education and its applications Business ethics Relationship & Risk management Retail management and communication Linguistics International relations Anthropology & Archaeology Sociology International business Tourism and hospitality management Law Psychology Corporate governance Demography Education Ethics Geography History Industrial relations Information science Library science Media studies Philosophy, Political science Public administration Sociology Social welfare Literature Paralegal Performing arts (music, theatre and dance) Religious studies Visual arts Women studies Production and operations management Organizational behavior and theory Strategic management Policy Statistics and Econometrics Personnel and industrial relations Gender studies & Cross cultural studies Management information systems Information technology
TABLE OF CONTENTS American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS) ISSN(Print): 2328-3734, ISSN(Online): 2328-3696, ISSN(CD-ROM): 2328-3688, (December-2014 to February-2015, Issue 9, Volume 1, 2, 3 & 4) Issue 9, Volume 1 Paper Code
Paper Title
Page No.
AIJRHASS 15-101
Tourism investment in Namibia: perceptions of investors O. Katjiuongua, U.L. Paliwal, C. Gamses
01-07
AIJRHASS 15-102
How to stimulate future teacher-students to participate in specific instructiveeducational activities Vali Ilie
08-15
AIJRHASS 15-105
Indian Rasa Manifestation in the Motifs of Saharanpur Woodcraft Aayushi Verma, Ila Gupta
16-22
AIJRHASS 15-106
MEDIA AS ACTORS IN INTERSTATE CONFLICT: LESSONS FROM NIGERIAN PRESS COVERAGE OF THE BAKASSI PENINSULA DISPUTE Thomas Anomoaphe Alemoh, Mrs. Lucy Ishima
23-32
AIJRHASS 15-107
Seasonal Patterns in Indian Stock Markets: An Application of GARCH (1, 1) Model Shilpa Lodha, Prof. G. Soral
33-43
AIJRHASS 15-108
MANPOWER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: PATHWAY TO EFFICIENT ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE Dr. Ologunowa, C.S., Dr Akintunde, B.A., Adu, B.O.
44-52
AIJRHASS 15-109
Awareness on Livelihood Culture: An account of the Bhutias in Tashiding, Sikkim Devasish Rai, Pema Rinzing Bhutia
53-65
AIJRHASS 15-113
Land Tenure Systems in the late 18th and 19th century in Colonial India Dr. Hareet Kumar Meena
66-71
AIJRHASS 15-115
Food Environment and Unhealthy Eating Habits among Adolescents in Tertiary Institutions Adedeji O. A and John U. I
72-77
AIJRHASS 15-117
PEDAGOGICAL CONCEPT OF JALĀL AD-DĪN RUMIs SPIRITUAL HERITAGE Izbullaeva Gulchehra Valerievna
78-80
AIJRHASS 15-118
A Comparative Study of Work Family Conflict among Employees in Relation to Demographic Factors, Personal Factors and Work Related Factors Dr.Geeta Scahdeva, Dr. Mahabir Narwal
81-89
AIJRHASS 15-119
English Vocabulary Size of Saudi Post-Secondary School Students: A Case Study of Jazan University Dr. Ahmed T. Braima, Dr. Osama M. Nurain
90-94
Issue 9, Volume 2 Page No.
Paper Code
Paper Title
AIJRHASS 15-120
Economic Empowerment by Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables in Rural Sectors Ms. NagaLaxmi M Raman
95-99
AIJRHASS 15-125
NIGERIA AND DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS Osabiya, Babatunde Joseph
100-107
AIJRHASS 15-126
Enhancing the productivity of Small Scale Women Entrepreneurs and Small Farmers availing Microfinance services through Self-Help Groups – The emerging role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Soumitro Chakravarty, Umesh Prasad, Amar Nath Jha
108-109
AIJRHASS 15-128
Financial Inclusion Determinants – An Empirical Investigation in Rural Regions of Vellore District, Tamil Nadu Dr. N. Sundaram & Mr. M. Sriram
110-114
AIJRHASS 15-132
EFFECTIVENESS OF SMART CLASSROOM TEACHING ON THE ACHIEVEMENT IN CHEMISTRY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS Dr. Anita Menon
115-120
AIJRHASS 15-133
Evaluating a Curriculum Using the Same Style and Strategy across Years: Lessons Gained from Tanzania Noel M. Makwinya
121-126
AIJRHASS 15-134
CHALLENGES OF FINANCIAL INCLUSION TO REACH OUT POOR Dr. S. Vasantha, R.Paveethiraa
127-131
AIJRHASS 15-138
Reconsider India’s North-East in National Curriculum Binod Bhattarai
132-134
AIJRHASS 15-140
Paix Dan Preambule, Promoting Peace through Constitutional Promise in Indian milieu Sambhunath Maji, Birbal Saha
135-138
AIJRHASS 15-141
Violence Against Women and Children in India Harpreet Kaur Bains
139-142
AIJRHASS 15-142
CHALLENGES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN LEVERAGING ONLINE CAPABILITIES Meenakshi Thanji, Dr. S. Vasantha
143-147
AIJRHASS 15-143
CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS KNOWLEGDE AND THE TEACHING OF MORAL VALUES IN THE NIGERIA JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS D.A. Falade
148-151
AIJRHASS 15-145
Traces of Mysticism in Walt Whitman’s Song of Myself Sudeshna Das
152-153
AIJRHASS 15-146
Effect of visual and audio educational games on visual memory of children Narges Motabarzadeh, Seyed Yaghoub Musavi
154-158
AIJRHASS 15-148
Status of Women Workers before and After Joining the Construction Industry: a Case Study Dr.K.A Rajanna
159-164
AIJRHASS 15-150
Child Labour in India: A Curse on Humanity Dr. Dhananjay Mandlik, Dr. Parag Kalkar
165-169
AIJRHASS 15-151
A Study to Assess the Stress and Coping Strategies among Mothers of Physically Challenged Children in an Integrated School at Mangalore Mrs. Sandhya M.S, Dr. Asha P Shetty
170-173
AIJRHASS 15-152
Re reading Nissim Ezekiel: A Postmodern Critic Goutam Karmakar
174-177
AIJRHASS 15-153
Use of Audio in ELT for Material Development Mohammed Tausif ur Rahman, Dr A A Khan
178-181
AIJRHASS 15-154
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF TECHNO-PEDAGOGICAL SKILLS, ITS CHALLENGES AND ROLE TO RELEASE AT HIGHER LEVEL OF EDUCATION Nabin Thakur
182-186
AIJRHASS 15-156
GROUP DYNAMICS IN THE ITERATED PRISONER' S DILEMMA GAME Vijaya Puranik
187-191
Issue 9, Volume 3 Page No.
Paper Code
Paper Title
AIJRHASS 15-157
The affirmation of life in the play Ruined by Lynn Nottage Ishfaq Ahmad Tramboo
192-194
AIJRHASS 15-158
FAT PROPORTION AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND A FAT BURNING TRAINING PROGRAM: AN INFLUENTIAL ANALYSIS SomanPreet Singh, Sukhbir Singh, Dr. Manoj Kumar Dhadwal
195-197
AIJRHASS 15-165
Legal Repercussions of Corporal Punishment and Child Rights – A Comparative study Prof. Aradhana Nair
198-201
AIJRHASS 15-167
Impact of Gender and Socio-Emotional School Climate on Achievement Motivation of Tribal Students Pawan Kumar
202-205
AIJRHASS 15-168
Case Study on KurKure (Snacks) Manju Kataria
206-210
AIJRHASS 15-169
Review Article - Exploring the Impact of Online Reviews on Purchase Intentions of Customer Prabha Kiran, Dr S Vasantha
211-215
AIJRHASS 15-170
Social Media – the Lifeline of 21st Century! Dr. Surya Rashmi Rawat
216-220
AIJRHASS 15-171
The Deepening Culture of Corruption in Nigerian Society: Implications for Governance, Development and Stability Adeola, Gabriel Lanre (Ph.D)
221-229
AIJRHASS 15-173
Diasporic Identity in Bharati Mukherjee's Desirable Daughters Shailja Chhabra
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AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF BANANA IN INDIA M.Uma Gowri and T.RShanmugam
234-240
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Sustainable Development through Cloud Computing Mr. Biplab Biswas
241-248
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Managerial Approach for the Reconquest of Public Space, Case of Constantine City and Its New Town Ali Mendjeli KHALIL BOUHADJAR; NADIA CHABI
249-253
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Cultural displacement and Hybridity in the novel of Mario Vargas Llosa The Storyteller Ishfaq Ahmad Tramboo
254-256
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Strategies for Promoting Emotional Intelligence among Children Komala, B.V, D.Srinivas Kumar
257-259
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Pakistan and Chinese Response to Indo-US Nuclear Deal Ajay Kumar, Naseer Ahmed Kalis
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Analysis of Challenges of Distance Education Dr. Sunitti Ahuja
264-267
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Older People in the UK Today are Financially Better off than Older People from Previous Generations: A Comparative Literature Review Rahman, M., Chowdhury, A.S & Kiser, H.
268-272
AIJRHASS 15-196
Science of Nostalgia in Wordsworth’s “Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, on Visiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour, July 13, 1798” Dr. Shamsoddin Royanian, Parisa Rostami Balan
273-275
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A Study of Mathematics Education Students’ Difficulties in Applying Analogy to Teaching Mathematics: A Case of the “TWA” Model Nguyen Phu Loc, Bui Phuong Uyen
276-280
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The Skopos Theory: A Heterogeneous Approach to Translation Prof. Renuga Devi, Aditya Kumar Panda
281-283
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Workplace Spirituality and Cultural Awakening of Western Bonai on Impact of Sarsara Pintu Mahakul
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A Dream Deferred: Exploring Human Rights Issues in African American Autobiographies by Women Swagata Biswas
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Issue 9, Volume 4 Paper Code
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The Algerian historical built environment: "Reasons of a decay!" The case of the medina of Constantine. Dekoumi Djamel, Makhlouf Mokhtar, Chabi Nadia
294-297
AIJRHASS 15-210
GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN Dr. Debomita Sikdar
298-301
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The Application of Lotus Motif According to Shadhanga of Indian Art: Case Study of Fatehpur Sikri Manu, Prof. Ila Gupta, Prof. Nagendra Kumar
302-307
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GULGULIA SEMANTICS: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY Sneha Mishra & Md. Mojibur Rahman
308-312
AIJRHASS 15-224
Rewards & Work-Life Balance among Working Women: An Empirical Study in India Specific to Agra Region Neelni Giri Goswami, Prof. Shalini Nigam
313-315
AIJRHASS 15-225
USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ENGLISH TEACHING CLASSROOM – A STUDY Mrs. Beena Anil
316-318
AIJRHASS 15-228
Impact of Obesity on Self- concept of children in Kolkata Rima Sen, Dr. Debomita Sikdar
319-322
AIJRHASS 15-234
Impact of Grameen Bank Microcredit Program on the Livelihood Status of Women Beneficiaries in Bangladesh Esmat Ara, Md. Assraf Seddiky
323-332
AIJRHASS 15-237
Employee Engagement through Leadership A.Narasima Venkatesh
333-336
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Islam in post-disintegrated Central Asia: Realistic Approach Riyaz Ahamd Sheikh
337-339
AIJRHASS 15-241
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF KERALA STATE ROAD TRANSPORT CORPORATION Mridula N.C, Srikanth V.S, Dr.A S Ambily
340-342
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Corporatisation of Major Ports in India- the game changer Dr. M.Bina Celine Dorathy
343-347
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LITERATURE AND LAW: MIRRORS FACING EACH OTHER Dr. HARMIK VAISHNAV
348-352
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SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION IN CREATING SUSTAIBALE AND SAFE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLACED INDIGENOUS PEOPLE Keshav Walke
353-363
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What Motivates Whistle Blowers? Wisdom vs. Stupidity- Two Faces of the Same Coin Mrs. Sowmya S, Dr. H Rajashekar
364-368
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OTHELLO & SILAPPATIKARAM: A CRTICAL REVIEW Mr. K. Karthikeyan, Dr. S. Veeramani
369-371
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Profile of Bead Making a Promising Entrepreneur Mehta, M., Gandhi, S, and Dilbaghi, M
372-376
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The Impact of the Bhagavad Gita on R.W. Emerson’s philosophical and foundational Essay ‘The Over Soul’ Shivadurga, Prof. Dr. Anoop Gupta, Dr. Nitin Bhatnagar
378-388
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Universal Higher Education in India: A Myth or Reality Dr. P. Anil Kumar
389-391
American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences
Available online at http://www.iasir.net
ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
Tourism investment in Namibia: perceptions of investors 1
O. Katjiuongua, 2U.L. Paliwal, 3C. Gamses 1 Social Security Commission, Namibia 2,3 University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia Abstract: Namibia’s Vision 2030 and NDP 4 recognize tourism as one of the strategic economic sectors which need to be promoted and marketed extensively. The country has some of the most enviable attributes that can make it a formidable competitor and an exquisite destination. However, Namibia fails to feature as a prominent investment destination and continues to rank low on various competitiveness ratings. The investment climate has on many occasions been raised as needing attention and this is evidenced by an inability to significantly draw investment particularly in the tourism industry, commensurate with the potential it offers. This study unravels why the Namibian tourism industry is struggling to draw investment albeit its potential. It interrogates the investment climate covering incentives, regulatory framework, skills, and government support and suggests some measures how more investment can be attracted in the tourism sector. Keywords: tourism sector, investment, Namibia, skills shortage, destination marketing I. INTRODUCTION Tourism is an important economic sector which contributes significantly to the economic growth as well as economic development of Namibia. It is without doubt that tourism contributes to a) direct, indirect and induced employment(WTTC, 2012), b) balance of payment through its foreign exchange earning ability (WTTC, 2006), c) poverty reduction through household income generated by the creation of jobs (Jänis, 2011), d) preservation of culture and heritage through their incorporation into the tourism product offering (Christie & Crompton, 2001) leading to an improved understanding as well as appreciation of global cultures and traditions, e) government revenue through levies, fees, charges, payroll tax, value added tax and corporate tax (Keyser , 2004) and f) improvement to basic infrastructure and public services such as education, health, sanitation, water and energy which benefits the poor communities (Jänis, 2011). Although the tourism industry has experienced tremendous growth since 1991, particularly on the demand side; investment in the tourism industry in Namibia has relatively been modest and there is a need for investment stimulation (MET, 2012). Most of the investment was made by Namibian citizens and permanent residents (Asheeke & Katjiuongua, 2007), and most of the enterprises are fairly small, which apart from large hotels, employ less than 20 people (Southern Africa Competitiveness Hub, 2006). Profile of the Namibian Tourism Sector One of the key drivers is that Namibia still remains a destination, yet to be uncovered, with its richness of being one of the remaining oasis with pristine and authentic nature, culture, and Kaleidoscope landscapes. It is imperative that this momentum should not only be sustained, but information must be gleaned with regards to economic and social benefits which travel and tourism contributes to Namibia as a nation (WTTC, 2010). According to MET (2012), Namibia is not yet a tourism investment destination of choice due to difficulties to invest in the sector. WTTC (2006) suggests that demand for any tourism destination grows sharply if marketing and promotion are well funded and effective. The Namibia Tourism Board has during the period 2003/04 to 2010/11 been operating on a shoe-string budget of about N$26 million per annum (MET, 2012) whilst it is learnt that tourism demand is fuelled by effective marketing (WTTC, 2006). On the Namibian front, according to the MET statistical report, there was a decrease of 2.8% in foreign arrivals in 2010 compared to 2009, following an increase of 5.3% in 2009 compared to foreign arrivals in 2008. The report further states that in 2010 the number of foreign arrivals was almost four times bigger than that in 1993, rising from 316,104 to 1,178,487 in 18 years (MET, 2011). These are positive trends which need to be used as a competitive advantage to entice investment in the industry. II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Investment, whether domestic or foreign, has a positive impact on the growth of a country because foreign investment brings skills and technology into the economy (Sherbourne, 2006), while proceeds from domestic investment get re-invested into the local economy, resulting in more money in circulation (Nuyoma, 2006).
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With the realization that there are areas in need of significant levels of investment in the tourism industry, the objective of this study was thus to investigate and identify factors which inhibit Namibia from attracting increased levels of investment in the tourism industry to capture and capitalize on the potential the industry offers; and suggest how the aforesaid could be addressed in order to create a conducive investment climate that will unleash the country’s investment potential in the tourism industry. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research area for this study was the whole of Namibia covering existing investors as questionnaires were emailed and distance was not an inhibiting factor. This exploratory research used a mixed methods approach to explore insights into what encourages or discourages investment decisions in the tourism sector in Namibia. The data was mainly collected by means of questionnaires and was supplemented to a lesser extent by unstructured interviews. The study population consisted of 3837 tourism establishments registered with the Namibia Tourism Board. NTB database was cleaned be removing duplicate establishments (businesses with more than one business ventures under their wings to only reflect a singly entry), community based enterprises and establishments with incomplete contact details. This exercise resulted in a reduced population of 1876 establishments. The sample size was kept at approximately 10% of the original population size, hence a total of 375 questionnaires were mailed using the systematic random sampling by selecting every 5 th unit on the cleaned database (1876/375). However, only 40 completed questionnaires were received back yielding a response rate of 10.4% The main research instrument used for collecting data from primary sources was a questionnaire supplemented by unstructured interviews. The questionnaire used was structured with a few open-ended questions, with the rest being close-ended. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revised before it was sent to the sample respondents. Interviews were conducted with selected government officials, institutions of higher learning and commercial banks. These were unstructured interviews conducted on a face to face basis and over the telephone. Their purpose was to deepen the researcher’s understanding of several matters pertaining to this research and to perceive certain issues from the respondents’ viewpoints. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics and presented through graphs, tables and charts. Using descriptive data, the responses were grouped into the following categories, based on the type of questions being answered: a) demographics of the respondents, b) opportunities to propel growth in the tourism sector in Namibia, c) comparison of the Namibian tourism sector with other countries and d) challenges impeding tourism investment. The content of responses to open ended questions were analysed to ensure meanings are understood and an attempt was made to identify any relationships within the categories of responses. IV. FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY Profile of Respondents Majority of the establishments are closely operated by the sole owners (55%) and partners (40%). The fact that the questionnaire was completed predominantly (95%) by the owners is an indication of their active involvement in the daily operation of the enterprises. Tourism is a service industry and a significant proportion of tourism experiences are delivered by people (employees, managers, owners). The service encounter creates the first impression and evidence of the service quality which is long remembered (Cooper & Hall, 2008). Majority of respondents (82.5%) had 10 or more years’ experience in tourism industry, having an in-depth understanding of the intricacies of the sector. With regard to the tourism sub-sector in which the respondents operate, 35% were tour and safari operations, 27% were from accommodation sector, 18% were tour facilitators, 11% were booking agents and 9% were from the rest of the subsectors. Opportunities to propel growth in the tourism sector in Namibia A destination’s natural endowment is first and foremost magnet for attracting tourism investment (Christie & Crompton, 2001). This conclusion is particularly true in the African context where these natural attractions are the primary reasons why tourists visit such destinations. Mauritius known as a sun, sea and sand destination (Christie & Crompton, 2001) enchants visitors with its white spotless beaches and breath-taking landscapes; Tanzania draws visitors because of its mountainous terrains, languid beaches, deep forests, national parks and bird sanctuaries; while Botswana attracts its visitors with its quality activities pitched at the top end of the market (Christie & Crompton, 2001), the ever majestic Okavango Delta, the Kalahari Desert, the salt flatland expanse of Makgadikgadi pans as well as prehistoric human settlement. The factors that motivated investment in the tourism sector in Namibia (Figure 1) include its flora, fauna and landscapes (37%), country’s reliable infrastructure (18%) its cultural diversity (14%) and its investment climate (12%) among others. Envisaged Future Investment by Private Sector The future investment in tourism sector in Namibia as indicated by respondents is expected in tour operations and activities (43%), accommodation (29%) and conservancy based tourism (11%). 81% indicated willingness to invest equal to or less than N$5 million, while 19% indicated willingness to invest N$ 6-15 million in the next two to three years. The desire of existing investor to increase their investment in near future is a good indication for the growth of tourism sector.
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Role of Destination Marketing in Investment Decisions At the centre of growing a tourism destination lies effective marketing and promotion (Paliwal & Mutumba, 2012). Respondents were asked what role destination marketing by the Namibia Tourism Board plays in their investment decisions. 63% of respondents indicated that it plays a little or no role while on the other hand 37% indicated that it does play an important role. The results above could be a sign that the industry has lost confidence in the effectiveness of the marketing efforts of NTB, either because of their resource constraints (MET, 2012) or a lack of skills which all hamper its ability to compete effectively in international context. Air Access Due to market size being small, airfares in Africa are among the highest in the world. Monopolistic practices of some larger airlines have led to some countries foregoing national air carriers in favour of other practical solutions which can still and more efficiently bring tourists to their destinations (Christie & Crompton, 2001). In itself, the ease and cost of air access is perceived as one of the challenges that impedes the growth of the sector and its contribution to economic growth. This challenge is even bigger for Namibia as it is a long haul tourist destination and its primary European markets (MET, 2012) need at least 10 hours (approximate duration of direct flights from London or Frankfurt to Namibia) to travel from source market to the destination. For a growth market such as Namibia, it is important to develop policies that attract greater traffic such that tourists are seamlessly drawn to (and easily transferred from source to the) destination even if this might mean steps that compromise national pride. Figure 1: Opportunities to Propel Growth - Factors that Motivated Investment in Tourism in Namibia
Source: Survey Findings (2013) Challenges impeding tourism investment in Namibia Human Resource Challenges The Namibian Tourism Growth and Development Strategy assert that Namibia has a skills shortage in particularly key executive positions. It thus needs to attract world class skills to fill such gaps while at the same time invest aggressively in skills transfer and training (MET, 2012). 50% of the respondents indicated that skills shortage in the sector is a serious concern which impacts business operations as it either results in higher training costs or increases reliance on foreign experts whilst the other 50% indicated that it has no effect on their business ventures. However, 25% of the respondents requested government to permit them to import world class skills to close the skills gap. Critical skills shortages are found in food preparation (37.5%), housekeeping (35.3%) and guiding (31.6%) (NTB, 2011). Business Registration and Start-up Challenges The study revealed that it is not easy to register a tourism business in Namibia, obtain licenses as well as finance. On a question about interventions government needs to make to improve the investment climate, 22% of the respondents requested government to employ competent officials, twenty 21% requested that red tape be removed while19% called for the eradication of corrupt practices in government institutions. If government officials at strategic points of business registration are not competent, and the registration process is marred with rigorous procedures (which at times are not necessary) and all these are compounded by corruption and solicitation of bribes, the business and investment climate of a destination will suffer as a consequence. As Bull (1998) states tourism products can be of a very specialized nature, rendering them unfit for other nontourism uses in times of economic difficulties which might necessitate alternative uses of such fixed improvements. They are however mostly only fit for purpose in the tourism industry with limited versatility. Therefore, the attractiveness of a destination to tourism products which can be easily and lucratively (known as
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mixed use ventures) be used for non-tourism purpose as well, lends itself suitable for increased investment levels. The vibrancy of the domestic market goes a long way in assisting the creation of mixed use ventures. Required Government Assistance and Tourism Incentives Respondents were also asked whether there are any incentives they want government to put in place. As presented in Figure 2, 25% of the respondents affirmed they would like to be permitted to employ foreign experts who will train locals and ensure business success, 23% of the respondents opted for assistance to secure licences and permits while 25% of the respondents chose to be given low interest loans in the formative years of their business ventures, as their priority government incentive. The other interventions expected from the government included assistance with finding co investors, assistance with preparing business plans and securing finances etc. Figure 2: Required Government Assistance and Incentives Government Assistance and Incentives
23%
25%
25% 20%
14%
25%
11%
15% 10%
3%
5% 0% Assistance to secure licenses and permits
Assistance with finding co-investors
Financial Being allowed Low interest assistance e.g. to employ loans during to develop foreign experts start up phases business plans
Other
Source: Survey Findings (2013) Comparison of the Namibian tourism sector with other countries Christie and Crompton (2001) identified the following critical success factors for a tourism destination: physical safety of tourists, standards of hygiene in accommodation and food outlets and good health facilities; tourism related infrastructure; marketing and promotion strategies; knowledge and expertise; competitively priced (air) transportation system, availability of finances; investment incentives; good governance and labour laws. A comparative analysis of Namibia and selected countries is presented below, highlighting some of the issues listed above. At the time of deciding on their tourism investment destination, 39% of the respondents only had Namibia on their cards (i.e. no competition with other destinations), 17% also considered South Africa, 13% considered Botswana, 11% considered Angola and 9% Zambia as potential investment options together with Namibia. It can thus be concluded that South Africa, Botswana and Zambia should be considered as competitors to Namibia as Angola has somewhat different dynamics. The fact that Lonely Planet (2010) acknowledged that Namibia is a better alternative to South Africa and Botswana with regard to value for money is a confirmation that this competition does exist. Having this view can assist the country in developing a strategy that can ensure it keeps being competitive in the region. Zambia has a wide array of tourism investment incentives which Namibia does not have (UNCTAD, 2011). It also features natural attractions like water falls, lakes and rivers, national parks and museums, white-water rafting, canoeing, rock-climbing, hang-gliding, fishing, bungee jumping walking safaris, cultural tourism and movie tourism, although some of these can be enjoyed in Namibia as well. As the biggest economy in Africa, one would expect South Africa to be the leader in the provision of investment incentives in the tourism sector. Although a massive amount is spent on tourism in South Africa, there has been a stagnation in international tourist arrivals over the past six years and international arrivals fell to 2,1 million in 2011 compared to 2,2 million in 2010 (MET, 2012). Trend of Investment Climate in Tourism in Namibia and Reasons for Opting Out Respondents were required to give their opinion on tourism investment climate over the period of time. As depicted in the Table 1 below the percentage of respondents viewing it to be very attractive has dropped from 73% to 25%, while percent of those considering to be moderate has increased from 23% to 51%. Table 1: Trend of tourism investment climate in Namibia Very attractive Average Not attractive
Before 2000 73 23 4
% of respondents After 2000 25 51 24
Source: Survey findings (2013)
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As noted by Asheeke and Katjiuongua (2007); the tourism industry is predominantly owned by white Namibians, therefore it can be deduced from this response that either there may have been deliberate measures in place to support the industry in the days of the previous dispensation or the response is deliberately biased towards that dispensation. If it is factual that the climate was better then, it can further be assumed that such measures were either inadvertently removed or spread among sectors, hence the notion that the sun shone brighter then. In comparison to South Africa, 28% of the respondents reported that Namibia is of average attractiveness whilst 15% indicated that it is not attractive. On the other hand, forty one percent 45% reported that Namibia is attractive and 12% very attractive, thus affirming their dominant position (80%) that they will not forego Namibia in favor of another destination. Possibility of dropping Namibia as tourism investment decision: The results of this research revealed that 80% of the respondents will not consider foregoing investing in Namibia over another destination. From the 20% who indicated that they may consider forgoing investing in Namibia, their reasons were cited as follows (Figure 3): Figure 3: Reasons for dropping Namibia Reasons for dropping Namibia
40 35 30 25 20 % of Respondents 15 10 5 0 Limited Air Access
Unfavorable laws and regulations
Limited investment options in the sector
Fast growing destinations preferred
The market is saturated
Source: Research Findings When the 20% of the respondents who would consider dropping Namibia for another destination were further asked about their alternative investment destination, this question yielded the following outcome (Figure 4): Figure 4: Alternative investment destination
On the other hand, visitors from European countries who were asked to indicate other alternative destinations they considered before deciding on Namibia indicated the following (Figure 5):
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Figure 5: Alternative Visitor Destinations
The visitor results are an indication that among the countries sharing borders with Namibia, South Africa, Botswana and Zambia are the biggest competitors. Namibia needs to position itself strategically to ensure that it does not lose out on its tourist’s base due to fierce competition from these countries. South Africa and Botswana already outperform Namibia with regard to tourist arrivals and tourist receipts (RETOSA, 2011) Tourism sector in Namibia is facing the following challenges among others: i. The tourism investment climate is not necessarily conducive to attract significant investment especially from foreign investors as well as to allowing the destination to compete on an international platform (MET, 2012). Government offers incentives and support to other sectors such as manufacturing, but tourism investors find it an insurmountable obstacle to register and operate tourism businesses in Namibia (MTI, 2010). Central to this problem are a) obtaining licences and permits, b) finding suitably qualified and experienced staff, c) difficulty to fill the skill shortage by employing foreign specialist staff, d) bureaucracy, red tape and corruption within government departments, and e) accessing funds ii. There is an insufficient supply of adequately trained and skilled workers for the tourism industry in Namibia. Whilst there is a mismatch between the skills demanded by the labour market and the quality of graduates produced by most training institutions in the country, the quantity of such supply falls short of that demanded by the labour market. iii. Tedious and often unclear tourism business registration procedures and requirements often result in potential investors switching either countries or economic sectors. iv. Quality authentic customer service is the cherry on the cake for a memorable tourism experience. This fact is not well understood across the sectors that have an interface with tourism, just as the economic value of tourism is yet to be fully appreciated by all. V. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of this research, Namibia is still a destination of choice for the existing operators. If laws and regulations are made more investor friendly and yet beneficial to government of the broader public, and if the tourism product base is diversified and/or broadened as suggested by Asheeke and Katjiuongua (2007), the sector’s attractiveness to investment could be enhanced. The majority of tourism owners are Namibians, hence their indication that instead of investing outside Namibia in consideration of the challenges raised in tourism, they will consider re-directing their investment to another sector in the country (50%). However, 25% may consider investing in the sub region while the rest (25%) might even consider investing overseas. VI. SUGGESTIONS NTB needs to work with all the sectors linked to the tourism industry to entrench an understanding of the importance of tourism at all levels. As asserted by Christie and Crompton (2001) this approach can also help increase the number of tourists by promoting regional and domestic tourism, which may imply greater innovation such as collaborating with regional competitors (instead of being afraid of the competition they pose) to package and sell the region as a whole to achieve a critical mass of visitors which can make tourism products more viable. As destination marketing efforts intensify, the destination becomes increasingly popular and tourism demand increases, there will consequently be a need to increase the carrying capacity of facilities as well as to diversify the product offering. This is particularly true because Namibia may be of standard attractiveness to first time visitors but this attractiveness reduces with every repeated visit (MET, 2012). It is of paramount importance that measures are put in place as a matter of urgency to improve the tourism investment climate and thus retain existing and attract new investment in the tourism industry in Namibia in order to
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modernize the existing product offering and also diversify the tourism product mix. These measures may include: i. The process of granting work permits for imported skills (in the skill shortage areas) needs to be improved and treated as an incentive for investment and business growth. In addition foreign direct investment in tourism should be rewarded with increased number of work permits attached to such investment. ii. In identified skills shortage areas, at least two understudies are attached to every imported resource person, with a clear duration of the understudy period and milestones to be achieved throughout the period iii. Training of locals in “hard to fill jobs” to ensure that industry is fed with employees who are fit for purpose and that such skills are available at the right time and in the right quantity. iv. Providing a seamless business registration process by setting up of a one-stop tourism business centre. This should house all strategic business units necessary during the business registration and start up process. v. There must be increased coordination between all government functions which have a direct impact on the tourism industry to ensure that laws and regulations that are counterproductive to the promotion of tourism investment and the overall growth of the sector are kept to the minimum or completely eliminated. vi. More funds be considered for marketing efforts but tied to major milestones to ensure that in the end, objectives are attained. vii. Service delivery on the immigration front needs to be improved across the entire system, starting from the point of entry into the country to the point of exit to ensure visitors to the country (including expatriates) have a memorable time and sell Namibia through “word of mouth” when they leave the country (Christie & Crompton, 2001). REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
Asheeke, J., & Katjiuongua, O. (2007) Development of Sustainable Tourism: Country Report. Windhoek. Bull, A. (1998). The Economics of Travel and Tourism (2nd edition). Australia: Addison-Wesley Longman. Christie, I.T., & Crompton, D.E. (2001). Tourism in Africa. Africa Working Paper Series No. 12. Washington DC: World Bank. Cooper, C., & Hall, C.M. (2008). Contemporary Tourism: An international Approach. UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. Jänis, J. (2011). The Tourism–Development Nexus in Namibia: A Study on National Tourism Policy and Local Tourism Enterprises' Policy Knowledge. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Helsinki, Helsinki. Keyser, H. (2004. Tourism development. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Ministry of Environment and Tourism. (2011) Statistical Report. Windhoek. Ministry of Environment and Tourism. (2012). Statistical Report. Windhoek. Ministry of Trade and Industry. (2010). Namibia: A Gem Worth Investing In. Windhoek. Namibia Tourism Board. (2011). National Tourism Human Resource Development Plan. Windhoek. Paliwal, U. L., & Mutumba B. S. (2012). An Analysis of the Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the Namibian Tourism Sector. Indian Journal of Commerce Vol. 65 No. 1 January – March 2012. RETOSA. (2011). Southern Africa Travel and Tourism Barometer. Johannesburg. Southern Africa Competitiveness Hub. (2006). Namibia Tourism Investor Roadmap. Gaborone. UNCTAD. (2011). An Investment Guide to Zambia. Geneva. WTTC. (2006). Namibia: The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy. London. WTTC. (2008). Namibia: The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy. London. WTTC. (2010). Namibia: The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy. London. WTTC. (2012). Travel and Tourism Economic Impact: Namibia. London.
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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
How to stimulate future teacher-students to participate in specific instructive-educational activities Vali Ilie Department for Teacher's Training University of Craiova, No. 13, A. I. Cuza Street, 1100, Craiova ROMANIA Abstract: Teacher training is one of the concerns of the educational policy which is more and more recquired in its pragmatics, as related to the development of the social environment. As initial teacher training is the first step in professionalizing the teaching career, we consider stimulating the participation of future teacher-students in specific activities to be important. Therefore, starting from the clarification of the conceptual framework, we intend to verify to what extent the use of certain models and teaching strategies encourage the opportunities of active learning by stimulating students to get involved. There was observed an improvement in the results obtained by the students in the groups we worked with, as a result of the amending research we had unfolded. The findings are based on results obtained from implementing the independent variable and it also emphasizes the practical aspects of strategies that can optimize active participation achieved by cooperation and by being computer aided. It follows that modern information technology can be successfully used in the initial training of future teachers whereas collaborative learning stimulates the active involvement of students. Keywords: initial training; students; group; collaborative learning; informational technologies I. Introduction The theoretical framework of this theme is generous and enters the area of research on optimizing teaching activities specific to the training of future teachers. The efficiency and effectiveness of teacher education systems depend on the substance of the concept it underlies on, its parts generating a specific strategy for teacher training. Initial and continuous training of teachers has become one of the concerns of contemporary society. This process relates to the educational policies and programs designed to shape in the future teachers skills that are necessary to perform specific tasks and roles resulting from their statute. In the mid 1980s, some states have adopted “alternative routes to teacher training” that were created in order to attract people with bachelor's degree who want to teach in schools. Feistritzer E. (2005), founder of the “National Center for Education Information”, collected and analyzed data on alternative routes to teacher training [1]. We can assert that political cooperation at EU level has led to a broad description of the types of attributes that teachers in Member States have to possess. The resources available on the Internet are increasingly used to support teacher training, the effectiveness of teacher training policy depending mainly on the quality of the structures and mechanisms designed to support it and on the available resources to achieve its objectives. We believe that fostering the participation of students-future teachers derives from their trainers’ option for methodological alternation. The paradigm of alternatives is essential in the formation and activity of the educator and the cognitive, methodological and organizational alternation (understood as a sign of flexibility and creative adaptation to different situations) contributes to creating a formative style in action. The concept of experience achieves, thus, a higher meaning, based on reflection, perception and problem solving, critical self-analysis, communication and collaboration. II. Conceptual framework A. Aspects of initial teacher training The initial training is the construction of a set of skills that enable the individual to act creatively and flexibly in the field he trains himself. The experience of many countries in professionalization proves positive. In AngloSaxon countries, teacher training focused on the idea of professionalism and in specifically Latin countries they have focused on the intellectual training of teachers. Ph. Perrenoud (2001) has a number of studies on teacher training. He suggests three steps that must be taken in the initial training: identification and construction of cognitive resources (including knowledge), mobilization, implementation of practical internship situations (simulation exercises, role playing, problem solving) and their registration in a reflective register to activate the student to become its own engine in the professionalisation process [2]. In the Unites States, one third of the
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new teachers come from alternative routes of teacher certification [3]. H.R. Milner talks about deprofessionalization in American political reforms. From this angle of responsibility and increase of the quality of teachers, training models take into account the ways that lead to increased performance in standardized tests. It can be considered that this approach is the added value of the professionalisation endeavour of teachers. Comparing professionalization and de-professionalization according to the added value, there is stress on the importance of the standardized assessment system and the subjects taught, but it also highlights the pressure on teachers to give tests, the reference to the added value mentioned and the responses to the pressures of the added value – teachers cheating to increase student test scores [4]. In Romania, there were performed investigations in the problem of teacher training, the research directions including: developing models and initial and continuing training programs (Mitrofan N., Păun E., Niculescu R.M, Iucu R., Joiţa E., Maciuc I.), the analysis of the skills taxonomy of an ideal teacher and the development of occupational standards for a teaching career (Cristea S., Călin M., Potolea D. Toma S.), the identification of training and professional development needs (Păun E., Ionescu M., Pânişoară I., Gligor L., Jinga I.), the teacher's personality (Mitrofan N., Neacşu I., Dragu A.). The strategies used in teaching indirectly influence the initial and/or continuous training, but they must take into account the specific of the training model, the general concept underlying the specific activities. From this point of view, the psycho-pedagogical literature of the 1980s was dominated by the cognitive psychology. As M.H. Dembo stated, “a new ism – constructivism – dominates the scene, and again many psychologists are convinced that they finally found the perspective. The buzzwords are now mental models, authentic tasks, and metaphors” [5]. It is estimated that “a (learning) situation should be a challenge that would engage students, would arouse their interest and would actively introduce them in understanding the tasks in order to achieve goals (...). A situation should present a real-life situation, in relation to the conditions that the learning unit allows” [6]. If passive learning is based on avoiding learning failure, on obtaining grades and external rewards (the most common strategies are memorizing, minimizing the effort of studying and anticipating assessment exams), active learning is based on intrinsic reasons such as personal development and the desire to form specific competencies [7], [8], [9], [10]. B. The characteristic of group/team activity Organizing students into groups aims at providing opportunities, including that of showing others what they know, how they documented, how they reported to objectives, how they approached their task or homework. Used in working with students, it capitalizes interpersonal relationships in solving learning tasks. Working in homogeneous groups involves differentiation of tasks by level of cognitive development, of acquiring knowledge and training skills. The activity in heterogeneous groups involves a closer relation to the social reality we live in. From this perspective, the teacher must start from the following questions: How can he group students to better solve tasks? What grouping shall I use (randomized or on a specific criterion, intentionally)? What kind of group do I intend to work with (more sophisticated, including students with personality, with academic knowledge or students chosen according to certain criteria)? Why is it important to know the leaders in a group and how will I refer to them? How should I plan training group situation so that each group member to make sense of personal experience and contribute to achieving the objectives? The small, limited or initial group has some distinct features: it implies direct association and cooperation, face to face, it perceives membership in a certain way and the mutual influence is greater. In common language, a small group is also known by the term “team”. According to J.F. Leroy, the team is “an entity known by an organization, formed by a permanent or long-term group, made of interdependent individuals pursuing one or more common goals in a constraining context” [11]. Another operational collective configuration is the selfdirected team, “a working group that has the chance to accomplish the stimulating task under reduced supervision” [12]. A valuable model is also that of multifunctional teams, supported by individuals with different specializations that contribute to accomplishing a project. Worth knowing is the term “performative team” which refers to that “group of individuals working together to stage a certain routine” [13]. From the perspective of the subject approached in this study the important part is the training group (T-group) because it is considered one of the most effective means for activating the group, encouraging cooperative learning. In building itself around the idea of “mutual learning”, of acquisition by appealing to the experience of others, the T-group has the following roles [14]: It encourages the spirit of research and experimentation in social relations, promoting the idea of selfinformation, by articulating the social context; It increases sensitivity to the expectations of others (enlarged interpersonal awareness); It provides greater authenticity in interpersonal relationships; It develops the ability to diagnose social situations (interpersonal, intergroup) to employ collaborative behavior and resolve conflict situations by engaging in problem solving.
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The studies on the role of group dynamics and group/team work are numerous and they highlight the major impact that interaction has on human activities. The areas of interest include: developing a sense of responsibility within the group (Mahler, Pine & Bergman, 1975), strategies on group dynamics in classrooms (Glasser, 1992; Stevens, 1998), conflicts specific to teamwork and negotiation inside the team (Shah & Jehn, 1993; Jehn, 1995, 1997; Amasonia, 1996; Thompson & De Harpport, 1998; Edmondson, Bohmer & Pissano, 2000) [15], [16]. A very good summary of articles published in scientific journals on this subject, is made by LR Frey, University of Colorado Boulder [17]. D. Harrington-Mackin mentions the following advantages of teamwork: a highly encouraging work environment, fast response to technological change, proactive approach to problems, the development of staff skills. It also asserts the superiority of collective decisions as opposed to the individual ones [18]. We add, to the already mentioned positive aspects, other benefits on organizing groups, group or team work: the possibility of cooperation and mutual control, the stimulation of intellectual education in intensive and creative situations, the internalization of the social reasons of learning, the stimulation of moral education, with impact on social communication. In terms of limits, especially if we talk as teachers, sometimes there are difficulties in working with small groups of students, related to their behaviour (students’ behaviour may be too challenging, disruptive or unfocused on the purpose of the activity) [19]. The research carried on by M. Deutsch lead to the idea that “constructive processes of conflict resolution are similar to cooperative processes of problem solving, and destructive processes of conflict resolution are similar to competitive processes” [20]. Competition brings poor interaction between mates, lack of communication and mutual trust. Instead, cooperation means a gain in terms of interaction, encouraging prosocial behaviour, facilitating other people’s success and bringing understanding. C. The importance of collaborative learning Teaching is valuable only when it leads to learning. It states that “effective teaching must consider all of the students' characteristics in order to build novel learning experiences in the classroom; otherwise, students will find ways to access the required information from home, a library, or the mall” [21]. Therefore, it is recommended to encourage interactions in the classroom or seminar/laboratory, “the teacher being a human agent whose main function is to initiate the acceleration of the changing rate of concepts and accomplish this characteristic” [22]. The best way to cause generative learning and collaborative learning supports the understanding of different points of view, especially when it is facilitated by the computer. Starting from the question “is collaborative learning a teaching method or a psychological process?” P. Dillenbourg believes that “the pedagogical sense is prescriptive: one asks two or more people to collaborate because it is expected that they will thereby learn efficiently. The psychological sense is descriptive: one observes that two or more people have learned and collaboration is viewed as the mechanism which caused learning” [23]. He argues that it is neither a mechanism nor a method. Both the viability of the previously accomplished individual understanding and the outlining of some common aspects are seen in cooperation, which is an opportunity to find out how many construction alternatives may arise, what interpretations can be made and from what perspective [24]. The constructivist perspective can take two forms: cognitive perspective (does not deny the possibility of learning in groups) and social approach (does not infirm the value of working independently of the others). It is stated that “cooperative learning is a phrase used to describe small group strategies where each student is helped by others in learning. In fact, the success of each member is the success of the other members of the group” [25] and “cooperation is not levelled behaviour, but it is meant to create a space completed with a task that requires players to establish a functional interdependence which needs minimal cognitive conflicts” [26]. Collaborative learning provides general, organizational conditions for the exchange of ideas originally obtained at an individual and independent level, and subsequently at the front (collaboration). The collaborative and cooperative learning model, also called “mutual learning” [27] is relevant to the present research as it provides dynamic activation of each group member. Reflecting a way of relating with others, collaboration becomes a condition of learning. Approached as a model that integrates external conditions of learning, collaborative learning may be associated to the model of learning through problem solving. It is observed that “some research (Poirer, 1997) advocates the affirmation of cooperation in small groups, even in pairs, to demonstrate the role of continuing involvement in discussions, in argumentation, in negotiation, in deepening meanings. Especially for pairs or a group of 3-4 students it is easier to shift from the subjective to the objective knowledge through confrontation, correction, completion, re-structuring, eliminating confusion, reconstruction, internalization of new data, forming mental representations” [28]. In 1982, A. Whimbely and J. Lochhead described this strategy that involves thinking and learning in pairs, by rotating roles. Students are more involved and become more active [29]. Using pairs in the problem solving method is among the most effective teaching strategies, and when it is accompanied by information technologies, the active participation of students increases and leads to superior results on an emotional and cognitive level as well as on a social, relational and attitudinal level. In an experimental study, S.D. Johnson and S.-P.Chung observed the effectiveness of a training strategy called “Thinking Aloud Pair Problem Solving” (TAPPS). Following a dyadic-learning procedure, two students work as a team and take turns playing the role of the problem solver. The non-solving student assumes the role of
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monitor, observes, critiques and evaluates the problem-solving performance. The goal is to make the problem solvers aware of what they know, what they can do, whether they are doing it correctly, and whether the process is reasonable [30]. The strategy of thinking aloud in solving problems in pairs has been used in other curricular contents (eg. Chemistry), as it is shown in a study by L.K.W. Lee in 1998 [31]. These models and strategies encourage the active learning opportunities, providing real-life examples, integrating new information technologies and multimedia. In recent years there has been more emphasis on the use of information technology in teaching: “Educational software packages, the World Wide Web, course web pages, email, discussion groups, bulletin boards and applications of audio, video, or computer-based multimedia, have changed teaching in all disciplines and at all levels” [32]. There is a number of “methods that integrate technology in classes or laboratories and seminars: Videos Explaining Concepts and Solutions to Problems, Screen-Capture Movies for Software Demonstrations and Tutorials, Animations Explaining Course Concepts, Group Web Sites, Electronic Forums, Web-Based Feedback, Virtual Office Hours, Real-Time Collaborative Computing” [33]. Roschelle (1995) proposed the term “collaborative technology” which was aimed at building common ways to perceive, react and know. He argues that technology can be a means by which the company builds common practice. We also believe that the implementation of new information and communication technologies in school has a number of advantages: it facilitates the individualization of instruction, its relatively low cost, the relative ease of access, a dynamic activity group, etc. Recent technical progress has made the new services (multimedia services) together with the new infrastructure (information highways) become a reality. The optimization approach of student-teacher participation in specific activities of their initial training is based on studies which emphasize the positive impact that technology has in a collaborative learning context. The most recent are: Wasson, Ludvigsen & Hoppe, 2003; Andriessen, Baker & Suthers, 2003; Strijbos, Kirschner & Martens, 2004; Bromma Hesse & Spada, 2005 [34], Resta & Laferriere, 2007; Tsue, 2009; Stahl, Lao, & Hesse, 2013; Burns, 2013 [35]. Reasons for using computer-supported collaborative learning include [36]: to prepare students for the knowledge society (collaboration skills and knowledge creation), to enhance student cognitive performance or foster deep understanding, to add flexibility of time and space for cooperative/collaborative learning, to foster student engagement and keep track of student cooperative/collaborative work (online written discourse). Computer-supported collaborative learning is a pedagogical approach in which learning occurs through social interaction using a computer or the Internet. This type of learning is characterized by sharing and building knowledge among the participants who use technology as a primary means of communication or as shared resource. Being approached as interaction, effect of the interaction, coordinated and synchronous activity, situation, mechanism, method, tool, social contract, principle, integrating concept, collaborative learning is, for us, a social construct, an effect of interaction which emphasizes the meaning that each participant is given by personal experience from the perspective of achieving the joint aims (goals and objectives). III. The purpose and objectives of the research The action-research presented in this study lasted for two years (2013-2014 and 2014-2015), at the University of Craiova, as part of the psycho-pedagogical training module. The purpose of this research is to encourage students-future teachers’ participation, in specific educational and instructive activities, in the context of using certain teaching and learning strategies based on interaction and implementation of the information technology. The research objectives relate to: Shaping the framework of the initial training of teachers; Highlighting the role of group activity in initial teacher training; Identifying models and optimization strategies of students-future teachers’ participation in specific educational activities; Valorizing the advantages during a semester, during specific activities, in pedagogy classes. In our research, we started from the following general hypothesis: The use of teaching strategies based on interaction and implementation of information technology facilitates and promotes the students-future teachers’ participation in educational activities. Derived from the general hypothesis, the particular hypotheses that have particularly interested us are: hypothesis 1 – Collaborative learning leads to increased student activism and hypothesis 2 – The call to new information and communication technologies positively influence students’ participation in educational activities. The results were the basis for the conclusions of this study which shows the importance of group work and the need to stimulate students to participate in their professional training, during the initial training stage. IV. The research methodology The research sample includes 118 students attending the courses of the psycho-pedagogical training module, students of the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Mathematics and Informatics, Chemistry and Physics specializations. Being an ameliorative pedagogic research, we started from an initial position where we found the students’ lack of involvement in the applied activities and we designed a teaching approach that would stimulate and motivate them more.
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The research lasted for over two semesters (the 2nd semester in the academic year 2013-2014 and the 1st semester in 2014-2015). In order to test the hypotheses and to achieve the purpose and objectives, we used the following methods and research tools: the systematic observation (through an observation grid), the psychopedagogical experiment, the table, the graphical representation. The stages that we followed during the investigation are: 1. Stage 1 (the second semester of the academic year 2013-2014): Step 1. Identify the students with a high level of involvement in teaching activities as well as the very good ones (based on the results in the partial evaluations and in the final evaluation at the end of the 1st academic year) Step 2. Detect “satellites”, students who feel comfortable around those in the first category (during applied activities in the seminar) 2. Stage 2 (the first semester of the academic year 2014-2015): Step 3. Organize activities in group sessions, involving those who integrate harder or have relationship difficulties, gaps in content, poor attendance at the educational activities (lectures and seminars) Step 4. Implement strategies to optimize student participation in instructive and educational activities by using the computer Step 5. Compare the training situations (the one designed during stage II and the one in stage I) based on reporting to some indicators that express the activism of the participants. The indicators expressing activism include the number of interventions made by the students during the seminar activities. Aiming to know the level of participation in educational activities specific for the psycho-pedagogical training module, we registered the number of times each student intervened, during the 2nd semester of the first year (2013-2014), in the pedagogy course and seminar (“Fundamentals of Pedagogy” and “Curriculum Theory”). Having as a reference point the interventions of students during specific activities we have registered in a table, at what extent students got involved, expressed in percentage level.
Specialization
Mathematics and Informatics (75 students) Physics and Chemistry (43 students)
Table I Level of student participation in activities specific to the pedagogy course Level of participation Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good No. of Percentage No. of Percentage No. of Percentage participants paricipants paricipants 23 30.67% 19 25.33% 22 29.33%
14
32.56%
16
37.21%
8
18.60%
Very good No. of Percentage paricipants 11 14.67%
5
11.63%
From the initial data can be observed that the number of students who are actively involved in seminars is low, they do not have the skills required to support dialogue, to initiate interpersonal relationships, to solve learning tasks by using a computer, to take responsability in the interventions they made. The results in the final evaluation were themselves reference points for the conscious and active involvement of students-future teachers and helped us in establishing a hierarchy on their psycho-pedagogical education. In the second stage of the research, we insisted on implementing certain strategies to stimulate student involvement in the group of the two groups (Mathematics and Informatics, Physics and Chemistry), in educational activities. We put stress on group work and pair work (as we wanted to valorize interpersonal preferences, too) and on computer use in preparing applications and in organizing and presenting themes based on solving certain teaching tasks that were specific to the learning process (in accordance with the curriculum frameworks and the curricula appropriate for the training of future teachers). The strategy that was thought and considered the independent variable of the research was implemented during the first semester of the academic year II (2014-2015) in the course of “The Theory and Methodology of Education” and “The Theory and Methodology of Evaluation”. To determine whether the research hypotheses are confirmed, we compared, at the end of the intervention period, both the degree of involvement of students in the two groups in seminar activities and the final exam results. That way we graduated the difficulty and the number of the requirements according to the training time given in the curriculum of the discipline mentioned. After implementing the independent variable, we compared (at the end of the first semester of academic year II) the students’ level of involvement, using the following observational indicators (which we translated into items – I1, I2, I3 and I4): 1. Solving problematical training tasks in small groups (I1 total: 42 – Group G1; 35 – Group G2); 2. Systematic interventions (through verbal communication – oral and written) resulting from cooperative learning (total I2: 53 – Group G1; 38 – Group G2);
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3. Power Point Presentation of practical assignments (with a practical side) made in pairs (total I1: 37 – Group G1; 24 – Group G2); 4. Prezi Presentations made in small groups (total I1: 31 – Group G1; 12 – Group G2). After summarizing the data associated with each item, we registered the number of interventions for each grade and obtained the following results: Groups of students G1 (Mathematics and Informatics) G2 (Physics and Chemistry)
Table II Percentage achieved by the students of the two groups in the indicators expressing active involvement Interventions of students – level of participation Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good Itemi No. % Itemi No. % Itemi No. % I1 2 4.76 I1 3 7.14 I1 13 30.96 I2 7 13.21 I2 11 20.76 I2 18 33.96 I3 1 2.70 I3 7 18.92 I3 10 27.03 I4 3 9.68 I4 4 12.90 I4 15 48.39 I1 4 11.43 I1 6 17.14 I1 12 34.29 I2 5 13.16 I2 8 21.05 I2 11 28.95 I3 7 12.50 I3 6 29.17 I3 3 25.00 I4 2 16.67 I4 3 25.00 I4 3 25.00
Itemi I1 I2 I3 I4 I1 I2 I3 I4
Very good No. % 24 57.14 17 32.07 19 51.35 9 29.03 13 37.14 14 36.84 8 33.33 4 33.33
V. Results By analyzing the percentages obtained at the end of stage I we notice that in both groups there is a percentage of over 50% indicating satisfactory and unsatisfactory student involvement. There is a small difference (about 15%) – in favor of group G1 – between good and very good involvement of the students with Mathematics and Informatics specialization and good and very good involvement of the students in Physics and Chemistry. Group 1
Group 2 Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good Very good
Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Good Very good
Figure 1: The level of involvement of G1 group students
Figure 2: The level of involvement of G2 group students
After entering the independent variable (during the second stage of the research) we found that the percentages corresponding to good and very good involvement of students increased. 60
Item 1
40
Item 2
20
Item 3
0
Item 4 Unsatisfactory
Satisfactory
Good
Very good
Figure 3: The results of the G1 group students related to the four indicators
G1 group students obtained very good results in items I1 and I3, being actively involved in solving the problematical learning tasks (57.14%) and in the PowerPoint presentations (51.35%). The number (and quality) of the students’ interventions increased during stage II, in comparison to the first stage interventions, for each indicator getting a percentage that exceeds the percentage of interventions/responses from the initial stage of research. 40 Item 1
30
Item 2
20
Item 3
10
Item 4
0 Unsatisfactory
Satisfactory
Good
Very good
Figure 4: The results of the G2 group students related to the four indicators
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G2 group students have achieved very good results in I1 and I2 items, being actively involved as much as the others in solving problematical learning tasks (37.14%). About the same percentage (36.84%) has been obtained in I2 item, which quantifies the systematic interventions (through verbal communication – oral and written) resulting from cooperative learning. The research purpose was achieved and the general hypothesis validated. This is confirmed by the results presented and by the higher quality work produced by the students in both groups in their final evaluation, at the end of the first semester of study year II. VI. Conclusions The results lead to the conclusion that the strategies we used have a positive influence on activating the students, by encouraging their participation in training activities specific to the psycho-pedagogical module. By their characteristics, the teaching strategies we have used activate students and increase the percentage of those who participate actively and consciously in instructive and educational activities. Both problem solving and practical work were intensively used in seminars by making students work together, communicate and solve together (in pairs, teams or groups) the given tasks. The call for new information technologies has increased the number of interventions in seminars as well as their participation in joint applicable tasks, most students being interested in showing their contribution in front of the others. We have shown that the number of students who participated actively and systematically in the seminar increased. It also increased the number of learning tasks performed in pairs, teams or groups by means of the computer. It is true that G1 group students had better scores in the last two items (which involve using the computer – Power Point and Prezi presentations, web application through which students could design more attractive and persuasive presentations), but this is also due to the specialization they attend (MathematicsInformatics). We can say that collaborative learning increases activism among students, and when integrated into activities and information technologies, students become more interested in solving training tasks by participating in a greater proportion. There is no need to ask ourselves if training is improved through the use of computers, but how to use more the unique qualities of computers, qualities that distinguish them from other media. This will require a rethinking of the future educational system, where the training of future teachers will be the “engine” that will generate change. We refer to accelerating the transition from classical training, where the teacher has the main role – hence the emphasis on expository methods – to a modern training, where the students are motivated to participate in their initial training as teachers, to actively engage, as they are stimulated by the modern strategies, including new information technologies. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]
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Vali Ilie, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, pp. 0815 [23] P. Dillenbourg, (1999). What do yuo mean by collaborative leraning? In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.) Collaborative-learning: Cognitive and Computational Approaches. Oxford: Elsevier, p. 4 [24] E. von Glasersfeld, (1989). Cognition, Construction of Knowledge and Teaching. In Synthese 80 (1), 121-140 (special issue on education). http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/EvG/papers/118.pdf, pp. 6-7 [25] [28] T.K. Henson, (2004). Constructivist Teaching Strategies for Diverse Middle – Level Classrooms, Boston: Pearson Education, Inc., p. 20 [26] J.-M. Monteil, (1997). Education and training, Iași: Polirom, p. 89 [27] B. Wilson and P. Cole, (1991). A review of cognitive teaching models. In Educational Technology Research and Development, Volume 39, Issue 4, pp. 47-64 [28] Joița, E., (2006). Constructivist instruction – an alternative. Fundamentals, Iași: Polirom, pp. 108-187 [29] H.J. Hartman and N.A. Glasgow, (2002). Tips fo the Science Teacher. Research Based Strategies to Help Students Learn, Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc., pp. 38-39 [30] D.S. Johnson and S.-P. Chung, (1999). The Effect of Thinking Aloud Pair Problem Solving (TAPPS) on the Troubleshooting Ability of Aviation Technician Students. In Journal of Industrial Teacher Education. Volume 37, Number 1, http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournal/JITE/v37n1/john.html [31] L.K.W. Lee, (1998). Thinking aloud about pair problem solving in chemistry. In Teaching and Learning, 18 (2), 89-95 [32] S. Moazeni, (2012). Effective Strategies to Teach Operations Research to Non-Mathematics Majors. http://www.optimizationonline.org/DB_FILE/2012/07/3548.pdf, p. 9 [33] K.C. Seal and Z.H. Przasnyski, (2003). Using technology to support pedagogy in an OR/MS course. Interfaces 33(4), 27–40 [34] G. Stahl, T. Koschmann and D. Suthers, (2006). Computer-supported collaborative learning: An historical perspective. http://gerrystahl.net/cscl/CSCL_English.pdf, p. 2 [35] N.C. Bartel, (2014). Collaboration in the Grade 9 English Classroom. http://pilotscholars.up.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1018&content=edu_gradpubs [36] P. Resta and T. Laferrière, (2007). Technology in support of collaborative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 19 , 65-83. http://jessicawicks.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/restalaferriere.pdf, p. 1
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
Indian Rasa Manifestation in the Motifs of Saharanpur Woodcraft Aayushi Verma*, Prof. Ila Gupta Department of Humanities and Social Science*, Department of architecture and planning, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 247667, Uttrakhand, INDIA Abstract: Throughout the world, art and craft are known as the best achievement of human being which reveals a vast vocabulary of inspirational and powerful motifs. These motifs are associated with ancestor’s tradition, beliefs, emotions and religion that influence human existence. In this context, the woodcraft has always remained an enchanting phenomenon from the first evident of the civilization in Indian subcontinent which is the best way to indicate the folk tradition, culture and self expression of artisans. Hence, Saharanpur city represents the ancestor’s tradition of woodcraft as the world famous center of wood carving. Saharanpur woodcraft display various motifs of decoration such as zoomorphic (Peacock, lion, elephant, deer, bull and so on), auspicious (Swastika, Sun, Chakra, Kalasha and so on), figurative, vegetative (Flora and fauna and fruits) and intricate geometrical forms. These motifs signify the glimpse of Gujjar- Pratihar art as well as Mughal art. The inspiration of depiction of these motifs is not only the ornamentation and decoration but also the adoption of it in human life with essential aspects. These motifs have been filled with ornamentation representation and aesthetic pleasure of Indian rasa application to stir the heart of its viewers and seek to evaluate the adoption and implication of all flora and fauna with its meaning and essence. The highly aesthetic fascination and enrichment of the motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft reveal the inner delight through rasa theory. The present paper is an attempt to study the rasa manifestation of the exceptional and unique motifs in Saharanpur woodcraft. Thus the paper will be based on the discussion of aesthetic delight of rasa which reflects the prominent mood of human behavior and its symbolic image of Saharanpur woodcraft in contemporary world. Keywords: Saharanpur woodcraft, motifs, aesthetical delight, rasa application, Contemporary world. I. Introduction Extant of literature on craft domain accentuates art and craft as a crucial activity of human being representing the schematic view of traditional and cultural heritage of nation. In this vein, India is a land of traditional art and craft that presents the personality of each state of India with diverse variety of inspirational and powerful motifs. The very motifs broadly refer to the ideology, which is deeply rooted in ancestral tradition, beliefs, myth and symbolism. These motifs cannot be presented in the absence of aesthetic application because art has a visual approach. The very approach can not be entirely applicable without the beautification and ornamentation of the art. This artistic pleasure comes through the aesthetic diversions, in which the symbols and semiotics have the power to attract its viewers. The aesthetic encounters can be caught from the ancient monuments till today. In this context, the previous works of art have become a vivid source of the inspiration for contemporary artists and craftsmen. These paintings, sculpture, architectural monuments, craft and other decorative arts are filled with the unique persona of aesthetic delight. In this way, the woodcraft of Saharanpur can be read or interpreted from the perspectives of aesthetic philosophy of designs as well as the concept of rasa. So the woodcraft of Saharanpur has the variation of numerous motifs with its aesthetical pleasure in unique forms. The present paper sheds some light on Indian Rasa manifestation in the motif of Saharanpur woodcraft. The purpose of this paper is not to discuss the Indian rasa theory of Bharata Muni which has been given in the reference of drama, but to point out the rasa concept in the context of motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft. A. Study Site Saharanpur city is situated at the Ganga Yamuna doab region of Western Uttar Pradesh, one of the famous Indian states for craft. This region demonstrates the Indo Islamic culture. All Saharanpur represents the amalgamation of Indian as well as Islamic culture and art. Due to lack of ample evidences, it may be a bit dangerous to say anything definite about the Saharanpur woodcraft that whether it is purely allied to Mughal art or Gujjar pratihar art. However, in the existence of some earliest evidences it can be said that Saharanpur woodcraft displays the fusion of Indo-Islamic art. Indian art can be seen in earliest building of Saharanpur that was completely associated with Gujjar partihar art. Emperors of Gujjar partihar were devotee of Hinduism. Therefore, some of the finest surviving example of Gujjar pratihar art can be caught through the stone/wood carving work of earliest havelis and chhattas of Saharanpur City. Some of the earliest havelis of Saharanpur are preserved in Chhatta Jambudas, Chhatta Barumal, Chhatta Hulasrai which reveal the classical art tradition. In Mughal Period, Akbar was the main ruler of the Mughal dynasty, which made Saharanpur an administrative unit
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under the province of Delhi. From the sixteen century and throughout the Mughal period, Saharanpur began to take the shape of a town. It is also at that point, some craftsmen came from Kashmir and settled in Saharanpur for sustenance. It is said that wood carving was introduced in Kashmir by the Persian craftsmen who had to leave their home in Persia and settle in Kashmir due to lack of shisham wood [1]. As a result, in 1817, Mughal rule was finished in Kashmir and some craftsmen’s families had shifted to Multan, Saharanpur and different places, wherever they could earn livelihood from woodcraft business. This was the major reason for its application or adoption. Thus Persian, Islamic and Hinduism impression may be caught in the motif of Saharanpur woodcraft. II. Motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft Signs and symbols are very essential element of an object for representing the identity of the object and make them attractive too. Art is prosaic without the delightful presence of sign and symbol. As well as, the spirit of attraction has also been generated through the symbolic significance of artifacts. These motifs present aesthetic pleasure of Indian rasa through its visual forms and lay emphasis on psychological effect on mind and heart of viewer. The motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft are mainly the amalgamation of different signs of Islamic (geometrical and calligraphy), Persian (floral, fruits, tree, vases and vessels), Hindu art (swastika, sun, lotus, purnakalasa and figurative image), because these motifs present the taste of emperor’s choice, luxurious life of emperors and the tradition of that time. For example, Akbar was extremely influenced by Hinduism and Islamic traditions. His wedding with Hindustani princess Jodhabhai, was a very momentous and significant development of Mughal history and added several changes in culture, literature, art and socio- economic conditions [2]. He was a Muslim ruler yet he brought some changes in the Islamic traditions in art. He invited Hindu craftsmen in his workshop and provided them full liberty for creating distinctive artifacts [3]. It is considered that the depiction of living beings is prohibited in Islam. But Akbar was the first ruler of the Mughal dynasty who amalgamated some elements of Indian and Islamic art which is called Indo-Islamic art. Another Mughal emperor Jahangir was fond of every essence of nature and therefore in his time the Persian impact has also appeared in different forms of art and craft. Throughout the reign of Akbar, Jahangir and Sahajahan some Hindu auspicious motifs like Satkona, Swastika, Padma, Hansa, and Chakra were adopted from Indian art and created by the craftsmen. Therefore, the Saharanpur woodcraft can be signified with the Indo-Islamic culture and tradition through the performance of art and design as a result of the motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft have the philosophical theory of ancient Hindu and Islamic tradition. So, the designs have a lot of similitude with IndoIslamic motifs of erst while time. The fusion of two cultural arts is quiet appreciative, which represent the individuality, freshness, novelty and enjoyment of art. These motifs can be seen on the several monuments of Mughal emperors such as tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah, Birbal’s palace, Jodhabai’s palace, and Taj mahal and so on. There are five categories of motifs in Saharanpur woodcraft viz. A) Vegetative motifs B) Auspicious motifs C) Zoomorphic motifs D) Geometrical motifs E) Human figure motifs. A. Vegetative Motifs Saharanpur woodcraft has a vast approach for its vegetative motifs such as creepers, floral (sunflower, lotus, lily and rose etc), fruits (particularly grape, pineapple, leechi, coconut). During the regin of Jehangir, exclusive depiction of vegetative motifs with realistic manner may be clearly seen in the preserved artifacts. It is said that Jehangir was very fond of fruits and imported those fruits that were not available in India [4]. He was the great lover of nature as well as indulged in drinking liquor [5]. The grapevine motif is the most prominent motif of Saharanpur woodcraft and it is the symbol of intoxication because grapes are used in making wine. It can be said that the grapevine motif in Saharanpur woodcraft might have been used due to King Jahangir, who was fond of drinking liquor that he would feel intoxicated just by looking at this fruit. The powerful approach of ornamentation and decoration can be caught through the attractive persona of these motifs. Motifs have a power to mesmerize to the spectator with different forms and colors. Figure1: Flora and Vegetative Motifs
B. Auspicious Motifs Hindu culture contains its richest treasure in the application of auspicious motifs which belong to the Indian ancient mythological terms. The motifs of Sawastika, Lotus, Chakra, kalasha, and Sun have come into this category after creating a beautiful sense of good omen and blessing of Gods with its sacred aura for human-
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being. The Swastika is an auspicious Hindu symbol which represents fourfold aspect of creation. Swastika, the graphic symbol, is found in almost every ancient and primitive cult all over the world [6]. The sacred religious blessings have an essential role for the happy and prosperous life and personification for all the mankind in all deeds. Sun is considered solar deity in Hinduism which gives energy to universe. Historically the Gurjars were Sun-worshipers and this symbol has been depicted on their seals. The classical style of auspious motifs in the stone/wood carving work may be seen in earliest havelis of Saharanpur. These Hindu auspicious motifs have also been adopted by craftsmen in Saharanpur’s woodcraft to decorate the wooden products. Most of the craftsmen were highly inspired from auspious motifs. With the change of rulers, Saharanpur came under the Mughal influence. The Mughal openly accepted different culture and customs of Hinduism and created a fusion of Hindu and Islamic auspious motifs in Mughal art. For instance, Akbar himself used to offer water to the Sun in early morning [7]. As well as he started worshipping the Sun and hearing the Sanskrit names of sun regularly. Figure 2: Auspicious Motifs
C. Zoomorphic Motifs These kinds of motifs are drawn from the prominent attributes of Hindu mythology. The deities’ vehicle or vahana has been conceptualized for the symbolic significance of the deities for the religious offering of their sublime submission. For instance, the vehicle of an Indian God Kartikaye has been depicted in the form of peacock in many temples of south India and the vehicle of Goddess Sarsavati (The goddess of Wit and intelligence) has with her vehicle swan or hansa for the ritualistic purposes. In this category, the elephant for Lord Indra and the lion for Hindu Goddess Durga can be caught in numerous temple sites. Despite knowing the existence of zoomorphic motif in Hindu mythology, these were adopted in the Mughal art with highly impressive manner. The depiction of fabulous animals has been found on seals in the Indus valley art period in India [8]. So, in Saharanpur, many animal motifs of religious based antiquity have been used for promoting the value of traditional rituals. Figure 3: Zoomorphic Motifs
D. Geometrical Motifs The lines of geometrical shape are also a part of Indian monuments and ancient temples but they are highly promoted in the reign of Muslim emperors because these emperors belonged to the Islamic belief system, which reflects in their artistic ornamentation. The pinjara or lattice work was entirely based on geometrical shapes such as circles, lines and it can only be caught in ancient Islamic architecture. Thus, its presence in Indian architecture and woodcraft can be signified after the establishment of the Mughal School of art only. The Saharanpur woodcraft has also made use of this kind of lattice detail in a broad manner. Figure 4: Geometrical Motifs
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E. Human Figure Motifs Saharanpur woodcraft also contains the representation of Hindu deities with full forms and 3D figure of female dancer with welcome sign. The elephant- headed Ganesha is considered one of the famous auspicious symbol of Hindu occasion and embodiment of intellectual and spiritual wisdom [9]. The Hindu rituals have promoted the image worship so the woodcraft of Saharanpur has also made use of these divine and holy images for the worship and ritualistic satisfaction. Miniature paintings are still being made in wooden panels on the demand of buyers. These images are also a part of the woodcraft and produced on large scales for commercial purposes too. Figure 5: Human Figure Motifs
III. Aesthetic Philosophy Indian aesthetic philosophy is based on three major elements- Satayam (truth), Shivam (purity) and Sundaram (beauty). Beauty is the major character of Indian aesthetic philosophy however the question “what is the criteria of beauty”? Beauty is often seen in each object of nature and may be divided into two categories like physical beauty and spiritual beauty. Physical beauty is often seen within the physical appearance of object. However, spiritual beauty is a discovery of feeling and it is an inner expression which comes naturally to the heart of the observer. The motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft present physical and spiritual both beauties. However the question arises that woodcraft, which has been created for purpose, can be made in ordinary forms and simple manner without ornamentation. The reason behind the application of beautification not entirely belongs to the filling of space only because beauty and ornamentations are requirement of each artistic production. According to aesthetic vision a person wants to feel beauty in every essence of world along with the surroundings of every sphere. Therefore woodcraft has been created with auspicious decorative motifs that show the artistic facet and aesthetic pleasure of woodcraft. Sign and symbol increase the significance of aesthetic ideas like dhavani, rasa, alankara, bandha, guna, and reti [10]. Indian aesthetic philosophy has been filled with rasas idea that enhances the feeling, expression and ornamentation. Motifs and semiotics have a symbolic language which conveys the message to the spectators. For example, in ancient time pictorial script was used as language and speech communication by the orators. It was based on sign and symbols. Thus sign and symbols have gained vital place in the society from the ancient period and it continues in current times, too. Each motif and symbol indicates the predominate mood of human nature. It is a representational process of abstract visual conception that creates an aesthetic delight in the heart of the spectators. Each motif has a specific form, shape, color and meaning. The basic conception of art enhances the rhythm, balance, unity and harmony. Indian art is significant not only in the outer form but also in the inner meaning. Without meaning art is jejune [11]. According to Indian aesthetic theory, decorative and ornamental motifs lay emphasis on not only the fundamental and psychological concept but also on the inner delight. Natyashastra was written by Bharata Muni between 200 and 300 B. C, which gives us a basic theory of drama and rasas. He also explained as to how emotions can be evoked through the medium of drama. He defined rasa theory with rasasutra in the X chapter of Natyashastra. vibhava anubhava vyabhicahribhava samyogat rasa nispatihi The word rasa is made from two letters Ra and Sa, in which Ra means “to give” and Sa means “motion”. The term rasa has been derived from the root ‘rasah’ that means juice, taste, flavor, relish and essence which used to denote the essence of art, drama and literature. The word rasa has been mentioned in various contexts of Hindu mythological manuscripts such as Rigveda, Satapatha Brahamna, Natyashastra, Vishnudharmottara Purana, and Samrangana Sutradhara and so on which are very authentic manuscripts of Hinduism [12]. Rasa theory lay emphasis on secret meaning of art and craft. It is an invisible action of perceptible objects which may be felt by the connoisseur. As a result, everything can be seen in the universe, however, the emotions and sentiments are internal feelings which may solely be felt. Therefore, rasa is only an inner sensation that reveals mood and feelings of human beings. It is considered about rasa that in human beings, emotions exist with the birth of human as a sacrament and these emotions are transformed into rasa by visual perception. The combination called rasa is a mixture of sthayi bhava (permanent), vibhava (stimulus), anubhava (involuntary reaction), and viyabhicharibhava (voluntary reaction). Bharata has discussed eight rasa with sthayi bhava, color and presiding deities in Natyashatra. The ninth rasa was introduced later by Abhinavagupta and it is called santa rasa which stands for calmness.
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Table 1. The Classification of Rasa S. No
Moods and Emotion (Rasa)
Attitudes and sentiments (Sthayi bhava)
1. 2.
Shringar Rasa Hasya Rasa
Attraction (Rati), love, beauty Humour, Merriment (Lasya)
3.
Karuna Rasa
Sorrow, pathos (Soka)
4.
Rudra Rasa
Furious, violence, anger (Krodha)
5.
Vira Rasa
6.
Bhayanka Rasa
Courage, resolution (Utsaha) Terror, fear (Bhaya)
7.
Bibhatsa Rasa
Disgust (Jugupsa)
8.
Adbhuta Rasa
Wonder, bewilderment (Bismaya)
9.
Shanta Rasa
Calmness, silence (Sama)
IV. Discussions Indian art and craft is accomplished with aesthetic pleasure, which is the highest cause of rasanubhuti through the sensuous approach of abstract feelings in the heart of all human-beings. Rasa is the cause of ananda which leads to creation and sustenance [13]. Through the observation of woodcraft motifs, an aesthetical perception has been conquered in the form of shringara rasa, veer rasas, karuna rasa and santa rarsa. The rasa can be derived to evoke the sentiments and sensual approach in its various aspects. Each rasa has its own meaning and impact on the eyes and mind of the beholder. Shringara rasa is usually indicated by love, beauty, erotic and passion .It can be seen in the Indian context of Raasleela, a kind of dance of lord Krishna which express a kind of bliss to the spectator. For instance the feeling of love and affection has been derived from shringara rasa, in which the love and beautification of sensual pleasure has been raised through the lovely representation of symbolic motifs. It is known as the king of all rasas and enhances the decoration in art and crafts. In the category of shringara rasa, the rasa can be configured by flowers, creepers, chinar leafs, grape-wine motifs, zoomorphic motifs and Hindu deities are included. The shringar rasa has beautification and representation for attracting the buyers, because these kinds of motifs are considered a better option to decorate the home and buildings. The flowers and leaves closely belong to naturalistic representation so after being placed in architectural concepts, these motifs are proved to be a better medium for balancing the naturalistic environment. The flower is also in the category of love-symbol and a nice and tender structure, so it is highly appreciated for decoration. The creepers are signified with life-giving resemblance due to its growth and raising structure. So, it represents the harmony and rhythm of life. It is also very applicable to fill the corners and arches with its beautiful shapes and structures. The grape-wine motifs have always remained the frequent motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft either for its attractive shape or its symbolic significance of liquor. As the grapes have always used for making wine in ancient India in which the luxurious life has also been promoted which evoke the erotic and the exotic mood of the individuals. The zoomorphic motifs can be signified by the animal motifs, which include animal and birds in their proper ornamented depiction. The animals and birds stand for nature and living-beings. These animal motifs have been derived from the very ancient age of India and have been modified in natural forms. In recent age, the forms are ordinary but the beautification has reached its highest peak in Saharanpur woodcraft. These beautiful motifs awaken the delight of shringar or attractiveness. The deities are also being considered a powerful resource for the artistic enhancement in Indian art and also have been dominant in the woodcraft of Saharanpur. The art and architecture cannot be entirely manipulated without the religious icons. The very deities which are involved in their love depiction or in the blessing postures, has been used to evoke the element of shringar rasa. The charm and beauty of their facial expressions and gestures and their state of various attractive positions have been symbolized in the Saharanpur woodcraft. Figure 6 : Floral Motifs of Shringar rasa
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Santa rasa or calmness is also a unique phenomenon to stir the heart of the viewers. The santa rasa has been representative of mental calmness and stillness and the medium of spiritual concentration and highly applicable in Indian arts and craft. In this way, Shanta rasa has also indicated peace and relaxation. The term santa rasa is a condition of relaxation which can be physical, mental and, spiritual. Some motifs are eye-pleasing in nature such as when a person sees moon at night, he feels calmness and peace. Rasa is a reflection of still mood so the application of auspicious and sacred motifs in woodcraft conveys the message of calmness and softness. These motifs create spiritual atmosphere in nature. Auspicious motifs and geometrical structures also increase a calm and peaceful environment for the spectators such as Kalasha, Swastika and jali work with different geometrical shapes and forms. Figure 7: Motifs of santa rasa
Veer Rasa indicates a kind of heroism and courage with fearlessness. It is a feeling of freedom and independence and the motifs like Sun, Lotus and Chakra are the representatives of veer rasa. Lotus represents the principal of growth and sun represents the power of universe and great courage. It can be said, the motifs of Saharanpur woodcraft filled with courage and power enhance the aesthetic sense of fearlessness. Figure 8: Motifs of Veer rasa
Karuna rasa means compassion and sadness and indicates the negative vibes. When we lose something or separate from our beloved, we become sad and negative energy comes into the heart. Tajmahal is the finest example of Karuna rasa, because Tajmahal is a symbol of sadness and aloneness of Sahajahna, which creates a negative impact on mind. It is said that Tajmahal is symbol of separation of Sahajahan to his spouse. The motif of Tajmahal can also be found in Saharanpur woodcraft which is available in the markets. Figure 9: Motif of Karuna Rasa
V. Conclusions It is concluded that the aesthetic application has been caught in the woodcraft of Saharanpur with its symbolic significance. The significance of each rasa or delight is based on the visual perceptions of the individuals. In this context, the feeling of each rasa has various sentiments accordingly but as per the Rasas theory of Bharta Muni, the woodcraft contained the four Rasas including Shringara, Veera, Shanta, and Karuna. If the motifs are
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analyzed deeply, the appropriate sensation has been derived with its respective significance. Thus, the motifs of woodcraft are rich cultural heritage and filled with the aesthetical approach in their unique forms. The reason behind the application may be only the symbolic aspects, but the beauty and ornamentation are strongly connected with the term of visual delight in which, all the viewers can be delighted after the experiencing the aesthetic pleasure. A. Classification of motifs according to the Rasa Table 2: Classification of motifs according to the Rasa S. No. 1.
Rasas Shringar
Attitude and sentiments (Sthayi-bhava) Attraction (rati)
Beauty, Love , elegance, grace and devotion Peace, silence, or tranquility
Resolution(Utsaha)
Design Elements Flowers, flower plants, creepers, fruits, zoomorphic motifs Sacred idols , auspicious symbols, geometrical pattern Sun, chakra
2.
Shanta
Equanimity(Sama)
3.
Veera
4.
Karuna
Mood and Emotion
Sorrow(Soka)
Tajmahal Image
Compassion or pathos
Courageous or valor
References [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16].
Handa C.O & Jain, Madhu , “Wood Handicraft: A Study of its Origin and Development in Saharanpur”, Indus publishing company, New Delhi, pp. 43, 2000. Mukerjee, Soma, “Royal Mughal Ladies and Their Contributions”, Gyan Books Publisher, New Delhi. pp. 127-28, 2001. Nath, R, “History of Decorative Art in Mughal Architecture”, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi. pp. 5, 1976. Beveridge, H. “The Tuzuk-i-Jahangir of Memoirs of Jahangir, tr. Alexander Rogers”, Vol. 1, II Low Price Publication: Delhi, pp. 5, 2006. Ibid ,pp. 308. Chatterjee, Gautam & Chatterjee, Sanjay & Chatterjee Sanjoy , “Sacred Hindu Symbols”, Abhinav Publications, pp.38, 2001. Sharma, Chandra Lokesh, “A Brief History of Indian Painting”, Krishna Prakashan Media, pp.89, 2001. Agrawal, V.S, “Indian Art”, Varanasi: Prithvi Prakashan, pp. 37,1965. Chatterjee, Gautam & Chatterjee, Sanjay & Chatterjee Sanjoy, “Sacred Hindu Symbols”, pp.26. Devy, N.G, “Indian Literary Criticism: Theory and Interpretation”, Orient Blackswn Publisher, pp. xiv, 2002. Agrawal, V.S, Indian Art. Varanasi: Prithvi Prakashan, pp. 55, 1965. Nardi, Isabella, “The Theory of Chitrasutra in Indian Painting: A critical Re-evaluation of Their User and Interpretations”, Routledge publisher, pp. 143, 2007. Nath R , “Element of Indian Art and Architecture, The Historical Research Documentation Programme”, Jaipur, India, pp. 19,1986. Mukerjee, Radhakamal, “Rasa as springs of Art in Indian Aesthetics”, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 24, No. 1, Oriental Aesthetics. (Autumn), pp. 91-96, 1965. William, Gottfried. Joanna, “Kaladarsana: American Studies in the Art of India”, Vol. 9 of Studies in South Asian Culture, BRILL Publisher, 1981. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics).
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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
MEDIA AS ACTORS IN INTERSTATE CONFLICT: LESSONS FROM NIGERIAN PRESS COVERAGE OF THE BAKASSI PENINSULA DISPUTE Thomas Anomoaphe Alemoh (Ph.D.)1, Mrs. Lucy Ishima (M.Sc.)2 1,2 Lecturers, Department of Mass Communication, Kwararafa University, Wukari, Taraba State, NIGERIA Abstract: It is becoming increasingly acceptable among scholars that media play an important role in interstate affairs in contemporary global relations. Ordinarily in diplomatic circles as in all other spheres of life, the media as an institution in society, should concern itself with purveying information by acting as news sources. However, changing circumstances have redefined the role of the media in the international arena. The media may not be seen openly as participants in the nexus of factors that drive international discourse but they act as shadow parties in influencing what goes on in diplomatic circles. Sometimes, they initiate key decisions and at other times, they act as go-between among parties in a situation where open communication is virtually difficult. It is this unique role of the media in resolving interstate conflicts that forms the focus of this article using the Bakassi Peninsula conflict as a reference point. This article does not assume that the media were directly involved in the negotiation process to resolve the conflict but it establishes the fact that through cautious reportage, the Nigerian press could have positively influenced the peaceful outcome of the dispute between Nigeria and Cameroun over the Bakassi Peninsula. The article recommends that journalists should be conscious of the fact that in interstate conflicts, they have a cardinal role to play in guiding public conscience on the way forward which is a part of their social responsibility role in society. I. Introduction It was Cohen (1963) who wrote the thought-provoking statement cited in Naveh (2002) that “For most of the foreign policy audience, the really effective political map of the world – that is to say, their operational map of the world – is drawn by the reporter and the editor, not by the cartographer. The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (my emphasis). Recounting the words of one of the doyens of newspaper business in Britain, Taylor (2003, p.80) quotes Lord Northcliffe as saying “God made people read so that I could fill their brains with facts, facts, facts—and later tell them whom to love, whom to hate, and what to think”. According to this scholar, Lord Northcliffe was to demonstrate what he meant by this especially when he was placed in charge of the government’s department for enemy propaganda in 1918 during the First World War. Of course, every student of history, international relations or media studies would easily recall the pervasive impact of propaganda on the prosecution of the two world wars and the ripple effect this phenomenon had on advertising, broadcasting and diplomacy. What the foregoing analysis indicates is the fact that the media have become an active participant and not just a passive observer in international issues management of which, conflict management is a subset. Liman (2010, p.16) notes, “It has been said that diplomacy, which is a vital aspect of politics on the international arena begins and ends with communication. The media of mass communication are always being utilized by politicians, diplomats and statesmen in pursuance of their political objectives”. Liman adds that “The relationship between international communication, intercultural interactions, foreign policy formulation and the mass media has been sufficiently established since time immemorial. The use of propaganda techniques by government in war time, and even peacetime, is a case in point”. Politics, to use the word in the “elevated” sense, has an indissoluble relationship with communication (MacBride et al, 1980, p.18, cited in Liman, 2010, pp 16-17). Balabanova (2007, p.1) comments that: “Arguably the reason why these wars within states have become conflicts of international concern is in some form related to the media. What follows from this is a picture of the world in which contemporary wars and modern news media attract each other. In this process, the media become a constitutive part of wars. They play a complex role in the conduct and prosecution of wars, which cannot be
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simply limited to being an observer of events. They have turned into participants and even catalysts in international crises”. Especially in interstate conflicts, national media of various power brokers across the world would always strive to align with their government’s perception of issues in the conflict especially where the foreign interest of the country is at stake. A case in point was British and American media support for the invasion of Iraq which, as this study would show later, became questionable after the mission had been accomplished by the two countries. It is a maxim in media studies that conflict reporting is a pastime of the media. This is because conflicts generate a steady stream of news which also translates into some economic benefits accruable to the media in terms of patronage by the audience and advertisers. Nwosu (2004, p.103) says that conflict like other events or occurrences provide the media with new materials for their news presentation. Lowenfeld and Collins (2008) writing in Microsoft Encyclopedia note that: “Global communications and the information technology revolution have encouraged fairness and cooperation in settling disputes. When a dispute erupts, the news media are often quick to cover the story and suddenly a small issue between two countries becomes a global affair. That far-reaching news coverage often causes the countries involved to rethink their actions and act more prudently. Or conversely, a nation might take advantage of the media coverage to further their cause”. Perhaps in the absence of the media, we would never be aware of most of these crises even when they occur in the countries we live. The media, through the surveillance function, according to Harold Lasswell (1948), report the conflicts and through this process acquaint the audience with the day-to-day happenings in their environment and beyond. It is to be quickly noted too that the media give a colouration to any event by interpreting the issues surrounding such happenings thereby supposedly guiding the audience in making informed decisions about what is at stake. This is the interpretive/correlation function of the media. It is not unlikely that at times governments do find recourse to be guided by public opinion expressed through the media on some crucial matters. Equally, for a conflict to be sustained requires the publicity given by the media. The issue of terrorism, for instance, has been argued to be fuelled through media reports because as the terrorists launch an attack, the media are expeditiously publicizing the incident to the whole world, and sometimes, this is given live coverage as it was in the case of the Cable News Network (CNN) coverage of the attack on World Trade Centre on 11 September, 2001. What else does terrorism need to survive if not the oxygen of publicity as Margaret Thatcher (of blessed memory), the former British Prime Minister, puts it figuratively? Indeed, the terrorist is not so much elated because of the number of victims or casualties from his attack as much as the awareness of his cause generated through the reportage of the incident. Adesina (2009) cites Brian Jenkins (1975) as saying “terrorist attacks are often carefully choreographed to attract the attention of the electronic media and the international press. The hostages themselves often mean nothing to the terrorist. Terrorism is aimed at the people watching, not at the actual victims”. So, communication through the media can play both causal and remedial roles in conflict resolution (Njoku, 2006). As a causal factor, the media can intensify the conflict, while on the remedial plane, they can be instrumental to a peaceful resolution of the conflict. This study attempted to explore the extent to which the Nigerian media were instrumental to a peaceful resolution of the Bakassi Peninsula conflict. II. Statement of the problem The Bakassi Peninsula conflict evidently had the capability of pitting the two countries (Nigeria and Cameroun) in a war situation. Commendably, the Presidents of the two countries (Olusegun Obasanjo and Paul Biya), had earlier consented under the Green Tree Agreement facilitated by the then United Nation’s scribe, Kofi Annan, to abide by the verdict of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) sitting on the case. In other words, the two countries had indicated their readiness to resolve the conflict amicably, a promise that was actualized on 14 August, 2006 when Nigeria finally handed over the Peninsula to Cameroun. In spite of this initial peace initiative, there was the possibility of aggravating tensions in the conflict by the media which could have altered the peace plan and whether the Nigerian media toed this adversarial line or not is the crux of analysis in this article. Objectives of the study: These were to a) ascertain whether the Nigerian press, in the coverage of the conflict, keyed into the peace agenda set by the two contending countries b) examine the extent the Nigerian press differed or agreed with the Nigerian government’s position on the conflict c) identify the areas in which the Nigerian press coverage of the conflict reflected the foreign policy thrust of the Nigerian government. Hypothesis: The following hypothesis was tested in the study. Newspaper coverage of issues in the Bakassi Peninsula conflict was geared towards a peaceful resolution of the conflict in line with the Nigerian government’s non-violent position on the conflict. III. Literature Review A. Overview of the Bakassi Peninsula conflict The story of the Bakassi Peninsula conflict dates back to the colonial times in the chequered histories of Nigeria and Cameroun. Geographically and culturally speaking, the peninsula and its people have much affinity with
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Nigeria. An excursion into the ethnographic configurations of the disputed territory would reveal that the inhabitants of the peninsula are predominantly Efik and Efut, which are ethnic groups in the present day Cross River State, Nigeria. The name ‘Bakassi’ came from ‘Bassey Eke’ and that is Efik, according to the late Obong of Calabar, Edidem Nta Elijah Henshaw, reported in The Guardian (12 October, 2002, p.20). But another source, Otuka Anyasi, in a letter to the editor of The Guardian (16 August, 2006) claims that “The original name of Bakassi is ‘Ubakansi’ corrupted by contact with Europeans”. Edet Uno writes in an article “Bakassi: The Oron Perspective (2)”, that “… contrary to the highly uninformed opinion from the wholly pedestrian minds in Nigeria, Oron [whose people were also resident in Bakassi] has a tremendous cultural affinity, which translates to vital interest, with parts of Cameroons” (The Guardian, 26 November, 2002, p.75). Mr Inyang Ekpe, erstwhile Chairman, Bakassi Local Government Council identifies the Bakassi indigenes with Nigeria saying “we are Cross Riverians from Nigeria. We owe our allegiance to the Obong of Calabar. We are Efik people. We dress like this. I’m a typical Efik man (The Punch, 18 October, 2002, p.2). It is interesting to note that as at the time of the conflict, two prominent Nigerians, Senator Florence Ita-Giwa and Hon. Patrick Ene, the former being a federal lawmaker and the latter, deputy Speaker, Cross River State House of Assembly were natives of Bakassi. Abang (2009) in Bassey and Oshita (2009) describes the Bakassi Peninsula as a low lying region bordered on the West by the estuary of the Cross River, on the North by the Akwanyefe River (also known as the Akpa Ikang) on the East by the Rio-del-Rey estuary, and on the South by the Gulf of Guinea. The oil-rich Peninsula consists of a series of Islands covering approximately 50 square Kilometres and occupied for the most part by long-established communities of Nigerians, in several dozens of villages. Also, history shows that at various times, the ownership of the peninsula triangulated among three contending European imperialists viz Germany, Britain and finally, France. From the end of World War I (1914-1918) to the independence of Cameroun in 1960, the Bakassi Peninsula and present-day southwestern Cameroun were administered by Britain as part of Nigeria. However, in 1961, there was a plebiscite that enabled the British administered Cameroonian territory to join its counterpart as one country. Quite historically significant, Bakassi indigenes did not participate in this plebiscite. The costly assumption was that the territory already belonged to Nigeria. Obviously based on this thinking, the Nigerian government, in 1991, claimed that the Bakassi peninsula was still legally part of Nigeria. Cameroon countered with an agreement signed in 1975 by the then Nigerian military ruler Gen. Yakubu Gowon, which ceded the territory to Cameroon. Nigeria refuted the agreement and in early 1994 invaded the Bakassi Peninsula. Fighting gave way to diplomacy by the end of the year, but armed clashes resumed in 1996. Cameroon requested that the matter be settled by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which ordered both countries to cease hostilities. On 10 October, 2002, the ICJ ruled that the peninsula rightly belonged to Cameroon on the basis of the 1913 agreement, and ordered Nigerian forces to leave the area. However, Nigeria continued to occupy the region until the dispute was finally resolved in 2006. B. Media and Conflict Coverage Sankore (2001) cited in Nwosu (2004, p.15) explains that: “nothing defines the character of a mass establishment more sharply than any crisis that pitches nation against nation or one section of society against another. In times of crisis, the responsibility of the mass media is magnified ten folds by society’s demand for news, information and analysis, and therefore, its increased capacity to influence debate and shape public opinion. Every word, written or spoken, by the media is a potential matchet, bullet or bomb in the minds and hands of victims and perpetrators”. The UNESCO’s Convention (1978, p.14) cited in Nwosu (2004, p.15) anticipates the mass media role or influence in conflict management to go far beyond the public attention-giving function, noting that since all wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defense of peace must be constructed. Nwosu further says that the war for the mind or mind-share in war and other competitive situations, are mostly sought in the mass media. For instance, it is believed that the interpretation given by the British Broadcasting Service (BBC), London to the first coup in Nigeria (1966) as ethnically motivated inspired the North to stage a counter coup just six months after. During the Nigerian Civil War, an aftermath of the eventual two bloody coups of 1966, the media were again used for propaganda by both sides to the conflict. To the Igbos, the Federal government of Nigeria was on a genocide mission against the eastern region while the Federal government on its part labeled the Igbos as Secessionists. Expectedly, these two positions canvassed by the parties to the war won for each side friends and foes. Unarguably, this development rather prolonged the war to three years, a crisis which initially was thought to warrant a ‘Police Action’ response from the Federal government according to the then Nigerian Head of State, Gen. Yakubu Gowon (rtd) [see Ikejiani-Clark, 2009, p.472; Abayomi, 2003, p.110; Efiong, 2012]. The issue of aggravating tension and even giving overt support to parties in a conflict is not exclusive to the Nigerian media. For example, the media in Africa have been accused of inflaming conflict by being openly partisan as was in the genocide involving the Tutsis and the Hutus in Rwanda, the two wars in the Democratic
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Republic of Congo and the civil war in Burundi as documented by Frere (2007). Even beyond Africa, the issue of media bias in conflict reporting has been an allegation against such big time media outfits like the CNN and BBC bordering on issues like their coverage of the USA invasion of Iraq which led to the deposition and eventual demise of the Iraqi president, Saddam Hussein. Strenuously, the two international media have tried to justify the invasion in the form of a defence for their home governments’ involvement in the war even when the evidence on the ground seems to be on the contrary. On this note, Iredia (2004, p.13) says, “The American media are yet to condemn their country’s invasion of Iraq even after it has become obvious that the search for weapons of mass destruction was a facáde for international gangsterism”. An Austrian journalist, John Pilger, quotes a New York Times Editorial (August, 2005), which contends that if the public had known the truth before the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the war would have been stopped by “popular outcry” (Nwankpa, 2011). Pilger blames journalists whom he laments betrayed the public by accepting, amplifying and echoing the lies of Bush and Blair, instead of challenging and exposing them. The same report has it that CNN and SkyNews (both broadcast media) had a steady graphic banner that read: “Operation Iraqi Freedom” displayed during their daily coverage of the war, thus tending to justify the war as a liberation project to free the oppressed Iraqis even though the world was opposed to it. Corroborating this claim, Richardson (2007) quotes Tim Ripley, a Freelancer with the Scotsman, Financial Times and Janes Defence Magazines as saying: “The Americans and Blair decided to go to war in March 2002. You need to look at everything that happened after that in the context of that decision and how they were organizing what was going on….And they embarked on what I would call the most centralized political propaganda campaign in modern history to shape the run-up, the conduct and aftermath of the war”. Indeed, as it was later revealed, there was not much weighty evidence to justify the invasion of Iraq by the Western Powers. Taylor, Sinha and Ghoshal (2009, p.120) reproduced a speech by the then British Prime Minister, Mr Tony Blair (Hansard, 14 July, 2004) quoting the helmsman as saying, “I have searched my conscience, not in a spirit of obstinacy but in genuine reconsideration in the light of what we now know, to answer that question [as to whether the threat of Saddam’s possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction was misconceived and, therefore, the war was unjustified]. My answer would be this: the evidence of Saddam’s weapons of mass destruction was indeed less certain and less well founded than was stated at the time”. However, Mr Blair still argues that: “…if we had backed down in respect of Saddam, we would never have taken the stand that we needed to take on weapons of mass destruction, we would never have got the progress on Libya, for example, that we achieved, and we would have left Saddam in charge of Iraq, with every malign intent and capability still in place, and with every dictator with the same intent everywhere immeasurably emboldened”. It is instructive to note that earlier in history, American media have been accused of being used as ideological apparatuses (courtesy of Jürgen Habermas’ postulate) to openly interfere in the internal affairs of other countries against what could be considered the limits to media analysis of international issues. In this regard, Taylor (2003, p.54) notes that: “…in 1987 during the American bombing of Libya, the Voice of America was almost certainly in violation of international laws designed to prevent outside interference in the internal affairs of a state when it broadcast appeals to Libyans to overthrow Colonel Ghadaffi. To ‘inform’ the anti-Soviet forces in Afghanistan, the Americans established Radio Free Kabul and Radio Free Afghanistan. Moreover, the USIA was extending its brief to international television with the establishment of WORLDNET in 1978. A year later, it was serving eighty-one cable systems in thirteen European countries with daily news and analysis programmes, as well as C-Span (the US government domestic channel) and CNN. The broadcasting service to Cuba was extended to television with the creation of TV Marti in 1990, which the Non-Aligned Movement condemned as ‘an aggression and an inadmissible precedent which constitutes intervention in the internal affairs of a state”. Cecil King, a one-time Chairman of the International Publishers Corporation is quoted in Jack (2007, p.18) as saying “Once a pendulum has started to swing, newspapers can make it swing a little further, but the pendulum itself is moved by forces much wider, more imponderable and more irrational than the press”. However, it is not all the time the press would reason along with the government on certain crucial matters of national interest. Taylor (2003, p.83) strikes this point using the American press as an example: “the American press corps, for all its First Amendment rights, knew of the 1961 Bay of Pigs episode in advance but adhered to a White House request not to publish anything about it until after it had happened. Having said that, during the American operation in Haiti in 1993, they proved less compliant, as hundreds of Western journalists defied UN sanctions and a White House demand for a voluntary embargo on live coverage, set up their satellite dishes at Port-auPrince hotels and, complete with live-link cameras equipped with night scopes, waited to capture the invasion in real time. Something has indeed changed”. In relation to our study, one would like to ask: could it be that the Nigerian press differed with the Nigerian government on the Bakassi Peninsula Conflict or simply keyed into the latter’s perception and approach to the conflict? The Nigerian government’s position on the conflict especially after the ICJ judgement was commendably captured in The Guardian editorial of 4 November, 2002, “Happily, President Olusegun Obasanjo has indicated his readiness to approach the Bakassi and other issues relating to the ICJ ruling from the
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diplomatic and political angles of vision. This is the best course of action”. The same newspaper ran another editorial in which it unequivocally condemned war option to the resolution of the conflict, “In the passion of the moment, it will be foolhardy to succumb to the battle cry of war-mongers in our midst. A war is no picnic; it is expensive and destructive (The Guardian Editorial, 22 October, 2002, p.22). Similarly, The Guardian (30 October, 2002) quotes the President as saying: “We have a responsibility to maintain peace with our country, peace with our neighbours, peace in our sub-region, peace in Africa and the world. We will not initiate any action that will amount to a breach of peace. We will spare no effort to dialogue and negotiate. There is no human problem that cannot be resolved through dialogue. We want peace but the interest of Nigeria will not be sacrificed. It must be peace with honour, with the interests and welfare of our people protected”. The pacifist position of the governments of Nigeria and Cameroun on the dispute equally earned the applause of the international community as expressed by Mr. Kieran Prendergast, Chairman of the UN follow-up Committee on the implementation of the ICJ ruling that “This is going to be an episode to be studied by diplomatic institutions on how disputes can be settled in a peaceful process”, (The Guardian, 18 August, 2006). Mr. Prendergast further opines “I believe the whole episode which is just of its kind, will be studied a lot by diplomats and become of great historical significance” and that “it is a situation in which there are no losers. Everybody is a winner on this. It is good example of taking initiative with the aim of conflict prevention…” (The Vanguard, 16 August, 2006, p.9). C. Media and Foreign Policy Making From the foregoing review of literature, one point that is worth exploring is the role the media could play in handling international conflicts by influencing policy making in this direction. The fact is that the media could raise issues bordering on interstate relations to the plane of social discourse and by so doing, might twist the hand of the government to be committed in a certain direction. In recent media studies, this phenomenon has come to be understood as the CNN Effect, (Balabanova, 2007, p. xvii; Naveh, 2002) which emanated from the domineering impact the cable television is making in reporting crucial crisis situations the world over, and which has somehow forced governments in different countries to expedite actions on such issues. In this section of our study, we focus on the relationship between the media and foreign decision making in government and how this relates to the Nigerian foreign policy thrust. The essence of this is to properly contextualize the rather surprising concessionary stand of the Nigerian government on the Bakassi Peninsula conflict. Sanda (2004) has expressed surprise that “Nigeria in somewhat unexpected move accepted the ruling of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and proceeded to work actively towards its implementation”. Ebonugwo Mike, a social commentator writing on the issue in The Vanguard, (18 August, 2006, p.42), laments that “….Obasanjo’s action in letting Bakassi go so easily smacks of lack of commitment to the defence of the interest and wellbeing of the Bakassi people.” The logical question is: what could have made Nigeria to hastily implement the ICJ verdict which she expeditiously rejected at first? Matching Nigeria’s foreign policy thrust with the country’s position on the Bakassi Peninsula conflict would shed more light on the probable rationale behind that decision. Naveh (2002) maintains that the media is involved in all stages of foreign policy formulation processes and that political leaders take the media into consideration in its national and international aspects. However, the author argues that this double–edged media environment is considered mainly in the publication or media management stage. The involvement of the media in this decision–making process is complex. When an external, international event occurs, political leaders learn about it from the media. This information is processed through various image components and then the policy or decision–formulating process is set in motion. The author observes that the media are not just channels for delivering messages during the process; they also play a far more important role in the process. The study framework perceives the mass communication networks as parts of the environment in which the international actors (mainly nation–states) exist and act. The media have a twofold role in such an environment. First, they provide input into the process as an independent variable. Here, the leaders react to the perceived reality as constructed by the press and take this into consideration in decision making in what has been described as the ‘CNN effect’ referred to earlier in this study. Second, it is part of the environment which foreign policy makers try to affect or influence by making their decisions. The author notes that the mass media as an environmental factor in a specific state is influenced by six variables: i. The political communication regime in the state under consideration ii. The communication policy adopted by the government of the state iii. The political economy setting of the mass media iv. The various communication channels and technologies existing in that country v. The typical functions performed by media channels vi. News values, the criteria that lead media ‘gatekeepers’ to include items and events in the news. The media set the environment of the foreign policy process, and within this media environment, decision– makers must seek to gain support and legitimacy for their policy. They (policy makers) can do this as Davison (1982, p.183) opines that “officials not sure of public reaction may float a trial balloon, or ‘fly a kite’ –as the
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British would put it, in order to test public sentiment. The balloon or kite usually consists of an unattributed statement in the press or a calculated leak. Unintended leaks may serve the same diagnostic function”. Davison (1982, p.182) further gives the reason for this: “An agreement is worthless if the parliament of one of the participating states will not ratify it, or if it is nullified by widespread opposition among interested domestic publics. Insofar as the press is able to provide a reasonably accurate picture of the essentials involved in any negotiation, and to report public reaction to the principal moves made by each side, it helps to keep the negotiators within the bounds of political reality....In serving as a link between negotiators and their domestic publics, the media provide for a two-way flow of influence: from the negotiators to the public, and from the public to the negotiators”. Naveh (2002) again observes that the media construct reality with another tool called ‘framing’. This technique is important, since any political conflict centres on the struggle over interpretive frames (citing Wolfsfeld, 1993, p.xiii; 1997a, pp.13 – 30). In this process, the media transform the nature of events through ‘formats’, which constitute ideological or value perspectives in which the media focus on ‘story lines’, symbols and relevant stereotypes (citing Entman, 1991; Entman and Page, 1994). Finally, framing is the process in which the media create the images that reflect and filter reality in the foreign decision–making processes. To summarize the theory, the foreign policy decision–making process takes place within an environment partly created by the media. This article aligns with the submission of Davison (1982, p.174) that: “International negotiations are frequently facilitated by publicity. One can acknowledge that, under some circumstances, the news media make it more difficult for governments to reach agreement, but this qualified form of acknowledgement in itself suggests that under other circumstances the media may have a favourable influence on negotiations. The problem becomes one of defining the positive functions of publicity and distinguishing them from the negative ones”. What this article tends to highlight is the fact that the media do influence foreign policy formulation by governments. In a case like the Bakassi Peninsula dispute that our study was set to explore, we cannot rule out the possibility of the Nigerian press influence on the final position of the Nigerian government on the conflict. However, this has to be supported by empirical evidence. D. The Nigeria Foreign Policy Thrust Foreign policy, according to Dickson (2011, p. 74), is hard to define because “There is no general agreement among social scientists as to the exact definition and scope of foreign policy. Therefore, the term has been variously defined”. Dickson, however, quotes Mbachu (2007) as saying “foreign policy is the primary method by which a country pursues its national interest. It consists of decisions or actions taken by states in order to achieve realization of those interests”. Egbeghulem (2008) writes that the foreign policy of any state is sometimes or always seen as the extension of its domestic policy. In other words, a nation’s foreign policy is determined by the internal dynamics of its domestic politics. According to this scholar, Nigeria foreign policy since independence has been designed by successive administrations to secure certain goals and objectives. These goals and objectives have been catalogued to include the maintenance of her territorial integrity, political and economic development of Nigeria and the entire African continent, decolonization and liberation of the African continent. A good demonstration of this resolve was how Nigeria quickly threw herself, as a frontline state, into the liberation struggles in the South African region by taking a committed tough stand against apartheid regime. Also, sometime in 1975, the military regime of late Gen Murtala Muhammed in Nigeria took a decisive position in support of the independence of Angola against foreign rule. Egbeghulem (2008) states again that since independence, Nigeria’s foreign policy has been characterized by a focus on Africa i.e. an Afro-centric policy thrust, which of course, is firmly rooted in the ideology of PanAfricanism. This ideology, according to Onwubiko (1973, p.428) cited in Dickson (2011, p.81), “stands for racial co-existence on the basis of absolute equality and respect for human dignity; it stands for the political, economic and cultural unity of independent states of the African continent; it rejects all forms of foreign control of any African state….” Nigeria is also committed to several fundamental principles which include “African unity and independence; peaceful settlement of disputes (my emphasis); non-alignment and non-intentional interference in the internal affairs of other nations; and regional economic co-operation and development” (Ogoke, 1993 cited in Egbeghulem, 2008). Nigeria hopes to achieve the above objectives through her membership of and participation in African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), United Nations (UN), Commonwealth of Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. The Afrocentric foreign policy thrust of Nigeria is guided by this primary objective, which according to President Goodluck Jonathan, is “to negotiate the best possible outcome for Africa in the belief that when Africa does well, Nigeria’s interests would be well served” (The Guardian, 17 September, 2011, p. 46). The President said further: “…given the increasing inter-connectedness of the world, we would do well to pursue a robust multilateral diplomacy, but this should not be at the expense of our bilateral relationships. We should, therefore, continue to build and deepen our partnerships with friendly countries. In all cases, these relationships must be anchored on mutual respect and responsiveness”.
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Here we could see that Nigeria’s option for a peaceful resolution of the Bakassi peninsula dispute might not be unconnected with her commitment to the fundamental principles outlined above in respect to her foreign policy thrust as it was then and now strengthened by the incumbent administration. Earlier in 1999, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, in his inaugural address to the nation on assumption of power as a civilian President had this to say concerning Nigeria’s foreign relations particularly in the aspect of peace keeping: “Our national interest requires the establishment and maintenance of peace and stability in the West African sub-region. Specifically in the case of Sierra-Leone, we shall endeavour to ensure a quick resolution of the crisis by dialogue and diplomatic means by increasing activity on the second track of peace and reconciliation” (Tell Magazine, 8 June, 2009, p.35). This point was aptly corroborated by the ex-governor of Cross River State, Donald Duke in his address at the handover of the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroun, that “African leaders should use this event to come to the realization that while it is possible to win battles in the field, the peace and political stability which Africa requires to develop and take its proper place as a continent can only be achieved on the negotiating table” (The Guardian, 8 August, 2006). However, Egbeghulem (2008) regrettably observes that in the name of African unity, Nigeria has sacrificed a lot and continues to make excruciating sacrifice for Africa. For instance, Nigeria abandoned her territory and people in Bakassi, all in the name of being a good, law abiding and responsible international citizen. Though this is praiseworthy in his view, yet most African countries do not appreciate the sacrifices made by Nigeria to bring them out of their woes. We agree with this scholar on the palpable ingratitude displayed by other African countries towards Nigeria as it was evident in the hostilities exhibited against Nigerian soldiers and nationals in Liberia and Sierra Leone during the ECOMOG Peace keeping mission in those countries. Commendably, Nigeria has continued defiantly to play a leading role in resolving conflicts in the African continent in such places like Darfur in Sudan, Equatorial Guinea, Cote ’de Ivoire, among other recent cases. In spite of this pervading sense of ingratitude to Nigeria by those she tries to help, the country could still found solace in the words of ex-President Richard Nixon, USA, spoken at the peak of the Watergate scandal that “Greatness comes, not when all seems to go well, but when one is tested. It is then that those in the deepest valley will know how magnificent it is to be on the highest mountain”. Saliu (2006) reiterates the claim that scholars and commentators on Nigerian foreign policy had, even before the attainment of independence, conferred on Nigeria the leadership role in Africa. He adds that consequently, after the attainment of independence in 1960, the country began to formulate a foreign policy that would enable it play its historic leadership role in Africa. Thus, the African centre-piece principle, according to this writer, was consciously adopted as a paramount principle of Nigeria’s foreign policy. As if it was a test of Nigeria’s commitment to this principle, the Bakassi Peninsula controversy reared its head. The author avers that the Nigeria-Cameroon border conflict has remained the most fiercely contested issue in Nigeria’s African policy between 1988 and 1992. We need to add that commendably Nigeria lived up to expectation in resolving the territorial dispute amicably. Sanda (2004) outlines some basic principles in the 1999 Constitution [Section 19 (a)-(e)] of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which fall in line with the foreign policy thrust of the country as follows: a) Promotion and protection of the national interest of the country b) Promotion of African integration and support for African unity c) Promotion of international cooperation for the consolidation of universal peace and mutual respect among all nations and elimination of discrimination in all its manifestations d) Respect for international law and treaty obligations as well as settlement of international disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration and adjudication; (emphasis mine) and e) Promotion of a just world economic order. The author notes further that the emphasis on diplomacy for curtailing violence was also evident in the handling of the Bakassi dispute between Nigeria and Cameroon. Thus, we could deduce from the foregoing analysis that Nigeria’s foreign policy is firmly anchored in the Nigerian constitution, and this goes a long way to justify the claim that a country’s foreign policy is a reflection of its domestic politics. Again, the point has been made in the analysis that Nigeria foreign policy emphasizes the country’s commitment to peace in Africa and by extension, the world. This might not be unconnected with Nigeria’s peaceful approach to resolving the Bakassi Peninsula conflict. IV. Theoretical Framework for the study The media paradigm of enquiry adopted in this study –The Manufacturing Consent –helps to evaluate the relationship between media coverage of issues and the actions of policy makers in any country. In other words, this emerging line of thought in media analysis seeks to underscore how policy makers influence the media to act in certain desired direction to promote a country’s foreign policy thrust. As Balabanova (2007, p.4) notes the ‘Manufacturing Consent’ thesis holds that policy-making is the prerogative of an informed elite, with the media in a subordinate status. Political elites impel newsmakers to ‘read’ global events in a particular way; therefore the media are influenced by government and government’s policy.
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Consequently, the media’s agenda reflects the priorities of policy-makers. This is akin to Media Framing which Gamson (1992) in Anyadike (2009, p.325) sees as a process by which media elites or communication services such as news or political organizations define and construct issues or events (See also Richardson, 2007, p.96, “Manufacturing Consent: Modes of Proof in the ‘Pre-War’ period”). Balabanova quotes Chomsky and Herman (1988, p.23) as exponents of the ‘Manufacturing Consent’ who claim that: “[p]owerful sources regularly take advantage of media routines and dependency to ‘manage’ the media, to manipulate them into following a special agenda and framework…inundating the media with stories, which serve sometimes to foist a particular line and frame on the media, and at other times to help chase unwanted stories off the front page or out of the media altogether”. This paradigm offers a lens with which to examine whether the Nigerian press coverage of the Bakassi Peninsula conflict followed this theoretical construct in view of the fact that the Nigerian government had already agreed to a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Did the Nigerian press key into this resolve of the Nigerian government on the conflict or did they deviate from the line toed by the government? V. Research Methodology This study focused on what the selected Nigerian newspapers, through their reportage of the Bakassi Peninsula conflict, did or did not do responsibly to ensure that the conflict between Nigeria and Cameroun did not escalate into war. Content analysis was, therefore, employed in the study to evaluate newspaper coverage. The research method is suitable because one, “content analysis is a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective, and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables” (Kerlinger, 2000 in Wimmer and Dominick, 2006, p.150) and two, what will be used as units of analysis is recorded information in print. Also, survey method was used to determine if there was any organizational influence from the newspapers on the coverage of the conflict. The survey also gave an insight into the perception of the journalists who covered the conflict before and after the judgement of the International Court of Justice (ICJ). For the five year period of the study, 7, 200 editions of the selected newspapers formed the population. This is based on the assumption that each of the four newspapers published 30 editions per month. Both week day and weekend issues of the newspapers were included. However, four newspapers (The Guardian, Punch, New Nigerian and Vanguard) were purposively selected for the study. It is pertinent to observe here that these newspapers were selected from the top ten national dailies in Nigeria as at the time of the research namely: The Guardian, Punch, Vanguard, Tribune, ThisDay, New Nigerian, Champion, Daily Trust, Daily Independent, and Sun (Batta 2010, p.84). The study covers January 1, 2002–December 31, 2006. This period is considered ideal because it marked the height of tensions in the conflict and covers the year of the ruling, and four years after the ruling up till the handover time. This has placed the research in a good stead to ascertain the role the Nigerian press played in reporting the conflict at this crucial stage till when the dispute was peaceably resolved. Equally, the study is restricted to four national dailies which are believed to be a fair representation of the views of the larger Nigerian press on the issue at stake. In addition, all the selected newspapers were in circulation during the study period. The sample size was determined by purposively sorting out the newspaper editions that actually covered the conflict. The reason for doing this was that using a probability sampling technique, some of the editions in which reports on the conflict actually featured might be skipped since the conflict was reported episodically. What this means is that the newspapers were carrying reports on the conflict in line with how events were unfolding around it. In most cases, one would not find the conflict mentioned in the newspapers over a fairly length of time until a major happening takes place concerning the conflict. This also accounts for the low number of editions (161) obtained after the rigorous sorting of the newspapers and the overall items published on the conflict by the selected newspapers. For the survey, all editors and reporters of the selected newspapers constituted the population. A sample of journalists used in the study was drawn from those who actually covered the conflict. Two editors and two reporters who covered the conflict in each newspaper were interviewed through a questionnaire to ascertain the rationale behind the coverage given to the conflict by each of the newspapers. For editors, this added up to eight and the same number was used for the reporters. In all, sixteen (16) journalists were interviewed. In this study, the units of analysis were straight News, Features, Letters to the editor, Editorials, Cartoons, Photographs, Opinions/Commentaries, Advertorials and Columns on the Bakassi Peninsula conflict. The units of analysis indicated above were coded using the following content categories: Litigation (reports on court proceedings and related issues), Compliance with the ICJ verdict, Rejection of the ICJ verdict, Plebiscite on the opinion of the Bakassi residents, Political Solution aside of the court judgement, Common historical Traits shared between the two countries, and Impact of conflict on the two countries and the Bakassi residents. VI. Test of Hypotheses Newspaper coverage of issues in the Bakassi Peninsula conflict was geared towards a peaceful resolution of the conflict in line with the Nigerian government’s non-violent position on the conflict.
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Table 1 presents data for testing the above hypothesis using ANOVA. Name of newspaper
Issues in the coverage Litigation
Compliance
Rejection
Pol. solution
Plebiscite
Common traits
Total
07
Impact of conflict 35
The Guardian Punch
32
32
18
03
06
22
20
40
33
08
03
07
133
New Nigerian Vanguard
12
20
11
08
05
-
14
70
25
10
21
12
19
03
14
104
Total
91
82
90
56
38
13
70
440
133
Table 2 below gives a summary of the ANOVA calculations. Total sum of squares (TSS)
3298
Sum squares Between (SSB) 1274
of
Sum of squares within (SSW)
Mean squares for SSB
Mean squares for SSW
F-ratio
Df
Sig. level
Critical value
2024
212
96
2.20
6/21
.05
3.24
Data from the table above indicate that @.05 level of significance with 6 degree of freedom for the numerator mean square and 21 degree of freedom for the denominator mean square, the calculated F value of 2.20 is lesser than the critical value of 3.24. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis that newspaper coverage of issues in the Bakassi Peninsula conflict was not geared towards a peaceful resolution of the conflict. The research hypothesis that newspaper coverage of issues in the Bakassi Peninsula conflict was geared towards a peaceful resolution of the conflict in line with the Nigerian government’s non-violent position on the conflict is upheld. The newspapers predicated their call for non-violence in the conflict on the following points which they articulated in all their editorials on the conflict: i. Nigeria is the arrow-head of African diplomatic relationship with the rest of the world; going to war with Cameroun would have seriously dented this enviable leading position as the “Giant of Africa”. ii. Nigeria was absolutely committed to peace-keeping missions in the African continent as at the time of the conflict through ECOMOG in such countries like Liberia, and Sierra-Leone. It would have amounted to a contradiction for her to start another war in the continent against Cameroun. iii. The historical ties between Nigeria and Cameroun would make nonsense of any thought of hostilities between the duo. iv. There was no point giving vent to foreign interest in the conflict to destabilize the African continent further through instigating a fratricidal war between the two contiguous countries. VII. Conclusion By keying into the agenda of peace initiated by both countries to the Bakassi Peninsula conflict, the Nigerian newspapers have contributed to resolving a conflict that could have been another bloodbath in the African continent. This is a demonstration of its social responsibility role in maintaining societal stability and coexistence. The Nigerian newspapers used in the study also acted socially responsible by attempting to hold the Nigerian government accountable to Nigerians for the easy concession of the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroun even though the government evidently disregarded the opinion of the media in the final analysis. In the view of the newspapers, the problem could have been resolved through a diplomatic approach. Newspapers used in this study have demonstrated the fact that the national media in any country would likely support their home government in international conflicts so long as the latter is seen to be acting in the public interest. Also, it could be implied from this study that the media contributed to the peace process in the Bakassi Peninsula conflict in line with the understanding that they have an obligation to be socially responsible to the Nigerian society. If the media had decided to take sides against the Nigerian government in pushing for armed struggle as an option to resolving the conflict, ostensibly the ensuing war would probably be ranging on till this moment. What has happened in other parts of the world in conflicts as this offers a veritable lesson in this regard. Newspapers should support the position of the home government in the coverage of international conflict especially where such declared interest is not at variance with the public interest. Commendably, the newspapers used in this study supported the non-violent stand of the Nigerian government on the Bakassi Peninsula conflict.
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On a general note, more emphasis should be accorded conflict studies in the curriculum of Mass Communication training in Nigeria so as to acquaint both trainee and practising journalists with the nuances of constructive reportage of conflict from a social responsibility perspective. NB: The Guardian, Punch, Tell, Vanguard, New Nigerian, Tribune, ThisDay, Champion, Daily Trust, Daily Independent, and Sun are all daily national newspapers published in Nigeria. References [1]
[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
[9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
[19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]
Abang, O. (2009). “International Court of Justice and the Arbitration of Border Crises in Africa: The Nigeria-Cameroun Dispute over Bakassi” In Bassey, Celestine and Oshita, Oshita (eds) Governance and Border Security in Africa, Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd. P.230. Abayomi, S. (2003). “Government-Media Relationship since 1960” In Issues in Nigerian Media History: 1900-2000 AD, Akinfeleye, Ralph and Okoye, Innocent (eds), Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited. Pp. 104-110. Adesina, L. (2009). “The Role of the Media in Reporting Terrorism: A Personal Viewpoint”, Journal of Communication and Media Research, Vol. 1, No 1. Anyadike, D. (2009). “The Role of the Media on Issues of Peace and Conflict” In Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution in Nigeria: A Reader, Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. P.322. Balabanova, E. (2007). Media, Wars and Politics: Comparing the Incomparable in Western and Eastern Europe, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. P. 1. Batta, H. (2010). Coverage of Traditional Medicine Practice in Nigerian Newspapers, Ph.D Thesis, Department of Communication Arts, University of Uyo, Uyo. Davison, P. (1982). “News Media and International Negotiation”, The Gazette (International Journal for Mass Communication Studies), Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. P.183. Egbeghulem, J. (2008). “Nigeria Foreign Policy under President Olusegun Obasanjo: Bakassi Peninsula in Focus”, Calabar Journal of Politics and Administration (Journal of Political Science Department, University of Calabar), Vol. 4 No 1, Oct. Frere, M. (2007). “Media in Conflict: Experiences in Central Africa”, In Batta, Herbert “Peace Education, Peace Journalism, and Conflict Management in Nigeria”, The Nigerian Journal of Communication, Vol.7, No 1. Ikejiani-Clark, M. (2009). “Nigeria-Biafra Civil War” In Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution in Nigeria: A Reader, Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. P.472. Iredia, T. (2004). “The Place of Nigeria in the Global Village”, Lecture Delivered at the 18th Convocation Ceremony of the University of Maiduguri, April 16. P.13. Jack, A. (2007). Writing Editorials and Commentary: The Beginner’s Approach, Makurdi: Rich Publishers Int’l Nigeria. Lasswell, H. (1948). “The Structure and Function of Communication in Society”, in L.Bryson (ed) The Communication of Ideas, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Liman, A. N (2010). Mass Media and World Politics, Ibadan: Daily Graphics Nig. Ltd. Lowenfeld, A. and Collins, D. (2008). “Arbitration” In Microsoft Encarta (DVD) Encyclopedia, Microsoft Corporation. Nwankpa, N. (2011). Nigerian Newspaper Coverage of Militancy in the Niger Delta and Readers’ Perception, Ph.D Thesis, Department of Communication Arts, University of Uyo, Uyo. Naveh, C. (2002).“The Role of the Media in Foreign Policy Decision–making: A Theoretical Framework”, Conflict & communication Online, Vol. 1, No 2, available @ www.cco.regener-online.de, assessed on 10/07/2010. Njoku, I. (2006). “The Role of Communication in Conflict Resolution”, International Journal of Communication. Nwosu, I. (2004). “Crisis Management, Communications and Mass Media: A Conceptual, Theoretical and Introductory Analysis” In Nwosu, I.E. and Wilson, D (eds) Communication, Media and Conflict Management in Nigeria, Enugu: ACCE and Prime Targets Ltd. P.103 Richardson, J. (2007). Analyzing Newspapers: An Approach from Critical Discourse Analysis, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Saliu, H. (2006). Essays on Contemporary Nigeria Foreign Policy, Vol. 11, Ibadan: Vantage Publishers Ltd. Sanda, J. (2003). “Peace Making in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: 1999-2003” In Nigeria’s New Foreign Policy Thrust: Essays in Honour of Amb. Oluyemi Adeniji, CON, Akinterinwa, Bola (ed), Ibadan: Vantage Publishers Ltd. Taylor, B. Sinha, G. and Ghoshal, T. (2006). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Management & Social Sciences, New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited. P.48. Taylor, P. (2003). Global Communications, International Affairs, and the Media since 1945, Routledge: New York. P.54. Wimmer, R and Dominick, J (2006). Mass Media Research: An Introduction (8th edition), Australia: Thomson Wadsworth.
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
Seasonal Patterns in Indian Stock Markets: An Application of GARCH (1, 1) Model Shilpa Lodha1, Prof. G. Soral2 1 Guest Faculty, 2Professor, 1,2 Department of Accountancy & Statistics, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA I. Introduction The stock market and ups and downs of index or stock prices always gain the attraction from several sides. It is the matter of wonder how stock prices move and hence several attempts have been made by many researchers to estimate or forecast the stock prices. There are many methods of forecasting stock prices. Traditionally fundamental analysis and technical analysis were used for this purpose. Fundamental analysis is related with the intrinsic value of the stock. It involves analysis of company’s financial statements, profitability, capital structure, dividend policy, industry specific factors etc. Technical analysts advocates that all financial and market information is already reflected in the stock prices. Therefore, prices can only be predicted with the relative forces of demand and supply. Thus it is very much related to price and volume data. As time passed, researchers evolved many more new analysis techniques, one of them being calendar anomalies or seasonality in stock markets. Seasonality is based on the concept that History repeats itself. It states that it is possible to make excess or abnormal returns using past prices’ data. There are chances of earning excess returns at a particular time-of-the-day, day-of-the-week, week or part-of-the-month, month-of-the-year, quarter-of-the-year, before or after holidays etc. Kaeppel (2009) says “Although things do change over time, but they tend to return to a particular state over and over again.” For our purpose the term seasonality may be used to indicate any seasonal trends or cyclic and repetitive fluctuations existing in stock market. Thus seasonality in stock markets has very little to do with natural seasons i.e. stocks of only those industries directly or indirectly related to agricultural products are having some connection with natural seasons. Apart these most stocks are affected by different other nonnatural seasons for example month-of-the-year season, day-of-the-week season, time of the day season, holiday season, election cycle season, budget season, tax year end season etc. Each of the seasons is famous by other adage such as The January Barometer, Sell in May and Go Away, Black Monday or Black Friday, November effect etc. Therefore, the present study proposes to explore existence and if existing, identify patterns of seasonality in Indian stock market. II. Review of available literature Before proceeding towards data collection and analysis, a lot of earlier researches were reviewed and it was found that seasonal behaviour of stock market has been studied using both non-parametric and econometric techniques, but it was opined that econometric techniques can better study the seasonal behaviour as these techniques are capable enough to handle problems like serial correlation and heteroskedasticity. Review of work already done was classified on the basis of their objectives and findings as is presented in table 1. It is concluded from Table 1 that most of the previous studies have focused on international markets and a very few have been undertaken considering Indian stock markets. Most of the studies have used only closing prices as if trading is done only at closing prices. Instead in the present study, average of daily open, low, high and close prices have been used. Further, prior Indian studies had either SENSEX or Nifty as their samples and sectoral indices were generally ignored. Therefore it was decided to take BSE indices including sectoral indices as representative sample of the present study. III. Research methodology For the present study following research methodology has been adopted: IV. Objectives The study is proposed with the objective of exploring the following effects in the Indian stock market: Day-of-the-week Effect Month-of-the-year Effect
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Monthly Effect Quarterly Effect Table 1: Summary of Review of Literature
Researchers
Scope
Objective
Confirmation
Arumugam & Soundararajan (2013)
BSE & NSE
1. 2.
Day-of-the-week effect Month-of-the-year effect
--
Pathak (2013)
NSE
1. 2.
Day-of-the-week effect Month-of-the-year effect
--
Kuria & Riro (2013)
Nairobi Stock Exchange
1. 2. 3.
Day-of-the-week effect Month-of-the-year effect Weekend Effect
All Effects
NSE
Day-of-the-week Effect
BSE
Month-of-the-year Effect
BSE
Month-of-the-year Effect
BSE
Weak Form Efficiency
Rompotis (2009)
Greek Equity Mutual Funds
1. 2. 3. 4.
Ogunc, Nippani & Washer (2009)
Shanghai and Shenzhen stock markets
Algidede (2008)
Shakila, Prakash & Babitha (2013) Ray (2012) Dash, Dutta & Sabharwal (2011) Nageshwari & Selvam (2011)
Wednesday – Auto Sector January Effect March, November, August and March
Rejection Both Effects Both Effects
--
----
--
1. Day-of-the-week effect 2. Month-of-the-year effect
Day-of –the-Effect Month-of-year Effect Semi-month Effect Holiday Effect
Others
Month-of-the-year Effect
1. 2.
Day-of-the-week Effect January Effect
Both Effect in Shanghai Others
African Stock Returns
1. 2.
Month-of-the-year Effect Holiday Effect
Both Effects
--
Lean, Smyth & Wong (2007)
Asian Markets
1. 2.
Day-of-the-week Effect January Effect
Weekday and Monthly Seasonality
January Effect
Guo & Wang (2007)
Shanghai Stock Index
1. 2. 3.
Day-of-the-week Effect January Effect Semi-month Effect
Day-of-the-week Effect, January Effect & SemiMarch & July Effect month Effect
Day-of –the-Effect Month-of-year Effect Semi-month Effect Holiday Effect
Day-of-the-week – 5 countries Month-of-the-year – 8 countries Monthly Effect – 6 countries Holiday Effect – 4 countries
--
Yakub, Beal & Delpachitra (2005)
Ten Asian Stock Markets
1. 2. 3. 4.
Joshi & Bahadur (2005)
Nepalese Stock Market
Several Effects
Day-of-the-week Effect
Holiday Effect, turn-of-themonth, Time-of-the-month, Month-of-the-year Effect & Half-Month Effect
Gao & Kling (2005)
Shanghai & Shenzhen
1. 2.
Day-of-the-week Effect Month-of-year Effect
Friday Effect
Year-end Effect
Coutts & Sheikh (2002)
Gold Index of 1. Johannesburg stock 2. Exchange 3.
Weekend Effect January Effect Holiday Effect
--
All Effects
Thursday & Friday Effect
--
November Effect
--
Bhattacharya, Sarkar & Mukhopadhyay (2003) Pandey (2002) Bhabra, Dhillon & Remirez (1999)
NSE
Day-of-the-week Effect
BSE
Month-of-the-year Effect
BSE
Month-of-the-year Effect
Chan, Khanthavit & Thomas (1996)
BSE and stock Exchanges of Kuala Several Effects Lumpur, Singapore and Thailand
Lakonishok & Smidt (1988)
Dow Jones Industrial Average
Several Effects
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Day-of-the-week – all 4 Month-of-the-year – 2 indices Chinese New Year -Effect – 2 indices Holiday Effect – BSE Islamic New Year Effect - KLSE Turn of the week, Turn of the month, Turn of the -Year and Holiday Effects
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V. Hypotheses Accordingly, following hypotheses were formulated: H01: Returns for all weekdays are equal. H02: Returns for all months are equal. H03: Returns for both halves of the month are equal. H04: Returns for all quarters are equal. VI. Data Collection For studying the seasonal behaviour of stock prices, BSE was chosen as sample and its indices were included in the study namely SENSEX, BSE -100, 200, 500, Midcap, Smlcap, Auto, Bankex, CD, CG, FMCG, HC, IT, Metal, Oilgas, Power, PSU, Realty. Majority of prior researchers have used only closing prices as if trading is done only at closing price. Rather average of these four prices can yield better results as it can control volatility up to some extent. Therefore, daily close, open, high and low prices were collected for all indices from their respective date of launching (or from the date when these four prices’ data were available) to 31 st May, 2013. Thus very recent data have been collected. All these data have been collected from the official website of BSE i.e. www.bseindia.com. VII. Tools and Techniques Following tools and techniques were used in the study: Stationarity: Graphical analysis, Correlogram and ADF Unit Root Test Serial Correlation: o Detection: Serial Correlation LM Test o Removal: ARIMA Modeling (Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average) Heteroskedasticity: o Detection: ARCH-LM Test o Removal: GARCH (1, 1) Model IX. Software Data preparation was done in MS-Excel while econometric analysis were performed in Eviews 7.0. X. Stationary Analysis First of all average prices were plotted on the line graph which showed a continuously changing patterns of the prices (a sample has been shown for SENSEX in Figure 1). It gives a clue of non-stationarity. Then a correlogram of the original average series for all indices was obtained (as sample Correlogram for SENSEX has been shown in Table 2). It was observed from the correlogram that ACF did not declined even after increasing the lag length showing non stationarity in the series. Next, Augmented Dickey-Fuller test was applied to formally confirm the non-stationarity. The results of the test have been presented in Table 4. As it is clear that all the test statistics are more than their critical values, the null hypothesis of stationarity is rejected. After confirming non-stationarity, log differences of the all the series have been calculated using the following formula: r = [ ln ( Yt) – ln ( Yt-1 ) ] * 100 Where r is return, ln is natural log, Y t is absolute value of Y at time period t and Yt-1 is absolute value of Y at time period t-1. After calculating returns, all the three tests were again applied. Graph of return series is presented in Figure 2 which is showing mean reversion of the series. Correlogram as shown in Table 3 shows that ACF immediately declines as soon as the lag length is increased. Further, test statistic of unit root ADF test also confirms stationarity of the return series. AVERAGE 24,000
20,000
16,000
12,000
8,000
4,000
0 92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
Figure 1: SENSEX average series
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RETURN 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
Figure 2: SENSEX return series Table 2: Correlogram of SENSEX original series Autocorrelatio n
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Partial Correlation
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AC
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
0.999 0.998 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.995 0.994 0.993 0.992 0.992 0.991 0.99 0.989 0.988 0.987 0.986 0.985 0.985 0.984 0.983 0.982 0.981 0.98 0.979 0.978 0.978 0.977 0.976 0.975 0.974 0.973 0.972 0.972 0.971 0.97 0.969
PAC
0.999 -0.089 0.01 -0.003 0.016 0.016 0.007 -0.014 0 -0.012 -0.007 0.006 -0.002 -0.015 -0.018 -0.01 -0.004 -0.011 0.002 0.009 0.014 0.019 0.011 0.005 0.001 -0.01 0.003 0.007 0 0.003 0.001 -0.002 0.001 -0.008 -0.007 0.003
Q-Stat
5261.1 10514 15759 20995 26224 31445 36658 41864 47062 52252 57435 62609 67775 72933 78083 83224 88357 93480 98595 103701 108799 113889 118971 124045 129111 134170 139221 144264 149299 154327 159347 164360 169364 174362 179351 184333
Prob
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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Shilpa Lodha et al., American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, pp. 33-43
Table 3: Correlogram of SENSEX return series Autocorrelatio n
|** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Partial Correlation
|
|** *| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
AC
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
0.237 -0.007 0.011 -0.021 0 -0.035 0.006 0.025 0.042 0.035 0.013 -0.008 0.013 0.046 0.018 0.009 0.028 0.018 -0.057 -0.014 -0.008 -0.007 0.027 -0.002 0.005 0.019 0.009 -0.016 -0.036 -0.037 0.007 0 -0.013 -0.001 0.002 -0.008
PAC
0.237 -0.067 0.03 -0.034 0.015 -0.044 0.029 0.013 0.039 0.014 0.006 -0.014 0.023 0.04 0.002 0.008 0.024 0.004 -0.066 0.021 -0.016 0 0.023 -0.016 0.004 0.016 0.001 -0.019 -0.024 -0.025 0.019 -0.01 -0.006 0 0.001 -0.01
Q-Stat
Prob
294.84 295.11 295.75 298.19 298.19 304.69 304.89 308.11 317.5 323.82 324.78 325.13 326.08 337.29 339.09 339.56 343.67 345.33 362.44 363.41 363.76 364.04 367.83 367.85 367.97 369.83 370.23 371.66 378.65 385.98 386.27 386.27 387.19 387.19 387.21 387.53
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 4: Results of ADF test* for SENSEX average and return series t-Value (Average Series)
Index
t-Value (Return Series)
Intercept
Intercept and Trend
None
Intercept
Intercept and Trend
None
BSE – SENSEX
-0.241090
-1.851828
1.172827
-47.90864
-47.91166
-47.84160
BSE – 100
-0.225216
-1.996622
1.096492
-37.63474
-37.63630
-37.56367
BSE – 200
-0.218316
-1.974808
1.087428
-32.49077
-32.48674
-32.43871
BSE – 500
-0.658653
-2.403238
0.902569
-29.25863
-29.25426
-29.21164
BSE Midcap
-1.857542
-2.056482
0.474135
-20.16070
-20.17090
-20.14191
BSE Smlcap
-2.004090
-1.875832
0.079462
-18.61031
-18.63031
-18.60122
BSE – Auto
0.745568
-1.700741
2.176261
-28.10364
-28.09967
-28.01293
BSE – Bankex
-0.702200
-3.074372
0.953509
-24.09895
-24.11740
-24.00322
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BSE CD
0.214539
-1.856027
1.461799
-26.53736
-26.56512
-26.51139
BSE CG
-1.141784
-1.823554
-0.081033
-28.96818
-28.96617
-28.90720
BSE FMCG
2.371943
-0.105913
3.601449
-30.23512
-30.29857
-30.16232
BSE HC
2.371943
-0.105913
3.601449
-36.13461
-36.17346
-36.09308
BSE IT
0.992252
-1.266829
0.131478
-27.85299
-27.86597
-27.85583
BSE Metal
-1.416079
-2.154054
-0.241310
-28.35182
-28.37517
-28.34389
BSE Oilgas
-1.123589
-2.344154
0.169624
-29.74873
-29.80523
-29.71209
BSE Power
-2.041864
-1.746478
-0.255363
-40.15401
-40.20564
-40.15182
BSE PSU
-1.242421
-2.424183
0.232919
-26.50933
-26.56723
-26.44234
BSE Realty
-1.534859
-2.591976
-0.730172
-35.51307
-35.56084
-35.52138
*Critical values of ADF test at 5% level of significance are -2.861890, -3.410652 and -1.940884 for intercept, intercept & trend and none respectively. XI. Dummy variable regression model For the study of Day-of-the-Week effect, month-of-the-year effect, quarterly effect and monthly effect four regression equations were formed including a constant term as Monday, January, First Quarter and First-half of the month respectively. For remaining days, months etc. dummy variables were included in the equation. Day-of-the-week Yt = α1 + α2DTue + α3DWed + α4DThu + α5DFri + ε1 Equation 1 Month-of-the-year Yt = α1 + α2DFeb + α3DMar + α4DApr + α5DMay + α6DJun + α7DJul + α8DAug + α9DSep + α10DOct + α11DNov + α12DDec + ε1 Equation 2 Quarterly Effects Yt = α1 + α2DII + α3DIII + α4DIV + ε1 Equation 3 Monthly Effects Yt = α1 + α2DII + ε1 Equation 4 ε1 is the white noise error term. XII. Results and discussion To begin with, all the four equations were estimated for all BSE indices and results were not much exciting as far as seasonality is concerned. There were little signs of calendar anomalies for a few indices. Other statistics were very discouraging as the Adjusted R-squared and F- Statistic were not up to the mark, which indicated poor fit of the model. The D-W statistic was also less than 2 for all the indices, which indicated serial correlation in the return series. L-M test also confirmed this fact. To overcome this problem, proper ARMA terms were added in the equation using Box-Jenkins Methodology and then the equation was estimated again for all the indices. This time results got changed from those which were received earlier. The D-W statistic now became very close to 2 and favorable results of LM-test, applied after inclusion of ARMA terms, confirmed the removal of serial correlation. AIC and SBC statistics also got improved from the previous estimates. Next, for checking existence of heteroskedasticity, ARCH-LM test was applied on the regression results obtained after inclusion of ARMA terms. The significant test statistic confirmed the existence of heteroskedasticity in all the indices of BSE. Therefore, GARCH (p, q) model with appropriate values of p and q was estimated. ARCH-LM test was again applied on results generated by GARCH model and it was confirmed that heteroskedasticity has been removed. Tables 5 to 8 present the estimation results of GARCH model for BSE indices for different effects. The coefficients of different months have been presented with their respective zvalue in parenthesis. Significance of coefficients at 1%, 5% and 10% level has been indicated by *, ** and *** respectively. A. Day-of-the-week effect Table 5 shows the results of GARCH (p, q) model for day-of-the-week effect. Surprisingly, similar to SENSEX, Monday has been emerged to be significant for all indices of BSE except for BSE Power and Realty. Returns for Monday are significant at 1% level of significance with the exception of being significant for FMCG and Oilgas at 5% level and for IT and Metal at 10% level. Returns for Tuesday are significant only for 5 indices; those for Wednesday are significant for 3 indices, for Thursday are significant for 4 indices and for Friday are significant for 3 indices. With regard to sectoral indices, most of the indices are having the day-of-the-week effect on Monday, only BSE CD (Consumer Durables) and CG (Capital Goods) are showing significant returns
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on days other than Monday. Whereas other indices are having Tuesday and Thursday also as significant returns generating days. B. Month-of-the-year effect Table 6 contains the results of GARCH (p, q) model for month-of-the-year effect and shows that there is major transition in results, once heteroskedasticity is taken care of. SENSEX is displaying significant results in June, September, November and December. Apart this, 12 out of 18 indices of BSE are showing significant returns in September. BSE Realty did not show significant returns in any of the months. April effect is observable for only two indices i.e. BSE CD and IT. Returns for February, March, July and October are not significant for any of the indices. May effect is also not apparent in BSE indices as it is found to be significant only for BSE CD, CG and HC and surprisingly, January effect was found only in case of BSE PSU. Table 5: Results of GARCH model in BSE indices return series for day-of-the-week effect Variables C Tuesday
SENSEX
BSE 100
BSE 200
BSE 500
0.138 (4.899)* -0.0943 (2.495)**
0.157 (5.655)*
0.229 (7.632)*
-0.117 (-3.028)*
-0.129 (-3.026)*
0.202 (6.049)* -0.104 (2.436)**
Indices BSE Midcap 0.197 (4.522)*
BSE Smlcap 0.166 (3.520)*
-0.074 (-1.512)
0.161 (3.200)*
BSE Bankex 0.193 (3.596)*
-0.041 (-0.858)
-0.097 (-1.560)
-0.041 (-0.593)
-0.133 (-2.492)**
BSE Auto
BSE CD 0.247 (5.314)*
Wednesday
-0.0244 (-0.575)
-0.062 (-1.512)
-0.085 (1.906)***
-0.058 (-1.215)
-0.061 (-1.100)
-0.039 (-0.734)
-0.050 (-0.727)
-0.038 (-0.491)
-0.157 (-2.429)**
Thursday
-0.0514 (-1.243)
-0.082 (2.068)**
-0.136 (-3.110)*
-0.082 (-1.742)
-0.086 (-1.617)
-0.046 (-0.923)
-0.033 (-0.468)
-0.041 (-0.609)
-0.131 (-2.010)**
Friday
-0.0112 (-0.325)
-0.031 (-0.929)
-0.104 (-2.846)*
-0.053 (-1.418)
-0.064 (-1.667)
-0.094 (2.356)**
-0.018 (-0.330)
-0.051 (-0.798)
-0.213 (-4.350)*
Adj. R2
0.054473
0.078999
0.092983
0.096748
0.192032
0.291086
0.146389
0.117145
0.190662
AIC
3.263883
3.205853
3.115663
3.016866
2.792551
2.78441
3.069747
3.559979
3.346802
SIC
3.277386
3.219355
3.134119
3.040133
2.825978
2.820668
3.098542
3.588263
3.374342
BSE Oilgas 0.124 (2.569)** -0.043 (-0.691)
BSE Power -0.013 (-0.228) 0.024 (0.333)
Table 5 Contd. Variables C Tuesday Wednesday
Thursday
BSE CG 0.263 (5.298)* -0.229 (-3.524)* -0.176 (2.298)** -0.16 (2.185)**
BSE HC
BSE IT
0.138 (4.913)* -0.444 (-0.298)
0.114 (1.898)*** 0.002 (0.034)
Indices BSE Metal 0.114 (1.816)*** -0.041 (-0.510)
0.026 (0.565)
-0.011 (-0.277)
0.060 (0.683)
0.003 (0.038)
-0.024 (-0.333)
0.012 (0.257)
-0.444 (-1.088)
-0.001 (-0.010)
-0.075 (-0.857)
BSE FMCG 0.068 (2.165)** -0.002 (-0.062)
BSE PSU
BSE Realty
0.138 (3.694)* -0.064 (-1.349)
-0.018 (-0.171) 0.081 (0.659)
0.092 (1.183)
-0.047 (-0.849)
0.170 (1.249)
-0.061 (-0.899)
-0.067 (-0.867)
-0.091 (-1.619)
0.011 (0.084)
Friday
-0.073 (-1.234)
-0.0002 (-0.007)
-0.078 (2.460)**
-0.048 (-0.788)
-0.079 (-1.100)
-0.052 (-0.970)
-0.060 (-0.934)
-0.028 (-0.693)
-0.054 (-0.486)
Adj. R2
0.055349
0.110712
0.082904
0.101917
0.116590
0.085267
0.069861
0.145122
0.113639
AIC
3.606070
2.762440
2.614313
3.836726
3.716085
3.210416
3.230276
3.074931
4.318741
SIC
3.622577
2.786296
2.634493
3.856907
3.744890
3.236593
3.272234
3.097090
4.358680
Table 6: Results of GARCH model in BSE indices return series for month-of-the-year effect Variables
Indices BSE SENSEX
BSE 100
BSE 200
BSE 500
BSE Midcap
BSE Smlcap
January (C)
0.013361 (0.249224)
0.032296 (0.580825)
0.059698 (1.012631)
0.091129 (1.391073)
0.090311 (0.916245)
0.108202 (1.007286)
February
0.070395 (0.950733)
0.008415 (0.111267)
0.057471 (0.694793)
-0.057824 (-0.643001)
-0.100538 (-0.689998)
-0.184085 (-1.212401)
March
0.013899 (0.169545)
-0.000723 (-0.008717)
0.042627 (0.468059)
-0.018565 (-0.198326)
0.081075 (0.567750)
-0.072388 (-0.481328)
April
0.013037 (0.156138)
0.021016 (0.244208)
-0.000314 (-0.00340)
-0.029527 (-0.315802)
0.113529 (0.807277)
0.086252 (0.588501)
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May
0.087989 (1.127306)
0.069223 (0.845716)
0.067346 (0.729063)
0.108887 (1.152332)
-0.004655 (-0.033319)
-0.098413 (-0.640460)
June
0.198010 (2.29522)**
0.152083 (1.6874)***
0.154343 (1.541277)
0.103640 (0.983892)
0.026179 (0.175355)
0.022119 (0.131535)
July
0.064787 (0.809270)
0.043271 (0.533201)
0.024921 (0.281756)
-0.000485 (-0.005131)
0.094235 (0.673231)
0.098722 (0.614443)
0.089445 (1.039961) 0.229977 (2.977855)* -0.032945 (-0.397799) 0.151806 (1.8584)***
0.075157 (0.874865) 0.194833 (2.4563)** -0.059901 (-0.705993) 0.127377 (1.505201)
0.039125 (0.427319) 0.288897 (3.47391)* -0.040808 (-0.45307) 0.143721 (1.491014)
0.053498 (0.539734) 0.257124 (2.725162)* -0.046888 (-0.491951) 0.193025 (1.92029)***
0.021260 (0.152258) 0.235933 (1.6841)*** -0.061208 (-0.474335) 0.044706 (0.322724)
0.007404 (0.046134) 0.157551 (1.015967) -0.091651 (-0.647880) -0.017295 (-0.118134)
December
0.153954 (1.8835)***
0.141801 (1.73821)***
0.168021 (2.0014)**
0.170367 (1.882735)***
0.104806 (0.649826)
0.109256 (0.689464)
Adj. R2
0.051682
0.075873
0.088165
0.091673
0.190611
0.288276
AIC
3.264441
3.207530
3.117894
3.016182
2.795932
2.789660
SIC
3.286536
3.229625
3.147116
3.051977
2.848879
2.845395
BSE Auto
BSE Bankex
BSE CD
BSE CG
BSE FMCG
BSE HC
-0.039247 (-0.412543)
0.079097 (0.815068)
-0.076665 (-0.78628)
0.021357 (0.222230)
-0.031944 (-0.524452)
-0.012907 (-0.202944)
0.076782 (0.543916) 0.100697 (0.700926) 0.167254 (1.160681) 0.030710 (0.237586) 0.072233 (0.467669) 0.135800 (0.960337)
-0.164631 (-1.179086) 0.064637 (0.407395) -0.008125 (-0.053003) -0.033937 (-0.214174) 0.081461 (0.476111) 0.185328 (1.207944)
0.098475 (0.76451) 0.037305 (0.26455) 0.264383 (1.8039)*** 0.345312 (2.4345)** 0.236348 (1.50929) 0.114532 (0.76852)
0.104389 (0.767604) -0.088049 (-0.603592) 0.167078 (1.147809) 0.358046 (2.682258)* 0.240996 (1.64935)*** 0.089191 (0.610621)
0.021347 (0.232313) 0.098935 (1.128065) 0.131474 (1.342627) 0.107135 (1.222569) 0.204457 (2.0000)** 0.124767 (1.288173)
0.032578 (0.373454) 0.125138 (1.417906) 0.138327 (1.586185) 0.205146 (2.51691)** 0.091560 (0.942870) 0.034053 (0.406652)
August
0.246676 (1.7298)***
-0.073507 (-0.486342)
0.246524 (1.672)***
0.123870 (0.831802)
0.137642 (1.451798)
0.109894 (1.187222)
September
0.433771 (3.162620)*
0.495533 (3.522732)*
0.208002 (1.400032)
0.189099 (1.359717)
0.163953 (1.8800)***
0.215543 (2.4651)**
October
0.032270 (0.242632)
-0.071010 (-0.465498)
0.170026 (1.244938)
0.081963 (0.600148)
-0.002415 (-0.025029)
0.039179 (0.443191)
November
0.261648 (1.7229)***
0.269448 (1.7303)***
0.501257 (3.5621)*
0.486690 (4.060358)*
0.173425 (1.7786)***
0.221460 (2.37868)**
December
0.245719 (1.7236)***
0.104444 (0.656807)
0.245126 (1.754)***
0.215880 (1.443839)
0.150160 (1.605935)
0.207032 (2.25906)**
Adj. R2
0.145275
0.116936
0.188108
0.044672
0.111530
0.080314
AIC
3.069952
3.555512
3.352726
3.435060
2.762645
2.615498
SIC
3.117070
3.600295
3.393117
3.468082
2.799337
2.648521
BSE IT 0.042604 (0.526239)
BSE Metal 0.046674 (0.409750)
BSE PSU 0.137123 (1.872)***
BSE Realty 0.118623 (0.563523)
February
0.087835 (0.646553)
-0.179268 (-0.996408)
-0.095002 (-0.65473)
-0.050710 (-0.296564)
-0.128233 (-1.15714)
-0.304187 (-0.95563)
March
-0.016307 (-0.12396)
0.082141 (0.455476)
0.043939 (0.29826)
0.160791 (0.969735)
-0.126868 (-1.14747)
-0.200956 (-0.65809)
August September October November
Table 6 Contd. Variables January (C) February March April May June July
Indices
Table 6 Contd. Variables January (C)
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Indices BSE Oilgas BSE Power 0.055188 -0.140866 (0.52754) (-1.491718)
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April
-0.519617 (-4.2139)*
0.000436 (0.002496)
0.007912 (0.05205)
0.230255 (1.461142)
-0.051752 (-0.47107)
0.077253 (0.23196)
May
-0.046269 (-0.35396)
-0.080308 (-0.451748)
-0.003152 (-0.02192)
-0.064193 (-0.474441)
-0.032955 (-0.30211)
-0.367744 (-1.21306)
June
0.097214 (0.652849)
-0.068761 (-0.358611)
0.095009 (0.54092)
0.283719 (1.598939)
-0.007572 (-0.06549)
-0.265629 (-0.80118)
July
-0.057159 (-0.41045)
0.065241 (0.369480)
-0.083249 (-0.54467)
0.130511 (0.868509)
-0.094808 (-0.85819)
-0.020437 (-0.06947)
August
0.149278 (0.997817)
-0.098533 (-0.543123)
0.049117 (0.33296)
0.009369 (0.058165)
-0.151032 (-1.34301)
-0.309565 (-0.99491)
September
0.189648 (1.393365)
0.372783 (2.210535)**
0.255547 (1.841)***
0.358170 (2.43178)**
0.149360 (1.327170)
0.492272 (1.582672)
0.066913 (0.492360) 0.174778 (1.163203)
-0.145534 (-0.845561) 0.021349 (0.114830)
-0.035443 (-0.23754) -0.037759 (-0.25314)
0.039499 (0.256813) -0.011924 (-0.076793)
-0.149451 (-1.36714) 0.003627 (0.031175)
-0.211866 (-0.71602) -0.193125 (-0.62343)
December
0.211981 (1.479415)
0.306380 (1.66351)***
0.114383 (0.75635)
0.281157 (1.73162)***
0.095360 (0.840434)
0.091611 (0.258937)
Adj. R2
0.100917
0.113963
0.083884
0.063383
0.142102
0.109237
AIC
3.813789
3.715684
3.210876
3.235489
3.076146
4.321640
SIC
3.852315
3.762820
3.255360
3.311776
3.112406
4.386994
October November
C. Quarterly effects For quarterly effects, the estimation results of GARCH(p, q) model have been presented in Table 7. It is confirmed from Table 7 that SENSEX, BSE 100, 200, 500, Midcap, CD, CG, FMCG and HC have significant returns at 1% level of significance whereas BSE PSU and Smlcap have those at 5% and 10% level of significance respectively during the first quarter. The third quarter is significant only for BSE IT. The second quarter has significant returns in case of BSE Auto, Bankex and IT whereas fourth quarter is significant for SENSEX, BSE 100, CG, CD and FMCG. Thus, first quarter’s returns are found significant in case of BSE indices as it is confirmed in case of 11 out of 18 indices of BSE. Table 7: Results of GARCH model in BSE indices return series for quarterly effects Indices BSE SENSEX
BSE 100
BSE 200
BSE 500
Quarter I (C)
0.119952 (3.172675)*
0.119927 (3.073823)*
0.141766 (3.16803)*
0.163281 (3.234486)*
0.132668 0.111418 0.054170 0.097685 0.206607 (2.146476)* (1.6469)*** (0.869153) (1.327174) (3.15805)*
Quarter II
0.016895 (0.333528)
0.013568 (0.262443)
0.026475 (0.458976)
0.023744 (0.380499)
0.077592 (0.916728)
Quarter III
-0.016980 (-0.320509)
-0.024152 (-0.442506)
0.008866 (0.145701)
0.032765 (0.514072)
-0.018727 -0.010810 0.085430 0.068542 0.017787 (-0.217911) (-0.116331) (0.958384) (0.656981) (0.201525)
Quarter IV
-0.080785 -0.085776 -0.053521 (-1.653)*** (-1.69686)*** (-0.93842)
-0.091231 (-1.533210)
-0.039408 -0.082600 -0.035995 -0.043030 -0.240547 (-0.450772) (-0.879249) (-0.41147) (-0.44149) (-2.7087)*
Variables
BSE Midcap
BSE Smlcap
BSE Auto
BSE Bankex
BSE CD
0.092447 0.193587x 0.187353 -0.089750 (0.966532) (2.2054)** (1.878)*** (-0.96575)
Adj. R2
0.052465
0.076383
0.089795
0.093959
0.193041
0.290800
0.146806
0.118575
0.189407
AIC
3.264401
3.206940
3.118379
3.016356
2.791042
2.784468
3.066634
3.557005
3.350131
SIC
3.276676
3.219215
3.135297
3.037833
2.821696
2.817909
3.092810
3.582932
3.375834
BSE CG
BSE FMCG
BSE HC
BSE IT
BSE Power
BSE PSU
BSE Realty
Quarter I (C)
0.184665 (2.889421)*
0.115148 (2.724587)*
0.131334 (3.71640)*
-0.008465 (-0.135956)
-0.005256 (-0.061789)
0.086894 0.013719 0.108974 -0.067460 (1.289676) (0.177507) (2.2028)** (-0.47680)
Quarter II
-0.042833 (-0.438230)
-0.006848 (-0.118565)
-0.044925 0.152247 0.170548 (-0.88711) (1.654248)*** (1.467177)
0.045021 0.010228 -0.015806 0.231908 (0.498125) (0.096115) (-0.22302) (1.201434)
Quarter III
0.114007 (1.396937)
-0.030019 (-0.491659)
0.016622 0.209730 (0.318885) (2.289739)**
Table 7 Contd. Indices Variables
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BSE Metal BSE Oilgas
0.123133 -0.012609 -0.039272 0.002423 0.095660 (1.027478) (-0.135229) (-0.35483) (0.034037) (0.471005)
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-0.244263 -0.112419 -0.080972 (-2.69137)* (-1.961882)** (-1.56634)
Quarter IV
0.077211 (0.897556)
0.028481 -0.050437 -0.110295 -0.057818 0.020977 (0.246438) (-0.559198) (-1.03967) (-0.84162) (0.106310)
Adj. R2
0.057098
0.112463
0.081325
0.102226
0.115354
0.086209
0.068069
0.144975
0.112588
AIC
3.602183
2.759571
2.614773
3.813517
3.714813
3.207761
3.231884
3.075418
4.317928
SIC
3.618695
2.781586
2.633118
3.835532
3.741000
3.231311
3.270027
3.095562
4.354236
Table 8: Results of GARCH model in BSE indices return series for monthly effects Variables
First-Half (C)
Second-Half
BSE SENSEX
Indices BSE Midcap
BSE Smlcap
BSE Auto
BSE Bankex
BSE CD
0.207783 (4.5904)*
0.167797 (3.90227)*
0.210874 (4.4196)*
0.173198 (4.2652)*
-0.087715 -0.098777 -0.105356 -0.101018 -0.159865 -0.175382 (-2.77943)* (-3.115165)* (-2.94917)* (-2.74204)* (-3.06558)* (-3.2139)*
-0.090633 (-1.64290)
-0.101885 (-1.6004)
-0.097059 (-1.872)***
BSE 100
0.146533 0.149307 (6.11027)* (6.181348)*
BSE 200
BSE 500
0.192114 0.198483 0.224139 (7.09458)* (7.309795)* (5.20459)*
Adj. R2
0.053483
.078082
0.091658
0.095837
0.194755
0.292933
0.147496
0.118284
0.187807
AIC
3.263126
3.205329
3.115974
3.022347
2.780929
2.778540
3.067127
3.556871
3.351253
SIC
3.272946
3.215149
3.129816
3.040245
2.808797
2.806407
3.088068
3.578083
3.373285
BSE FMCG
BSE HC
BSE IT
Table 8 Contd. Variable
BSE CG
Indices BSE Metal BSE Oilgas BSE Power
BSE PSU BSE Realty
0.170280 0.077386 (3.79271)* (2.779814)*
0.148892 0.129308 0.119661 0.087879 0.036133 (6.13528)* (3.406453)* (2.13164)** (2.02056)** (0.682633)
Second-Half
-0.066995 (1.128379)
-0.005644 (-0.154272)
-0.091341 (-2.8761)*
Adj. R2
0.056240
0.112928
0.081884
0.101920
0.117332
0.086578
0.069636
0.147210
0.115334
AIC
3.604724
2.758472
2.612671
3.833375
3.713655
3.208494
3.228041
3.072479
4.311406
SIC
3.617566
2.780499
2.627348
3.851721
3.734605
3.229443
3.262370
3.088595
4.340452
First-Half (C)
-0.056991 -0.086105 (-0.964126) (-1.176995)
-0.012499 (0.8239)
0.146857 (0.0000)*
0.192844 (2.0175)**
-0.112032 -0.106503 -0.328873 (-1.714819) (-2.3857)** (-2.7889)*
D. Monthly effects Table 8 contains the estimation results of GARCH (p, q) model for monthly effects. It is quite evident from Table 8 that all non-sectoral indices of BSE and BSE HC, PSU and Realty are having significant returns in both halves of the month whereas all other sectoral indices are having returns of first-half as significant with the exception of BSE Power which has significant returns in neither part of the month. XIII. Conclusions The present paper is an attempt to explore the existence of seasonality in Indian stock market. Four types of seasonal effects namely day-of-the-week effect, month-of-the-year effect, quarterly effect and monthly effect were explored and for this purpose daily close, open, high and low prices were collected from the date of launching of a particular index to 31st May, 2013. All BSE indices were taken as sample. For analysis of stock market data, techniques of time-series econometrics were used. Results confirmed the existence of all the four calendar anomalies in BSE. After analyzing all the four calendar effects namely day-of-the-week effect, monthof-the-year effect, quarterly effects and monthly effects, it was found that all the four effects are present in the Indian stock market. Amongst all weekdays, Monday was found to be most significant day for most of the indices of BSE. In case of month-of-the-year effect, September and December were providing significant returns. First quarter was emerged as the most significant quarter, when quarterly effects were tested. In case of monthly effects, returns of first-half of the month were found to be significant. Further, once ARMA terms for ARIMA modeling, order of ARCH for heteroskedasticity and p and q terms for GARCH model have been identified in analyzing day-of-the-week effect, in analyzing other calendar effects all these parameters were either equal or very close to their first estimates in day-of-the-week effect. It implies that while using econometric techniques, basis characteristics of the series remains the same no matter how data are grouped (daily, monthly etc.)
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MANPOWER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: PATHWAY TO EFFICIENT ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE 1,2,3
Dr. Ologunowa, C.S.1, Dr Akintunde, B.A.2, Adu, B.O.3 Political Science Department, College of Management Science, Achievers University, Owo, Ondo State, NIGERIA.
Abstract: Training and development are assumed to have a very positive effect on the workers in any growing organization. Organizations tend to be more productive whenever training and manpower development are undertaken as policy or strategy as this will eventually lead to increased productivity. Training and development of workers are so much important that they cannot be overlooked by any organization that really needs to stay in a competitive world and wants to effectively and efficiently maximize the productivity rate of its workforce as well as keeping pace with the modern techniques and changes in technology. Today, we indeed live in a world of accelerating change so employees who have not received adequate training before being assigned with responsibility lack the necessary confidence with which to carry out the job. In light of this, there is the need for every organization to adequately train and develop its manpower in order to meet the challenges of present day as well as equip its administrative and other personnel towards better realization of its aim and objectives. The importance of this paper is to identify the policies of public service if any regarding training and manpower development, inquire how this policy or training is being implemented and to suggest ways for effective training and manpower development. From the objective, hypothesis will be drawn that training and development programmes for staff tend to increase their efficiency and lead to increase in overall organizational performance and the poor and inadequate productivity of most workers is as a result of lack of training and development opportunity. So the success of any organization whether public or private depends largely on the continuous training of its staff as the human resources are the most dynamic of all. Therefore, human resources need considerable attention from the organization’s management if they are to realize their full potentials in their work.
I. INTRODUCTION The 1988 civil service reforms emphasized the need for training and development of workers as this has become imperative that workers have day to day information of the job they are doing. The need for training and development of workers has become so much important in the recent years as a result of rapid changes in technology and mode of production. An organization has to do all it can to improve and develop its workforce. Ubeku A.K (1975) posited that money spent on training and development of employees is money well invested. An employee should be helped to grow into more responsibilities by systematic training and development. This gives a vivid picture that it is only when employees are well trained that they will feel more confident to carry out the responsibilities of the job because they believe they can do it as the enthusiasm on the job increases. It is a person in that position who can think and originate ideas as to how best to carry out the tasks of the job. It is evidently clear that workers who are not trained tend to stick to what they were taught the first time they took over the job. They are always frightened of doing the job in a different way because something might go wrong and that risk they cannot take. The need for organizations or employers of labour to create training opportunities for their workers cannot be over emphasized as training is essential if increased productivity, efficiency and effectiveness are the set goals and objectives of the organization. These goals and objectives are subject to change from time to time as a result of new procedure, equipment, knowledge and new jobs which constantly being developed. Manpower maybe seen as agents of change and management’s ability to harness them effectively would produce the desired goals and objectives as the organization keeps pace with changes in the environment in which it operates. According to Chief Anthony Enahoro the then Federal Commissioner for labour at the 14 th Annual General Meeting of the Nigeria Employers’ Consultative Association in December 1970, cited by Ubeku A.K (1975), stressed the significance of training and development as follows:
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Ologunowa, C.S.et al., American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, pp. 44-52 “The development of human resources cannot be entirely the concern of our nation’s educational institutions. It is also the responsibility of the institutions capable of performing training functions. Every enterprise, whether public or private, necessarily does considerable on the job training, some of which is organized and some haphazard and incidental. If employers display greater readiness than many of them do, to invest in training, we can hope more rapidly to supplement the work educational and other training institutions. The case of Japan is a relevant example. As you know, before adequate public educational institutions could be established in Japan, private enterprise there had their own programmes to train skilled workers and technicians. You as employers, no less than national leaders, development planners and technical assistance agencies all over the world, must recognize the overriding importance of the human resources, without which we cannot overcome the continuing shortage of trained people as we strive to throw off the bonds of economic backwardness and seek to achieve the social and economic objectives of our development plan”. It follows therefore that, any dynamic organization must have on its priority list, training and development programmes for its workers. An employee deployed to a position which he has not been trained for can hardly perform effectively and this can lead to a mental disturbance which would not in any way help the organization in achieving its set goals. Training has become so important and one of the motivational factors to employees. Organizations also benefits through its training and development programmes which enhance efficiency, effectiveness and good image through the employees who introduce new and improved skills and attitude acquired into their work. Today, many organizations have realized the need for training and through government legislation, some organizations are forced to contribute to and benefit from training policies. The establishment of the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) by the Federal Government of Nigeria is an attempt to ensure that there is adequate trained manpower from those already on the job and those to be employed later - potential labour. One of the best ways of supporting and influencing workers is by helping them to improve on their knowledge and skills. Continuous learning and improvement on the job should be encouraged as the success of any organization or business lies on the caliber of people incorporated into it. These people must be made to be dynamic since global system is dynamic. The only way to make them adaptable to change is through adequate development programmes organized by the organization.
II. CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION Workers are believed to be motivated to work harder if given opportunity to develop their potentials by training. The training, re-training and development of workers are seen to be imperative in every organization because of the challenges posed by modern technology. The world is faced with an era of technological advancement which has made old skills obsolete. Training employees, therefore, becomes important in order to update obsolete skills. However, restriction is not placed on training for only old workers. New employees as well as management staff also require training. This is based on the fact that training gears up prowess of employees towards increased productivity which in turn pave way for the organization goals and objectives to be realized. Ogunniyi O.(1985:11), is of the view that, training equips workers with knowledge and skill to do their present jobs, including foreseeable development within the jobs while development equips staff by growth of their potentials for higher responsibilities in future. Armstrong M. (1972) posited that training, manpower and development mean change in skill, Human Resources and Development respectively. Okoh A.O (1998) asserted that training gives the employees more utility, more competitiveness, acquisition of new skills, less prone to redundancy and more versatile in many tasks, while to the organization, it increases efficiency and productivity. Thus any organization with a well organized and regular training programme is likely to motivate its workforce for superior performance. Nnamdi H.S and Tonwe D.A (1995) made it clear that modern large and complex organizations are staffed with specialists in diverse fields who are required to perform highly specialized and limited tasks. Though new entrants into modern large and complex organizations may possess specialized formal education in specific fields, they may still be inadequately equipped to respond efficiently and effectively to organizational problems. Expert training is therefore required to effect quantitative and qualitative improvements in their performance. This would help employees to make better and quicker decisions and thus catalyze efficiency in all the units of the organization. Ola R.F and Tonwe D.A (2009) posited that training is a very useful means for making Civil Servants more responsive. The duo went further to say that where unresponsiveness is detected; such a Civil Servant could be trained to become more responsive.
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Ologunowa, C.S.et al., American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, pp. 44-52
Imhanlahimhim J.E (2000) defined Training and Development as an impetus that gives the civil servants executive capacity with which to cope with the intricacies of the form. He went further to affirm that lack of training and development impinges on effective reform implemented. Ola R.F (1999:168) in the edited book by Mimiko N.M et al posited that training is done not only for the purpose of efficiency but also for preparing personnel for higher duties. A new graduate entering the service, for example, needs training to acquire special skills needed in the running of the organization in which he is employed. This is to say that whatever pre-appointment qualification one has, he needs training after getting appointed. Consequently, there should be well planned educational programme for members of staff from top to bottom as everyone is prone to developing oneself. Cole G.A (1991), defines Training as the preparation for an occupation or for specific skills, it is narrower in conception than either education or development: it is job-oriented rather than personal. He further posited that Development suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition than training; it is less job-oriented than career-oriented; it is concerned more with employee potential than with immediate skill; it sees employees as adaptable resources. Cole equally emphasized that Education is usually intended to mean basic instruction in knowledge and skills designed to enable people to make the most of life in general; it is personal and broadly-based. The scope of training and development activities, as in most other activities in an organization, depends on the policy and strategies of the organization. There are many organizations in the commercial field that carry out the minimum of staff training and development, because, as a matter of policy, they prefer to recruit staff that are already trained or professionally qualified. These organizations are prepared to pay the top market-rates for skilled staff, and what they put into recruitment, selection and pay and benefits they do not put into training and development. Although, the majority of organizations, however, do have a positive policy on training and development. In some cases, this may be no more than to state that, the company will provide resources to ensure that key skills are maintained within the organizations. In other cases, the policy may refer comprehensively to the various actions it will take to ensure not only a regular supply of skills, but also a high degree of personal motivation through development opportunities provided by the company. It is quite clear that organizations see an important role for training and development in the provision of skills and the improvement of employee motivation. Cowling A.G and Maide J.B (1981) refers to training as systematic development of the attitude knowledge, skill and behaviour pattern required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job, while development programmes seek to develop skills for future jobs. Hacon R.J (1961) stressed that sound training courses, good as they may be, gained from being supported by other personnel practices like merit rating, internal staff promotion plan, regular safety and quality competitions and suggestion schemes, encourage employees to have a greater sense of participation in the everyday affairs of the organization. III. LITERATURE REVIEW As aptly stressed by Evans David (1981), we indeed live in a world of accelerating change. Hardly has one marvel passed into everyday use, before two other ones (both new and improved versions) arrive to challenge it. Evans puts it more rightly that in our grandfather’s time a machine might last fifty years. But the expected life of a new world-processor was ‘about seven years’. Therefore, employees must be trained to acquire new skills to cope with new technology, and probably even more important to cope with change itself. The need to train and develop manpower is an issue of paramount importance to any organization whether private or public sector. This need has been identified because the manpower resources of any organization form the bedrock which the organizational objectives revolve. According to Linkert, R. (1969), all activities of any enterprise are initiated and determined by the person who make up that institution, plants, offices, computer automated equipment and all those that a modern firm uses are unproductive except for human efforts and directions. Stoner A. and Wankel C. (1988) asserted that training programmes are directed toward maintaining and improving current job performance while development programmes seek to develop skill for future jobs. The need to train new or recently promoted employees is self evident; such employees need to learn new skills and since their motivation is likely to be high they can be acquainted relatively easy with the skills and behavior expected in their new position. On the other hand training experienced employees to make their performance more effective can be problematic. The training needs of such employees are not always easy to determine and when they are determined the individuals involved may resent being asked to change their established ways of doing their jobs. Stoner A. and Wankel C. went as far to expatiate on four procedures that managers can use to determine the training needs of individuals in their organizations. These are:
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Performance appraisal: each employee’s work is measured against the performance standard or objectives established for his or her job. 2. Analysis of job requirement: the skills or knowledge specified in the appropriate job description are examined. Those employees without necessary skills or knowledge become candidates for training programme. 3. Organizational analysis: the effectiveness of the organization and its success in meeting its goals are analysed to determine where differences exist. For example, members of a department with a high turnover rate or a low performance record might require additional training. 4. Survey of human resources: managers as well as non-managers are asked to describe what problems they are experiencing in their work and what actions they believe need to be taken to solve them. One, the organization’s training needs have been identified; managers must initiate the appropriate training effort. There are a variety of training approaches that managers can use. The most common of these approaches are on-the-job training methods. These include job rotation in which the employees, over a period of time, work on a series of jobs, thereby learning a broad variety of skills internships, in which job training is combined with related classroom instructions; and apprenticeship in which the employee is trained under the guidance of a highly skilled co-worker. Off-the-job training may focus on the classroom, with seminars, lectures and film on it may be undertaken by means of computer assisted institution (CAI), which can both reduce the time needed for training and provide more help for individual trainees. It is a fact that no employee is a perfect fit at the time of employment and as a result, some measures of training and development have to follow. Planned training and development programmes are valuable to all the individuals and the organizations because they increase productivity, reduce cost, improve stability and flexibility. It is therefore necessary to have every category of staff in an organization trained and developed if the goals and objectives of such an organization are to be met and in order to meet the challenges of the days. Training and development can be wasteful if not properly planned and supervised, and that without a logical systematic approach to training, some training may be unnecessary because the content may be too small or too elaborate. Arbitrary or random selection of course contents will only serve to waste the time of trainees and the money of their sponsors because a well designed training programme may be ruined by the inappropriateness of specific course contents. It is therefore important to pay attention to the appropriateness of both the overall programme and the specific course content when planning a training programme. Contents of training programme should be tailored to meet three basic situations in which training is useful and needed. The three basic situations are: i. When a person joins an organization ii. When an employee is assigned to a different position or given a new task to perform iii. When appraisal reveals that a person lacks certain required skill to perform effectively on his job. Manpower training and development is very vital and serves as one of the motivationg factors in organization. The efficiency of an organization may be linked to the training undergone by its members. Training motivates employees to work harder and employees who understand their jobs are likely to possess higher morale. Manpower development is a modern management tool which any organization cannot do away with if such organization has to live in a situation of social awareness, economic aspiration and technological changes. Training and development programmes are organized to prepare an employee for a greater future risk taking into consideration that he may perform his present task well and may need to be equipped against future occurrences. However, training and development of personnel are considered alike in the sense that both concepts help employees to attain a higher performance with respect to their jobs. Development starts when recruitment ends and when an employee has been recruited and inducted, the next thing is that he must be developed to fit the job and the organization. 1.
IV. BENEFITS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROGARMMES Different authors have offered many reasons why staff training and development are so much important in organizations. The significance of training lies with the fact that it develops skills and raises the productivity of individuals as well as that of the organization concerned. It is crystal clear that training and staff development are significant responsibilities of the organization. New employees, regardless of their academic qualifications, should as a matter of necessity, be introduced to their new working environment and be taught their specific tasks. Also, older employees need training to keep them abreast with development in their present jobs in terms of new techniques and equipment as well as preparing them for more responsibilities.
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As far back as 1971, government has recognized the importance of training by promulgating the Industrial Training Fund Decree. This was an attempt by the Federal Government to ensure adequate provision of trained manpower to run the affairs of the various commercial and industrial establishments. Under this, a huge amount of money is provided by the Government from time to time and other employers of labour expected to contribute to this fund training programmes. However, A.O Okoh (1998) enumerated the benefits of training and development programmes as follows: i. Equal career opportunity: Training gives equal opportunity to every employee to identify his or her career paths and eliminate barriers to upward movement in the organization. This is why the Federal Government through the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) insists that every organization must provide training opportunities for their employees. ii. Quality of working life: Training enables employees, particularly the younger ones, opportunity to have control over their future career. It gives them greater job satisfaction and more career options. This, in turn reduces the incidence of labour turnover. iii. Competition for high talents personnel: highly educated professionals and managers prefer to work in organizations with well developed training and development programmes which will give them added chance to develop their talents better and further against future exigencies. iv. Avoidance of obsolescence in skill: training and development prevent employees from becoming redundant as a result of development in technology, economic recession and changes in consumer demands. It also enables them to acquire new skills for which there are demands in the organization or in the labour market. v. Retention of personnel: a well developed and career development enables organization to retain their core employees and thereby reduce the incident of labour turn-over. vi. Better utilization of employees: training allows management to place employees best. This will enhance job satisfaction and motivation. vii. Less need for close supervision: training and development ensure greater productivity and better quality of goods and services. Workers properly trained will perform their duties very well and therefore need less supervising. viii. Fewer accidents: for employees that handle equipment, proper training in the handling and use of these equipments will reduce incidents of accidents during their operations. ix. Less scrap or spoiled work: training will enhance efficiency and effectiveness and therefore there will be less waste in the use of materials. x. Greater versatility and adaptability: a well trained and developed employee will be more pliable, versatile and can easily adapt to new jobs for which he has been trained. R.C. Graiz (1976) emphasized on training design which is similar to that of Okoh. These are as follows: (a) Increase productivity (b) Improve the quality of work and raise morale (c) Develop new skills, knowledge, understanding and attitudes (d) Use correctly new tools, machine (e) Reduce waste, accidents, turnover and other overhead cost (f) Fight obsolescence in skill, technologies, methods, products, markets and capital management (g) Bring incumbents to that level of performance for the job (h) Development prepares people for advancement, improve manpower development and ensure continuity of leadership; and (i) Ensure the survival and growth of organization. Training therefore becomes so important that employees who have not had enough experience as at the time of employment should be developed by effective training for improved efficiency, effectiveness and high productivity. The importance of training was also stressed by P.R Demsey (1973) that government as well as private individuals and organizations recognize today the value of training. Informal leaders acknowledge the fact that it increases skills and makes it available to the nation, that where it is available, recruitment presents less difficulty; that it achieves the target on an experience and performance, that it increases a learner’s confidence, guarantees better safety earning and productivity, provides greater easy and contentment at work and facilitates the understanding and acceptance of change. To an organization, Demsey stressed that staff development is very important for the following reasons; i. It guarantees the availability of qualified personnel for higher-level jobs in organizations especially when such organizations grow in size, when turnover is anticipated or when new tasks are required. ii. It assists in the realization of goals, programmes and objectives by ensuring that the organization has qualified people for higher-level position in the organization.
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iii. iv.
It helps in meeting manpower planning objectives, and reducing the need for crash recruitments. An organization that plans well always pays serious attention to personnel requirement. It improves organizational effectiveness and efficiency. This is a prime justification for staff development.
V. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT NEED According to A.O Okoh (1988), training need is the first major step in the whole process of organizing training programmes for employees. He stressed further that the training needs to the organization have to be assessed if an organization is to work out a training programme. It is done by analyzing jobs – (Job Description and Job Specification) and the setting of performance standard. This performance standard is usually measured through the process of performance appraisal, which usually will reveal every worker’s deficiency and the need for training. Cole G.A (1991) defined training need as any shortfall in terms of employee’s knowledge, understanding, skill and attitudes against what is required by the job. All jobs require specific skills, attitude and knowledge and the more complex the job, the higher the requirement in terms of skill, knowledge, attitude etc. Training need attempts to establish who needs training, what these training needs are and the possible ways, to ensure the achievement of these needs. Training need exists when there is an expressed deficiency in the performance of staff on the job, which presupposes that there is a set standard by which such worker’s performance is measured. Each employee must have a job description with pre-determined standard of performance before training needs can be assessed. The reduction in performance is traceable to lack of a given knowledge or skill or the desired work attitude towards job performance. The essence of evaluating training needs in an organization is to provide an objective analysis of the organization’s training requirement for effective utilization of its human resources. In doing this, two basic questions are to be measured; (a) Who, if any, needs training? (b) What training do they need? Training should not be seen merely as a means of satisfying workers only, but must take into cognizance the needs of the organization. Training and development need varies from one organization to another. It is not only directed at positions at different levels in the organizational hierarchy but also at individual since their requirements, aspirations, background and potential are peculiar to each of them. So training and development should be geared to these specific and individual needs as well as towards achieving organizational goals and objectives. A. O Okoh posited that conduct of training need should reveal data on; a. organizational structure, markets, products or services and manpower needs etc. b. job analysis (Job description and Job specification) leadership style and communication. c. Appraisal records, training records, test results, records of appraisal interviews and attitude surveys etc. With such data, the trainer will be in a position to know the shortfall in current and potential needs of the organization and the employees. The collection of information on training needs can be done by several methods such as the analysis of recorded data, use of questionnaires, and attitude surveys, interviewing of employees, direct observation of job performance of employees group, discussion of current work problems and the analysis of work diaries kept by managers. Ubeku A.K. (1975), stressed that training needs of any organization is basically divided into two categories both of which are inter-dependent. They are; a. Organizational training needs; and b. Individual training needs. VI. TRAINING NEEDS OF AN ORGANIZATION When proposing training, it must be made towards the objectives of the organizations. A first step, the financial resources must be taken into consideration. How much fund is available or where to source for funds. The goals of the organization must always be in mind. Therefore the following questions must be answered. What does the organization aim to achieve? What manpower does it have? What training have they had? What skills are lacking? Who needs to be trained? How many of each category needs to be trained? How much time is available for the training or how long? Can the employee be spared on his or out of his job?
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Training Needs of An Individual At the same time, the organization must bear in mind what job the workers have to do, what particular skill does the individual need in order to do the job and what skill he is to acquire. If an individual does not meet the standard required of a job, he should be given an opportunity to develop the necessary skill required to be able to do the job. Location of Training Evans David (1981) stressed that there are three possibilities if one is to look at location of training. These are: i. All training done within the organization ii. Some training internal, some external iii. All training external (to include courses run by outside bodies, even if on company’s premises. If any training at all is done by the organization, decisions will have to be made about location and equipping of classrooms, training workshops, training record system and the selection and training officers and instructors. Method of Training At this point, it will be necessary to define the difference between on-the-job and off-the-job training. Training methods chosen in any particular instance do partly depend upon training location. On-the-job training takes place in the normal work place of job holder, using the equipment, tools etc. which the employee would normally use. Where a job consists of a variety of tasks, then as this is mastered, increasingly challenging assignments until he is capable of carrying out his job on his own. On-the-job training method includes job rotation, in which the employee, over a period of time works on a series of jobs, thereby earning a broad variety of skills; internship, in which job training is combined with related classroom instruction; and apprenticeship, in which the employee is trained under the guidance of highly skilled co-workers. Off- the-job training is one that takes place away from the normal work place. Typical locations on the firm’s premises are: special training areas for operatives equipped with basic workshop equipment: an office, training department, classroom or boardroom. Sometimes such training takes place away from the company in hotels, colleges, or a residential training establishment. But Stoner A.F. and Wankel C. are of the opinion that off-thejob training takes place outside the actual work place but attempts to stimulate actual working conditions. This type of training includes vestibule training, in which employees work on the actual equipment and in a realistic job setting but in a different room from the one in which they will be working. The objective is to avoid the onthe-job pressure that might interfere with the learning process. Off-the-job training may focus on the classroom, with seminar, lectures and films, or it may be undertaken by means of Computer-Assisted-Instruction (CAI) which can both reduce the time needed for training and provide more help for individual trainees. Methods Available A wide variety of training methods is in current use, but of these the ones the superior or manager is likely to encounter most as given by Evans David (1981) are; Demonstration Here the demonstrators/trainers lift the veil on the ‘mysteries’ of some skill. Shows exactly how to tie a knot, use a tool, and kick a football. This is very suitable for helping to teach manual skills, and sports coaches have successfully used this method for teaching game skills for well over 100 years, drill instruction in the armed services for much longer. Skill Practice Under the supervision of the trainer, the employee attempts to perform a skill which has been described or shown to him. The footballer attempts the kick he has been shown and the recruit tries to perform the drill movement just demonstrated. Lectures and talks The trainer delivers a prepared address on a given topic e.g. the health safety at work etc. where a group of trainees need precise information on a new topic, which is capable of a reasonably simple presentation, the lecture or talk is very suitable. Discussion To be effective, discussion needs an informal chairman or leader, and as well as meetings called to discuss a topic many lectures provide either for discussion periods a pre-set times, or even in some cases lectures are prepared to discuss any point made, at any time. Discussion helps people to feel involved, and motivates people to learn and work. Tutorials This is a method used frequently in colleges and other institutions of further and higher education. The student/trainee produces work which is discussed, often on a one-to-one basis with the tutor or trainer. Audio Visual Aids This covers a wide variety of aids-films, film strips, audio cassettes, video recordings (of TV programmes), and live TV programmes.
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Case Studies The aim of this method is to provide trainees with a varying amount of background information (financial, organizational, personal etc.) and to ask trainees to evaluate the general situation and or decide hour they would tackle the problems outlined. It is an ideal training method for teaching trainees the skills of analyzing, and decision making. Role playing exercise There are both extensions of the case study method, and skill practice. Besides analyzing a situation, participants at a solution-interviewing for selection negotiating with union representatives etc. the problem here is that setting up exercises, can be administratively time consuming, and not all trainees may have a chance to participate as actors. In-Tray Exercise As well as background information about the organization and the supposed personality that the trainees assume, a large number of letters, memos, documents have to be assimilated and evaluated in a short time. Trainees may also have to make decisions, reply to letters or draw up reports. Very useful for teaching skills such as delegating or assessing priorities. Business Games Probably the most ambitious training method. An attempt is made to stimulate a whole business, and trainees given large amount of information on financial, production, marketing, industrial relations and legal aspects of the organization. Both broad policy decisions and detailed decisions on particular problems are required from trainees. Who can play parts such as Managing Director, Purchasing Manager, Sales Director, etc. If a game could be computer based and details of decisions fed into a pre-programmed computer, the implications of the decisions can be reported quickly to the participants. Different groups operating simultaneously can lead a competitive flavour to the proceedings, and two years’ trading decisions in a few hours. Projects Projects involve investigation, evaluation and problem solving. For a supervisory or management course, projects can be seen as a back up to training, providing trainees with a challenge, the need to use newly acquired skills, facts, attitude or concepts and the motivation to consolidate learning. VII. CONCLUSION By way of emphasis, for any organization to achieve its set objectives, there is need for it to have a virile workforce that is trained and developed. Therefore, to establish a result oriented workforce, the role played by training and manpower development in improving managerial and non-managerial skills and thereby raising the level of job performance, productivity, effectiveness and efficiency in every organization is appreciated. Training and development programmes are very essential ingredients of survival for organizations. Any organization that does not give training and development of workers a recognition, lacks purpose in job performance. Training should not be seen as a waste of resources rather a sine qua non in the attainment of the highest potential of an employee. It has become a universally accepted input that improves the output of an organization both quantitatively and qualitatively. To the employees, staff development involves those activities which aim at improvement, updating and maintenance of their skills and ability. There is great need for the adequate and effective training of the bulk of the labour force of any organization to enable it achieve a set objective with maximum efficiency and effectiveness. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]
Adebayo A. (2011) Principles and Practice of Public Administration in Nigeria, Spectrum books Ltd., Ibadan. Adeyemi O. (2009) Nigerian Public Administration, in Ola R. F. & Tonwe D.A (eds.) Amfitop Books, Ibadan. Aluko A. (1999) Democracy and Public Administration in Nigeria, in Mimiko N.M.O., Adewale A. & Popoola M.A (eds.) ABM Research & Services Ltd., Akure, Ondo State. Cole G.A. (1991) Management Theory and Practice, DP Publication Ltd, London. Cowling A.G & Maide C.B (1981) Managing Human Resources 1 st edition, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd. London. Demsey P.R (1973) Psychology and the Manager, Plan Book Ltd, London. Evans D. (1981) Supervisory management Principles and Practices, Pitman Press, Britain. Federal Government of Nigeria Civil Service Reforms Decree 43 1988, Federal Government Printer, Lagos. Graiz R.L (1976) Training and Development Handbook, McGraw Hill International Book Co., New York. Hocon R.J (1961) Management Training: Aims and Methods, English University Press Ltd, London. Imhanlahimhin J.E. (2000), Development Administration in the Less Developed Countries, Amfitop Books, Lagos. Iyayi F. (2012) Management: A Nigeria Perspective Revised Edition, in Agbonifoh B.A., Agbadudu A.B. & Iyayi F.I.O. (eds.) Mindex Publishing Co. Ltd. Benin City. Linkert R. (1969), The Human Organization, Its Management and Value, McGraw Hill, New York. Michael Armstrong (1972), A Handbook on Personnel Management Practice, Kogon Page Ltd, London. Nnamdi H.S & Tonwe D.A (1995), Eminent Administrative and Management Thinkers, Amfitop Book Company, Lagos.
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Ogunniyi O. (1985) Practical Guide to Staff Performance Appraisal, Folio Nigeria Co. Ltd., Lagos. Okoh A.O (1998) Personnel and Human Resources Management in Nigeria, Amfitop Book, Lagos. Ola R.F & Oyibo E.E (2000) Administrative theories and Their Application, Amfitop Books, Ibadan. Ola R.F. & Tonwe D.A (2009), Nigerian Public Administration. Amfitop Books, Lagos. Stoner J. & Wankel C. (1988) Third Edition Management, Rekha Printer Private Ltd, New Delhi. Ubeku A.K. (1975) Personnel Management in Nigeria, Ethiope Publishing Corporation, Benin City.
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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
Awareness on Livelihood Culture: An account of the Bhutias in Tashiding, Sikkim 1
Devasish Rai 1, Pema Rinzing Bhutia2 Lecturer , Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Sikkim Manipal University, Sikkim, INDIA 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Sikkim Govt. College, Tadong, Sikkim, INDIA
Abstract: In evolving nation like India, sustainable livelihood has become central issue especially for those who are living in the far-flung zones, isolated socially and politically from the mainstream. The rapid urbanization and modernization has opened up subsequent avenues for alternative employment opportunities, and the growing environmental awareness has presented threats to their native livelihood pattern. In this context, it is imperative to look at the livelihood of the Bhutias one of the oldest Tribe in this region and their sustenance belonging to the old times. The current study sets an attempt to identify the socio-economic conditions and the multiple assets that they use to achieve positive livelihood, their economic condition, land use pattern in terms of cultivation and livestock and would map out the livelihood options, available land resources and the prevalent economic activities in Sikkim. It will also look into the Rural Development Programmes, Government interventions, and a critical analysis of the policies in relation to the people of this area, which will edify the understanding of the livelihood pattern of the border Tribal community and their cultural conjectures as one of the Tribe in Sikkim. Keywords: Bhutia, Livelihood, Sikkim, Socio-Economic, Tashiding I. Introduction ‘Sikkim is a small mountaneous state in the Eastern Himalayan region extending approximately 114km from North to South and 64km from East to West having a total geographical area 7096sq. km only1. Sikkim is also uniquely positioned state having international borders along three-fourths of its boundary. The planning process in the state was initiated in the 1950s, but it was only from 1975 2, that Sikkim’s developmental agenda was placed on a fast track (Lama 2001). Several Scholars and administrative officals like (Risley, 1984; Arora, 2006; Foning, 1987; Geoffrey 1938; Lama, 2001; Little, 2008; Morris, 1938; Pandit, 2007; Subba, 1985; Anna Balikci 2002) and so forth have written on Sikkim on numerous issues. However the changing source of Livelihood and greater concern for the environment has become a challenge and emerging issue as it is related to the traditional people in Sikkim. Therefore study on Livelihood of Bhutias of Tashiding, Sikkim would setforth an important example. More than ‘80 per cent of the population, directly or indirectly, depends on the natural resources of the state’ (Sikkim Human Development Report, 2001). It is known that the land is very scarce in the state, food security is the prime issue of concern. With growing population, unemployment in the state is becoming high, which direct consequence on poverty3. III. Socio-Cultural Background of the Bhutias4 Talking about socio-cultural aspects of any community we tend to bring forth its language, religion, customs, beliefs and practices and so forth. It also accommodates by ‘ideas about ‘us’ and ‘them’, friend and foe, belonging and not belonging, in-groups and out-groups, which define ‘us’ in relation to others, or the Other5. The word Sikkim is ‘commonly attributed to be Limbu word “Su-khyim” meaning “New House”6. The Lepchas call it “Nye-mae-el”, meaning "paradise". The Bhuitas call it “Beyul-Demazong” which means '"the hidden valley of rice” ibid. While the three communities Lepchas, Bhutias and Limbus pledged ‘and put seals to the agreement that they will integrate and will not have separate self government of Lo (Bhutia), Men (Lepcha), and Tsong (Limbu) but will abide order. Therefore vowed that Lho-Men-Tsong-sum will have one destiny and one government 7. So these three ethnic groups have a very prominent place and significat roles in the history of Sikkim. 1
Our Natural Resources Our Responsibilities, Information & public Relations Department Government of Sikkim, 2003. Till 1975 Sikkim was a hereditary monarchy, when it merged with India to become the 22nd state of the country. 3 The latest available estimates of Planning Commission for 1999- 2000 indicate that the share of population. 4 Bhutias are sometimes spelt and pronounced as Bhotia, which is derived from their original habitat Bhot (Tibet), so Bhutia literally translate as the inhabitant of Tibet. 5 ‘The sage handbook of cultural analysis, culture and identiy, Simon Clarke, 2008, pg 510 6 Encyclopedic Ethnography of the Himalayan Tribes, Bisht. S Narendra, T.S Bankoti, published by Global Vision Pub House, pf 1626 7 Sikkim:Darjeeling Compedium of Documents, Moktan R,2004. 2
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Hence discussing on the study of Bhutias and their livelihoods would insinuate to be one of the agriculturalist group and specially today with the impact of globalisation and modernity the Bhutias are adapting to the modern techniques and way of life and certainly there is an influence on the material and non-material culture which gives an elementary illustration. Bhutias as an ageold Tribe with its legacy of Kings of Namgyal Dynasty starting its first king from 1642-1670 Phuntsog Namgyal who ascended the throne and was consecrated as the first Chogyal of Sikkim. Made Yuksom the capital untill the last king 1963-1975 Palden Thondup Namgyal forced to abdicate after illness and a plebiscite but died in 1982. Bhutias are one of the indigenous Himalayan tribes 8 like the aboriginal Lepchas who inhabited in the Lap of the third highest summit of the world, Kangchenjunga9. Bhutias are one of the earliest inhabitants of Sikkim after the Lepchas who originally migrated from Tibet and settled down in Sikkim in the early as 13thcentury. They are also referred as Lhopos or Lhopas, meaning ‘the dwellers of the southward’10. Their main belief is on the Tibetan Mahayana Buddhism, which goes laterally with their pre-Buddhism cultural aspects and early practices being animists before their even conversion to Buddhism today. This cultural-religious assimilation can be found in the folk songs “BeyulNyekyi,” which illustriously describing the topographical contours, flora and fauna, bravery of its people and the extraordinary Blessings of Maha Guru Padmasambhava who picturised Sikkim as a sacred place on the Earth11.‘Bhutia is derived from their original habitat of ‘Bhot’ (Tibet). The main Bhutia subtribes are drukpas from Drukul/Bhutan, the chumbipas, from Chumbi Valley (eastern Tibet), the dhopthapas, from Dhoptha (Souther Tibet), the tromopas for Do-mu. They are all spread over Sikkim but their main concentration is in the North. They have a distinct language of their own. Unlike the other Bhutias the Lachn and Lachung Bhutias still maintaion the traditional village Zumsas where the Pipons act as the headmen elected by the Villagers’ 12. In 1891 census, the Bhutia population in Sikkim was 4,894 (1,966 males, 1960 females and 968 children), which is 16.07% of the totalpopulation of Sikkim. A century later, as per the voter list record published in 2004 by Election Commission, the Bhutia population was 74,164 (12.39%), which has figuratively increased but statistically declined as compared to other communities within Sikkim. The “Linguist Survey of India” report of 2001 mentions that total Bhotia speakers or Bhutias in Rural areas are 36,488 and 5,337 in urban areas of Sikkim. Therefore there has been an increasing trend in the population of Bhutias and their dialect is blend of Tibetan or primarily the Tibeto-Burman dialect. While taking a glimpse on their daily food culture on the other hand are not only peculiar but also popular one which consists of mainly non-vegetarian food items, staplediet is rice “tho” with meat “shya” other food items such as dumpling meat ball “momo” fried maize, flat rice and maize,vegetables dumplings “zinoyenten”, “gyathuk” noodles in soup, the “phakthuk” a winter food, “khudi” made out of buckwheat powder and animal fats, butter products like “churpy” are all part of their dietary food. While the breverage or alcohol is widely consumed among the Bhutia, a local drink “chhang” and wine “arak” are prepared from millet, rice, fruits, etc. As for the Bhutia Family authority is concerned the authority and descent is traced by patrilineal and patriarchal parentage followed by the mother and the eldest son. After the demise of the father the power of decision-making is automatically transferred to the mother until the eldest son is married. Properties are transferred from father to son; however, a small portion of land is reserved under father’s control known as Pazhik (Zyuni), until his death. The major festivals celebrated are “Loosong, Losar, Saga Dawa, LhababDuechen, DrupkaTeshi and Bhumchu ”13 Despite the fact that Bhutia tradition and culture are very well preserved and quite a popular one in Sikkim which is also reflected in the proposition of Sikkim being a Buddhist state While ironically there are Hindu Nepali population at large. Sikkim earlier being a small kingdom before 1975, ruled by the Chogyels of Namgyal Dynasty had a different Historical and political entangle. The interactions with the British East India Company the Gurkhas of Nepal and Sikkim Raja went through several agreements and they are ‘Treaty of Segowlee 1815-16, Treaty of Titalia 1817, Deed of Darjeeling grant 1835, Treaty of Tumloong 1861, Britain China Convention 1890, Sikkim-Tibet Convention 189314 and such settlements and events is what shapes “Su-khyim” a state of the Indian Union. Geographically it also endows with abundant natural resources. Though small as compared to the other states in India, Sikkim is very much identified in India to be a green-state, developing in tourism with number of developmental activities. But in the recent years the onging developemental policies in Sikkim has rather led to nurture and foster political competition. The building of big dams and hydel projects in Sikkim has been perceived by some group of people as exploitation of natural resources leading to the disturbance of ecological balance and deharmonisation of social life. While some groups are in favour and basically pro-government. The ruling Sikkim Democratic Front has been in support to construction of Hydel projects and Dams. However each ethnic groups have a distinct role in this tug of war Politics and Politicization of ethnicity or ethnic politics have paved As described in Sir Herbert Risley’s book, Gazetteer of Sikkim. Kangchenjunga is the third highest mountain in the world. SubbaJ.R., History, Culture and Customs of Sikkim, Gyan Publishing House, 2008 11 T.B. Subba, Religion and Society in the Himalayas.1999, pp. 58- 76. 12 Sikkim Development Report, Planning Commission Governtment of India, New Delhi, 2008, pg.192 13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkim 14 Sikkim:Darjeeling Compedium of Documents, Moktan R,2004. 8 9
10
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they way in Sikkim Politics. It is also seen that the elite sections of ethnic minorities are in favour. While the recently established opposition political party SKM, Sikkim Krantikari Morcha has been a new wave of Political Change and the people are still the wanderers in the political realm like any other laymen. Here is the brief official data of ethnic groups of Sikkim the Lepchas, Bhutias and Nepalese which primarily constitute the population of Sikkim. The first official census of Sikkim was published in the year1981, while the table below is produced by the State Socio Economic Census 2006 and presents the different ethnic groups of Sikkim and the community wise percentage distribution of Household population and sex ratio can be seen below. It will give a clear picture of the number of ethnic groups. Table No. I Community wise percentage distribution of household, population, sex ratio. Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Community Bhutia Lepcha Tamang Limboo Bahun Chettri Pradhan Rai Manger Gurung Sunuwar/Mukhia Thami Jogi Dewan Bhujel Kami Damai Sarki Maji Sanyasi/Giri Others State
Total Households 14769 (13.21%) 8041 (7.19%) 7718 (6.90%) 10672 (9.54%) 7680 (6.87%) 13509 (12.08%) 4441 (3.97%) 15430 (13.80%) 3015 (2.70%) 6489 (5.80%) 595 (0.53%) 92 (0.08%) 94 (0.08%) 44 (0.04%) 701 (0.63%) 4715 (4.22%) 2345 (2.10%) 216 (0.19%) 100 (0.08%) 263 (0.24%) 10901 (9.75%) 111830 (100.00%)
Total Population 76070 (13.08%) 45239 (7.78%) 39457 (6.78%) 56650 (9.74%) 40110 (6.90%) 71836 (12.25%) 21636 (3.72%) 78651 (13.52%) 15702 (2.70%) 34344 (5.91%) 3042 (0.52%) 453 (0.08%) 490 (0.08%) 176 (0.03%) 3563 (0.61%) 24767 (4.26%) 12322 (2.12%) 1151 (0.20%) 506 (0.09%) 1337 (0.23%) 54044 (9.29%) 581546 (100.00%)
Sex Ratio 956 972 930 931 984 936 970 960 922 955 891 903 892 934 972 959 980 1052 954 867 654 920
Source: State Socio Economic Census 2006, Department of Economics, Statistics, Monitoring & Evaluation (DESME), Government of Sikkim. The above table shows the different ethnic groups with their household, total population and sex ratio produced by State Socio Economic Census 2006. It gives a clear picture with percentages. IV. Conceptions on Livelihood Looking at the Livelihood strategies of the Bhutias in a particular setting, we cannot simply corroborate wholesome ideas for all the Bhutias but then again because there are different geographical locations with various systems of arrangements and as the situation demands they have adapted even in harsh and cold climatic conditions of this mountainous region. For instance Lachen and Lachung Bhutias and their everyday activity with that of Tashiding Bhutias are not very alike. Bhutias of Sikkim have been successful in securing a distinct identity and their culture, customs and traditions which are shaped with the geology of the place and so their livelihood. However when we carefully address livelihood concepts, we simply cannot forestall from the definitions of livelihood. For instance definition provided by Chamber and Conway on their IDS Discussion gives a proper explanation. It says ‘livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term’(Chamber and Conway, 1992:6). The definition clearly suggests that livelihood is not just about being able to afford survival, but it also embodies the coping mechanism when individual/family/community exposed to catastrophes, which is why it is understood as sustainable livelihood. Sustainable livelihood encompasses all resources of livelihood, known as the ‘capital base’ (Ian Sconnes,1998). He disaggregated the ‘capital base’ into natural capital, financial capital, physical capital, human capital and social capital. However, these ‘capital base’ cannot stand alone against the challenges and threats; it should be ‘mediated by the policy and institutional environment. This environment could influence the operation of a particular livelihood strategy in multiple ways’15. However, for any policy design and planned intervention, first, understanding the livelihood process of the rural livelihood is utmost important. In fact, this will serve as an effective means to curb and reduce 15
Tamil Nadu Empowerment and Poverty Reduction Project (TNEPRP), Livelihood Assessment Report, Institute of Development Alternatives, December 2004.
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deficiency to some extent.Although, numerous scholars have extensively studied livelihood and have suggested policy alternatives for a defensible livelihood, though, a ground reality check is necessary, therefore, the current study is more interested in assessing the socio-economic and demographic livelihoods on food security, income stability, and social relation of the individual households. The study will help us to understand the social relation and collective action at both household and community level. It is important to keep in mind that social relations to some extent are defined by agriculture activities and developmental programmes. Therefore, ‘any imbalance in the socio-economic conditions has adverse effect on the accessibility of livelihood assets, attitude of government development intervention and the disparity in physical environment’ (Thennakoon, 2001). Next question, understands the approach to livelihood; it is one of the important methodological aspect of this paper. Using Lane’s approach to livelihood, the study use “household” as an analytical unit and the local perspective i.e. understanding how people think, feel and perceive their situations when choosing between available livelihood options. In other word, what is most important to them in their everyday livelihoods? This will enable us to draw the present living conditions and to focus on the various aspects of people’s livelihoods. What Moffatt call as ‘the reality of the stomach.’(Haan and Zoomers, 2005) 16 , however, argues that people’s perspective cannot be automatically classified as strategies; firstly, there is a question of intra-household differences in opinions about livelihood choices. Secondly, human behaviours are often not conscious or intentional and many actions are time and again unreflecting or coincidental. Therefore, it is important to include the lack of strategy in analysing livelihood. A project conducted in the peri-urban areas found that, periurban areas are more likely to undergo problems regarding their livelihood strategies as it undergo more pronounced and rapid changes as compared to rural or urban settings. The study also argues that structural adjustment policies with the changing land tenure systems and regimes are impacting the presence and practice of agriculture (Nelson, 2007)17. While Ellis has found that diversification in the livelihoods a survival strategy of rural household in developing countries as it gives more flexibility and stability of different ‘capital base’ (Ellis, 1999). Bhattacharjee also argued that sustainability of livelihood is now more dependent on practicing diversification as it compels households to be more watchful and adopt the change occurring over time as market forces are increasingly determining all livelihood strategies (Bhattacharjee, 2010). Abundant works have been carried out on the cultural, religious, marriages, kinship, health aspects of the Bhutias. However, few sociological inquiries have been undertaken on the livelihood of the Bhutias in Sikkim. It is of outmost importance to study the livelihood patterns of a rural agricultural base society, or community such asthe Bhutias, as ‘livelihood includes not just income and consumption, but ability to handle stress and shocks, and to satisfy basic needs’ (Chambers and Conway, 1992). In sight with the argument, the present work intended to revision the livelihood patterns of Bhutia community in Tashiding region in West Sikkim district. (Velluva’sstudy, 2004) 18 also highlighted the effect of development on livelihoods strategies of tribal communities, such as Irular, Mudugas and Kurumber in Attapady district of Kerala. It was found that the so call development programmes could not even succeed in providing basic minimum requirements of tribes. Contextualizing, the paper it seeks to understand and address some of challenges and threats faced by the Bhutias inhabiting in the Tashiding region using sustainable livelihoods framework. Some of the research problems that need to address are, assessing the socio-economic conditions; analysing land use patterns in terms of cultivation and livestock; weighing up the present status of livelihoods as indicated. Using triangulated methodology,19 a combination of both the qualitative and quantitative research methodology, the data were collected. Triangulation methodology was used in order to overcome the weaknesses inherent in using one main method. The quantitative data were analysed adapting basic descriptive statistics, mainly frequency distribution. For the qualitative data transcription and summarization were used to analyse the condition. The study was conducted in three villages of Tashiding, viz. Tashiding Gumpa, Sinek bazaar and Lasso. There are 6 wards in Tashiding Gram Panchayat units out of the total 55 Gram Panchayat units in the West Sikkim. The West Sikkim District has an area of 1,166 sq. kilometres, accounting for about 15% of the total area of the state; surrounded by South District (Namchi) in the east, North District (Mangan) in the north, Sikkim-West Bengal border line in the south, and Indo-Nepal border line in the west. According to State Socio-Economic Census (2006), the total population of Tashiding stands at 3000 approximately distributed in different villages .Using both random and purposive sampling the data was collected. Out of one hundred and fifty households in Tashiding, sixty households were randomly sampled out from where the primary data was collected.
16
Haan and Zoomers, Exploring the Frontier of Livelihoods Research, Development and Change, Volume 36, Issue 1, pages 27–47, January 2005 17 Nelson, Sara C. 2007. “Farming on the Fringes: Changes in Agriculture, Land Use and Livelihoods in Peri-Urban Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Honors Projects. Paper 10. Available at http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/geography_honors/10 [Accessed on 18-03-2014] 18
Kerala, Development Report,India Planning Commission, 2008.
19
For further reference in triangulation method, refer to Todd D. Jick’s article Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action.
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V. Status Indicated by Five ‘Capital Base’. Decades of rural development experience suggests that poverty in the country has a geographic character. While the extent of poverty in Sikkim cannot be measured in the same manner like in Bihar, Jharkhad, Chattisgarh, Orissa or an other place. But one can definitely say there is inequality. Therefore Livelihood and sustenance techniques, policies and benefits of the government etc. should be measured. It is possible to measure the livelihood status from a specific framework of methodology, particularly the “sustainable livelihood approach” which is suitable because it provides a balanced understanding of the different aspects of a family activities and situation among Bhutias of Tashiding. The five capital bases are as follows and are varied, the first being the ‘Human Capital,’which means the assessment of the education and health status, ‘Natural Capital,’entitles the environmental assets which occurs in our natural surroundings, the ownership or access to land, water, livestock, or even in some cases the assessment of climatic situation, ‘Physical Capital’ is the description and assessment of the state of infrastructures, ‘Financial Capital’is primarily the wealth in cash or in kind along with debt assessment, and finally the‘Social Capital,’ which designates the strength and linkages that exist within and between families, clans, communities, even markets. By assessing the entire five Capital Base one can foster a composite structure of the family, community or the institutions. These Capitals are primarily the indicators and are suppositions to the present study and indicates the Livelihoods. The total number of Bhutias according to State Socio Economic Census 2006 is 76070 out of which 38891 are male population and female are 37179 with total Bhutia household is 14769. It is not also sufficient satiate the need of Rural development through healthy livelihood practices, but this writing may shed a light on the issues of Bhuita Livelihood in Tashiding specially. The economic classification of population of Sikkim and the volume of the work The works of the people are divided into various categories. Which gives a brief information of the the Sikkimese population and can be found out from the next table no. II. Table No. II Economic Classificaiton of Population of Sikkim 1971-201020 Sl.No 1.
Population
Item
1971 209843
1981 316385
1991 406457
2001 540851
2. a)
Main Workers Cultivators
111609 -
14147436 88610
164392 97834
212904 101200
b) c)
Agricultural Labourers Worker in Household Industry
-
4887 1586
13793 1309
9081 3168
d) 3.
Other workers Marginal Workers
-
52353 5378
55785 4329
99455 50139
4.
Non Workers
98236
163571
237736
277808
5.
Increase in 2001 over 1991
i) a)
Main Workers Cultivators
b)
Agricultre Labourers
c) d)
Household Industry Workers Other Workers
1859 43670
ii)
Marginal Workers
45810
iii)
Non-Workers
40072
48512 3366 (-) 4712
Source: State Profile of Sikkim 2010-11, National Informatics Sikkim. The S.S.E.C 2006, State Socio-Economic Census undertook survey in all gram panchayat units and urban areas excluding the army and paramilitary areas, reveal that the total population by Working Status is 38893 while the Non-Workers is 94337 ie. 29.19% and 70.81% respectively in the West District. However there are 23487 Agricultural Sector workers, 15415 Non-Agricultural Setor Workers and total of 94337 Non-Workers. While looking intricately to the total population of the Bhutias in the West Sikkim with 14854 and their percapita monthly consumer expenditure on food and non food items (clothing, Education, Furniture, Toilet, Electricity, Conveyance, Jewellary, Repairs, miscellaneous, other) is lowest in the West with 610. While the highest percapita monthly consumption expenditure of the Bhutias is in the East 1151. Table below shows the Household Income of West District Bhutias. Table No. III Distribution of Households by Income of the Bhutias of West Sikkim Community Bhutia
Household 2813
0-2500
2501-5000
5001-10000
10001-25000
25001-Above
997
1058
354
315
89
Source: SSEC, State Socio Economic Census 2006. 20
State Profile of Sikkim 2010-11
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Source: Rural Management and Development Department, Government of Sikkim Table No. IV Tashiding G.P.U Time
Major Events
Meaning of the village name
Tashiding is derived from Tibetan word „tashi‟ meaning blessing. And „ding‟ refer to land/ place. So tashiding meaning blessed land. Sometime in 1600 AD
Village origin 1930 – 1954
No major event or place.
1954 – 1974
A group of pro democratic agitators led by L D kazi partially vandalized tashiding monastery destroy prayers flag fought with local monks. Many infrastructure like tashiding SSS,RDD guest house and ICDS center was constructed even yatri newas was constructed. Even VLW quarter PHC, and many low cost building was constructed during this time. Up graduation of tashiding SSS up to 12th standard construction of yatri newas, trekkers hut , PHC quarters, social welfare housing, eklavya tribal residency school, RCC bridge over Rangit river, and above all visit of HH the 14th dalai lama for meditation Development of recreational parks and garden, improvement in the existing farming pattern with modern farming pattern/ techniqueseeds should be encouraged. Tourism infrastructure should be improved. Micro power project to be set up Basic infrastructure at hot spring Gardening and beautification at monastery Bank and library to be established.
1974 – 1994
1994 – 2010
Future trends and general ideas for long term developmental plan
Source: Rural Management and Development Department, Government of Sikkim
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VI. Livelihood awareness among the Bhutias in Tashiding The state of Sikkim is in a state of critical situation sustaining livelihoods in agriculture, animal husbandry, and tourism. The whole state of Sikkim and its Forest resources have catered to the requirements of local communities and tourism. We can see that these resources provides a sustainability to the general physical environment. Therefore the building of Hydel projects by ‘Shiga Energy Pvt. Ltd. an independent power producer signed an MOU with the Sikkim Government in September 2008 for the implementation of the 88 MW Ting Ting Hydro-Electric Project (JLHEP) approved by the Sikkim Power Development Corporation in March 2009 21 . Consequently these developmental projects are undesirably responeded by the people of Tashiding and are thought to effect the ecology of the place and their livelihood. Therefore the responses of the various Capitals in Tashiding is measured which has direct relation to economic activities which is built in relation to the local ecology and terrain. VII. Natural Capital Natural capital is the “extension of the economic notion of capital,” 22 the environmental assets naturally occurring in the surrounding areas, which include trees, forests, land, natural water bodies, wild animals, and the flora and fauna, in short the stock of natural ecosystems which yields valuable goods and services. As most of natural capital indicators were discussed already in the sub-theme of socio-economic profiling, here, in this paper will rather look into the awareness level of the respondents in conserving the ‘Natural Capital’. Swaminathan has pointed out that awareness is becoming more important as agriculture and livelihoods in India are today becoming knowledge intensive. 23 Sl. No.
Category
Good
Moderate
Poor
1
Protect Common Property Resources
37 (61.7%)
14 (23.3%)
09 (15.0%)
2
Conserve Water Bodies
17 (28.3%)
30 (50.0%)
13 (21.7%)
3
Conservation of Land
28 (46.7%)
17 (28.3%)
15 (25.0%)
4
Livestock Management
16 (26.7%)
37 (61.7%)
07 (11.6%)
Table No. V Distribution of the Respondent’s awareness on Natural Capital. Table No. V shows highest number of respondents on four categories with highest of 61.7% of the respondents are aware and responses are good on Protection of Common Property Resources, 50.0% with moderate responses on aware of conservation of Water Bodies, 46.7% with good response on Conservation of Land and 61.7% had moderate response on Livestock Management. While the daily requirements like firewood, timber, bamboo, herbs, cattle grazing, irrigation, forest products etc. are the various practices out of Natural capital. Like wise the conservation of water bodies, land and livestock like poultry, diary, goatery and piggery are mostly practiced by the Bhutia households in Tashiding. VIII. Human Capital Human capital is basically the stock of skills, knowledge, experience, good health, competencies, attitude and aptitude, when set together embodies the capability to perform different and specific labour task of economic value. It is one of the most vital capitals for any organization to succeed in its endeavour. Human capital can be increase through education and experience (Sullivan and Sheffrin, 2003: 5). Sl. No.
Good
Moderate
Poor
1
Increased Literacy Level
Category
34 (56.7%)
12 (20.0%)
14 (23.3%)
2
Increased Skilled Worker
11 (18.3%)
18 (30.0%)
31 (51.7%)
3
Improved Access to Health Care Delivery Centres
14 (23.3%)
39 (65.0%)
07 (11.7%)
Table No. VI Distribution of the Respondent’s awareness on Human Capital. Table No.VI shows highest number of respondents on four categories with 56.7% had good response on Increased Literacy Level, 51.7% feel there has been poorely increase in the Skilled workers and 65.0% moderately responded on improved access to Healthcare Delivery centres in Tashiding respectivley. While there is lack of awareness in the use of pesticides in relation to agriculture. People in the remote area do not follow the modern techniques but the production is satisfactory. The establishment of Computer Service Centre at GPK has increased the Computer Literate people. The establishment of Yatri Niwas and Tourism Guest
21
http://www.dansenergy.com/tashiding_contentpage.html Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014] 23 Excerpt from an article appeared in The Hindu (07-09-2005) by Dr. M.S Swaminathan.Rural Knowledge Revolution. 22
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House, influx of tourist is growing. Twice of year awareness campaigns on garbage disposal, monetary help etc are discussed and disseminated by the Panchayat officials. IX. Physical Capital Physical capital refers mostly the infrastructures which help in further production process. These infrastructures can be houses, roads, electricity connections, transportations, water supply and sewerage, hospitals, schools, libraries, etc. Lacking in these infrastructural assets is directly linked to state of poverty. In economics terminology, “physical capital may also refer to fixed capital.” 24 Table No. VII Distribution of the Respondent’s awareness on Physical Capital. Sl. No.
Category
Best
Moderate
Poor
1
Productive IndividualAssets (house, electricity)
13 (21.7%)
41 (68.3%)
06 (10.0%)
2
Productive CommunityAssets (road, schools)
17 (28.3%)
32 (53.3%)
11 (18.4%)
3
Water Supply and Sewerage
12 (20.0%)
30 (50.0%)
18 (30.0%)
4
Increased Individual Assets
14 (23.3%)
37 (61.7%)
09 (15.0%)
Table No. VII Indicates the moderate respondents with 68.3%, 53.3%, 50.0% and 61.7% reacted moderately and respectively on the awareness on the productive Individual Assests (house, electricity), productive Community Assets like (road, schools), water supply and sewerage and on increased Individual Assets. There is jeepable state highway and has 12 government schools with 9 primary and 2 H.S schools with 1 livelihood School and 4 private Schools. Making total of 16 Schools in Tashiding G.P.U. Most of the time these basic amenities don‟t reach schools on time or they never receive. A playground is yet to be constructed and there are less no of staff recruited. Various programs under SPWD Sikkim Public Works Department, PMGSY Pradhan Mantri Gram Sarak Yojana, MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment gurantee program etc have been working for better connectivity with nearest town being Gyalshing. X. Social Capital Social capital is “a sociological concept which refers to the value of social relations and the role of cooperation and confidence to get collective or economic results”25. Social capital can also be defined as a support system within the family/cultural or interest group/community/society. This could be in the form of encouragement and caution that and individual/household/group from another individual/household/group. Social bonding is the prime benefactor of social capital, this feeling of binding that exists in the communityenforcessocial norms which help in the smooth functioning of the society. Table No. VIII Distribution of the Respondent’s awareness on Social Capital. Sl. No.
Category
Best
Moderate
Poor
1
Males Participating in CommunityNetwork
40 (66.7%)
14 (23.3%)
06 (10.0%)
2
Females Participating in CommunityNetwork
32 (53.3%)
17 (28.3%)
11 (18.4%)
4
Females participation in SHG
9 (15.0%)
27 (45.0%)
24 (40.0%)
5
Accommodation
33 (55.0%)
15 (25.0%)
12 (20.0%)
Table No. VIII Shows that 66.7%, 53.3%, 55.0% are responses on the Male and Female participation on Community Networks and accommodation respectively. While only Females participation in SHG is poor with 40.0% response. Owing to the improvement of Social Capital in livelihood strategies SREDA, Sikkim Renewable Energy Development Agency and NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development are the parent organisation running SHGs self help groups like Navajoyti, Shramjivi, Shrijana, Lotus, Mayal farmer club, Pemachen, Divjoyti. They provide credit to the SHG members and collect low rate of interest from them. They invested that fund in agricultural activities and earning good money to support their family. XI. Financial Capital Financial capital denotes the financial resources that people use to achieve their livelihood, in the broader sense it refers to the “money used by entrepreneurs and businesses to buy what they need to make their products or provide their services or to that sector of the economy based on its operation, i.e. retail, corporate, investment 24
Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014]
25
Definition taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014]
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banking, etc”26. Financial capital comprises of the savings held as cash, bank deposits, bonds (postal/bank), rents, profits generated from retails, credit standings of the household or community, pensions or the monthly or quarterly interest received from long term deposits. Sl. No.
Category
Best
Moderate
Poor
07 (11.7%)
19 (31.7%)
34 (56.6%)
1
Increased Saving
2
Increased Access to Credit
05 (8.3%)
12 (20.0%)
43 (71.7%)
3
More Employment Opportunity
13 (21.7%)
18 (30.0%)
29 (48.3%)
4
Started New Micro Enterprise
15 (25.0%)
20 (33.3%)
25 (41.7%)
Table No. IX Distribution of the Respondent’s awareness on Financial Capital. Table No. IX Shows poor responses with 56%, 71.7% , 48.3% and 41.7% percentages as poor reactions respectively on Increased Saving, Increased Access to Credit, employment opportunity category and New Micro Enterprise. While the level of awareness regarding their financial management is found to be poor while there are cooperative society, SHGs, SBS State Bank of Sikkim and money lenders who provide credit factilities for the people. During the study, the field area is found to be lack of any institutionalized banking facilities, which may be the reason for their ill management of their finance.While the bank was recently established. Fig. 1: Institutional Venn Diagram of Tashiding GPU
Source: Rural Management and Development Department, Sikkim Government XII. Government Policies and Development Programmes The Central government has initiated a wide range of policies and programmes in agricultural and infrastructural developments necessary for sustainable development. Other target oriented programmes for rural population are also being implemented. Some of these development programmes will be assess here in terms of the awareness level and continuity in availing these schemes of subsistence. Some of these schemes and programmes are BPL, Below poverty line card for the poorest, housing support scheme, sanitation support scheme, up-gradation scheme, ICDS Mid-day Meals Programme (Integrated child development Scheme), TPDS (Targeted public distribution system), total sanitation campaign, watershed development programme, (IAY) Indira AwassYojana and (PMGSY) Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana for road facilities. These programmes are administered, financed, and run in conjunction with the central and the state government. These programmes encourage private sector development directly or indirectly, to increase agricultural production by educating farmers and providing financial helps to increase yields. However, full aimed success is limited due to inefficient management and administrative mechanisms, limitation of resources, magnitude of the task, and lack of willingness to change their status quo. Many of the program results appear better on paper than the actual results in the field because shoddy implementation and monitoring system. Table No. X Distribution of the Respondent’s awareness on Developmental Programmes Sl. No. 1 2
Programmes Name BPL Card – Poorest MGNREGA
Aware 49 (81.7 %) 49 (81.7%)
Not Aware 11 (18.3%) 11 (18.3%)
26
Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014]
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3 4 5 6 7
Housing Support Scheme Indira AwassYojana (IAY) Old Age Pension Widow Pension Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
38 (63.3%) 05 (8.3%) 07 (11.7%) 01 (1.7%) 24 (40%)
22 (36.7%) 55 (91.7%) 53 (88.3%) 59 (98.3%) 36 (60%)
Table No. X: The Table above shows the response of their participation in Development programmes. Most of the villagers were found to be unaware about certain schemes and programmes, 81.7 % knew about BPL Card– Poorest, 81.7% knew about MGNREGA, 63.3% knew about Housing Support Scheme, while drastically 91.7%, did not know about Indira AwassYojana, 88.3% were not aware about Old Age Pension, Widow Pension also unknown to 98.3%, like wise 60% did not know about the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). The uneven distribution of these programmes can also be observed to have a serious impact on the lives of the Bhutia people. The fact is in other programs that come under developmental programs like the Sanitation Support Scheme, ICDS (Integrated Child Development Scheme), Mid-day Meal Programme, TPDS (Targeted PublicDistribution System); Watershed Dev. Programme etc. people were not concerned as they felt that it is not productive to their understanding. Table No. XI Distribution of the Respondent’s Income from Livestock Sl.No.
Livestock income
Frequency
Percent
1
500-1000
28
52.8
2
1001-1500
08
15.1
3
1501-2000
11
20.7
4
Above-2001
06
11.4
53
100.0
Total
Table No. XI Shows the distribution of monthly income of the respondents from the livestock. 52.8 % of the respondents earned Rs. 500 – 1000 per month from their livestock. 20.7 % of them earned Rs. 15001- 2000 per month, 15.1% of them earned Rs.1001 – 1500 per month and 11.4 % of the respondents earned Rs. 2001 and above per month. Thus the amount of income generated from the livestock was marginal and they were not considering it as main source of income but could be calculated as one of the source in their Livelihood. XIII. Land as a resource and economic asset in Sikkim According to 2001census about 88.93% of the Sikkimese lives in rural areas, which roughly calculated means about 80% of the population engage primarily in agricultural activities. The recent 2011 census report presented that there is 5% decadal decline in the rural population and a remarkable increase in the urban population. Growing urban population and declining rural population means more demand for food crops and less supply. The geographical landscape of Sikkim is mountainous, therefore, the arable land is a valuable commodity, in 2006-07 report, only 1,09,000 hectares, i.e., only 15.36% of the total geographical land area is cultivable.1 The statistical analyses of land utilization, without doubt, provide insights to the constraints and potential for agricultural development in the region. According to the “Bureau of Economics and Statistics of Food Security and Agriculture Development Department”, Government of Sikkim the amount of Land in Operational Use is 1,27,050 which is 17.90% and Irrigated Land is about 11,310 which is 1.59%. A comparative statistical analysis of land utilization of Sikkim can observe the fact that there has been a sharp gradual decline of per capita availability of net cultivated land areas of Sikkim. In 1976-77 it was recorded 0.30 hectare, 0.27 hectare in 1981, 0.17 hectare in 1991 and 0.12 hectare in 2001, thus declining 61.29% in a period of 25 years. Similarly, the per capita availability of operational land area has also declined from 0.38 hectare to 0.21 hectare; and forest area from 1.26 hectare to 0.6 hectare at 44.73% and 53.38% within the period of 25 years (1976-77 to 2000-01). This contests a serious threat to the livelihoods of the people, because the livelihood pattern of the rural people will change with the change in land use (Mondal, 2008: 93-99). Primarily, economic activities of the rural Sikkim, particularly the Bhutias are still confined to agricultural activities, few household have diversified into small business. Chianu, et al., (2008) in their study shows the importance of agriculture as the main source of livelihoods. The topographic precipitation and the climatic variation of Sikkim is remarkably suitable for growing all kinds of seasonal, off-seasonal, permanent crops and cash crops such as cardamom, seed potato, ginger, variety of fruits, off-season vegetables; mixed farming system of agriculture, horticulture and livestock rearing is being practiced.To some extent this has helped the small and marginal farmers of Sikkim to come out of poverty trap, however this is a matter of sustainability and not an alternative option. XIV. Socio-Economic Appearances Sketching the socio-economic profile of individual or a community needs to outline the types of the house where the subject lives. In the recent years with government sponsored projects such as Indira Awaas Yojna, Housing Loan facilities, etc. has improved in housing structures which is visible in the Bhutia community
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specially residing in Tashiding region. However, all round progress in the construction of houses is still lacking. The data collected from the field supports the argument, 68.3% of the houses are still in semi-pucca state, followed by 21.7% are completely pucca houses and 10% are in the kutcha state. A respondent T. Bhutia, 55 an agriculture labour, revels that earlier they used to live in mud huts but with the government assessment schemes like Indira AwaasYojana now have afforded them to live in semi-pucca house. As for the government employees like N. Bhutia, age 47 employed in Sikkim Police department, they can easily avail housing loan facilities from other centralised banks, such as SBI, CBI, Indian Bank etc. The family size of the respondents was mostly medium, with 53.3%. None of the respondent was found to have single member family; but small family consisted 11.7% therefore the variable is not included in the analysis. The nature and types of the family suggested by the yielding data suggest that most of family maintain a nuclear structure and 35% of the family were joint family. Regarding Education is an integral part of macro policies designed to raise the level of human capital. Hence evaluation of their education background is of vital significance in the evaluation of livelihood of rural people. Only 10% of population in Tashiding area has attended upto college level, 23.3% are illiterate and 35% have just attended upto primary level. Occupation has been directly related to economic criterion, employment is the determinant of social statuses in society, according to which G. Bhutia, age 55, a primary school teacher says that regardless of the fact that he owns six acres of cultivable land he prefers to teach in schools and lease out the land to other farmers, which proved more profitable than engaging himself in farming. This too is agreed by S. Bhutia, age 25, daily wage earner who owns one acre of land. Majority of the respondent’s primary occupation were found to be agricultural labourer 48.3%. Other occupations such as, wage labour, artisan, wood carving, contractors, and electrician constitutes 23.4%, followed by government employee i.e. 18.3% and 10% were petty businessman. The facts and figures of the analysis shows that engagement in agricultural occupation of the Bhutias in Tashiding region is seriously and slowly declining with 51.7% and engaging in non-agricultural activities. Main reason for the decline in agricultural actives were found to be the desire to move up in the social class hierarchy and also it turns out that engagement in agriculture is becoming less profitable than other economic activities. Income is yet another variable in understanding the socioeconomic profile of the respondents as it influences the standard of living and other socio-cultural aspects. 30% of the respondent’s annual income is below twenty-five thousand. The income details further probe to the income divulge the fact that 45% of the respondents’ income has decreased, one farmer with trepidation communicated his concern that in a hilly state like Sikkim agriculture is challenging as landslides often occurs during the rainy seasons,ironically also, the growing season for agriculture and horticulture product. 35% of the respondent’s income has increased over time and 20% has maintained a stable income. The expenditure of the respondent, most of their outflows are on fooding, clothing and ceremonies and rituals, and 38.3% had to spend on health related expenditure. It was found that most of them utilize the facilities provided by government hospitals. Studies have shown that there is a direct correlation between the per capita income and owning assets, indicating the economic status. In terms of their assets ownership 13.3% of the respondents have no separate kitchen facilities and 25% of the families do not own cooking gas, suggesting that they entirely have to depend on the other means of cooking such, firewood, charcoal, cow dung cake fuel, etc. Although, 93% of respondents avail to toilet facilities, when further interviews were conducted it was found that most of these toilets were not pucca built and some were with proper septic tank. Social ties and network is yet another major factor which influence the socio-economic characteristic and livelihoods. Bhutias extend help often to their family and kinsman in terms of education, social security, participation in marriage ceremonies, etc. Exchange labour system (nhala) is still being practised by the Bhutia community in Tashiding. XV. Land Use and Ownership Pattern “Land is life, land is power” 2 a straightforward meaningful quote, which truly and synchronously pulsates with the Bhutias or Lopos notion of landownership. In rural area like Tashiding, ownership and quantity of land is considered as the significant determinant factor of one’s social status within the Bhutias. Only 18.3% of the respondents have ownership of more than nine acres of land. Tashiding has both cultivable or non-cultivable land holdings rather than mere ownership of land. The study found that 71.7% of the land under study was under cultivation and the remaining 28.3% were non-cultivable barren land masses. The reason for leaving it barren was because it was shared on the basis of family members and kinsman allotment and on the other the tilling cost had goneup, and some had obtained government Jobs and petty contracts for construction jobs. Their dedication and engagement in agriculture are reflected in their postponement and it showed 44.2% were found to be waiting for four months, 20.95% of the respondents dedicate their time in agriculture for about eight months; most of these respondents were fighting for the sustainable improvement of their livelihood. Stunningly, 77% of the farmers engage in cardamom farming in more than two acres of land which goes upto more than four acres of land if the year, climate and situation is favourable. Whereas, some of the respondent did not cultivate and were in the buck wheat crop in more than one acre. Crop preferences of the farmers can be traced. For instance, cash crops like cardamom is cultivated more in large areas as compared to other crops. Leasing in or out of land is commonly practised. Some of the reason was, as mentioned by W. Bhutia, age 52, farmer by occupation, put forward that he has four acres of land which was far away from his village therefore
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he leased out his land to another person and he himself chartered in some three acres of farm land near his village. Total of 18.3% of the farmers leased in and 28.3% leased out in the region. The practice of selling farm lands were undertaken in the region was also mostly to overcome their financial crisis, such as P. Bhutia, age 27, carpenter by profession, narrated that after his parents’ death he sold out one acre of land out of three acres for two lakhs to his neighbours. However, buying, selling or leasing the land, they prefer to do with their kinsman. XVI. Conclusion The current government has initiated and extended help to the needy people of this region, and to some extent it has proved beneficial. However, the figure of beneficiaries is still low, majority of the Bhutias in Tashiding area are still living in inadequate condition. The family structure is mostly nuclear and majority of them engage primarily in agriculture, but due to insufficient income to meet their livelihood they often have secondary occupation. The government seems to have learnt nothing from the rising suicide rate in Sikkim not Tashiding in specific. Indeed the Policies are to be implemented to make agriculture more rewarding and Organic farming in Sikkim is vibrant today. It is being observed that there is a need to strengthen the base of livelihood, improving the socio-economic conditions, land use pattern in terms of cultivation, livestock, livelihood capitals and development programme should be made to empower the livelihood of the local people. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood therefore it is necessary for the government to take initiative to give agricultural education to farmers to achieve cost effective and efficient farming every now and then. The central/state government should provide alternative means of livelihoods options by choice and not by forced alternative. It was found that mostly farmers left their farming due to unprofitability in agricultural activities. Specially water source for irrigation was short, therefore water reserviour is necessary. In all the assets that man possesses, land is one of the unbending assets. The ownership of land, assets are under the control and management of the head of the household in Bhutia Family and patriarchy is practised, who command and give directions for the effective utilization and cultivation in Tashiding. Majority of the cultivator work hard in their own land for sustainable improvement of their livelihoods as this was the sole mean of improvising themselves. Ginger, Cardamom and maize are more cultivated than other crops due to the high yielding income factor. Although the livestock contribute marginally to the income, rearing livestock is still preferred in many household, as this livestock provide a constant diet (in the form of milk or eggs) and meeting unexpected basic requirements. However, livestock possession depends on the individual’s standard of living. Lack of banking facility in the Tashiding region is one of the important drawbacks for the farmers; as a result, they have to manage with local moneylenders or commission shop owners. Besides, their knowledge about bank loans was very poor. Here, the role of the village panchayat has an important role to play, which was missing in this scenario.The assessment of the five ‘capital base’ showed that the improvement in literacy was high; whereas, improvement in skill development was very low. The awareness of conserving and improving the common property resources, water bodies and livestock management was moderate. The study indicates that the participation in community network has improved their awareness about their social environment. SHG has showed ways for the Bhutia women to improve their social status by giving awareness and training programmes. Many women from the village are getting better education through Livelihood schools, actively contributing in enriching the economic condition of the family. The village committee SHGs members should also contribute towards the improvement of the village infrastructure facilities and incomegeneration activities for which the government should providesufficient funds to village Panchayat for the provision of basic health care facilities, school, roads and alternative employment. Participation in NGOs should also be encouraged, sensitizing village folk about community development: NGOs to play anactive role and village Panchayat and NGOs to form more SHGs.There are many areas where resources can be better utilized by improving the coordination between the various departments working in the rural areas. It is necessary to set up a district level and also village level coordination committee of all the rural development projects. One limitation of the study is, due to confined study of one particular region and one particular community; the study cannot be generalized to the whole Sikkim due to the diversity of livelihood patterns within and among the communities of the state. Notes and References 1. 2. 3.
4.
5. 6.
Sikkim: A Statistical Profile 2006-07. Title of an article by Elisabeth Wickeri. Tamil Nadu Empowerment and Poverty Reduction Project (TNEPRP), Livelihood Assessment Report, Institute of Development Alternatives, December 2004.Haan and Zoomers, Exploring the Frontier of Livelihoods Research, Development and Change, Volume 36, Issue 1, pages 27–47, January 2005 Nelson, Sara C. 2007. “Farming on the Fringes: Changes in Agriculture, Land Use and Livelihoods in Peri-Urban Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Honors Projects. Paper 10. Available at http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/geography_honors/10 [Accessed on 1803-2012] T.B. Subba, Religion and Society in the Himalayas.1999, pp. 58- 76. Tamil Nadu Empowerment and Poverty Reduction Project (TNEPRP), Livelihood Assessment Report, Institute of Development Alternatives, December 2004.
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7. 8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Haan and Zoomers, Exploring the Frontier of Livelihoods Research, Development and Change, Volume 36, Issue 1, pages 27– 47, January 2005 Nelson, Sara C. 2007. “Farming on the Fringes: Changes in Agriculture, Land Use and Livelihoods in Peri-Urban Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Honours Projects. Paper 10. Available at http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/geography_honors/10 [Accessed on 18-03-2012] Acharya, “Livelihood Strategy of Bote Community: A Case Study of Bote Community of Patihani VDC of Chitwan”, Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, Vol. 4 (2010) . Kerala, Development Report,India Planning Commission , 2008. For further reference in triangulation method, refer to Todd D. Jick’s article Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action. Excerpt from an article appeared in The Hindu, (07-09-2005) by Dr. M.S Swaminathan. Rural Knowledge Revolution. Acharya, “Livelihood Strategy of Bote Community: A Case Study of Bote Community of Patihani VDC of Chitwan”, Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, Vol. 4 (2010) . Kerala, Development Report,India Planning Commission , 2008. For further reference in triangulation method, refer to Todd D. Jick’s article Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action. Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014] Definition taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014] Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014] Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014] Excerpt from an article appeared in The Hindu (07-09-2005) by Dr. M.S Swaminathan. Rural Knowledge Revolution. Referred from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capital [Accessed on 19-03-2014] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkim
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Land Tenure Systems in the late 18th and 19th century in Colonial India Dr. Hareet Kumar Meena Assistant Professor, Department of History Indira Gandhi National Tribal University Madhya Pradesh, INDIA Abstract: Tax from the land remained a primary source of revenue for the kings and emperors since time immemorial. Nevertheless, the ownership pattern of land had witnessed changes over centuries. In the precapitalist stage of Indian economy, the idea of absolute ownership did not exist. All classes connected with land possessed certain rights. Unlike, the ancient and medieval period, the British imperial rule unleashed far-reaching changes in Indian agrarian structure. New land tenures, new land ownership concepts, tenancy changes and heavier demand for land revenue brought havoc changes, both in rural economy and social web. From their beginning, as political masters, the English Company relied on land revenue as the principal source of income for the functioning of state. Up to a first approximation, all cultivable land in British India fell under one of the following three alternative systems- (a) landlord based system (zamindari), (b) an individual cultivator-based system (raiytwari), and (c) village-based system (mahalwari). British mercantile interests coupled with Free Trade principles sought to derive the maximum economic advantage from their rule in India. However, excessive land revenue demand proved counter- productive. Agriculture began to languish; large areas went out of cultivation. Henceforth, an era of famines started, which has been termed as ‘man-made’ rather than natural. Keywords: Commercialization of agriculture; Diwani rights; Ryot; Mahal; Land revenue; Rural indebtedness Objective of the study: The present study documents multilayered structural shifts in land tenure systems initiated by the Raj in India. This paper minutely examines the impact of British land tax institutions in colonial India using census data on agricultural production and engaged population. I. Introduction The land tenure system1 has a long history of its origin and contribution in the formation, consolidation and expansion of State (Imran, 1988). To study the land administration and related taxation, one must start from the fact that who were the owners of the land and to whom they paid the allied tax. Right from the time of Manu, the land revenue has been a major source of income of the sovereign. Kautilya narrates, “The king was the sole proprietor of the land, but the tiller (peasant) of the land was practically regarded as the real owner of the land. The king only had the power to increase or decrease the land tax.” Most of the literary and archaeological evidence reveals that the ancient system of land administration and taxation continued even during the Muslim rule with some modifications here and there. The streamlined process of land revenue administration was initiated by Sher Shah Suri (1540-45), which was improved in the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (15561605). Todar Mal, a renowned revenue expert, who started his career under Sher Shah Suri and continued up to Akbar, is remembered even to this day for evolving a detailed system of revenue assessment (Habib, 1963; Kumar, 1982; Moreland, 1968). His innovative structure drew a balance between the demands of the State and needs of the subjects. Under Mughal revenue administration, the zamindars and jagirdars vested the right to collect land tax and other related levies from the peasants who were tilling the land. The zamindars could inherit, gift or sell their rights to collect taxes from the peasants (Habib, 1963). With the advent of British rule in India, the political and economic scenario underwent far-reaching changes. In order to administer the country effectively, the colonial government did not make any substantial changes in the land revenue systems, but promoted the class of non-cultivating intermediaries (Aghion, 2008; Baden-Powell, 1894). Up-to an extent the British inherited the institutional form of the agrarian system from the Mughals (Imran, 1988). What they done actually, was the superimposition of a new system over the existing pattern in tune with British customs, laws and interest. The British administration customized the prevailing land tenure patterns with a sole aim of extracting the maximum revenue from peasantry of India. Right from the time of Warren Hastings (1775-82) one question troubled the British a lot as from whom they should collect land tax in India (Beer, 1962; Bagchi, 2000). Consequently, they kept trying diverse solutions to this problem in different 1
Land Tenure System indicates the way in which a cultivator retains land. In case of tenants, it reflects the occupancy of land, security of tenure, inheritance and transferability of tenancy rights, etc.
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parts of India. It is clear from the earlier trial and errors; the British were aware of the fact that the zamindars were the authoritative lobby, and if they won the support of the zamindars, it would be easier for them to rule India. This knowledge served the interests of the company by two folds. Firstly, it was difficult to collect tax directly from hundreds of thousands of peasants, and secondly, with the help of zamindars it was quite easy for them to enter in the social web of India (Mukherjee, 1962; Burton, 1989). The British fundamentally altered the nature of property and land rights throughout the country. Previously, the rights of land ownership were not proprietary but overlapping. At that time, land was generally owned by people belonging to high castes, while the low castes held varying rights of occupancy and rights in sharing of crops, as defined by traditional customs (Gupta, 1940). Under the British control, the introduction of sole proprietary ownership rights considerably altered the rights of property, as the British judiciary no longer formally recognized many of the traditional rights. Economic ideas, especially physiocrats2 and utilitarian principles,3 played a vital role in shaping the land tenures during early British rule (Stokes, 1978; Roy, 2013). Among them, David Ricardo’s theory of rent 4 remained the most important. Furthermore, the ideology and personality of different British administrators may have played a far bigger role in the implementation of land taxation patterns. Even before the arrival of Cornwallis, a number of company officials, mainly Alexander Dow and Henri Patullo were advocating for land tax to be fixed permanently. Alexander Dow in his book History of Hindustan introduced the idea of permanent settlement, which was elaborated by Henri Patullo (Dahiya, 1994). The economic ideas of Phillip Francis and Lord Cornwallis were profoundly instrumental in the execution of the zamindari system. Likely, the utilitarian philosophy of Thomas Munro was contributory to the development of the raiytwari system. As there was no centralized unified rule in the various parts of British India, many local decisions, such as those made by Holt Mackenzie in the North-West, further contributed to land taxation. It is quite interesting to know that the revenue department was the pivot of colonial administration. The Collector was the virtual monarch at the district, around whom the entire administration revolved. In 1841, it constituted 60 percent of total government revenue. Not surprisingly, land revenue and its collection were the most important issues in policy debates during British period (Kingsley, 1951; Zamindari Abolition Committee Report, 1948). II. Early Land Tenure experiments in British period The British domain in India lasted for nearly two hundred years. Initially, they arrived in India as traders but with the passage of time, they captured the political power of the country. Their commercial firm, English East India Company, received an official permit (farman) in 1613 from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir to build a factory at Surat (Chandra, 1966). In the true sense, their empire building began with their victories in the battle of Plassey (1757) and the battle of Buxar (1764). Afterwards, they obtained political control of the modern states of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. According to the Diwani grant,5 the British Company formally permitted for revenue collection rights in these areas in 1765. After 1818, the British were the major political power in India and by 1860, a large part of the territories of modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh became integral parts of British territory. In addition to it, there were a large number of princely states in different parts of the country, all of which were under British political control but had autonomy in administrative matters (Chaudhuri, 1983; Bose, 1994). By and large, the British controlled, directly or indirectly, Indian land revenue administration by second half of nineteenth century. It is a well-accepted fact that the British involvement in Indian agricultural practices expanded greatly under Clive’s direction. As we know that how he played a vital role in the formulation of the treaty of Allahabad (1765). It was after this assignment the English Company openly started to drain the Indian financial resources and agricultural output; primarily cash crops and raw material (Chandra, 1966). However, the rise of the British intervention in India is associated with the rule of Hastings (1773-85), the first Governor-General of India. He consolidated British control and established a more centralized British authority by implementing a system and series of codified criminal and civil courts. Hastings instituted a new land revenue enhancement named tax farming (Blyn, 1966). Accordingly, the highest bidders were given the right to collect land revenue for short2
It is a group of European economists who believed that agriculture was the source of all wealth, and all agricultural products should be highly priced. Advocating adherence to a supposed natural order of social institutions, they also stressed the necessity of free trade. 3 Utilitarianism is an ethical philosophy in which the happiness of the greatest number of people in the society is considered as the greatest good. Accordingly, an action is morally right if its consequences lead to happiness (absence of pain), and wrong if it ends in unhappiness (pain). Since the link between actions and their happy or unhappy outcomes depends on the circumstances, no moral principle is absolute or necessary in itself under utilitarianism. 4 Ricardo believed that ground rents and the value of land have a tendency to rise continuously and that this benefits solely the landowners. The progress of industrialization and urbanization in the second half of the 19th century resulted in a rapid increase in the value of urban land, and the owners of such land reaped tremendous profits. 5 Based on the terms of the Treaty of Allahabad (16th Aug. 1765), Mughal Emperor Shah Alam granted the East India Company Diwani rights, or the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Emperor from the Eastern province of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.Thus, East India Company got appointed as the imperial tax collector for the Eastern province. In return, the Company paid an annual tribute of twenty-six lakhs of rupees (26 million pounds).
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term leases not extending beyond five years. However, despite establishing British authority in India, Hastings’ vision has been considered as conservative and limited. Phillip Francis, a renowned physiocrat, argued that tax farming with short-term leases led to poor incentives for development as it subverted the absolute property rights of landholders. Since tax-farmers owned revenue rights for a limited number of years, Francis believed that they did not have the proper incentives to invest for the long-term. Influenced by Francis, Governor-General Lord Cornwallis (1786-93), who succeeded Hastings, established the zamindari system for the collection of land revenue. Because Francis and Cornwallis both believed that only the zamindars had the knowledge, capital and the incentives to develop Indian agriculture, they assigned land taxes and property to them (Bowen et al, 2002; Baden-Powell, 1972; Banerjee et al, 2005; Crook, 1933). However, zamindari system also came under criticism. Governor-General Arthur Wellesley (1798-1805), stimulated a young generation of Company administrators who were instrumental in re-designing the colonial state. One of them was Thomas Munro, who advocated the Raiytwari system (Stein, 1989). Munro and the new administrators were the firm supporters of utilitarianism whose vision for ruling India was much more imperial in comparison of Hastings and Cornwallis. For Munro, the raiytwari system served both purposes, economic and political. By giving the property rights to farmers, rather than zamindars, Munro believed that agricultural productivity would increase considerably. By doing so, he wanted to curtail the corruption level made by the zamindars. At the same time, Munro argued that the assignment of taxes and property at the local village level, administered by British district officers, would significantly strengthen the level of British political control in India (Patel, 1952; Patel, 1957). In broadspectrum, the policy adopted by the British administrators was that, for the sake of political stability, there should be minimum disturbance in the traditional rights. However, the British followed this principle in the initial phase, and later they added or amended according to their needs. In addition, the existing local political structure also influenced the type of land revenue institutions in some areas. The Zamindari settlement was enacted in various parts of eastern India, which was already dominated by elite zamindars (landlords). Similarly, the mahalwari (village-based) system had been more likely to be implemented in regions such as Punjab where warrior caste clans such as the Rajputs and the Jats jointly owned and controlled villages. III. Phenomenon and nature of Permanent Settlement (Zamindari system or Isthai bandobast) Appointed as the Governor General in 1786, Lord Cornwallis particularly directed to formulate a satisfactory solution of the land revenue system in order to ensure the Company’s real interest behind the political subjection of India. As we know that from the time of his appointment, the British lobby in London was creating a huge pressure to evolve a policy that could meet out the demands of Industrial Revolution 6 in England (Douglass, 2005; Mishra, 1942; Gadgil, 1929). Commenting on the existing land revenue policy, Cornwallis once remarked, “one-third of the company’s territory in Hindustan is now a jungle, inhabited only by wild beasts.” He began his discussions on three vital questions viz. (a) with whom was the settlement to be made, whether the zamindars or the actual tillers of the land? (b) What should be the State’s share in the produce of land? and (c) should the settlement be permanent? We know that Cornwallis was an English landlord himself, and it was obvious that he inclined in favor of the zamindars (Chaudhuri, 1984). He decided to declare the zamindars as the owners of the land for the collection of land revenue. The British government pleaded that the zamindars represented the most enlightened section of the rural population. As such, the conferment of agrarian rights to them could result in significant improvement pertaining to land and agriculture. Accordingly, he named the proposed land taxation scheme as Zamindari or Permanent Settlement (1793). Under this revenue pattern, feudal lords (zamindars) were declared as proprietors of land on the condition of fixed revenue payments to the East India Company (Blyn, 1966). Henceforth, the zamindars were handed absolute rights over the land, thus making the peasants their tenants who had no rights over the land they cultivated. Fig.- 1: Cultivated Area under Land Tenure Settlements in Colonial India Zamindari System (Landlord based)
5% 38% 57%
6
Raiytwari System (Individual Cultivator based) Mahalwari System (Village based)
The Industrial Revolution took place in Europe in general and England, in particular, during the mid of eighteenth century. It can be defined as the application of power driven machinery to manufacturing, which accelerated output significantly. Historical researches prove that the colonies of East India Company, particularly in Asia and Africa, contributed immensely in rapid industrialization.
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This system was put into practice on 19% of the entire British controlled territory; which included Bengal, Bihar Orissa, and Northern Carnatic region. It covered around 57% of the total cultivated area. The illustrated figure1 demonstrates that in the colonial period, the agricultural output was carried out largely on the parameters of Permanent settlement, in comparison to Raiytwari and Mahalwar systems (Blyn, 1966; Neale, 1962). It is believed that the British introduced Zamindari system to attain three major objectives. Primarily, it helped in regular collection of land revenue and by doing so English Company remained safe from peasantry agitation. Secondly, it created a class of people who would remain faithful to the British regime in the country. We know how this loyal class (zamindars) helped the British to curb the revolt of 1857. Governor-General William Bentinck (1828-35) once remarked, “I should say that the Permanent settlement, though a failure in many respects, have created a vast body of rich landed proprietors deeply interested in the continuous of the British domination.” Lastly, this innovation made the income of British Raj permanent (Boyce, 1987; Fuller, 1922). R. C. Dutt vehemently commented on this issue, ‘’how the British rule expanded in India with the money and support of the Indians.” Under the landlord based system, the landlords were given, more or less, free hand to set the terms for the tenants. As a result, they were in a position to capture most of the gains in productivity. The zamindars started taking advantage of their new responsibilities and the helplessness of the peasants. The peasants could be evicted from the land straightforwardly, and at the same time; it was very difficult for them to leave the villages, as there was no land available elsewhere. They were becoming more and more indebted. There are many stories written by Premchand narrating how the zamindars treated their tenants unkindly in Awadh, UP and other regions of northern India (Desai, 1948). However, the rights over the land conferred to the zamindars were alienable and rentable. These occupancy rights were heritable and were not tampered as long as the holders paid their taxes. Cornwallis himself said, “We have a rule that if zamindars fail to pay the full tax in time, we auction their lands to get the money, according to the Sun-set law.”7 Now coming on demerits, the Zamindari system suffered from a number of defects. Firstly, the Zamindari system worked as a formidable obstacle in bringing about economic transformation in rural India. The zamindars evinced no interest in the improvement of either land or cultivation; and collection of revenue was their sole interest (Baden-Powell, 1894). Secondly, the Zamindari system promoted absentee landlordism. 8 This section of absentee landlords resulted in the decay of the agriculture. Ruddar Datt and K. P. M. Sundharam succinctly observed, “Historically, the landlords were known for their extravagance on women, wine and vices. The landlords of India were no exception. Thus, the money extracted from the cultivators by these parasites did not result in capital formation but increased conspicuous consumption.” Lastly, the Zamindari system was based solely on exploitation, as it conferred unlimited rights to the zamindars to extract as much rent as they wished. Approximately, the intermediaries in the form of rent took one-fourth of the produce away (Desai, 1948; Government of India Report, 1867). Moreover, the tenants had to work in the houses of zamindars on various occasions without any return (Begar). Concluding, under the Zamindari system, the actual tiller of the land was not the owner of the land. Hence, he was always in psychological fear of his ejection from the land. IV. Raiytwari Land Tenure System After the introduction of Zamindari system, the East India Company coined Raiytwari system. In Mughal regime, this word was widely used in revenue administration. The nomenclature of this taxation scheme comes from the word ryot, which means a peasant (cultivator or farmer). In this system, there was a direct relationship between colonial government and the tenant or ryot i.e., an individual landholder (Baden-Powell, 1972). Every registered holder was recognised as its proprietor, and he could sell or transfer the land. He was assured of permanent tenure, as long as he paid the land revenue. The landholder was also allowed to sublet his land. It was a better system as compared to Zamindari or Mahalwari and similar other forms of tenure. Unlike the Permanent Settlement areas, the revenue commitment under this scheme was not fixed; it was usually calculated as the money value of a share of the estimated average annual output (Baden-Powell, 1972; Banerjee et al, 2002). This share typically varied from place to place and was decided periodically in response to changes in the productivity of the land. The first Raiytwari settlement was introduced by Sir Thomas Munro in Madras during 1802 and then in Bombay State by Elfishton. The princely states of Jaipur ad Jodhpur in Rajasthan also fell under this system. Raiytwari systems accounted for around 38% of the total cultivated area, while it included 51% of the entire British controlled territory (Blyn, 1966). Due to the introduction of Raiytwari system, the income of the colonial government in Madras increased from 32.90 million pounds in 1861 to 41.80 million pounds in 1874. V. 7
8
Mahalwari System of land revenue collection
According to the Sunset Law, if payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the zamindari was liable to be auctioned. In case of failure to pay the decided land revenue, the land was handed over to the highest bidder. Absentee landlordism signifies the right of the sharing of the agricultural produce of the land without participating personally in the productive process.
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This kind of tenancy procedure was introduced in United Province, Cental Province, Oudh and later in Punjab. This land settlement covered 5% of the entire cultivated area, while it accounted 30% of the whole British controlled territory. As far as the Mahalwari tenure was concerned, the village (mahal or estate) communities held the village lands jointly or the ruralites were together responsible for the payment of land revenue (BadenPowell, 1972). The lands held by the village communities either were cultivated by the members of the village communities themselves, or were leased out to others on rent. Period of settlement, fixations of the land revenue, etc. were different in distinct mahalwari areas. The village headman (Lumbrdar) was entrusted with the responsibility for collecting the land revenue and depositing it in the treasury. In return, he received ‘panchatra’ i.e. 5 per cent as a commission. VI. Consequences As we have already noted earlier, with the introduction of new land revenue system, private property in land was strengthened. Further, under the fresh land revenue system, government revenue was a fixed amount, irrespective of crop output. Thus, during periods of bad crops or low prices, the peasants were forced to borrow from moneylenders in-order to meet out the land revenue demand. Once caught in the clutches of moneylenders the cultivators were rarely able to free themselves from debt, and the result was mortgage or sale of land (Bardhan, 1984; Bose, 1993). This obnoxious nexus, in addition to the heavy demand of land revenue, commercialization of agriculture and rural indebtedness led to the proletarianization of poor peasants and concentration of land in the hands of few resourceful landlords. Because of heavy taxation, indebtedness of rural population increased during the 19th century. The same tendency continued during the early 20th century. It was during the Great Depression (1929-30); that the grave burden of land revenue forced the colonial government to take necessary action (Chang, 2007). Accordingly, the debt conciliation boards were established, and their proceedings scaled down debts in some cases. During the British India, as a whole, agricultural output rose at a rate of merely 0.37 per cent per annum. Moreover, the growth rate of food grains production was 0.11 per cent, which was radically lower than the population growth rate of 0.67 per cent annually. Agricultural output seems to have gradually increased over the period, but the pace was slower than population growth. It is so ironic that commercial crop output increased rapidly, nearly doubling over the period. The table- 1 reveals the data numerically (Blyn, 1966). Table 1: Agricultural Output and Population Growth Rates in British India: 1891- 1947 S. No.
Region
Food grains 0.11
Percentage growth rates (per annum) Population Non-food grains 0.67 1.31
All Crops 0.37
1.
British India
2.
Greater Bengal
- 0.73
0.65
0.23
- 0.45
3.
United Province
0.35
0.40
0.92
0.42
4.
Madras
0.42
0.80
2.37
0.98
5.
Punjab
1.10
0.93
2.40
1.57
6.
Bombay and Sind
0.27
0.71
1.44
0.66
7.
Central Province
0.29
0.58
0.07
0.48
8.
Five regions excluding Bengal
0.47
0.64
--
0.80
In general, the agricultural output growth was higher in raiytwari and mahalwari areas, in comparison to Zamindari settlement (Boserup, 1965). Greater Bengal was the region where land tenure composition was most retrogressive. There were layers of parasitic landowners or absentee landlords, who were living on rental incomes. In addition to it, Bengal was the region where colonial exploitation was most rapacious and lasted for the longest period. Possibly these were the primary reasons for deterioration of agricultural production there. In contrast to Bengal, Punjab came under British rule much later when the burden of land revenue was relatively modest. However, all newly introduced land tenures were designed to extract land revenue as much as possible. Baden-Powell (Baden-Powell, 1972) remarks, “These three land tenure systems (Zamindari, Raiytwari and Mahalwari) underwent a lot of transformations during years, and this led to the intermixing of characteristics which in-fact tended towards Zamindari system. Sub-letting, rack-renting and absentee landlordism became common characteristic. “ VII. Conclusion Land revenue, or land tax, remained the primary source of revenue for all governments in India, ranging from ancient to modern. During Mughal period, in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Akbar and other ambitious rulers streamlined the land revenue administration for the prosperity of the empire. The first half of the nineteenth century was a period of experimentation with methods of collecting the land revenue. With territorial expansion in India, the British faced the question from whom to settle with for the land revenue, whether
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revenue be taken directly from individual cultivators or contracts be made with intermediaries, etc. In addition to the demand of high land revenue, rural indebtedness and commercialization of agriculture led to the pauperization of poor peasants. VIII.
References
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Private Investment in India 1900-1939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 54. Banerjee, A., L. Iyer & R. Somanathan (2005). History, social divisions and public goods in rural India. Switzerland: Journal of the European Economic Association 3(2-3). 639-47. Bardhan, Pranab K. (1984). Land, Labor and Rural Poverty: Essays in Development Economics. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 98103. Beer, George Louis (1962). The Origins of the British Colonial System. London: Kessinger Publishing, p. 72. Blyn, G. (1966). Agricultural Trends in India, 1891-1947: Output, Availability, and Productivity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 136-42. Bose, Sugata (1993). Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal Since 1770. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 97. ____ (1994). Credit, Market and the Agrarian Economy in Colonial India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 173-79. Boserup, E. (1965). The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. New York: Aldine, pp. 332-39. Boyce, James K. (1987). Agrarian Impasse in Bengal: Institutional Constraints to Technological Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 242- 44. Chandra, Bipan (1966). The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, pp. 146-53. Chang, H.-J. (2007). Institutional Change and Economic Development. London: Anthem Press, p. 63. Chaudhuri, B. (1983). ‘Agrarian relations: Eastern India’ in D. Kumar (ed.). The Cambridge Economic History of India Volume II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 186-94. ____ (2008). Peasant history of late pre-colonial and colonial India. Delhi: Pearson Education India. pp. 558-66. ____ (1984). ‘Rural Power Structure and Agricultural Productivity in Eastern India 1757-1947’ in Susanne Rudolph et al. 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Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, pp. 156-63. Nakazato, N. (1994). Agrarian System in Eastern Bengal: 1870-1910. Calcutta: KP Baggchi & Co., p. 211. Naoroji, Dadabhai (1901). Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. Ltd, pp. 214-16. Neale, Walter C. (1962). Economic Change in Rural India: Land Tenure and Reform in Uttar Pradesh, 1800-1955. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 297- 303. North, Douglass C. (2005). Understanding the Process of Economic Change. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 308-13. Patel, G.G. (1957). The land problem of re-organized Bombay State. Bombay: N. M. Tripath Pvt, pp. 263-65. Patel, Surendra J. (1952). Agricultural Labourers in Modern India and Pakistan.Bombay: Current Book House, p. 52. Stein, Burton (1989). Thomas Munro: The Origins of the Colonial State and His Vision of Empire. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 12739. Stokes, E. (1959). The English Utilitarians and India. 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Food Environment and Unhealthy Eating Habits among Adolescents in Tertiary Institutions Adedeji O. A and John U. I Department of Home Economics Education, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, NIGERIA. Abstract: Our food choices are shaped by the complex world in which we live. The physical and social surroundings that influence what we eat make it far too hard to choose healthy foods. Some even call this food environment “toxic” because of the way it corrodes healthy lifestyles and promote obesity. This paper examined the concept of food environment and the different environmental influences on food choice. It further discussed the role of the environment in healthy eating and suggested strategies to enhance healthy eating habits among adolescents in tertiary institutions. Keywords: Food environment, unhealthy eating, habits, adolescents, convenience, fast food, food choice I. Introduction Poor eating habit is a major public health concern among young adults who experience transition into university/college life during which they are exposed to stress and lack of inadequate time for food preparation. Rapid changes in physical growth and psychosocial development have placed these young adults a nutritionally vulnerable group with poor eating habits that fail to meet dietary requirements. Some common unhealthy eating patterns among young adults include meal skipping, eating away from home, snacking and fast food consumption. Environmental factors contribute greatly to the adoption of unhealthy eating habits among tertiary institution students. The mushrooming of shopping malls, convenience stores, vending machines and fast food outlets has created an alarming situation for young adults to practice unhealthy eating habits. University/college students tend to make their own food choices based on cost of food and availability of fast foods. Studies have shown that university/college students fail to meet recommended intake of fruits and vegetables due to frequent snacking habits and higher frequency of fast food consumption [1]. When people are asked why they eat what they eat, the most common response is “I eat what tastes good to me”. Ones sensory responses to the taste, smell, sight and texture of food are major influences on food preference and food choice. So the question is, what are we born with and what is learned? What and how people eat defines to a large extent their health. Obesity and other diet-related chronic diseases are recognized as major public health issues associated with risk for several of the leading causes of death and disability. There is strong interest in the determinant of food selection and the most effective ways to providing food guidance for individuals and population to improve their health and wellbeing. II. The Concept of Food Environment Food environment is a collection of physical, biological and social factors that affect an individual or group of individuals’ eating habit and patterns [2]. Food environment is termed “toxic” to describe unparalled exposure to high-calorie, high-fat, heavily marketed, inexpensive and readily accessible foods. “Toxic,” is a word often used to describe food environment in the United States and, increasingly, in many parts of the world. Even though food itself is usually safe to consume, the world in which most consumers live make choosing healthy food very hard and choosing unhealthy food very easy. It is truly a toxic environment that eats away at healthy lifestyles and promotes obesity. What makes up the food environment is vast and varied, ranging from social factors, physical factors and biological factors. The food environment often lurks silently in the background, going largely unnoticed, but it plays a major role in the food choices people make, even for the most independent-minded consumer. Food environment can be interpreted in many different ways. It is broadly defined to include home, community, and media/information environments [3]. Reference [4] also identified food environment to include food stores, restaurants, schools, and worksites . These four environments differ qualitatively from each other. Food stores and restaurants are often places to which one travels to purchase food and there may or may not be a great deal of choice regarding one’s options. Worksites and schools, on the other hand, are places where individuals spend
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time for other purposes, and that usually also happen to provide food (e.g. vending machines, cafeteria). Employees and students may or may not be able to travel off-site for food or beverages. Food environment can also be categorized as the food store environment (e.g. grocery stores, supermarkets, specialty food stores, farmers’ markets, and food pantries), restaurant food environment (e.g. fast food and fullservice restaurants), school food environment (e.g. cafeterias, vending machines, and snack shops in daycare settings, schools, and/or colleges), and/or worksite food environment (e.g. cafeterias, vending, snack shops) [5]. These categories are not mutually exclusive, as some articles included multiple environments. III. Types of Environmental Influences on Food Choice Different types of environmental influence operate across multiple domains, but are categorized as four types. A. Individual-level factor B. Social environment C. Physical environment D. Macro-environment (A) Individual-Level Factor Individual sensory responses to taste, smell, sight and texture of food are major influences on food choice. Individual-level factors related to food choices and eating behaviours include attitudes, preferences and biological factor. (1) Attitude: In evaluating food acceptance, one must consider the individual attitudes and behaviours towards their preference [6] . Our food choices may be determined by the personal meaning we give to certain foods or practices, such as peppery soups when we are ill or chocolate and ice-cream when we feel self-indulgent. We may also be motivated by how the food will contribute to how we look such as whether it will be fattening or in contrast, good for our complexion. Our food and nutrition-related behaviour are also determined by our attitudes toward them, for example our attitudes toward breastfeeding or certain food safety practices. (2) Preference: Food preferences begin early in life and then change as we interact with parents, friends and peers. Further experiences with different people, places and situations often (but not always) cause us to expand or change our preferences. However, food preferences of individuals have to do with the sensory properties of foods. It can also be subject to variety of factors outside the physiological response, including culture, expectations and previous experience. Research suggests that people’s food preferences and food acceptance patterns are largely learned. Learning in this case means physiological learning or a conditioning that comes from the repeated positive or negative consequences that people experience with food and eating, leading them to liking a food. (3) Biological factor: Human beings appear to be born with unlearned predisposition towards liking things that taste sweet and rejecting things that taste sour or bitter. The liking for salt seems to develop several months after birth. This biological factor contributes to some degree to preference and food intake, particularly in children towards adolescence [7] (B) Social Environment The interaction of social environment with families, parents, friends, peers and others in the community influence food choices through mechanisms such as role modeling, social support and pressure. Social environment and cultural context are no less important than the physical environment. Social influences and cultural practices all influence food choice and dietary behaviours[8]. (1) Home: Family members in the home and the home food environment are important influences on dietary intake, especially for children and adolescents. Several studies have found family resemblance intake of energy foods and key nutrients. Survey and time use diaries show that the amount people spend on food-related activities in the home depends largely on many factors including whether both parents are employed outside the home and the number of children in the home makes it far hard to plan and make choices to healthier diet [9]. Many parents in some homes today claim to be too busy to prepare healthful foods or to cook at all. This is particularly true of low-income families who often work long hours in order to make money or earn a living. For some homes, time constraints may limit personal investment in healthier behaviours, which in-turn may affect the food choices of children in later life. It has also been found that men and women who are married with children have a higher quality diet than single parent homes, probably because they are better able to attend to their own health [10]. (2) Parents: Parents and homemakers play central roles in shaping the dietary habits of household members. Parents additionally serve as role models for eating behaviours, adopt feeding practices that will develop their children’s ability to self-regulate healthful food and transmit nutritious attitude. Parents and caregivers who offer healthy foods in appropriate portion sizes and enjoy the foods themselves are likely to facilitate healthy eating in their children towards adolescence [11].
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(3) Friends and Peers: The food choice of peers and friends can largely influence the choices made by a teenager or an adolescent who live in a social and cultural context and experience social norms and expectations. We feel compelled to subscribe to these norms and expectations from friends and peers [12]. For example, people may feel pressured to eat less-nutritious fast food items in a choice situation with peers in the quest to meet up with social norms and expectations. The food choice and eating patterns of celebrities create social expectations for us all. What others in our community think are appropriate foods to eat in our choice of food may be (C) Physical Environment Physical/built environment include all aspects of the environment that are modified by human-activities such as fast food outlets, convenience stores, schools, workplaces, parks, industrial areas and highways. These builtenvironments are powerful influences on food choices and dietary behaviours through the availability (array of food options) and accessibility (readiness and convenience) of food. What is available in the community influences what is purchased and eaten [13]. Thus, the availability and accessibility of fruits and vegetables at home and school enable their consumption by students/individuals. (1) Fast food outlets: This built environment plays a significant role in shaping the food choice of individuals especially the young adults/youths. To make matters worse, the ubiquity of fast food and junk food both high in calories, sugar, salt and fats. Therefore, eating much fast food has shown to increase caloric intake and the risk of becoming obese. Young people enjoy fast food eating centres because they usually provide a place for socialization. The concept of fast food eating has expanded into food sales in schools. For many students, the day is not complete without observing the “daily ritual” of visiting a fast food joint and most of the fast food restaurants in the cities have begun to open centres within and very close to schools, especially university campuses and colleges. Some meals available for refreshment during celebrations, meetings and conferences are also now being prepared by fast food chains. This has increased the number of times people feed on these foods. Reference [14] reported a survey of 100 undergraduate students where fast food purchases in the UK were mostly impulsive (57%) and a small subset of people routinely eating fast food (20%) . In the US, some researchers have asserted that fast food intake occurs frequently in adolescent age groups stating that up to 75% of adolescents eat fast food at least once a week [15] . Others have reported that adolescents eat food on average between two and three times a week. (2) Convenience store: This also plays a significant role in shaping the food choices of individuals as convenience stores contribute greatly to the “Availability” described as the array of food options, which are present in the food system that are acceptable and affordable. Likewise, “Accessibility” referring to the readiness and convenience of a food, whether the food requires little or no cooking, is packaged in a convenient way so that it can be eaten anywhere or whether it can be stored for some time without spoilage [13] . A number of studies have examined the relationship between food access, dietary intake, and obesity. Although results are not universal, most found that better access to supermarkets is associated with healthier diets and reduced risk of obesity, while greater access to convenience stores is associated with increased risk of obesity [1]. Many studies investigating the reasons why people make their food choice have pointed to convenience. People generally eat or choose what they do because of convenient locations and time constraints [16]. (3) Schools and Workplaces: Food available at or near workplaces also tends to be those that are convenient, low in cost and that sells well. In most schools, food is available and accessible. The majority of competitive foods, junks food or fast food has been found to be high-fat and high-sugar items including snack-chips, pasties and soft drinks. It has been shown that what is available in the school environment affects the food choice and dietary behaviour of students [17]. The limited accessibility of healthful, convenience foods in many settings may narrow good choice and make it difficult to eat healthfully. (D) Macro-Environment Macro-environmental factors such as mass media, marketing and advertising, cultural norms and religious belief play more distal and indirect role but at the same time have a substantial and powerful influence on what people eat. (1) Marketing and Advertising: The current media saturated environment has undergone revolutionary changes in the past two decades, resulting in the availability to individuals and households numerous television channels, radio stations, websites and other emerging communication routes. As a result of this, eating habits have changed drastically and rapidly over the years. Today, the number of overweight or obese children and adults in the population has increased while the number of lifestyle-related deaths have also increased. Consumers today value convenience so highly that they are willing to spend over half of their food budget on meals that require little or no preparation. They regularly eat out, bring home ready-to-eat meals, or have food delivered. This trend is mainly influenced by the media which promotes such behaviours through commercials and popular programs and movies. The media is a major source of information and misinformation on nutritional sources. The media through advertisement promote unhealthy foods rich in sugars, fat and salt as the ideal food choices.
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Marketing and advertising through the media have demonstrated powerful capacity to persuade and lure people to making food choices. The food industry spends billions per year on marketing and advertising their products with much of these aimed at children and youths [18]. Children and youth receive more information about food, nutrition and health from the media than any other source. However, there is evidence that these marketing activities influence food choices of this present generation [19],[20],[21]. (2)Cultural Norms: Culture has been described as the knowledge, traditions, beliefs, values and behavioural patterns that are developed, learned, shared and transmitted by members of a group. Therefore, cultural practices and family of origin have an important impact on food choices and eating practices even in the modern, multiethnic societies like Nigeria, where many different types of cuisine are available [22]. Those from different regions of the country have different practices. For example, for those from southeast of Nigeria, Igbos home style meal can be stock-fish, Ogbono soup with Apku or Gari, while in the southwest, Yorubas place high premium in their delicacy of meat-melon soup with pounded yam or amala. The cultural practices of different ethnic groups, especially at special celebrations and holidays provide occasion to eat culturally or ethnically determined foods and reinforce the importance of those foods. All these considerations influence individuals’ willingness and ability to make changes in their choice of diet. Cultural related health beliefs also influence what we choose to eat. For example, although the concepts of balance and moderation are common among many cultures, individuals may come from cultures in which foods are believed to have hot and cold qualities and must be eaten in such a way as to balance cold and hot body conditions. This cultural belief can have a major influence on food choice. (3) Religious Belief: This factor also plays a powerful role in shaping and influencing the food choice of different religious groups as food is an important part of religious rites, symbols and customs. Ten percent of some religious rules apply to everyday eating, whereas others are concerned with special celebrations [23]. Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism all have distinct dietary laws, but within each religion, different interpretations of these laws give variations in dietary practices. For example, Jewish dietary laws specify the foods that are “fit and proper” or kosher to eat. To be kosher, meat must come from clean animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Fish must have fins and scales. Pork, crustaceans and shell fish and birds of prey are not acceptable. The orthodox law of Judaism prohibits eating meat and milk at the same meal or even preparing or serving them with the same dishes and utensils. Islamic faith prohibits the consumption of pork, flesh of clawed animals, alcohol and other intoxicating drinks. Intoxicating beverages are also prohibited in Buddhism. All these are religious beliefs which have positively and negatively influenced the food choice of individuals. IV. Role of the Environment in Healthy Eating There is growing interest in the role of the environment in promoting or hindering healthy eating. It has been suggested that individual change is more likely to be facilitated and sustained if the environment within which choices are made support healthy food options. Reference [1] emphasized that as with other major public health issues such as smoking reduction, injury prevention and infectious diseases prevention, success at the population level for reducing obesity and diet-related chronic diseases are not likely to be achieved until environmental influences are identified and modified. Diet-related environment and policy interventions are also being advocated at a population level because individual behavioural change strategies are expensive and cannot reach large numbers of people on a cost effective basis. Environmental changes may also have more lasting effect on behavioural change maybe because they are incorporated into structures, systems, policies and sociocultural norms. The overall goal of public health is to give people the best chance to enjoy many years of healthy and active-life. Public health encompasses a population focused and organized effort to help individuals, groups and communities reduce health risks and maintain or improve healthy living as regards to food choices. Improving dietary and lifestyle patterns and reducing obesity will require addressing not only individual behaviour but the environmental context as well as conditions in which people live and make access to healthy foods in low income and disadvantaged communities. Many factors contribute to an individual’s body weight and overall dietary health. These include individual factors, such as demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, education, and preferences for food and so on. Environmental factors also influence body weight and dietary health. Such factors can include access to stores and restaurants, parks and recreation facilities, sidewalks, and the availability of public transportation, and social environmental factors like crime, neighborhood cohesion, and the social and cultural norms around food. Individual factors can explain some differences in who becomes obese or who acquires diabetes, but alone, they cannot account for all the differences in rates of these diseases. The food environment and food store access may help explain differences in diet and health outcomes [24]. Measurement of food environment and its effect on dietary behaviour is a relatively new field of inquiry, and pioneering researchers have been innovative in their development and use of tools to assess these environmental effects. A working group of researchers’ expert in measuring food environment was formed by the National
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Cancer Institute in 2006. This group, consisting of internal National Cancer Institute (NCI) and extramural scientists, identified the need to create a consolidated list of the measures of the food environment. The working group noted that no systematic compilation of measures of the food environment has been completed and that such a compilation would benefit researchers and community groups interested in reviewing or using existing measures. This paper is an initial attempt to identify measures of the food environment used in research and serves as the basis of the discussion of food environmental measures [4]. V. Strategies to Enhance Healthy Eating Habits Among Adolescents in Tertiary Institutions Social affective context is the positive or negative experiences encountered socially while eating a particular food. This can lead to the like or dislike of such food but adolescents should be encouraged to avoid developing food preference as a result of negative previous experience with a particular food, because such food might be beneficial to health. Biologically, human beings appear to be born with unlearned predisposition towards liking things that taste sweet and rejecting things that taste sour or bitter but a study by (4 , reported that high sugary food intake could make students forgetful. Therefore, adolescents should be advised to reduce their sugary food intake which is more beneficial to the brain activities. Parents and caregivers as a matter of fact play central roles in shaping the dietary habit of household members. Adolescents should emulate healthful food choice offered to them at home and make the same food choice whenever they are away from home. As a result of ubiquity of fast food and junk food outlets, adolescents are advised to lower the intake of fast food and junk food as both are high in calories, sugar, salt and fat and embrace the consumption of balanced and varied diet as well as fruits and vegetables in quest of food choice to be mentally sound. In addition, adolescents should avoid subscribing to friends and peer pressure as a result of social norms and expectations. For example, some students feel pressured to eat less-nutritious fast food rather than making a wise food choice [14]. Above all, the healthy food choice equation for adolescents should be: Food choice + Moderation + Nutrition = Health. VI. Conclusion Environment plays a significant role in shaping the food choice of adolescents. Diet and nutrition along with lifestyle changes are recognized as the principal environmental components affecting a wide range of diseases of public health importance in the developing countries. While many adolescents have been obsessed about weight and body shape, not so many have taken time to watch their dietary patterns. This is in view of the fact that more and more adolescents are getting addicted to the fast food syndrome, coupled with the avalanche of fast food restaurants that are springing up in the cities. Very few have paid attention to the health implications of these food outlets. However, making the right choice of food will reduce the risk of obesity and other related chronic diseases and as well help to remain healthy with active brain while on campus.
VII. Recommendations There is need for enlightenment on health consequences of unhealthy eating habits and poor choice of food by adolescents as a result of mushrooms of shopping malls, convenient stores and fast food outlets. The environment within which food choices are made should be tailored towards the support of healthy food options. The media should be mandated to promote healthy food choice and information as it is a major source of information and misinformation on nutritional issues as well as other issues of life. Valid and reliable measures of food environment are required in order to assess any effect of food environment on individual dietary behaviour. These measures may form the foundation of research that may inform obesity-related policy. VIII. References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
N.I. Larson, M.T. Story and M.C. J (2009). A review of environmental influences on food choices. Annals of Behavioural Medicine. (38): United States. Jones and Bartlett Publisher Ltd, pp 56–73. Brownell, K.D. & Frieden, T.R. (2009). Ounces of prevention: the public policy case for taxes on sugared beverages. Nutrition Medicine. United State: Waveland Press. pp 360-805. Sallies, J.F & Glanz, K. (2009). Physical activity and food environment: solutions to the obesity epidemic. Milbank Quarterly 87(1): Jones and Bartlett Publishers; U.S. pp 123-154. Lytle, L.A. (2009). Measuring the food environment: state of the science. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 36(4): Sudbury, United State. Jones Publishers pp 134-144. Harrison, M.S; Coyne, T & Lee, A.J. (2007). The increasing cost of the basic foods required to promote health in Queensland. Medicine Journal. (186):U.S. Waveland Press. pp 9-14 Rolls, B. (2000). Sensory specific satiety and variety in the meal: The science, culture, business and art of eating. London. Davison Publishers. pp 10-16.
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Pepino, M.Y& Mennella, J.A. (2005). Factors contributing to individual differences in sucrose preference. Chemical senses. Sudbury, United State. Jones Publishers. pp 319-320. Rozin, P. (1996). Sociocultural influences on human food selection. Why we eat what we eat: The psychology of eating, edited by Washington D.C, American Psychological Association Publishers. Sudbury. pp 405-409. Cutler, D.M, & Glaeser, E.L. (2003). Why have Americans become more obese? Harvard Institute of Economic Research, Harvard University Press. Macino, L; Lin, B.H & Ballenger, N. (2004). The role of economics in eating choices and weight outcomes. Agricultural information bulletin No 791. Washington, D.C: U.S Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service. Waveland Press, U.S. Ventura, N & Birch, L. (2008). Does parenting affect children’s eating and weight status? International Journal of Behaviour, Nutrition and Physical Activities (5): Napoli, Italy. Craig publishing company. pp15. Devine, C.M; Connors, M.M; Sobal, J. & Bisogin, C.A. (2003). Sandwiching it in: spillover of work onto food choices and family roles in low and moderate income urban households. Journal of Social science medicine. 56(3).Dublin: Francis Publisher. pp 617-630. Gallo, E.A, (1998). The food marketing system in 1996. In Agricultural Bulletin No A1B743, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Jones and Bartlett Publishers; Massachusetts, United State. Schroder, A & Mc Eachern, F (2005). Fast food consumption among adolescents. United Kingdom: Carrick Publishing Ltd. Pp 265-270. French, S. Harnack, L. Toomey, T. & Hannan P, (2007). Association between body weight, physical activity and food choices among metropolitan transit workers. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition. (4) Dublin: Francis Publisher. pp 5253. Food Week, (2008). Report of a survey conducted by Independent Grocers of Australia (IGA) http://www.foodweek2008/independentgroccerofaustralia.net Briefel, S. & Gleason, P.M. (2009). School food environments and practices affect dietary behaviour of U.S public school children. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 109(2).Massachusetts, United State: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp 91107 Elitzak, H. (2001). Food marketing costs at a glance. Journal of Food Review 24(3).University Park: Pennsylvania state University press. pp 47-48. Taras, H.M; Zive P.R; Nader, C.C; Berrym, T & Boyd, C. (2000). Television advertising and classes of food products consumed in pediatric population. Journal of Advertising (19). Kessington: Gatewood Press Inc. pp 487-494. Robinson, T.N. (2001). Dietary patterns and media influence. New York : Mc Graw-Hill Books Press. Pp 143-147. Institute of medicine (2006). http://www.instituteofmedicine2006/foodadvertisement/coc Gillman, M.W; Rifas-Shiman, S.L & Frazier, A.L. (2000). Family dinner and diet quality among older children and adolescents. Archives of Family Medicine 9(3). Munich: publishing company. pp 235-240. Friedman, C.A. (2008). Religion consideration on dietary pattern: food and religion. New York, Kessington Gatewood Press Inc. pp 35-41. Diez-Roux, A. (2009). The local food environment and health: Presented at the workshop on the Public Health Effects of Food Deserts, Washington, D.C. Jones and Bartlett Publishers; United State.
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
PEDAGOGICAL CONCEPT OF JALĀL AD-DĪN RUMI’S SPIRITUAL HERITAGE Izbullaeva Gulchehra Valerievna The Senior Science Fellow Researcher, Bukhara State University, Bukhara, UZBEKISTAN Abstract: The article deals with pedagogical bases of study in the personality and scientific heritage of Jalāl ad-dīn Rumi (1207-1273), his philosophical views, their importance in the development of education and upbringing and the problems of a spiritual and moral upbringing of a person in his work «Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī». Scientific ally based information on the utilization the great thinker’s views in the educational systemizes sop resented in this article. Keywords: body, mind, spirit, soul, faith, will, conscience. The future of a society is closely connected with the development of people, their upbringing and socialization. This process has found its reflection in the works of scholars throughout centuries. Jalāl ad-dīn Rumi, the scholar and great thinker who lived in XIII century studies the person through his scientific heritage and views that possess deep spiritual logic. His saying “I was raw, I became mature, I burned” defines the human formation, development and perfection. In his works, the scholar explains that a human being is formed by the harmony of a body, intellect and spirit. In his view Rumi reflects that the spirit is closely connected with soul. Contemplating on the human being the poet says: “The body resembles a hotel because the idea visists it”[3] and this is the primary source of the formation of a person. “The body resembles a beehive because it is full of beeswax and honey”[4] and it indicates that a person is well-bred. “The body is like a bathhouse because there is the heat of spirit, intellect and lust”. [3] This heat does not come into sight without the external influence of things and phenomena and it displays the socialization of a person. When the poet contemplates over the intellect, he points out that the intellect must always be attuned and it is necessary to speak in correspondence with one’s intellect. Besides a quantitative change in the life of a person (body and intellect) the qualitative change is also of a great significance. The changes in the quality are characterized by spiritual upbringing, the purity of soul and conscience. In scientific books it is written that “The spirit is a notion that denotes the reflection of objective reality” and reflecting the reality is peculiar not only to a person but also to animals, plants, even to inorganic world. In Rumi’s work «Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī» we can observe such notions as “the spirit of wind”, “ruhi mahjub”, “ruhi asliy”, “ruhi qudsiy”, “ruhi najot”, “ruhi nur”. Of course, when we define the word spirit we can understand by it the mood that reflects the inner state of a person, psychological experience, a person’s inner world from pedagogical point of view, spiritual appearance, thoughts, aims and outlook. In Rumi’s works the spirit (soul) is a symbol of vigor, purity, perfection and reaching excellence. [5] The soul becomes “vujudi ma’naviy”, [3] the symbol of reaching spiritual perfection if it can handle lust, sexual desire, ignorance and evil intentions. In Rumi’s teachings the changes in the quantitative and qualitative formation of a person is described as following: -A body grows old after maturity, intellect becomes shallow but the spirit is always alive; [3] -The body is the apparel of soul, if the body is not taken care of the spirit will not develop; -None of the human feelings can progress without an intellect and soul; -The spirit and soul control the body; [3] The scholar is concerned about the spiritual upbringing in the process of human development. He divides the healers who treat (educate) people into two types: the body healer and the soul healer. A person reaches physical perfection through physical exercise that is to say physical upbringing in the process of physiological changes. Spiritual upbringing develops a human’s attention, memory, reasoning, the harmony of his word and speech and helps him to reach perfection. The poet states that in the process of spiritual upbringing “a word” and “a deed” must be taken in as healing water. Each individual manifests himself as a person differently. Each person differs from another by his peculiar features, interests, abilities, intellectual capacity, needs and his attitude towards work. These are peculiar features of each person and at the certain stage when these
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features develop a human manifest himself as a person who has reached perfection. So the person is formed in the process of social relations and it is the process of the quantitative and qualitative changes. In the process of human formation the development of personal features and qualities play an important role. In order to determine the qualities of a person properly it is efficient to study them in the process of various relations. In the views of the scholar this process is defined by such aspects that influence on the person’s development as a mother’s womb, a family, a teacher and a community. When the scholar studies humans he divides them into three groups. The first group includes people who are faithful and knowledgeable. Rumi calls them angels; The second group: the greedy, selfish and insatiable people. The poet calls them animals; The third group: suspicious people. They are called by Rumi as half a person and half a jackass. In Rumi’s works the formation of an individual as a person, his socialization in society, the types of interpersonal competence and the correlation between various things and phenomena are described. The poet presents the example of the activity of a hero, a scribe and a wise man as the aspect that influences on the spiritual and moral upbringing of a person and develops it. It has been narrated that the heroes would sit to the right of the kings because they are closer to their heart. The scribes would sit to the right of the king because the letters are written with the right hand. The wise men and sages would sit facing the king because they are considered to be the mirror of a soul. We can realize from this idea that bringing up young generation as intelligent, perfect and highly spiritual people is the criterion of perfection. In order to fulfill the criteria of an activity the poet relies on the method of oral education and influences on his students by means of a conversation and using a model. Rumi’s methods of influencing are in the form of demand, encouragement and punishment. Rumi emphasized that the demand has to be bilateral, and the relationship must be organized in the form of a subject and subject. You must always put the demand on the first place, because it is the guide that will lead you. [3] The poet states: “Each educated person understands things as much as he is capable of and each person who serves will serve as much as he is able to. Taking this into consideration, as a result of organizing education and upbringing from simple to complex a person who realizes his essence is brought up. In Rumi’s opinion the person who has reached selfrealization is first of all “the person with intellect and healthy sense whose spirit took control of his body”. The poet sees the moral outlook of a person in his faith, tolerance, will, in the upbringing of his soul and conscience. In his works the poet sings the praises to the purity of soul, to its well-being, to its being devoid of arrogance and racism, patience, aliveness, propriety in faith, courage, determination, trust, vigilance, brotherhood, tolerance, generosity and friendliness between people and nations. The scholar states: “The faith is the establishment of the spirit in the soul”. The scholar writes about the training of the personal will stating that “The intellect brightens the road to a strong will”. In order to develop the strong will it is necessary to manage one’s lust, not to have a desire for wealth, to avoid arrogance and egotism. Rumi considers such qualities as not envying other people’s achievements, patience, contentment, bravery, hard work, not feeling sorry for the things that have passed, not to believe in lies, use one’s intelligence, avoiding hurting other people’s souls. He puts forward such ideas as purifying one’s soul, keeping it clean, follow one’s soul before doing something, honesty, compassion, generosity, feeling regret or sorrow and repentance. Rumi considers that if a person is brought up according to these criteria the degree of the moral development of the person will be seen through the following qualities: cognizance, pure-heartedness, compassion, benevolence, leadership, victory over ideas and darkness, judiciousness, friendship, pleasantness, oratory, gentleness, wisdom, intellect, learnedness, broad-mindedness, activeness, having a personal opinion, controlling one’s lust and desire, modesty and the realization of the essence of things and phenomena. Here we can bring the principles of pedagogical conception related to the spiritual and moral upbringing: 1. The principle of getting students interested in the process of education; 2. Raising the index of acquisition; 3. Raising the index of moral norms; 4. Enrichment of spiritual notions; 5. Increasing social activeness; 6. In the process of education the organization of self realization as an innovative approach serves to bring up the students as highly spiritual personnel who can meet the present day demands. In conclusion we can underline that the essence of Jalāl ad-dīn Rumi’s views on spiritual and moral upbringing disclose the reflections about the world and human structure, life, society, mysteries of the world, faith and conscience with the help of meaningful and profound wise sayings and tales . They are of a great theoretical and practical importance, because: First of all, he honors the human being defining the fact that it is important for the person to develop in the harmony with his body and soul, to grow and become perfect. Rumi raises the human to a high status and prepares an adequate foundament for his moral development.
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Secondly, by expressing the harmony between the intellect and soul he emphasizes the necessity to ebolish discrimination between nations and people (humiliation, insulting, limitation of rights) and puts forward cultural competence through the fact that people should live in friendhip. Thirdly, by describing the spiritual and moral outlook of a person and through the ways of strengthening national values and the values common to all mankind Rumi thoroughly defines the criteria of spiritual and moral upbringing and the aspects of their fulfilment. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
Karimov, Islom Abduganievich. Yuksak ma’naviyat – engilmas kuch. – T.: “Ma’naviyat”, 2011. – 176 b. Bulatov S.S. Ustoz va shogird odobi. – T.: Nizomiy nomidagi TDPU nashriyoti, 2012. – 17 b. Rumiy Jaloliddin. Masnaviyi ma’naviy // J.Kamol tarj. – T.: “Meriyus” HHMK, 2010. – 846 b. Rumiy Jaloliddin. Ichindagi ichindadur: Falsafiy-ma’rifiy nashr /Ulugbek Hamdam tarj. – T.: Yangi asr avlodi, 2003.- 200 b. – (127-bet) Koshifiy Husayn Voiz. Futuvvatnomai sultoniy; Ahloqi muҳsiniy. Nashrga tayyorlovchilar M.Aminov, F.Hasanov. – T.: “O’zbekiston milliy entsiklopediyasi” Davlat ilmiy nashriyoti, 2011. – 376 b.
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)
A Comparative Study of Work Family Conflict among Employees in Relation to Demographic Factors, Personal Factors and Work Related Factors 1
Dr. Geeta Scahdeva, 2Dr. Mahabir Narwal Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra-136119, Haryana, INDIA 2 Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136119, Haryana, INDIA 1
Abstract: The question of how to strike a balance between work and life is attracting increasing attention at both the national and international level (Crompton & Lyonette, 2006.) This research article studies the work-family conflict among the employees working in private institutions are incorporated. By using the primary data, investigators tend to find out the extent of demographic factors (age, gender, marital status & education), work related factors (work load stress, job security, & schedule flexibility) and personal factors (life satisfaction, familial support &work-family balance) influence on work-family conflict. Descriptive & ANOVA with post hoc test was adopted for analyzing the differences in all dimensions of work family conflict (work load stress, job security, schedule flexibility, life satisfaction familial support and work family balance) and work family conflict itself on the basis of age, sex, education and marital status. Multiple regression analysis with backward method was done to predict the value of all independent variables (dimensions of work family conflict) for the dependent variable (work family conflict). From the discussions of the result and findings it was observed that out of all independent factors job security, schedule flexibility and work family balance are the most important factors for the present study. Keywords: Work Family Conflict, Work Load Stress, Job Security, Schedule Flexibility, Life Satisfaction, Familial Support, Work Family Balance and Demographic Factors. I. Introduction Work and family are innermost mechanism in people’s lives and therefore demand a great deal of time and energy spent managing several responsibilities. Research in the area of work and family originates from a diversity of disciplines (i.e., sociology, psychology, occupational health, business management, and gender and family studies (Geurts & Demerouti, 2003). Traditionally work and family domains were considered separate and thus analyzed individually, but research has established that these two domains are actually highly interrelated. Balancing plentiful roles can enhance the interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict experienced by women and men who parallel maintain professional and personal responsibilities. The beginning of research on the work-home interface can be traced back to the work of Renshaw (1976) who stated that both work and home lives claim time and energy. Work is an important basis of financial security and status, whereas the home and family function as a source of support and intimacy. As work and home/family are not independent constructs (Kanter, 1977), balancing work and home lives can be difficult and may lead to conflict between the two domains. Since the essential research by Pleck (1977) it has been accepted that the work and home domains influence each other both positively and negatively: time, energy, stress, and behaviors spill over between the two domains (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Given the considerable quantity of time individuals spend working and the holding of dual-career families, research on the effects of increased workload on various indicators of employee well-being, including workfamily balance, has become increasingly important .According to Greenhaus & Beutell (1985), work-family conflict occurs when the pressures from the work and family domains are mutually inequitable. According to Netemeyer et al. (1996) there are two different forms of work-family conflict: work-to-family and family-to-work conflict. Work-to-family conflict is “interrole conflict in which the general demands of time devoted to, and strain created by the job, interfere with performing family-related responsibilities”. Family-towork conflict refers to the reverse. Time demands and psychological strain created by employees’ efforts devoted to family activities interfere with performing work responsibilities. Work-family conflict and family-work conflict are defined as “forms of friction in which role pressures from work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respects” (Cinamon & Rich, 2002). Work-family conflict is described as conflict that occurs due to work responsibilities interfering with family responsibilities;
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family-work conflict is defined as conflict that occurs due to family responsibilities interfering with work responsibilities. Besides, work and family roles can have a meaningful impact on psychological wellbeing and satisfaction (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; Schwartzberg & Dytell, 1996). A great deal of the research on work-family conflict was determined by the increase in dual career and single working parents in today’s workforce (Ford et al., 2007). This indicates that childcare is one of the largest causes of conflict between work and family roles (Voydanoff, 1988). The present study investigates the work-family conflict issues among private institutes’ teachers. The study concentrates on how work factors, family factors, and personal factors influence work-family conflict, job satisfaction, and life satisfaction of teachers. II. Review of Literature Work-family conflict means a conflict of work and family interrelated roles. There are variety of factors which affect work to family conflict and family to work conflict. Demographic factor like age is an antecedent of work family conflict. According to Grzywacz and Marks (2000) younger men are more prone to work-to family conflict and family-to-work conflict than older men. Further Batt, Rosemary and Valcour, P. Monique (2001) observed that there is a significant correlation between age and work-to-family conflict. But according to Frone et al. (1997a) there is not any significant associations between age and work-to family conflict or family-to work conflict. So, there are mix findings between age and work family conflict. Pleck (1977) reported that men may hold on to the socially defined role of a “provider” and therefore may be more likely to experience work-to-family conflict. Conversely, women may be more likely to manage the primary responsibilities of home and family responsibilities along with work responsibilities. Therefore women may be more likely to experience family-to work conflict. Though, Pleck’s assertions have not been confirmed with the research literature (Eagle et al.,1997 and Frone et al., 1992b). Many studies have been conducted between familial support and work family conflict. Like Carlson and Perrewe (1999) found that family support was negatively associated with work-family conflict. On the other hand, Leiter and Durup (1996) found conflict with family members to be a predictor of work-to-family conflict over time. Also time spent on family activities has been found to be positively related to family-to-work conflict (Gutek et al., 1991). Particularly, hours used for family and chores is positively related to family-to-work conflict and hours spent at one’s place of employment is positively related to work-to-family conflict (Frone et al., 1997; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000; Gutekey al., 1991and Netemeyer et al., 1996). Voydanoff (1988) found that job stressors and work demands are the strongest predictors of work-to-family conflict. Role demands take part a vital role in infuriating work family conflict. Work role characteristics connected with work demands refer primarily to pressures arising from excessive workload and time pressures. A considerable amount of research showed that work demands such as number of hours worked, workload and shift work were positively and strongly associated with WFC (Higgins et al., 2000; Higgins and Duxbury, 1992; Voydanoff, 1988). Another important factor which has a great significance in work family conflict is job security. Job security is negatively associated with both work-family conflict. According to Batt et al. (2001) high job security tend to report lower levels of conflict. Schedule flexibility is a boundary-spanning resource that helps workers achieve both their work and family responsibilities (Hill et al., 2008a; Voydanoff, 2004). Schedule flexibility is a work arrangement whereby employees are allowed to decide the time of day they start and stop their job-related work, usually around a band of core hours where each employee must be present (Baltes et al., 1999).Schedule flexibility therefore creates the chance to reduce work-family conflict, encourage work-family enrichment and improve functioning and performance at work and home. Flexible work arrangements fundamentally refer to purposeful workplace alternatives, formal or informal, that provide workers with discretion over when, where, and how long they work (Hill et al., 2008a; Lewis, 2003). III. Objectives 1. To study the differences in all independent variables of work family conflict ( work load stress, job security, life satisfaction, schedule flexibility, familial support and work family balance) on the basis of age, sex, education and marital status. 2. To study the differences in work family conflict (dependent variable) on the basis of age, sex, education and marital status. 3. To examine the predictive value of work load stress, job security, life satisfaction, schedule flexibility, familial support and work family balance for work family conflict. IV. Method A. Sampling Plan A sample of 120 respondents was drawn from employees of private educational institution working at different levels in their respective organizations situated in Haryana (India). The participation of the employees was voluntary. The sample was drawn using convenient sampling procedure. The age of the respondents ranged
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between 23-45 years. Minimum educational qualification of the respondents was graduate. The data was collected with the help of questionnaire based survey. B. Measures Scores for all variables (apart from demographic variables) range from 1 to 5, with high scores reflecting higher levels of each variable. 1) Demographics: Demographic information collected from participants include age, gender, education and marital status. 2) Work load stress: Here the aspect to be studied was to measure stress related with over work load. With the help of review of literature 4 items were extracted. All the items were found positive and scored on five point scale. High score indicates high work load stress. 3) Job security: Perception of the employees towards job security was measured by 4 items collected from literature. The responses for scaled items were rated on a five point scale (1 to 5). All items were found positive. 4) Life satisfaction: It was measured using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985). The scale was developed to assess an individual’s overall satisfaction with life. Respondents were asked to indicate their responses on a 5-point scale ranging from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree.” Higher scores indicate greater life satisfaction. 5) Schedule flexibility: It was assessed using 3 items adopted from Smith, Tiffany N. (2010). Responses were measured on likert scale indicating 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). A higher score represents high schedule flexibility. One item was found negative so in this reverse scoring was adopted. 6) Family support: It was assessed using 5 items from the 44-items Family Support Inventory (King, Mattimore, King, & Adams, 1995). The responses for each of the 5 items are rated on a Likert-type 5- point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Two items were found negative so accordingly were coded reversely. 7) Work family balance scale: It was examined using a 7-item scale. The items were extracted from literature.6 items were positive and 1 item was found negative. Responses were measured on likert scale indicating 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). A higher score represents high schedule flexibility. One item was found negative so in this reverse scoring was adopted. 8) Work-family conflict: It was measured using an 8-item negative spillover scale developed by Grzywacz and Marks (2000). Responses were measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 strongly agree). V. Results To study the differences in work family conflict & its dimensions on the basis of age. Sex, education and marital status the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied. 1) Impact of age on Work Related Factors (work load stress, job security and schedule flexibility), Personal Factors (life satisfaction, familial support and work family balance) and Work Family Conflict. Table-1 Variables Work load stress
Job security
Schedule flexibility
Life Satisfaction
Familial Support
Age Below 25
Mean 11.10
S.D. 3.41
25-35
13.04
3.08
35-45
12.10
4.63
Above 45 Below 25
12.00 2.97
1.41 1.05
25-35
3.60
1.01
35-45
2.30
.94
Above 45 Below 25
2.00 9.14
1.41 2.11
25-35
9.15
1.90
35-45
9.70
3.09
Above 45 Below 25
12.50 15.45
2.12 3.23
25-35
16.73
3.54
35-45
18.20
4.18
Above 45 Below 25
19.00 19.86
4.24 2.77
25-35
20.14
3.25
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F
Sig.
2.48
.064
7.60
.000
1.88
.137
2.04
.111
.119
.949
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Work Balance
Family
Work Conflict
Family
35-45
20.40
1.83
Above 45 Below 25
19.50 25.55
4.95 2.62
25-35
26.55
3.95
35-45
29.90
3.95
Above 45 Below 25
30.00 20.48
7.07 3.86
25-35
20.99
5.86
35-45
16.30
5.75
Above 45
16.50
7.77
3.95
.010
2.52
.061
The result of ANOVA highlight that on the basis of age, job security (p=.000) and work family balance (p=.010) were found significant. Further to determine which category of age was more significant Tukey post-hoc was used which (table-2) revealed that perception of job security was lower for the teachers who were in the age group of 25-35 (3.60±1.01, p=.025) as compared to < 25 (2.97±1.05) because the measure of Job security was scored by using scoring procedure i.e. higher the score, lower is the job security. Significant difference was also found between the age group of 25-35 and 35-45. In this case job security was lower for the age group of 25-35 (3.60±1.01, p=.001) in comparison to the age group of 35-45 (2.30±.94). Further results states that for work family balance was statistically significant difference was found between the age group of < 25 and 35-45 age group. Work family balance was higher for the age group of 35-35 (29.90±3.95, p=0.10) as compared to < 25 (25.55±2.62). Significant difference was also found between the age group of 25-35 and 35-45. In this case work family balance was higher for the age group of 35-45 (29.90±3.95, p=.041) in comparison to the age group of 25-35 (26.55±3.95). Further on the basis of age overall work family conflict was found non significant (p=.061). Table-2: Multiple Comparisons on the basis of age Tukey HSD Dependent Variable
Job Security
Work family balance
(I) Age
(J) Age
Below 25
25-35 35-45 Above 45 25-35 Below 25 35-45 Above 45 dimension2 35-45 Below 25 35-35 Above 45 Above Below 25 45 25-35 35-45 Below 25-35 25 35-45 Above 45 25-35 Below 25 35-45 Above 45 dimension2 35-45 Below 25 35-35 Above 45 Above Below 25 45 25-35 35-45
Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error -.637* .222 .666 .374 .966 .746 .637* .222 1.303* .343 1.603 .731 -.666 .374 -1.303* .343 .300 .790 -.966 .746 -1.603 .731 -.300 .790 -1.000 .808 -4.348* 1.362 -4.448 2.716 1.000 .808 -3.349* 1.248 -3.449 2.661 4.348* 1.362 3.349* 1.248 -.100 2.878 4.448 2.716 3.449 2.661 .100 2.878
95% Confidence Interval Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound -1.22 -.06 .025 .289 -.31 1.64 .568 -.98 2.91 .06 1.22 .025 .41 2.20 .001 .131 -.30 3.51 .289 -1.64 .31 -2.20 -.41 .001 .981 -1.76 2.36 .568 -2.91 .98 .131 -3.51 .30 .981 -2.36 1.76 .605 -3.11 1.11 -7.90 -.80 .010 .362 -11.53 2.63 .605 -1.11 3.11 -6.60 -.10 .041 .567 -10.38 3.49 .80 7.90 .010 .10 6.60 .041 1.000 -7.60 7.40 .362 -2.63 11.53 .567 -3.49 10.38 1.000 -7.40 7.60
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level 2)
Impact of Gender on Work Related Factors, Personal Factors and Work Family Conflict Table-3
Variables Work load stress
Sex Male
Mean 12.34
S.D. 3.17
Female
12.55
3.48
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Sig.
.103
.749
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Schedule flexibility Life Satisfaction
Familial Support
Work Balance
Family
Work Conflict
Family
Male
3.30
1.00
Female
3.32
1.16
Male
9.75
1.93
Female Male
8.96 16.73
2.14 4.36
Female
16.49
3.06
Male
19.89
2.96
Female
20.20
3.08
Male
26.66
3.93
Female
26.64
3.83
Female
26.64
5.86
Male
19.80
6.39
Female
20.75
.014
.907
4.04
.047
.117
.733
.294
.589
.001
.979
.810
.370
5.02
On the basis of gender only schedule flexibility was found significant (p=.04). Schedule flexibility was higher for male teachers (9.75±1.93) as compared to female teachers (8.96±2.14) indicating thereby that women have more flexibility in work. Further on the basis of gender overall work family conflict was found non significant (p=.37). 3)
Impact of Education on Work Related Factors, Personal Factors and Work Family Conflict Table-4
Variables Work load stress
Job security
Schedule flexibility
Life Satisfaction
Familial Support
Work Family Balance
Work Family Conflict
Education Graduation
Mean 12.50
S.D. 2.73
Post Graduation
12.35
3.02
Professional
12.52
3.65
Graduation
2.93
.730
Post Graduation
3.65
1.04
Professional
3.23
1.16
Graduation
10.64
1.94
Post Graduation
9.15
1.50
Professional
9.03
2.28
Graduation
19.29
4.46
Post Graduation
15.12
3.44
Professional
16.75
3.13
Graduation
20.79
2.80
Post Graduation
19.47
3.58
Professional
20.24
2.77
Graduation
28.57
3.63
Post Graduation
25.50
4.29
Professional
26.82
3.53
Graduation
15.36
6.09
Post Graduation
21.12
4.58
Professional
21.04
5.43
F
Sig.
.029
.972
2.17
.071
3.69
.028
7.68
.001
1.16
.316
3.46
.035
7.19
.001
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level The results revealed that from all the dimensions schedule flexibility (p=.028), life satisfaction (p=.001) and
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work family balance (p=.035) were found significant. For schedule flexibility post Hoc results further states that statistically significant difference (p=.022) was found between graduate and professional employees. Schedule flexibility was higher for graduate employees (10.64±1.94,p=.022) as compared to professional employees (9.03±2.28). For life satisfaction results revealed (table-5) that it was higher for employees who are graduate (19.29±4.46) and professional (16.75±3.13, p=.032) as compared to post graduate employees(15.12±3.44, p=.001). Work family balance was statistically different for graduate and post graduate employees (p=.031). It was higher for graduate employees (28.57±3.63, p=.031) as compared to post graduate employees (25.50±4.29). Further on the basis of education overall work family conflict was found significant (p=.001). Tukey post-hoc results revealed that employees who are post graduate (21.12±4.58, p=.002) and professional (21.04±5.43, p=.001) have more work family conflict with lives as compared to graduate employees (15.36±6.09). Table-5 Multiple Comparisons Tukey HSD Dependent Variable
Life Satisfaction
(I) Education
(J) Education
Graduation P.G
2
Professional Schedule flexibility
Graduation
3 n3
P.G.
d
Professional Work family balance
d
Graduation
P.G Professional Graduation Professional Graduation P.G. P.G. Professional Graduation Professional Graduation P.G. P.G. Professional Graduation
P.G.
Professional Graduation D P.G.
Professional
Mean 95% Confidence Interval Difference (IJ) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound 4.168* 1.078 1.61 6.73 .001 2.539* .993 .18 4.90 .032 -4.168* 1.078 -6.73 -1.61 .001 -1.629 .708 .060 -3.31 .05 -2.539* .993 -4.90 -.18 .032 1.629 .708 .060 -.05 3.31 1.496 .651 .060 -.05 3.04 1.615* .599 .19 3.04 .022 -1.496 .651 .060 -3.04 .05 .119 .428 .958 -.90 1.13 -1.615* .599 -3.04 -.19 .022 -.119 .428 .958 -1.13 .90 3.071* 1.199 .23 5.92 .031 1.755 1.104 .254 -.87 4.37 -3.071* -1.317
1.199 .787
.031 .220
-5.92 -3.19
-.23 .55
-1.755 1.317
1.104 .787
.254 .220
-4.37 -.55
.87 3.19
-5.761* -5.685*
1.680 1.547
.002 .001
-9.75 -9.36
-1.77 -2.01
P.G.
5.761* .075
1.680 1.104
.002 .997
1.77 -2.54
9.75 2.70
Professi
5.685* -.075
1.547 1.104
.001 .997
2.01 -2.70
9.36 2.54
Work family conflict P.G.
Graduat ion Professional
Graduation Professional
Graduation Onal P.G. *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
4)
Impact of Marital status on Work Related Factors, Personal Factors and Work Family Conflict Table-6
Variables Work load stress
Job security
Schedule flexibility
Life Satisfaction
Sex Married
Mean 12.63
S.D. 3.19
Unmarried
12.34
3.51
Married
3.35
1.16
Unmarried
3.28
1.05
Married
9.44
2.09
Unmarried
9.09
2.09
Married
16.93
3.46
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F
Sig.
.220
.640
.135
.714
.831
.364
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16.29
3.67
Familial Support
Work Balance
Married
20.39
2.41
Unmarried
19.83
3.46
Married
27.41
3.59
Unmarried
26.02
3.97
Married
20.09
5.21
Unmarried
20.65
5.86
Family
Work Conflict
Family
.922
.339
.997
.320
3.947
.049
.290
.591
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level On the basis of marital status from all the dimensions only work-family balance was found significant (p=.04). Further results reveal that married teachers have more capacity to balance their work as well as family as compared to unmarried teachers. Further with context of maritastatus overall work family conflict was found non significant (p= 0.59). 5) Impact of work related factors (work load stress, job security and schedule flexibility) and Personal factors (life satisfaction, familial support and work family balance) on work family conflict In light of the other objective researchers have attempted to explain the impact of six independent variables on work family conflict through the statistical technique of Regression analysis. Multiple regression with backward method is used for demonstrating the impact of all six predictors on WFC. In Backward Regression Method, first of all six predictors are entered at once and then those variables with significance levels below the default criterion of 0.1 are removed. Model here refers to steps of regression equations. Table-7 reports the values of the regression coefficients (both standardised and unstandardised) and measures the probability that whether a linear relationship exists between each predictor variable and the Dependent Variable (DV). In the regression tables ‘B’ is the slope of the line. ‘S.E.(B)’ is the standard error of B. ‘Beta’ is the standardized regression coefficient. ‘Sig. (p)’ is the significance level for the test of the null hypothesis that the value of the coefficient is zero in the population. The same is discussed in the following texts. Regression line of WFC on the six predictors as perceived by teachers is: Y= b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + b4x4 + b5x5+ b6x6 Y(work family conflict)= b0 + b1(work load stress) + b2(job security) + b3(schedule flexibility) + b4(life satisfaction) + b5(familial support) + b6(work family balance)
Table-7 Results of Regression Analysis for Perceived Organisational Performance Model 1 Variable
B
SE
Constant 23.088 4.366
β
Model 2 Sig.(p) B .000
SE
β
23.645 4.057
Model 3 Sig.(p) B .000
SE
24.653 3.989
β
Model 4 Sig.(p) B .000
SE
24.013
3.989
β
Sig.(p) .000
WLS
.191
.148
.116 .199
.187
.147
.113 .206
JS
1.674 .465
.332 .000
1.703
.456
.338 .000
1.931
.420
.383 .000
1.902
.422
.377
.000
SF
.546
.235
.206 .022
.546
.234
.206 .021
.561
.234
.211 .018
-507
.233
.191
.031
LS
-.261
.149
-.168 .082
-.269
.146
-.176 .069
-.211
.139
-.136 .133
FS
.059
.167
.032 .724
WFB
-.470
.157
-.326 .003
-.443
.136
-.307 .001
-.463
.136
-.321 .001
-.548
.124
-.380 .000
R2
.320
.319
.309
.295
Adj. R2
.283
.289
.285
.277
F
8.765
10.575
12.746
16.051
120
120
120
∆R
2
∆F N *
120 **
***
p<.05, p<.01, p<.001 These Statistics reflect the variance accounted for when regression is performed with the remaining variables respectively in each step after the exclusion of the non-significant variable in the next step. a
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Results interpreted that r2 is .32 when all the six predictors are included in Step 1.This means that 32 percent of the variance in WFC is associated with changes in the variables of demographic factors (age, gender, marital status & education), work related factors (work load stress, job security &schedule flexibility) and personal factors (life satisfaction, familial support & work family balance) for this sample. The estimated coefficient of determination for the population (i.e. adjusted r2) is 28 percent. In Model 1, familial support was found non significant (p=.72), so it was extracted in the next step of Regression Analysis. In step 2 when the variable familial support is removed, then there is a slight variation in both these figures. Here R 2 is .319 and estimated coefficient of determination (i.e. adjusted R2) is 28.9 percent. Similarly in the next step, it is found that significance value of work load stress is observed to be .206 which is greater than .05; hence this is also extracted in the next step of Multiple Regression. In step 3 again, when the variable work load stress is removed, then there is variability in both these figures comparing with the step 2, here r 2 is .309 and estimated coefficient of determination (i.e. adjusted r2) is 28.5 percent. Finally in the next step, it is found that significant value of life satisfaction is observed to be .133 which is greater than .05; hence this is also extracted in the next step of Multiple Regression. In step 4 again, when the variable life satisfaction is removed, then there is variability in both these figures comparing with the step 3, here r2 is .295and estimated coefficient of determination (i.e. adjusted r2) is 27.7 percent. These results indicate that the joint prediction of significant variables i.e. Job security, schedule flexibility & work family balance for total variance in work family conflict is 29%. Out of these three predictors, job security and work family balance was found negative predictor indicates thereby that with high job security employees have less work family conflict thus if employees are secure about their respective jobs then there will be less chances of conflict between their work to family. And if employees manage their work and family both then there will be less work family conflict. On the other side schedule flexibility was found positive predictor for work family conflict. It indicates that although employees have flexibility in their work assignments even then they have more work family conflict. The reason behind this is that they are being called by concerned authority at any time which disturbs their family lives leading to more work family conflict. VI. Discussions In this investigation researchers have analyzed the difference of demographic factors on work load stress, job security, schedule flexibility, life satisfaction, familial support, work family balance and work family conflict, of employees working in private educational institutions. Results revealed that on the basis of age, job security (p=.000) and work family balance (p=.010) were found significant. Tukey post-hoc test revealed that perception of job security was lower for the teachers who were in the age group of 25-35 (3.60±1.01, p=.025) as compared to < 25 (2.97±1.05). Further on the basis of age overall work family conflict was found non significant (p=.06). These findings contradicts the findings of Grzywacz and Marks (2000) who reported that younger men are more prone to work-to family conflict and family-to-work conflict than older men. Further it also contradicts Batt, Rosemary and Valcour (2001) findings where there is a significant correlation between age and work-to-family conflict. But it supports the findings of Frone et al. (1997a) who found that there is not any significant association between age and work-to family conflict or family-to work conflict. Researchers further analyzed the difference on the basis of gender which states that from all the dimensions only schedule flexibility was found significant (p=.047). Schedule flexibility was higher for male teachers (9.75±1.93) as compared to female teachers (8.96±2.14) indicating thereby that women have more flexibility in work. But on the basis of gender overall work family conflict was found non significant (p=.37) which contradicts the findings of Pleck (1977) who reported that men hold the socially defined role of a “provider” and therefore may be more likely to experience work-to-family conflict. Conversely, women may be more likely to manage the primary responsibilities of family along with work responsibilities. Therefore women may be more likely to experience family-to work conflict. But it supports the findings of Eagle et al., (1997); Frone et al.,(1992b) who stated that there in non significant relationship between gender & work family conflict. On the basis of marital status from all the dimensions of only work-family balance was found significant (p=.04). Further results reveal that married teachers have more capacity to balance their work as well as family as compared to unmarried teachers. When the education was taken as base work family conflict was found on higher side for post graduate and professional employees in comparison to graduate employees. Further A perusal of the results in the present investigation makes it amply clear that out of all six independent variables only three variables namely: job security, schedule flexibility and work family balance contributes the most in explaining work family conflict. Out of these three, job security and work family balance were found to be negative predictors indicating thereby that with increase of these, work family conflict decreases which confirms the previous findings of Batt et al., (2001) who reported that high job security tend to report lower levels of conflict. But in the present investigation schedule flexibility was found to be positive predictor for work family conflict which contradicts the previous research of Greenhaus & Powell (2006) and Voydanoff (2005) who reported that schedule flexibility creates the opportunity to minimize work-family conflict, promote work-family enrichment
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and improve functioning and performance at work and home. Reason behind this is that although employees have flexibility in their work assignments but they are being called by mangers at any time whenever required which disturbs their family lives and leads to more work family conflict. VII. Implications of the Study The question of how to strike a balance between work and life is attracting increasing attention at both the national and international level. Given the considerable quantity of time individuals spend on working and the holding of dual-career families work-family balance, has become increasingly important. There are number of factors which are affecting work family conflict. Out of these job security, schedule flexibility and work family balance are the most important factors affecting the work family conflict among teachers working in private institutions. Therefore it is suggested that concerned authority should keep in mind these factors to motivate the employees to get the work done in the best possible way which will certainly increase the organization’s productivity. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]
[16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [25]
Baltes, B.B., Briggs, T.E., Huff, J.W., Wright, J.A., Neuman, G.A. (1999), "Flexible and compressed workweek schedules: a meta-analysis of their effects on work-related criteria". Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 84 pp.496-513. Batt, Rosemary and Valcour, P. Monique (2001), "Human Resource Practices as Predictors of Work-Family Outcomes and Employee Turnover". Articles & Chapters. Paper 273. Carlson, D. S., Perrewe, P. L. (1999), “The role of social support in the stressor-strain relationship: An examination of workfamily conflict”.Journal of Management, 25, 513-540. Cinamon, R. G. & Rich, Y. (2002), “Profiles of attribution of importance to life roles and their importance for the work-family conflict”. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49 (2), 212-220. Eagle, B. W., Miles, E. W. & Icenogle, M. L. (1997),” Interrole conflicts and the permeability of work and family domains: Are there gender differences?”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 168-84. Ford, M. T., Heinen, B. A., & Langkamer, K. L. (2007),” Work and family satisfaction and conflict: A meta-analysis of crossdomain relations”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 57-80. Frone, M.R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M.L. (1992a), “Prevalence of work-family conflict: are work and family boundaries asymmetrically permeable?”. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 723–729. Frone, M. R., Russell, M. & Cooper, M. L. (1997a), “Relation of work-family conflict to health outcomes: A four-year longitudinal study of employed parents”.Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 325-35. Geurts, S. & Demerouti, E. (2003), “Work/non work interface: A review of theories and findings. In: M.J. Schabraq, J.A.M. Winnbust, & C.L. Cooper (Eds.)”. The Handbook of work and health psychology ,pp. 279-312). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Greenhaus, J.H. & Beutell, N.J. (1985), “Sources and conflict between work and family roles”.Academy of Management Review, 10, 76–88. Greenhaus, J.H., Powell, G.N. (2006), "When work and family are allies: a theory of work-family enrichment", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 31 pp.72-92. Grzywacz, J. G. & Marks, N. F. (2000), “Reconceptualizing the work-family interface: An ecological perspective on the correlates of positive and negative spillover between work and family”.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 111-126. Gutek, B. A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991), “Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict”.Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 560-568. Higgins, C. A., & Duxbury, L. E. (1992), “Work-family conflict: A comparison of dual career and traditional-career men”. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 389-411. Hill, E.J., Jacob, J.I., Shannon, L.L., Brennan, R.T., Blanchard, V.L., Martinengo, G. (2008b), "Exploring the relationship of workplace flexibility, gender, and life stage to family-to-work conflict, and stress and burnout", Community, Work, and Family, Vol. 11 pp.165-81. Kanter, R. M. (1977), “Work and family in the United States: A critical review for research and policy”. New York, NY: Sage. Kossek, E.E. & Ozeki, C. (1998), “Work-family conflict, policies, and the job-life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behavior – human resources research”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 (2), 139-149. Leiter, M. p. & Durup. M. J. (1996), “ Work, home, and in-between: A longitudinal study of spillover”.Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32, 29-47. Lewis, S. (2003), "Flexible working arrangements: implementation, outcomes and management", in Cooper, C.L., Roberts, I.T. (Eds),Annual Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Wiley, New York, NY, Vol. Vol. 18 pp.1-28. Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S. & McMurrian, R. (1996), “Development and validation of work-family conflict and family-work conflict scales”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 400-410. Pleck, J. (1977). The work-family role system. Social Problems, 24(4), 417-427. Renshaw, J. (1976), “An exploration of the dynamics of the overlapping worlds of work and family”. Family Process, 15, 143165. Schwartzberg, N.S. & Dytell, R.S. (1996), “Dual-earner families: The importance of work stress and family stress for psychological well-being”. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 (2), 211-223. Voydanoff, P. (2004), "The effects of work demands and resources on work-to-family conflict and facilitation", Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 66 pp.398-412.
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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA
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English Vocabulary Size of Saudi Post-Secondary School Students: A Case Study of Jazan University Dr. Ahmed T. Braima*, Dr. Osama M. Nurain** Jazan University, *P.O.BOX 1948, JAZAN 45142, SAUDI ARABIA. Abstract: English instructors at Jazan University continuously claim that students who join university often suffer from extremely poor English. Students find it difficult to communicate with their teachers. This study assumes that the main problem can be attributed to little vocabulary size. Nation and Beglar’s (2007) “Vocabulary Size Test” is used to investigate the students' vocabulary size in first and second 1000 most frequent words in English. 525 preliminary year students from three different colleges participated in the study. Results revealed remarkably low achievement in the test with the majority of students. The study suggests that the adoption of vocabulary-rich syllabuses will enhance overall proficiency in English and hence better chances of success at university. Keywords: Vocabulary Size, Vocabulary Acquisition, Vocabulary Testing I. Introduction Vocabulary learning had been peripheral compared to other aspects of language until recent times (McCarthy, 1990; Meara, and Jones, 1988). It is well-established that the grammar-translation method focuses on the syntax of the sentence. The common thinking at time was that when the students learned the grammar of the sentences, they would be able to slot in vocabulary and therefore generate language. The advent of the Audio-lingual method, based on habit-formation, was much the same regarding vocabulary. Main focus was placed mainly on structures. Since then, subsequent research has often attempted to account for second language acquisition (“SLA”) by looking at grammatical features in such areas as the developmental sequence (Cancino, Rosansky, & Schumann, 1978; Pienemann, 1989), the role of input (Loschky, 1994; Shook, 1994; White, Spada, Lightbown, &Ranta, 1991), and instruction (Dulay, & Burt, 1973; Ellis, 1992; Sharwood Smith, 1981; VanPatten, &Cadierno, 1993). Beginning from the last two decades of the twentieth century, the situation has largely been reversed. Theoretically, it appears likely that language acquisition begins with word learning rather than grammar, with words gradually "grammaticalized" through experience on a largely associative basis (Krashen, 1989). Practically, studies throughout the 1980s and 1990s showed that vocabulary skill and knowledge are the precondition for most other language abilities and, in addition, the main source of variance in the final state of such abilities. It now seems clear that vocabulary acquisition does not happen by itself to any satisfactory degree, particularly as needed for first language literacy or a second language generally. One of the major aspects of vocabulary learning that have found considerable research is the number of words that a student needed to know (Nation, 2001; Laufer, 1992). In order to estimate the number of words a learner knows, it is important to define what a word is, and what it means to know a word. Considerable amount of research has primarily been focused on first language acquisition. However, there are obvious implications for SLA as well. It is widely accepted that languages cannot be perfectly learnt without adequate practice. In most of the Arab countries, English language is only restricted to classroom contexts. This basically leads to a general weakness in language proficiency. The situation is clear in the Arab world. Rababah (2005), for example, stated that the weakness in English language is prevalent in almost all Arab counties. He attributed this to various factors like the lack of pertinent information on the part of school graduates when they join the university, school and English language department curricula, teaching methodology, lack of the target language environment, and the learners' lack of motivation. Khan (2011) asserts that teaching of English as a foreign language is always difficult especially when it comes to the places where English serves a very limited purpose. Teaching of English language in the Gulf region in general and
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Saudi Arabia in particular catches attention of many researchers and scholars especially when the issue is particularly related to the classroom situations Instructors of EFL at Jazan University have continuously claimed that their students’ English is very weak when they newly join different colleges. Noticeably, students find it difficult to understand their teachers when they speak in English and in most cases they express their need for some teaching in Arabic. In attempt to find reasons for the problem, this research project assumes that the basic problem lies in their little vocabulary knowledge. It seeks to answer questions such as: How many words do students know when they join university? Can their proficiency level be shown from their vocabulary level? II. Literature Review As stated above, research in vocabulary learning has only been recently innovated. There are a few research centres which are specialized in researching vocabulary learning and acquisition. Regarding researchers, we can also assume that only few researchers have fully devoted their projects to this area. Many of the questions they asked, and the results they found are still relevant today. These questions included how many words a student needed to know, how these words should be sequenced, and what the student needed to know about these words (Nation and Waring, 1997). One of the basic arguments was whether it would be possible to increase a learner's vocabulary by the direct teaching of words and their meaning. If estimates of native speakers’ vocabulary were large, explicit instruction would not be a good choice, and early research seemed to indicate that this was the case. Nation and Waring, ibid) assert that adult native speakers of English have a vocabulary of around 20,000 word families though they pointed out that this figure is rough and there is a large variation between individuals. In their later research, Nation (2001) and Read, (2000) questioned whether native speakers actually knew these words. By designing tests based on the frequencies of the words, the researchers determined that native speakers' vocabulary averages 17,200 words. This number suggests that the learning burden is not as insurmountable as previously suggested. Similar results were found in other languages as well. Hazenberg&Hulstijn, (1996) found that native Dutch speakers had a vocabulary of 18,807 words but they also looked at the vocabulary of non-native students writing a Dutch university entrance exam and concluded that these students needed a minimum of 10,000 base words for entry into university. If this is the case for native language, then we need to question whether it is important for EFL students to know similar numbers of word families in order to succeed at university. Laufer (1989) found that a recognition vocabulary of at least 3,000 words was a threshold for being able to read unsimplified texts. Research on vocabulary size gives the overall picture of learners’ ability to communicate and understand a written text. It is also important to see which words are actually needed and in what sequence should they be learnt. Earlier at the beginnings of the last century, a few researchers (Ogden, 1930; Richards, 1943; Thorndike, &Lorge, 1938; West, 1953) ranked vocabulary, using criterion based on frequency and coverage. Ogden's 850 basic words and West's 2000 word general service list basically tried to provide a way to assist the learners in acquiring a sufficient vocabulary to overcome what Coady (1993) would later refer to as “the paradox of learning words through context”, whereby students must have a command of enough words to read in the first place. It is highly probable that when learners are equipped with the 2,000 high-frequency words, they will be able to manage about 81 percent of the running words in a text (Nation, 2001). Students who have mastered this list are better prepared to handle the demands of reading. All frequency-based approaches to vocabulary learning concentrate upon the assumption that frequency is strongly related to the probability that a word will be known. i.e. if a word is highly frequent, then it has high chances to be encountered and learnt. Anderson and Freebody (1981) report that this hypothesis is supported by evidence from a number of L1 areas. Hazenberg and Hulstijn (1996) have studied the extent to which word frequency can be used to predict word knowledge. One might expect that the most frequent words are known by all students, whereas more infrequent words are known only by particular individuals, depending on variables such as hobbies, work and experiences. They concluded that the relationship between word frequency and word knowledge appears to depend on vocabulary size. When individuals have a relatively large vocabulary there is no significant relationship. But when individuals have a relatively small vocabulary, word frequency can be used as a criterion to predict word knowledge. It has thus been established that the further you move on from the high-frequency vocabulary, the less significant frequency becomes in an absolute sense. The selection of lower-frequency words depends increasingly on the learners’ specific needs and interests. This stresses once more the importance of the 3,000 word family (which corresponds more or less with the 5,000 most frequent words) as a learning objective for any language learner. Beyond the 5,000-word level, Meara (1996) argues that vocabulary size is less important than the way in which the vocabulary is organised in the learner’s mind. The hypothesis is that those with a more developed vocabulary
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knowledge have a more complex and highly structured network of associations among the words they know. To conclude this discussion, research on vocabulary acquisition has continuously stressed the idea that more frequent words in any given syllabus are likely to be known by students. The current study uses a test that is based on frequency counts. This gives us ideas about how syllabuses are built and how vocabulary is taught at Saudi schools. III. Methods A. Subjects The participants of the study were randomly selected from three colleges: Medical and Engineering and Business Administration by applying Random Systematic Method. The sample size was 525 students taken from a pool of fresh students who admitted to the foundation program for the academic year 2011/2012. The sample represents two categories of students. The first category is medical-allied students (82) who join college with high scores in high secondary school certificate. The second one is engineering (208) which is next to medical. Engineering students are accepted with lower scores. The third portion (235) represents students who were admitted with the lowest scores. Medical sample is the least in number because their number, in general is less than the two other colleges. It is believed that medical students are apt to have a profound grasp of vocabulary knowledge necessary to assimilate their courses and ensure their continuity in the studies although their levels also greatly vary from one to another. Placement tests often place classify them from elementary to intermediate levels. B. Instrument The vocabulary size test (Nation and Beglar, 2007) is used in this project. As described by the Authors, the test was developed to provide a reliable, accurate, and comprehensive measure of learner’s vocabulary size from the 1st 1000 to the 14th 1000 word families in English. The test uses multiple-choice format and “puts the tested word in a short non-defining context’ (Nation and Beglar, ibid:10) (see appendix 1). The test items were taken from different sets of frequency lists basically based on the 10 million token spoken section of the British National Corpus (BNC). It samples from the most frequent 14,000 word families of English. All the items are designed to ‘measure receptive knowledge of vocabulary’ (Nation and Beglar, ibid: 11). The learners are given the word form and have to access the meaning of the word. Three distracters are given alongside with the correct answer. All the 14 levels of the test, according to Nation and Beglar (2007), are a way of organizing the items in the test so that the test begins with the items more likely to be known. It is not necessary to make learners sit all fourteen levels when the test is used with elementary or intermediate learners (Nation and Beglar, 2007). As stated in (3.1) above, the students’ level ranges between elementary to lower intermediate. When they join college, they are taught a pre-intermediate general English course. Only the first two 1000 levels were tested because, according to Nation and Beglar, the first and second 1000 sample only uses words from the first 1000 of West’s (1953) General Service List. It is assumed, here, that any National Syllabus includes, at least, the first 1000 words from that list at the levels that precede university education. C. Procedure The test is photocopied and given to class teachers. They distributed it to their students in normal English classes at the second week in first semester when students are still at the beginning of their university life. The 20-item-test is given 20 minutes to complete. In order to discourage students not to attempt to cheat, the instruction given was that the purpose of the test is only diagnostic and no marks or semester weight will be given to this test. All students completed the test in the given time and no one needed extra time. D. Statistical Analysis After receiving the exam papers from class teachers, they were scored. A mark was given to each level. So each individual subject is given two scores. The first score is out of 10 for the first 1000 level and the second one is also out of 10 for the second 1000 level. An SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) file was prepared to include two dependent variables. The first variable is the score in 1st 1000 level and the second is the score in the 2nd 1000 level. The only independent variable needed was college of student. Data was then entred in the programme. Basic statistical tests were then performed which include frequencies, central tendency (mean, median, mode), dispersion (standard deviations), reliability analysis and t-tests. IV. Results and Discussion The main research question of this study concerns the number of words (receptive vocabulary) that students might know by the end of secondary school. As described above, the vocabulary size test contains ten items at each 1000 word level. According to Nation and Beglar (2007), each item in the test represents 100 word families. If a test-taker got every item correct, then it is assumed that that person knows the word family the item represents. So if the subject achieves an average of 5 out of 10 then we can place him as knowing roughly 500 words in the tested level. The test has been validated in many occasions. It also appears to be reliable according to our results (alpha = .71)
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although in other studies reliability alpha is higher (Nation and Beglar, 2007) From the first glance at the data, it is noticeable that there are large differences between students’ scores in the two levels (SD = 2.3 in 1st 1000 and 2. in 2nd 1000). Variation in answers can be attributed to differences in proficiency levels as the sample contains some medical students whose achievement in high secondary certificate is high and positions are highly competitive. On the contrary, business administration students are weaker in achievement and generally admit with lower scores in high school certificate. As shown in table (1), overall mean score in 1st l000 level is 4.67 and 3.64 in the second 1000 level. Students of medical colleges, in general, scored a little high in both levels (1st 1000 mean = 5.98, SD=1.44 and in 2nd1000 mean = 4.51, SD=1.76) compared to engineering students (1st1000 mean = 5.78, SD=2.41 and 2nd1000 mean =3.96, SD=2.23). Students of business administration scored the lowest (1st 1000 mean = 3.22, SD = 1.73 and 2nd 1000 mean = 3.05, SD=1.78). When we compare the achievement of the three groups, we can see statistically significant differences (t = .64, sign = 0.00>0.05, DF=524) in the first 1000 level. In the second 1000 level, the difference between the two means is also statistically significant (t=1.99, sign. =0.04<0.05, DF=524). In general, the result can, thus, be interpreted that the students know an average of 467 words in the first 1000 level and 364 words in the second 100 level. Medical science students know, according to this measure, about 598 words from the first 1000 and 451 words in the second 1000 level. Engineering students, on the other hand, can be said to have 578 words from the first 1000 and 396 words from the second 1000. Vocabulary size of business administration students can be estimated by 322 in first 1000 and 305 in the second one. The sample is selected to represent students who achieved better than others in high secondary school certificate in all subjects. If medical students’ score in 1st 1000 most frequent words goes as high as 5.84, then what implications can we get from this result? Obviously the overall vocabulary stock is too little and far beyond the threshold of 2000 words. We can argue, here, that this causes students not to fully understand their instructors and their written texts. Nation and Waring (1997) point out that the learners need to know the 3000 most frequent words of the language “These are an immediate high priority” (ibid:11). The rationale behind this 3000 milestone is that we need a vocabulary of about 3000 words which provides coverage of at least 95% of a text before we can efficiently learn from context with unsimplified text (Liu Na and Nation, 1985). In our case, English vocabulary size of Saudi postsecondary students, altogether, can be estimated to be as high as 831 (467 in 1st 1000+364 in 2nd 1000) out of 2000 most frequent words. This number is quite small for a student to proceed at university level where almost all subjects are taught through English as a medium of instruction with the exception of some university requirements like Arabic and Islamic Studies. Students, therefore, often find it extremely difficult to proceed with their studies and it is often the case that about 50% of medical-allied college students fail in subjects like biology and chemistry. V. Conclusions This paper does not claim that reasonable understanding of academic texts and lectures cannot occur if learners have not reached the lexical threshold of 2000 or 3000 words, or that the threshold will automatically yield good understanding. In our data only 1st 1000 and 2nd 1000 levels were tested. We can still question whether the Saudi national school syllabus for English is compiled according to frequency lists. Adopting lexically-pregnant syllabuses at schools, however, will probably help in the situation. When students are exposed to such texts, by time they may learn words and enlarge their stock. Some other levels need to be seen. Thus, it is recommended for future research to test, at least, up to the 3000 level. As for the relationship between vocabulary size and text coverage, there are texts, e.g. graded readers where good percentage of coverage can be reached with a smaller vocabulary than suggested here. Conversely, in some texts with a large amount of technical and jargon vocabulary, like the case here in Jazan University, the above coverage may require the knowledge of more low frequency words than suggested in the paper. In this study, we discussed the vocabulary size of Saudi students when they join university. We used Nation and Beglar’s (2007) frequency-based vocabulary sized test with only a little sample of students. The test needs to be repeated with larger samples and in different regions in the Kingdom in order to generalize results. Our data confirmed that Saudi students lack in enough vocabulary stock when they start university. We hope that these results can provide useful insights for researchers, syllabus designers, material writers and language teachers. References [1] [2] [3]
Anderson, R. C., and Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary Knowledge. In Comprehension and Teaching: Research Reviews, ed. John T. Guthrie Newark, Del.: International Reading Association. 77-l17. Cancino, H., Rosansky, E. J., & Schumann, J. H. (1978).The acquisition of English negatives and interrogatives by native Spanish speakers. In E. Hatch (Ed.), Second language acquisition (pp. 207-230). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Coady, J. (1993). Research on ESL/EFL Vocabulary Acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
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