HURJ Volume 20 - Spring 2015

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a letter from the editor The Hopkins Undergraduate Research Journal is the only interdisciplinary undergraduate research journal on the Homewood campus. Within the pages of this issue, you will encounter a sampling of the incredible research engaging Hopkins students in the sciences, humanities, social sciences, and engineering.

For each biannual issue of HURJ, the editorial staff selects one topic of interest to highlight in the magazine’s Focus section. This spring, we received submissions that were captivating, insightful, and appetizing – of course, on the subject of food. Look inside for a regional history of a popular seafood and a surprising synthesis of food, drink, and opera.

Our Spotlight, Science & Engineering, and Humanities & Social Sciences sections showcase research endeavors that fall outside our chosen theme. This semester, we bring you articles on a fascinating range of subjects, including unconventional animal behavior, advances in pathology, and timeless literature.

The articles in this Spring 2015 issue of HURJ reveal the diverse research interests of Johns Hopkins University students.

I am proud of this publication as a testament to the boundless academic and intellectual talents of my peers. I would like to give special thanks to the HURJ staff for its continued hard work, and to the Student Activities Commission for its support.

Enjoy!

Jessica Terekhov Editor-in-Chief

hurj editorial board Editor-in-Chief

Jessica Terekhov Focus

Shanaz Hossain

Lauren Pomerantz Humanities & Social Sciences

Alex Mason-Sharma

Emily Karcher Science & Engineering

Annie Minkyung Cho

Aneek Patel

Apurv Hirsh Shekhar Spotlight

Jaya Jasty

Veronica Reardon Layout

Sarah Sukardi Publicity

Aneek Patel Copy

Yunchan Chen Kyoung-A Cho Jane Miglo James Shamul Cyrus Zhou

Faculty Advisor

Dr. Michael Yassa

hurj spring issue 2015 contributors Matthew Billups Ka Ho Nicholas Cheung Alfred Chin Alec Farid Wakako Horiuchi

about hurj:

The Hopkins Undergraduate Research Journal provides

Kylie Liu Morgan McCarthy Gulnar Tuli Shiyu Xia Cindy Xun

undergraduates with valuable access to research undertaken by their peers. The journal features four sections: a main Focus, Spotlight, Science & Engineering, and Humanities & Social Sciences. Students are highly encouraged to submit their original work.

disclaimer:

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not constitute the opinion of the Hopkins Undergraduate Research Journal.

contact us: Hopkins Undergraduate Research Journal Mattin Center, Suite 210 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, MD 21218 thehurj@gmail.com http://thehurj.org

HOPKINS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL

Spring 2015:

Food

table of contents spring 2015 focus: History of the Oyster Morgan McCarthy

“Music is the Brandy of the Damned�: The role of food and drink in Don Giovanni and Man and Superman Kylie Liu

spotlight: The Benefits of Crustacean Seafood Waste Shiyu Xia Matthew Billups Cindy Xun

humanities & social sciences: Charity as a Counterweight Gulnar Tuli

table of contents science and engineering: Living in Groups: An Analysis of Social Animal Behavior Ka Ho Nicholas Cheung

Dopaminergic circuitry regulates post-mating amino acid intake in Drosophila melanogaster Wakako Horiuchi

Production of Supercapacitors from Liquid-Phase Exfoliated Graphene Alec Farid, et. al.

Digital Pathology in the NHS: Will machines replace the pathologist and a microscope?

Alfred Chin

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The History of the Oyster:

Late 19th and early 20th century

ed the Eastern Shore to the lucrative markets of the Northeast. Due to Crisfield’s efforts in establishing this important connection, the city of Somers Cove was reEarth and Planetary Sciences named to Crisfield.4 Crisfield received an official Charter from the Maryland Legislature in 1872 and continued to build upon the city’s foundation. the mid-19th and late 20th Many of the first buildings constructed in Criscenturies, the Chesapeake field were built on swampland filled with crushed and Bay area experienced government disputes and eco- compacted oyster shells.4 One citizen described the nomic prosperity. This area also emerged as the sea- rapid transformation of Crisfield, saying that “‘the oysfood mecca of the eastern United States. The discov- ter houses are rising as if by magic, not only from the ery of vast oyster reserves pitted Virginian dredgers marshes, but from the very water where only a few and Maryland tongers against each other in boundary months ago, vessels used to anchor.’”5 Businessmen disputes. Their disputes eventually escalated into the bought underwater lots and created foundations with “Oyster Wars of the Chesapeake Bay.” Fueling the oyster shells. Consequently, the business district of Crisoyster industry was the newly constructed Eastern field, which includes the current downtown, was foundShore Railroad, which connected the Chesapeake Bay ed on a bed of oysters.2 It is said that to this day, oyster to the American West. Although shells can be found just by digging the “Oyster Wars” mark a dark era a few inches into the ground.6 Folin the Bay’s maritime history, small lowing the development of the railThe “Oyster Wars” Eastern Shore towns, such as Crisroad, Crisfield experienced a popfield, MD, flourished in this turbulent dramatically changed the ulation surge, with a peak growth time. Additionally, during the anteof 102.2% during the 1890s, as Chesapeake Bay area, rate bellum period, emancipated blacks well as great economic growth. found work in the oyster industry, Crisfield had the largest oyster and today, they still which allowed some to rise to a in the state by 1872, and the influence Bay policies. trade highly respected political and social town employed over six hundred status. The “Oyster Wars” dramatisailing vessels.7 Using the railroad to cally changed the Chesapeake Bay transport oysters from the Crisfield area, and, today, they still influence packinghouses to buyers across the nation, the captain Bay policies through conservation ideals that can be of a dredge boat could earn up to $2,000 a year while dated back to early oyster practices and laws from the the average Marylander was earning $500 or less. Al19th century. though the oystermen themselves were earning well

The economic impact of the discovered oysters above the average income at the time, it was the packis exemplified by the town of Crisfield in Eastern Mary- inghouse owners who were reaping the real benefits of land. In 1854, the US Coast and Geodetic survey of the the business. After taking into consideration the fees Chesapeake Bay discovered a large number of oyster for the watermen and shucking, packinghouse owners beds residing in the Tangier Sound.1 John W. Crisfield, a paid 45 cents to produce a bushel (one gallon) of oysMaryland native, recognized the value of this resource ters. Each bushel was then sold at one dollar, thereby and decided to venture into the seafood shipping in- earning 65 cents in profit.5 This lucrative business atdustry. Inspired by the wealth generated from railroads tracted so many entrepreneurs, that by the beginning in the shipping economies of New York and New En- of the 1900s, Crisfield had over 150 seafood processing gland, Crisfield sought to create a way to transport the establishments and shucking centers.8 By 1910, the Cusnewly discovered oysters from the Eastern Shore to toms House in Crisfield had the longest list of sailing western American.2 In 1860, Crisfield used his political vessels of any port in the United States. Canned oysprowess as a member of Congress to successfully lob- ters from Crisfield were being enjoyed from the Eastern by the Maryland General Assembly to commit $112,000 Shore to Australia. Crisfield transformed into an oyster for the construction of the Eastern Shore Railroad, empire that was considered the “Seafood Capital of the which would link Cape Charles, Virginia, to Delmar, Del- World.”2 aware. The railway was finished in 1866 and connect- Although white entrepreneurs primarily ran the

Morgan Mccarthy, Class of 2016

Throughout

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packinghouses, the town’s booming oyster industry provided a unique opportunity for many African Americans to find work in the antebellum period and assume positions of power. While the Emancipation Proclamation and the Union’s victory in the Civil War secured freedom for slaves, prejudice against African Americans did not immediately disappear. The University of Richmond published an article detailing the conditions that freed blacks faced after leaving the plantations, stating that “prevelant poverty among ex-slaves during the Reconstruction Era resulted in a lack of nourishment and medical care which in turn caused a high mortality rate for African Americans.” Many freed blacks, however, were able to find lucrative jobs in the oyster industry.

As Wennersten notes, the history of the black men prepared them for difficult labor as stevedores, crewmembers on steamboats, and ship pilots.5. Another historian, Kay McKelvey, who specializes in black history from the late 18th to mid-19th century, described oystering as one of the highest paying jobs for black men. Once exhausted from the hard work on the seas, older black men found work selling fresh oysters by the gallon at Federal Hill, Baltimore.5 Opportunities for freed blacks also emerged in the shucking processing plants. African Americans could earn up to $3.50 a day for shucking twenty gallons of oysters. The oyster industry not only provided jobs for blacks, but also created an opportunity for them to gain positions of power in the Eastern Shore communities. As Wennersten describes, “many of the black watermen who held positions of leadership

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in their communities and worked on steamboats… were considered the aristocrats of the Eastern Shore Negro community and were fierce champions of black rights.”5 Freed slaves were able to break into the oyster market due to two factors: (1) the demand of oysters, which was driven up by the railroad, and (2) the relatively low start-up costs for new watermen.10 Overall, the oyster industry provided employment for 2,107 white men and 1,453 black men on dredge boats. An additional 3,325 whites and blacks were employed on smaller tonging boats while another 10,000 men were involved in industry operations based on land. Without the strong backing of the black community, the economic progress of the oyster industry would not have been possible.

The potential monetary reward, coupled with the relatively unregulated market conditions, led to strife among oystermen that eventually escalated into armed conflicts. Due to the high price of oysters, many “pirate” watermen dredged illegally at night in order to steal a profit from this booming business. These pirate dredgers forced many of the honest black oystermen to go out of business. These unemployed blacks turned to Edward Wilson, a waterman who rose to prominence and became a black politician as well as an advocate for black rights. Using his political power and respect among oystermen, Wilson called together white and black tongers to create fortifications on the shore near oyster beds. They set up cannons against the “oyster pirates”, and even managed to capture and burn the oyster pirate boat Florence. This collaboration was

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focus especially significant because it marked an occasion when whites and blacks worked together despite the prevailing “separate but equal” mentality at the time.

This incident reinforced the fact that the oyster industry provided a unique niche in the antebellum period.

In addition to providing opportunities to those who worked honestly, regardless of race or socioeconomic class, it also allowed blacks and whites to bond due to their tough lives as oystermen.

The oyster industry provided many benefits by stimulating the development of Eastern Shore towns and creating a market for black labor after emancipation. However it also pitted the Maryland and Virginia governments against each other as Virginia concentrated on industry, while Maryland focused on ecological conservation. The major points of contention between the two state governments were the state boundaries and which method, tonging or dredging, would be allowed in Maryland and Virginian waters.

Even before the disputes between over harvesting techniques developed, the Eastern Shore was already on a path towards conflict.

In 1668, the provincial governor Philip Calvert of Maryland and House of Burgesses member Edmund Scarborough of Virginia signed an agreement that gave Virginia 15,000 more acres of oyster territory than Maryland. Two state representatives met again in 1785, under the mediation of George Washington, to discuss equal access to the Potomac River. The newly drafted agreement granted access of the Potomac River to Virginians and reciprocal rights for Marylanders with regard to the Pocomoke River. Boundary disputes would arise again, however, after the American Civil War- Maryland argued for its right to harvest oysters in the Pocomoke Sound, an extension of the Pocomoke River, while Virginia claimed that the Pocomoke Sound was not an extension of the river and thus, Maryland was not entitled to harvest oysters from the Sound under the compact of 1785. Another point of contention between Maryland and Virginia regarded the ambiguity of the boundary line demarcating the Chesapeake Bay. Both state governments had different ideas about the land division, and the boundary dispute concerned a forty square mile stretch of territory that contained rich oyster reserves. The federal government intervened and, through the Jenkins-Black Award of

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20 1877, instated that Virginia should receive larger portions of the Tangier and Pocomoke Sounds while Maryland retained access to the prosperous “Great Rocks” oyster beds.

The boundaries defined in 1877 angered the citizens of both states and jeopardized the livelihood of many watermen in the area. Virginians were upset that they didn’t have access to the famed “Great Rocks” oyster beds while Marylanders were enraged that they lost access to the oyster beds of the Pocomoke Sound. As a result, the unhappy Maryland and Virginian watermen were pitted against each other. Piracy and gun violence between them increased. Both of the state governments also increased their involvement- the Oyster Navies from both states enforced the boundary line more strictly. Without a clear resolution that satisfied both states, oystermen ran the risk of running state boundaries, hoping to retreat to safe waters before encountering a ship from the other states’ oyster navy.

In addition to fighting over territory boundaries, the watermen from these states argued over oyster harvesting techniques. Tonging, the traditional method of oystering, used a long scissor-like tool with metal rakes on one end to scoop oysters off the bottom of the river. Tonging took longer than dredging, and required the waterman to sift through their catch.

They would look for old shells and unwanted organisms to return back into the bay in order to support oyster reproduction.11 Dredging was the other oystering technique consisting of dropping a giant scoop, called a dredge, overboard and dragging it along an oyster reef. The dredge would scrape off the oyster beds from the bottom of the Bay. Environmentalists soon came to realize that this technique would jeopardize the stability of oyster populations.

By 1830, Maryland passed laws to outlaw dredging as well as only allow its residents to oyster within the state.12 Virginian watermen, however, had little regard for these laws. They snuck into the reserved sections of the Chesapeake Bay and stole oysters under the cover of darkness. By dredging in Maryland’s protected waters, these “oyster pirates” were thwarting Maryland‘s conservation efforts. In 1865, Maryland passed additional legislation that required oyster harvesters to purchase an annual license, and, three years

spotlight hurj spring 2015: issue 20 later, Maryland commissioned the State Oyster Police Force in an effort to control illegal dredging and protect its oyster resources.12 Despite these measures, over 1,000 pirate oyster dredge boats entered the waters of Maryland and continued destroying the protected oyster reserves. Eventually, Maryland tongers took justice into their own hands. In 1871, the Baltimore Sun released the first reports of vigilante justice after the bloated bodies of dead oysterman were found floating along the Chester and Choptank rivers.5

The science to support oyster conservation came to light between 1878 and 1879. Lieutenant Francis Winslow, a marine surveyor for the United States Navy, studied the Tangier Sound and discovered that, on average, only one oyster was found per three square yards of an oyster bed. Alarmed by Winslow’s report, the Maryland legislature established an oyster commission that was headed by Dr. William Brooks, a biologist from the Johns Hopkins University and the Director of the Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory. The commission reported that the lax enforcement of anti-dredge laws prevented natural reseeding of oyster beds and endangered the livelihood of the oysters.8 Despite the efforts of Maryland legislators, the oyster beds in Maryland’s waters perished without the cooperation of Virginian watermen.

These early conflicts between the industry-driven Virginians and the preservationist Marylanders established principles that have persisted to present-day Bay conservation politics. Similar to the Maryland oyster commission, the Virginian state government also instated commissions, but these commissions remained industry-oriented instead of focusing on environmental justice. In 1897, Virginia created an oyster navy in an attempt to preserve its resources. This oyster navy merged with the Virginia Marine Resources Commission in 1875 and later became the Marine Resources Commission in 1968. Since then, the commission’s responsibilities have grown to address many of the Bay’s environmental problems and its commercial interests.

While Virginia’s commission may have been created to promote the conservation of oysters, a closer examination of the commission members tells another story.

The commission does not include any marine scientists, economists, or environmentalists. Consequently, many of the committee’s “conservation” decisions are geared towards the oyster industry and not actual conservation.13

In contrast, the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, the equivalent of the Virginian Marine Resources Commission, has firmly committed to conservation. Maryland’s agency included managers from very different backgrounds. For instance, J. Charles Fox, one of the department’s managers, previously held positions in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Friends of the Earth, the Environmental Policy Institute, the Sierra club, the Maryland League of Conservation Voters, and the Chesapeake Bay Foundation.13 Thus, even though both state governments have sectors

hurj fall 2012: issue focus 15 working towards conservation, Maryland’s agency is committed to ecological conservation while Virginia’s makes changes largely based on industrial conditions.

The Chesapeake Bay no longer contains the vast stores of oyster reserves that it did in the late 19th century. Overfishing, disease, and pollution have led to the decline of the oyster population. The dwindling oyster resource can no longer sustain the waterman lifestyle, and thus, oystermen, and the industrial centers that once housed them, are fading into history. Towns, such as Crisfield, have also decreased in population, and all of the watermen have moved on to other professions.

The establishment of third party environmental groups, such as the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, has helped to streamline conservation efforts, but they have not been enough to return the Bay to its 19th century grandeur.

In order to move forward, politicians, scientists, and watermen will have to compromise to save what is left of the Bay’s natural beauty and preserve a critical piece of American history.

References (1) Paul, John W. “A Short History of Crisfield .” 4 Apr 2014.

Crisfield Heritage Foundation . 20 Nov 2014 <http://www. crisfieldheritagefoundation.org/history.htm>.

(2)Jones, Colin. Crab Capital Crisfield Maryland . The Journal of Modern History , 2005.

Oyster Wars. 2014. 05 Dec 2014 <http://www.baltimoresun. com/bal-mptoyster-story.html>.

(3) Rhodes, Jason. Somerset County, Maryland: A Brief History . Charleston: History Press, 2007.

(4)Goldsborough, Philip L. “A Brief History of the City of Crisfield .” 14 Apr 2014. A City Built Upon Shells . 25 Nov 2014 <http://www.crisfield.com/History/history.htm>.

(5)Wennersten, John R. “The Oyster Wars of Chesapeake Bay.” Centerville: Tidewater Publishers, 1981.

(6)Grant, Mike. “Crisfield: Living History in a Waterfront Town .” 2010. Maryland Department of Natural Resources . 1 Dec 2014 <http://www.dnr.state.md.us/naturalresource/summer2010/crisfield.pdf>.

(7)Gillis, Anna M. “Oyster Wars.” June 2011. National Endowment for the Humanities. <http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2011/mayjune/statement/oyster-wars>.

(8)Wennersten, John R. “The Almighty Oyster: A Saga of Old Somerset and the Eastern Shore, 1850-1920.” Maryland Historical Magazine (1979): 80-93.

(9)Being an African American After Emancipation . 2009 .

1 Dec 2014 <http://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/ view/5032>.

(10)”Chesapeake Bay Program.” Bay Blog RSS. Chesapeake Bay Program. Web. 10 Dec. 2014 < http://www.chesapeakebay.net/discover/bayhistory/africanamericans>.

(11) Watermen Harvesting the Bounty. 2002. 05 Dec 2014 <http://www.marinersmuseum.org/sites/micro/cbhf/waterman/wat009.html>.

(12) Baltimore Sun: Oyster Wars. 2014, accessed December 5, 2014, http://www.baltimoresun.com/bal-mptoyster-story. html.

(13) Ernst, Howard R. Chesapeake Bay Blues . Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003.

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“Music is the brandy of the damned”: The role of food and drink in Don Giovanni and Man and Superman Kylie Liu, Class of 2017 Italian

“There is no love sincerer than the John Tanner in love of food,” proclaims George Bernard Shaw’s Man and Superman. Based on Mozart and Da Ponte’s Don Giovanni, the opera comments on human identity and social values through the motif of food and drink. In this essay, I will analyze the use of food and drink in Man and Superman and Don Giovanni, highlighting the similarities and differences in the functions and effects of the themes. In doing so, I will also discuss how Shaw creatively adapts the opera into a platform from which to comment on the Philistine morality of his Victorian audience.

Don Giovanni is the infamous Don Juan of the operatic world. His reputation for gluttonous eating and drinking closely parallels his lecherous, libertine debauchery. In Act II, Scene V, we hear Leporello remarking on his master having “such a barbarous appetite” and taking “what gigantic mouthfuls,” which points to the hungriest of sexual appetites. Alcoholic drinking is as important as music and sexual pursuit in developing Don Giovanni’s character. Food and drink is the outlet whereby the Don indirectly expresses his frustrated sexual wishes. His “champagne aria,” “Fin ch’han del vino…,” occurs soon after he is frustrated by his former lover, Donna Elvira, who advises his current pursuit, Zerlina, to “flee from the traitor.” Undeterred, he decides to organize a party, during which he sings his ebullient champagne aria.

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The lively and celebratory aria is characterized by an obsessive rhythmic drive – “a series of thrusts up and down, occasionally interrupted by a pause to take a breath and then back for more” (Kerns, 2004).

The lyrics clearly parallel both the music and the Don’s character: “Let us have wine to warm our women to warm our beds / And while there is dancing / I shall be making love / My list tomorrow morning / Shall be 10 names longer.” They explicitly embrace his philistine philosophy of enjoying life and women, further emphasized by staging decisions; traditionally, the Don holds a champagne glass, sings the aria as a kind of toast, and walks off stage laughing unrepentantly.

Champagne serves as a motif for the Don’s lavish, morally corrupt lifestyle. He is preoccupied with party-planning and drinks without a care for the pain he has caused Donna Elvira and Donna Anna. We can also juxtapose the champagne aria with Don Ottavio’s “Dalla sua pace…,” its adjacent aria. In conventional opera, adjacent arias contrast strongly, and this case is no exception. “Dalla sua pace” illustrates Don Ottavio’s heroic and kindly nature – “All the happiness I feel comes from my darling girl / When she herself is joyous, my life is rich and full.” He respects Donna Anna, and women in general, whereas Don Giovanni completely disregards the feelings of the women he seduces; rather than caring for women, Don Giovanni considers each another conquest, another addition to his growing list (“640 in Italy, 231 in Germany, 100 in France, 91 in Turkey, but in Spain already 1003”).

Food plays a central role in the opera’s climax, as the Don calmly orders Leporello to “bring another

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dinner” to welcome the arrival of the ghost of the dead Commendatore. Once again, despite this ominous arrival – “Don Giovanni, you invited me to dine with you, and here I come!” – the Don is completely unrepentant, refusing to feel remorse. “No! I won’t repent!” he shouts, though he recognizes that he will face divine justice for his sins.

Drink is also featured in Act III, where it functions as a nod to Don Giovanni as well as a commentary on heaven and hell. As the Devil and the Statue sing parts of the original operatic libretto, Don Juan exclaims, “Hell is full of musical amateurs: music is the brandy of the damned. May not one lost soul be permitted to abstain?” This is another inversion of the norm, since we would expect Don Juan, like his counterpart Don Giovanni, to revel in the music and drinking in hell. Yet, as the Devil aptly puts it, “Curious how these clever men, whom you would have supposed born to be popular [in hell], have turned out social failures, like Don Juan!” There is a clear contrast between Don Giovanni’s indulgences in sensual passions – women and wine – and Don Juan’s urge to philosophize.

In Man and Superman, food similarly engages the protagonist John Tanner’s attention and passions. Tanner uses food as verbal weaponry both personally, against Ann, and socially, against love and marriage. In Act I, when Octavius, infatuated with Ann, remarks, “It is out of the deadliest struggles (love) that we get the noblest characters,” Tanner replies, “There is no love sincerer than the love of food. I think Ann loves you that way: she patted your cheek as if it were a nicely underdone chop.” Tanner issues a warning to Octavius about Ann, comparing her to a Bengal tiger in her loving voracity, while trying to make Octavius realize that his impression of his own romantic pursuit is false.

Food also functions as a commentary on human identity. Beneath the inversion of norms and the parody of Victorian manners in Tanner’s reply, we can detect some truth in this perception. Tanner is prepared

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to use the term “sincere” because there is something fundamental to which it relates. The love of food is contrasted with romantic love as something real and solid.

In the play, there is a sense of the insubstantiality of human identity that causes Shaw to place emphasis on selfish indulgence. When appetites and food are all that is substantial in Tanner’s identity, all else must seem shallow.

In what follows, I will compare and contrast the use of food and drink between the two works. The main similarity between both works is that the emotional scenes involve food and drink. Don Giovanni’s climax begins with the Commendatore’s arrival to a party hosted by the Don, as his ghost refuses the dinner brought out by the Don’s servants. The ghost proclaims, “No nourishment from mortal food for one who is nourished by celestial food. I am guided here by other cares and cravings that are more solemn than these!” The Don is preoccupied with fulfilling his sensual desires instead of seeking repentance, and we feel a sense of anxious anticipation in this scene. As tension builds between the Don and the Commendatore, we wonder how the ghost will exact his revenge on the Don for his deceit and murder. In similar fashion, Man and Superman’s Ann embraces her natural impulse for sex. Ann proves more headstrong and resourceful than Tanner or the other men in the play, who are forced to submit to her demands.

Even Tanner admits that he and Ramsden, Ann’s legal guardians, “shall have no more control over her than a couple of mice over a cat.”

Moreover, food and drink are symbols of rapaciousness and individuality in both the opera and the play. Absorbed in the contemplation of their own feelings, the intensely individualistic characters in both works seem reluctant to admit the existence of others.

“Pour more wine,” the Don orders his servants in Act II Scene V, as Leporello tries to “eat this piece of pheasant quietly.” Fixated by appetite, they sacrifice the feelings of others to their own sensations and pleasures.

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Similarly, Ann is described as patting Tavy’s cheek “as er than that of either Da Ponte or Mozart. We note that if it were an underdone chop,” highlighting her conde- food tends to appear in witty epigrams in Man and Suscension and contempt in spite of her appearance of perman, rather than assuming a purely literal meaning dainty coyness. This quote foreshadows how Ann un- in the operatic aria, creating subtle and, at times, dark scrupulously manipulates everyone in her life to get her humor. At the same time, Shaw also promotes his own way, as if she were a “black widow spider.” social commentary through his characters.

Both works also make use of food and drink to For example: comment on the characters’ moral values, providing a Malone: Me father died of starvation in Ireland in the lens for us to judge them as morally ambivalent figures. black 47.

“Here’s to women! Here’s to good wine! They are the Violet: The Famine? nourishment and glory of humanity,” the Don passionMalone (with smoldering passion): No, the starvation. ately proclaims. From here we can see that on the indiWhen a country is full of food, and exporting it, there vidual and the political level, there are two sides to the can be no famine.

Don. He represents the Enlightenment ideal of individualism and the passionate pursuit of one’s goals. Yet at As an Irishman himself, he criticizes the English the same time, he threatens social order with his irre- disdain of the Irish through Malone. Such commentary sponsible seductive schemes – “shrewd sober-minded- often appears seemingly abrupt, but this is not surprisness is lacking in him; his life is as effervescent as the ing. In his adaptation of Don Giovanni, Shaw has chosen wine with which he stimulates himself” (Goehr and Herto create a verbal opera in whose witz, 2006, p.149). We can admire universe characters are determined him for his resolve in getting what by what they say. The plot seems he wants; still, he is undoubtedly a to be little more than a succession villain and his bloody demise is a fit- The construction of Man of opportunities for speech, in the ting punishment. and Superman rests on way that the operatic focus is mu Comparably, Ann inverts sic, above all else. Moreover, like the social norm as she goes in ac- secrets that advance the an opera, the construction of Man tive pursuit of Tanner’s affections. plot through schemes of and Superman rests on secrets that She appears to be innocent and deceit and deception. advance the plot through schemes obey social conventions, and so of deceit and deception, namely in manipulates Tanner into marrying Ann’s seduction of Tanner and in her. Moreover, she relishes the fact toying with Tavy’s love. that Tavy “would always worship As emblems of liberty and indethe ground [she treads] on” despite the fact that she pendence of thought, Don Giovanni, Tanner and Ann does not reciprocate his devotion. Yet, just like the Don, represent what Shaw calls the “Life Force.” Although we are not completely able to brand Ann a villainous they are dangerous characters who physically and character. Instead, we judge her morally ambivalent emotionally harm others, we cannot help but like them. character who sees love as a creative effort of the will, Ultimately, we ask: What are we to make of this conand we rejoice at her happy ending with the belligerent flict? What do we find appealing about these characTanner. It is this tension between Ann and the Don’s ters and what repulses us? Do attractive people like the attractive self-assurance and narcissistic individuality Don and Ann have a duty to protect others against their that is the essence of both works. feelings? In this essay, I have analyzed how, through

Man and Superman differs from Don Giovanni food and drink, both the opera and the play allow us in that it makes use of food and drink in its sociopolit- to engage with these questions. Food and drink serve ical commentary, by criticizing societal attitudes. The as a platform that invites us to think and to feel deeply role of food and drink in the opera is mostly limited to about the issues of love and marriage, the appetitive in emphasizing the Don’s dissolution. The materiality of life, and the value of liberty. food, for example, symbolizes industrializing society’s preoccupation with material well-being when the Devil muses, “In the arts of peace Man is a bungler. I have seen his cotton factories and the like, with machinery that a greedy dog could have invented if it had wanted money instead of food.” Similarly, Tanner also attacks society’s selfishness and cruelty as he writes in The Revolutionist’s Handbook that “we cut the throat of a calf and hang it up by the heels to bleed to death so that our veal cutlet may be white; we nail geese to a board and cram them with food because we like the taste of liver disease.”

Shaw’s engagement with food and drink is witti-

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References (1) Goehr, Lydia and Herwitz, Daniel, eds. The Don Giovanni moment: essays on the legacy of an opera. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006, pp. 181-192 (2) Kerns, John (2004). Mozart’s Don Giovanni: An Enlightenment Hero? The Atlas Society. Navigator Magazine (May 2004). Print.

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, and Lorenzo Da Ponte. Il dissoluto punito, ossia il Don Giovanni. New York: Dover Publications, 1964. Print.

(3) Shaw, George Bernard. Man and Superman. London, England: Penguin Books, 2004 (4) “Kierkegaard’s Don Giovanni,” in Piero Weiss, ed., Opera: A History in Documents.

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April marks

the beginning of the seafood season for Maryland residents. Imagine the gentle breeze at Inner Harbor, the smoky flavor from Phillips, and freshly caught crabs and lobsters – who can resist the temptation of the Chesapeake Bay? However, behind these delicacies, there is an underlying waste disposal issue. According to the data in the Maryland State Archives, there were approximately 27 million pounds of commercial seafood landings in 2013.1 Most consumed seafood generates large amounts of shell leftovers, whose valuable components, including chitin, often go unused.

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 ization) occurs in separate steps using strong acid and base.7 In the first step, hydrochloric acid is used to remove calcium carbonate, forming carbon dioxide as a side product. Following demineralization is the denaturation of proteins using sodium hydroxide. Finally, scientists and engineers can apply extraction techniques to collect the desired product chitin.

Fig. 2: Chemical purification of chitin from crustacean waste Process (a) refers to de-mineralization and (b) de-proteinization.

• Biological Fermentation

Fig. 1: Seafood Consuption in Maryland in 20131

Values of Crustacean Shells Generally speaking, the major components of crustacean shells are chitin, proteins, and calcium carbonate.

Although calcium carbonate is extensively used in construction industry, it can be more easily generated from rocks and stones. Purification of proteins can be costly and time-consuming, leaving chitin the most attractive and valuable component in crustacean shells.

Chitin, a polysaccharide in crustacean shells, has hemostatic and antimicrobial properties that catch the attention of many physicians and researchers. By accelerating wound healing, chitin proves to be an ideal natural biomaterial in many tissue engineering applications, including the treatments of burns and skin ulcers.3,4 Chitosan, a derivative from chitin, can form porous hydrogel scaffolds that can be processed into different shapes.2 This hydrogel-forming ability and high porosity makes chitosan suitable for cell attachment and proliferation. In addition, chitosan is valuable for its use in cosmetics due to its high water solubility and absorption-retention ability.5,6

Beneficial Waste Treatments Scientists and engineers use either chemical or biological methods to extract chitin from crustacean shells after washing, drying, grinding or sieving the waste.

• Chemical Processing In the chemical processing method, removal of calcium carbonate (de-mineralization) and proteins (de-protein-

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Biological fermentation also involves the decomposition of calcium carbonate and proteins. However, de-mineralization and de-proteinization often occur simultaneously through lactic acid fermentation.8 More specifically, lactic acid produced by bacteria converts calcium carbonate to calcium lactate, accompanied by the breakdown of proteins by bacterial proteases. This whole process creates a mixture of semi-solid waste, in which the solid phase contains the desired chitin product.

• Chitin to Chitosan After purification of chitin from crustacean shells, chitin can be converted to chitosan using N-deacetylase, which removes of the acetyl groups on chitin side chains.9

Chitin

Chitosan

Fig. 3: Conversion of Chitin to Chitosan

Social Impacts Environmental protection and industrial collaboration number among the many social impacts of crustacean waste recycling.

• Environmental Protection Traditionally, waste management agencies physically break down the crustacean shells into small pieces, which will be slowly degraded by bacteria. As the crustacean shells decay, they release pollutants including ammonia and nitrates that contaminate air and water.2 Therefore, the aforementioned chitin purification processes not only collect the valuable components in the shells, but also serve as a remedy to the environmental pollution from landfills.

The Benefits of

Crustacean

Seafood Waste

Shiyu Xia Cindy Xun Matthew Billups Class of 2016, Chemical & Bimolecular Engineering

spotlight

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 • Shells in a Nutshell Many industries have benefited from crustacean waste, formerly abandoned in landfills. Whether by using strong acids and bases or catalyzing fermentation, engineers have developed processes to extract chitin for a wide range of applications. These products have made profound impacts on society – namely, improving Chesapeake Bay water quality – and continue to inspire innovation.

Acknowledgements We thank Professor Pamela Sheff and Samantha Brandon for advice and support. This research project was funded by the Center for Leadership Education and the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the Johns Hopkins University.

Fig. 4: Landfills full of Crustacean waste

• Industrial and Academic Network

References In the disposal of crustacean waste, chitin-processing industries can es(1) “Maryland at a Glance.” Maryland Mantablish collaboration among waste Many industries have ual Online. Maryland State Archives. Web. management companies, academ(2) Leffler, Merrill. “Treasure from Trash.” benefited from ic institutions, pharmaceutical and Marine Notes 1 Mar. 1997. Print. cosmetics manufacturers. Waste (3) Paul, Willi, and Chandra Sharma. “Chicrustacean waste, disposal agencies can sell chitin and tosan and Alginate Wound Dressings: formerly abandoned in A Short Review.”Artificial Organs 18.1 chitosan to researchers in academia, who can employ these inexpensive (2004): 18-23. Print. landfills. materials for cutting-edge biomedi(4) Khor, Eugene. Chitin : Fulfilling a Biomaterials Promise. Amsterdam: Elsevier cal and chemical innovations. As the Science Ltd., 2001. research products commercialize, they will fuel the pharmaceutical and cosmetics compa- (5) Jimtaisong, A., and N. Saewan. “Utilization of Carboxymethyl Chitosan in Cosmetics.”International Journal of Cosmetic Scinies. ence 36.1 (2014): 12-21. Print.

(6) Chitosan: The Product of Opportunities.” Kraeber & Co GMBH Pharmazeutische Rohstoffe. Web. (7) Davis, Samuel P. Chitosan : Manufacture, Properties, and Usage. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers, 2011.

(8) Arbia, Wassila, et al. “Chitin Extraction From Crustacean Shells Using Biological Methods - A Review.” Food Technology & Biotechnology 51.1 (2013): 12-25. Business Source Complete.

Web. (9) Ravi Kumar, Majeti N.V. “A Review Of Chitin And Chitosan Applications.” Reactive and Functional Polymers: 1-27. Print.

Fig. 5: Chitin-enabled network

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humanities and social sciences

Charity as a Counterweight Gulnar Tuli, Class of 2017 Writing Seminars, Economics

Crime

plays a central role in many of Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novels, becoming intertwined in plot, character development, and larger philosophical questions. It is particularly fruitful to examine Dostoevsky’s intricate depiction of charity through the lens of crime, especially given that charity and crime are generally opposing tendencies. Scholars rarely connect charity and crime explicitly, nor do they sufficiently explore the various facets of charity’s function in Dostoevsky’s novels. There is a distinct tension in his work between material, physical actions, and spiritual reality, a point that becomes hugely relevant when examining charity in the context of crime’s spiritual darkness. I will be bridging this gap in my analysis of Crime and Punishment and examining whether charity can serve as a counterweight to the overwhelming immorality presented by crime.

Critical ideas on Dostoevsky’s depiction of charity can be generally divided into two broad categories: those that take issue with the fundamental notion of charity’s effectiveness in restoring a sense of moral righteousness to the doer of good works, and those that examine the function of charity within the framework of Dostoevsky’s texts. Richard Eastman reaches the conclusion that Dostoevsky’s novels are marked by a distinct tension: “the infernal mood alternates with the celestial; sordid material detail alternates with poetry of feeling; the personality of his protagonists splits between angel and demon” (150)1. This tension is seen in Raskolnikov’s act of charity in offering twenty kopecks to a policeman in order to ensure a drunken girl’s safety. Charity is significant because it embodies a violent contradiction to the materialistic rationalism Raskolnikov holds dear, a principle that eventually leads him to commit murder. Another critic, Richard Chapple, maintains a similar view, stating in his “Catalogue of Suffering in the Works of Dostoevsky,” that “without a foundation in Jesus Christ and active brotherly love” Dostoevsky’s characters cannot and will not attain redemption.

The critics R. E. Richardson and Maurice Beebe, deal more exclusively with the function of charity in Dostoevsky’s novels. Richardson in particular provides a detailed analysis of Svidrigailov in his essay “Svidrigailov and the ‘Performing Self.’” He describes the character as having two identities, one, his “performing self,” being essentially a parody. The relevance of charity is evinced by his observation that Svidrigailov, an evil and dark figure, performs the “only genuinely effective acts

of charity and good will in the novel” (552). Though Richardson does not elaborate further, the notion of Svidrigailov’s acts of charity being more effective than those of Raskolnikov, despite the latter’s genuine repentance, suggests the effectiveness of charity is entirely decoupled from the charitable individual’s spiritual state in Crime and Punishment.

Crime and Punishment: Material Rationalism and the Grand Paradox

Dostoevsky begins his dialogue on the ability of charity to negate immorality with Crime and Punishment. Though the thread of discussion begins in this novel, ultimately charity fails to counterbalance the deep canyon of immorality presented by the two murders committed in its duration. Charity’s impotence is elucidated in the narratives of three characters in particular: Raskolnikov, Katerina Ivanovna, and Svidrigailov. The failure of charity to counterbalance the spiritual nature of crime is the central tension existing in each of the aforementioned characters’ attempts to attain moral righteousness. In Raskolnikov’s case, this dichotomy exists in the warring relationship between the facet of his character that is wholly immersed in material rationalism, and the innate morality that simultaneously courses through him. Katerina Ivanovna’s conflict becomes a matter of her act in and of itself, essentially she conducts an act of ‘reverse-charity,’ and in doing so commits a crime of sorts, as she demands and spurns charity simultaneously. Katerina Ivanovna’s act of anti-charity blends seamlessly into the narrative of Svidrigailov, who then proceeds to commit his own act of charity that clashes with his personal and deeply immoral state of being, as a man who has previously committed various crimes. It is this central tension, existent in the narratives of each character, that demonstrates the ultimate inability of charity as a spiritual tool to restore morality to the doers of these “good works.”

Without the harmony of spirit and action, Raskolnikov, Katerina Ivanovna, and Svidrigailov cannot offset the immorality wrought by their crimes, rendering charity in Crime and Punishment wholly ineffective in this sense.

The Currency of Resurrection

The issues of crime and charity become in Raskolnikov’s case are inextricably linked by the fact that both rotate about the same axis of material rationalism which manifests itself in Crime and Punishment in the language of money. Raskolnikov is driven to the

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20

extreme state of moral depravity that culminates in his nesses the murder of an old horse, bears many similaricommitting murder by the fact that he has no money. ties to the crime he himself commits soon after. For inThis is made apparent on the very first page of the nov- stance, the man engaging in violence towards the horse el, as Dostoevsky describes Raskolnikov as suffering uses an axe, the very weapon utilized by Raskolnikov. from “extreme poverty” (1)2, something that clearly de- Similarly, the horse herself bears a resemblance to the fines him. It is for currency then that his crime is com- old pawnbroker in that they are both aged, female, and mitted. The impetus for Raskolnikov’s murder of the unable to defend themselves against their executioners. pawnbroker is the woman’s perceived wealth, and the These parallels between the dream and the crime itself, opportunity to raise himself from the depths of his fi- are further reinforced when Raskolnikov wakes hysternancial abyss with the money obtained from her death. ical crying, “Good God! Can it be, can it be, that I shall

Raskolnikov’s most significant acts of charity are really take an axe, that I shall strike her on the head, similarly defined by money. His first demonstration oc- split her skull open… that I shall treat in the sticky warm curs when he leaves the Marmeladov home, “snatch[ing] blood?” (49). It is in this very moment when Raskolup the coppers he had received in exchange for his rou- nikov “ma[kes] his way, screaming, through the crowd ble in the tavern and lay[ing] them unnoticed on the to the sorrel nag, put[s] his arms round her bleeding window” (21). In his second act, Raskolnikov, wandering dead head and kisse[s] it, kisse[s] the eyes and kisse[s] through the streets of St. Petersburg, happens upon a the lips,” (48-49) that the scene becomes imbued with young girl, drunkenly blundering down the boulevard. the central point of conflict prevalent throughout Crime He attempts to help her, and in doing so, gives a po- and Punishment. This dream embodies a kind of viscerliceman twenty kopecks in return al, violent opposition in Raskolnikov for her safety. Raskolnikov’s third to the crime he is about to commit, act of charity, more abstract than an opposition that ultimately manIn accepting Sonia, the first two, is similarly defined by ifests itself in the physical world in currency, as it becomes manifest in Raskolnikov extends to the form of charity. Such opposition, his relationship with Sonia. A proshowever, is insufficient. Raskolnikov titute, Sonia is shunned by many her a charitable form of succumbs to his material rationaloutside of her family due to the love reminiscent of Je- ism and murders the pawnbroker. perceived sinfulness of her employ Raskolnikov’s concrete acts of ment. In accepting Sonia, Raskol- sus’ relationship to Mary charity mirror the same concepts nikov extends to her a charitable found in his dream. Just as the charMagdalene. form of love reminiscent of Jesus’ itable love he dreams of is eventurelationship to Mary Magdalene, his ally overcome by his pragmatic most striking form of charity. This rationalization of murder, his physparticular charitable act is entwined in the language of ical acts of charity are similarly negated. The inability money, as prostitution is itself a financial transaction, of Raskolnikov’s charity to counteract and prevent the the act of taking money in exchange for scheduled use spiritual decay that is evident in his crime lies in his maof one’s own body. It is only because Sonia participates terial rationalism, and in its interference in preventing in this tainted form of monetary exchange that Raskol- either of his first two acts of charity from being propnikov’s final act of charity (his friendship with Sonia) is erly executed. In his gift of money to the Marmeladovs brought to life. In this way, the concepts of crime and and his attempt at protecting the young girl on the charity become bonded more securely to each other, street, he demonstrates a sense of regret towards his and to the conflict between Raskolnikov’s material ra- own benefaction, bordering on contempt. Directly aftionalism and the “irrational” goodness or morality that ter Raskolnikov lays change on the windowsill of the serves to combat it.

Marmeladov residence, he begins to reproach himself for having done so, thinking, “What a stupid thing I’ve done” (21). He undermines his next act of charity in a The Dream and the Coin

The narrative of Crime and Punishment and thus similar way as, after helping the drunken girl, he is overof Raskolnikov’s spiritual journey is hinged on this cen- come by “a complete revulsion of feeling” (41). He then tral dichotomy. Raskolnikov is torn between the innate attempts to stop the policeman who he previously paid rationalism that motivates his crime, and the sense of to aid the girl home, murmuring to himself, “And why morality that threatens to topple it. This sense of mo- did I want to interfere? Is it for me to help? Let them rality, of good, that proves such an integral facet of devour each other alive – what is it to me?” (41). It is Raskolnikov’s nature, presents itself first in his dream of Raskolnikov’s lack of desire to fully execute his acts of a mare being flogged to death, and then in the two acts charity that ultimately undermines both his act of givof charity that he engages in prior to committing the ing money to the Marmeladovs and his attempt to help murder. These are the moments in which his “irrational” the drunken girl. In both moments, his material rationalmorality surfaces, but despite creating the possibility of ism dictates to him the absurdity of philanthropy.

The inability of either of these two acts of charsalvation, ultimately fails.

Raskolnikov’s dream, in which as a child he wit- ity to counterbalance Raskolnikov’s rationalism culmi-

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20 spotlight nates in his ultimate crime as he sheds the blood of the old pawnbroker and her younger sister. It is only after the crime is committed, however, that Raskolnikov fully rejects the spiritual value of charity, thereby rendering it ineffective at counterbalancing the immorality of the murder. It is in this negation of charity that Raskolnikov’s debased spiritual state is indelibly marked. Soon after the murder, Raskolnikov, standing on the Neva Bridge, is mistaken by a woman and her daughter for a beggar; who give him a twenty-rouble coin. Some time passes, and almost unconsciously, Raskolnikov “opens his hand, stares at the coin, and with a sweep of his arm flings it into the water” (93). With this one motion, he does away with the concept of charity altogether, severing finally the last bond between himself and irrational love, the charitable spirit that struggled to counterbalance the darkness of material rationalism that lies within him.

The function of charity in the narrative of Raskolnikov and hence in Crime and Punishment itself is one of negated value, in that it is unable to undo the immorality presented by murder. This is due in large part to Raskolnikov’s own state of mind- he is forever teetering between his material rationalism and his innate sense of morality. This central dichotomy ultimately leads to Raskolnikov’s own fragmented state and the ineffective stance of charity as a counterweight to Raskolnikov’s murder. In the scene in which Raskolnikov throws away the coin he does two things: he flings away charity and, in a last defiant plea, does away with material rationalism as well. The coin is dually symbolic of both charity and currency, the rational motivation for the murders.

Neither material rationalism nor morality prevails, and Raskolnikov’s spiritual state is rendered null; charity is not able to triumph against the dark, bloodless swamp of the taking of a life.

Reverse-Charity: Katerina’s Mistake

Katerina Ivanovna upholds this notion of charity as ineffective in Crime and Punishment through her self-contained act of begging. By simultaneously asserting her own sense of self-righteousness, and inflating her own ego, she embodies another failed union of the spiritual and the material. By forcing her children to beg for money, an attempt to raise their financial position which simultaneously causes them harm, Ivanovna snatches away their innocence. Her act of counter-charity functions on three levels: the first being her act of reverse charity by begging, the second being her attempt to aid her children by lifting their economic situation, and the third being the manner in which this itself erases the particular kind of charity already existing in her three young children. Children in the world of Dostoevsky represent an opposite pole to crime as the epitome of innocence and naivety. They physically embody a form of charity in their love and trust of that which they cannot perceive.

Ivanovna parades the children up and down the

humanities and social sciences street in a mad consumptive haze, and “if she noticed any decently dressed person stopping to look, she immediately appealed to him to see what these children ‘from a genteel, one may say aristocratic, house,’ had been brought to,” (336). She forces the children into a figurative fall from grace, and then exploits it in an attempt to coax charity from others in the form of money. In asking for charity, her children are forced into a ridiculous spectacle in which they are humiliated, wiping away their innate innocence and charity. Policemen eventually drag Katerina away from the scene, a short time after which she dies. The manner in which Katerina’s act of reverse- or counter-charity so concisely demonstrates charity’s failure in Crime and Punishment to negate the immorality of crime is striking. Ivanovna’s attempt to earn charity for her children destroys the charity innate within them. The net-balance of spiritual goodness is therefore negative.

Katerina’s death, however, offers up a new counterbalancing of events. Suffering from consumption, the excitement of the act of parading her children probably hastened her death. Her act of reverse-charity, doing more harm than good, stimulates Svidrigailov into an act of charity of his own. After the death of Katerina Ivanovna, he decides to fund the upkeep of her children, thus elevating their condition. The manner in which these separate acts of reverse-charity and charity wrestle each other with regard to the morally effective nature of charity itself is complex in this instance and requires further investigation.

Svidrigailov: The Dark Benefactor

Svidrigailov, arguably the most morally bankrupt and spiritually dark character in Crime and Punishment, executes what is, on a concrete level, the most effective act of charity in the entire narrative. By providing financial support to the newly orphaned Marmeladov children, Svidrigailov improves the quality of their lives, sparing them from starvation and death. Svidrigailov himself has committed unspeakable crimes, including attempting to rape Dunya. It is therefore even more surprising that his act of charity is so effective. The irony implicit in seeing Svidrigailov, the most immoral character in the novel, serve as the most effectively charitable is striking. Nonetheless, his charity is not able to overcome the immorality of his many crimes.

It is Raskolnikov’s response to Svidrigailov’s death that serves to elucidate Svidrigailov’s own spiritual state. Raskolnikov, directly before confessing to his own crime of killing the pawnbroker and her sister, hears that Svidrigailov has committed suicide from Ilya Petrovitch. Petrovich tells him “he had lost his wife, was a man of reckless habits and all of a sudden shot himself, and in such a shocking way… he left in his notebook a few words: that he dies in full possession of his faculties and that no one is to blame for his death,” (416).

Svidrigailov has killed himself, with no obvious reason, in a totally sane and lucid state of mind. Raskolnikov, whose spiritual journey parallels that of Svidrigailov in-

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humanities and social sciences nately understands the meaning of Svidrigailov’s suicide. Consequently, Raskolnikov turns himself in to the authorities. He realizes that Svidrigailov, unable to attain spiritual balance through his acts of charity, had essentially ‘turned himself in’ to the highest authority of all - the Christian God.

Conclusion

Though Dostoevsky’s argument develops further with time through his novels The Idiot and The Brothers Karamazov, charity in Crime and Punishment is proven a morally shallow gesture. Acts of charity are consistently tied to ideals of material rationalism, and always revolve around currency. Raskolnikov, Katerina, and Svidrigailov all struggle against the current of material rationalism, and none of them are pure of spirit. The very structure of their charity, being financial, coupled with the murkiness of their intent culminates in the ineffectiveness of their charitable acts in negating the dark immorality presented by the acts of crime throughout the novel. This analysis evolves through The Idiot and The Brothers Karamazov, as Dostoevsky ultimately portrays characters who are able to effectively subvert the immorality presented by parallel instances of crime. This success, in contrast to the acts in Crime and Punishment, is due to the lack of affiliation of those acts of charity with material rationalism, a concept Dostoevsky shows is capable of blackening even the kindest of gestures.

References (1) Eastman, Richard M. “Idea and Method in a Scene by Dostoevsky.” JStor. National Council of Teachers of English, n.d.

Web. 11 Oct. 2012.

(2) Dostoevsky, Fyodor, and Constance Garnett. Crime and Punishment. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2001. Print.

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20 spotlight

science and engineering

Living in Groups:

An Analysis of Social Animal Behavior Ka Ho Nicholas Cheung, Class of 2016 Biomedical Engineering

Introduction For animal species, living in solitude is considered the norm, whereas group living is deemed the exception for two main reasons. First, by choosing to live alone, an individual eliminates competition for common resources, such as food, nesting sites, and mates. Second, individuals stand a lesser chance of contracting a communicable disease that could lead to illness or death since they are isolated from the rest of a population (Byers, 2013). Why, then, do some exceptional species choose to live in groups despite diminished resources and an increased chance of exposure to infectious diseases?

I will discuss certain benefits that may outweigh the drawbacks to living among group members.

Protection from Predators One of the main advantages of traveling in a group is the protection it provides. As W. D. Hamilton suggests, animals in groups act collectively in order to selfishly avoid predators. With this fundamental idea, Hamilton claims that most animal groups are composed of species of prey formed in specific geometric characterizations to maximize safety. For example, in the “frog” model, each individual of prey has a polygonal “domain of danger” composed of lines that bisect at right angles to some neighbors. When a predator reveals itself, individuals will move in a way that minimizes their particular polygon (Hamilton, 1971). Each individual vastly strengthens its ability to survive by decreasing the probability of predation. It chooses to aggregate since it is more advantageous to be sick and undernourished than to lose the chance of reproduction, namely, through death (Byers, 2013). These animals protect themselves by forming groups in certain geometric patterns, but there are other group mannerisms that can also offer group members protection from predators.

The social lifestyle of the joint-nesting smooth-billed anis (Crotophaga ani), found in the Amazon rainforest, involves a cooperative alarm system. In a study published in Animal Behavior, L. A. Grieves, et al., examined the smooth-billed anis’ group alert system, made up of at least two alarms, the “chlurp” and the “ahnee” (Grieves et al., 2014).

Figure 1

The black bar represents the “chlurp” alarm and the gray bar represents the “ahnee” alarm in Figure 1, which depicts the data obtained by the group (Grieves, et al., 2014). In response to the “chlurp” alarm, anis either dove down or flew low to the ground, an appropriate measure to avoid a flying, raptorial threat. In response to the “ahnee” alarm, anis that were close to the ground flew up into the sky, and anis already perching in a high branch did not respond; this data correlated to the anis appropriate responses to ground threats. As anis are poor fliers, they have developed a group alert system to alert each other of potential threats (Grieves, et al., 2014). This alert system makes each responding individual less vulnerable to predators. Grieves, et al. showcased the anis’ ability to respond to different sounds corresponding to different threats. This demonstrated their efficiently-evolved predator evasion system, which contributes to their survival as individuals in a group (Grieves, et al., 2014). Vocalized alarms allow animals to detect and avoid predators to ensure their own survival (Byers, 2013).

Mobbing Mobbing is a defense tactic whereby an individual spots a predator and signals the threat with a vocalized alarm to warn others. The common terns (Sterna hirundo), found in the Galapagos Islands, tend to mob in nest-related activities. Usually, the terns take flight in a dense flock to circle above a potential predator and dive down to attack collectively. Clode, et al. studied the mobbing of the common tern by exposing the terns to predator models in order to determine whether mobbing was an innate response. Interestingly, the terns, as a flock, exhibited selective targeting based on geographical habitation. Clode, et al. concluded that

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science and engineering mobbing was not an innate response to any intruders (Clode, et al., 2000) and may be a learned behavior that varies according to the geographical populations of predatory species.

Figure 2

Improved Feeding Ability Some animal species, like the social spider, can actually improve their feeding ability through cooperation.

Although most spiders live in solitude, several species in eight families rely on a tolerant and interactive community to survive. These special types of spiders have evolved into social species mainly defined by three distinct characteristics. First, they must have released their aggressive nature towards their co-inhabitants.

Second, they must be motivated to interact with other spiders. Third, they must display these acts of interaction through cooperation (Kullmann, 1972). With these requirements, spiders can work together to enhance their feeding ability. In a study of the social theridiid (Anelosimus eximius), found in tropical Panama, Wolfgang Nentwig compared the size of the prey caught by the social spiders to that of the prey of other, asocial, web-building species. The social spider preyed primarily on large insects (10-20 mm). Figure 2 shows the prey sizes of the social spiders (solid line) and the asocial spiders (hatched area) in two different locations (Nentwig, 1985). At Cerro Galera and El Valle, the mean prey sizes for the social spiders were 10 ± 9.5 mm and 16.8 ± 11.2 mm, respectively, which were significantly bigger than the hatched size for the asocial spiders as shown. The social spiders’ success in capturing larger prey could be accounted for by their cooperative behavior. These social spiders lived in a communal web that every spider helped to maintain (Nentwig, 1985). When the web successfully trapped an insect, the social spiders worked together to attack the insect simultaneously (Nentwig, 1985). These joint efforts allowed for more success in the capture of prey of any reasonable size, leading to their improved feeding ability as a group.

Similarly, surgeonfish practice schooling to benefit from living in a group. Individuals in schools are able to reduce their vigilance of predators so that they can increase their time searching for food and provisions. Nancy Wolf studied the ocean surgeonfish (Acanthurus bahianus), a family member of the yellow-tailed surgeonfish (Paracanthurus

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20 hepatus) found in the Galapagos Islands, and its foraging habits. She measured the amount of time the surgeonfish spent on five activities: foraging, swimming, getting cleaned, hovering, and engaging in aggression.

Table 1: N. Wolf / Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology (1987) 21: 59-63

As Table 1 suggests, the surgeonfish in the school spent significantly more time foraging and significantly less time swimming compared to the individual surgeonfish (Wolf, 1987). The increased foraging time is crucial to young fish because it allows them to grow larger while being less susceptible to predators. Another appealing aspect of schooling could be the surgeonfish’s access to algal growths that are usually occupied by territorial damselfish (Eupomacentrus). Under normal circumstances, the damselfish are able to defend their territory against individual surgeonfish. However, the damselfish became overwhelmed when a school of surgeonfish approached and permitted access to the incoming school (Wolf, 1987). For this reason, the midnight parrotfish (Scarus coelestinus), a fish in the same genus as the Galapagos azure parrotfish (Scarus compressus), also school with a type of surgeonfish known as the blue tang surgeonfish (Acanthurus coeruleus). Through this mixed schooling, the midnight parrotfish also gained access to the algal turfs normally dominated by the damselfish (Alevizon). Group living thus provided additional feeding opportunity to animals within and, at times, outside of a species.

Fitness and Reproductive Facilitation Some animals perform altruistic actions, behaviors that reduce an actor’s fitness while increasing the fitness of the recipient. Altruism is not common, and usually only occurs among relatives. Ants (Formicidae) are eusocial insects that exhibit what J. A. Byers calls “the ultimate form of altruism” in that they forgo their own ability to survive and reproduce in order to advance the procreation of one or a few fertile queen ants in a colony. Ants work in an altruistic group to elevate their inclusive fitness, a concept that weighs the survival of relatives over that of an individual’s own offspring (Byers, 2013).

Wright’s Coefficient of Relationship r – a measure of how closely related two individuals are – and its relationship to the overall progression of a gene can determine how an ant allocates its time and resources (Hamilton, 1964).

In general, a benefit (B) multiplied with a fraction of the degree of relatedness (r) must outweigh the cost (C) for

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 an ant to act altruistically. This equation Br > C, famously known as Hamiltonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rule, provides a quantitative perspective on the dynamics of social living in ants and other animals (Byers, 2013). Thus, ants, following Hamiltonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rule, live together in colonies to maximize their inclusive fitness to facilitate the longevity and survival of their genes.

In similar fashion, the Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella), a member of the same genus as the Galapagos fur sea lion (Arctocephalus galapagoensis), live in social communities where some altruism occurs in fostering (Gemmell, 2003). This has obvious benefits for the pups in the social circle but harsh drawbacks for the caregiver, since, for many mammals, milk production is very energetically expensive. Neil Gemmell explored the role of kin selection in Antarctic fur seal fostering.

science and engineering spiders (Nentwig, 1985).

Furthermore, individuals vocalize to alert their group of imminent danger and trigger defensive responses in the group. The smooth-billed anis, depending on the class of vocalization, either fly into the air or fly low to the ground to evade predators (Grieves, et al., 2014). The common terns, on the other hand, dive towards predators collectively in order to harass and attack the source of their threat (Clode, et al., 2000).

Certain species enhance their reproductive facilitation through group living. The yellow-tailed surgeonfish live together for increased safety, which leads to an increase in foraging time and the enhanced nutrition of young surgeonfish (Wolf, 1987). Ants also work in colonies to promote inclusive fitness, sacrificing their own ability to reproduce in order to sustain their group (Byers, 2013). In the same vein, social fur seals have evolved to foster close relatives in their social groups through selective suckling (Gemmell, 2003).

Conclusion In this essay, I have synthesized studies that relate to social group life with fauna found in the biodiverse Ecuadorian Amazon region and the Galapagos Islands. The advantages of protection from predators, increased feeding ability, and enhanced fitness and reproductive facilitation, however, are neither limited to the region, nor unique among the factors encouraging social life in groups. Though social animal behavior is ostensibly an exception in nature, it occurs across diverse animal groups and regions.

References

Figure 3: Gemmell, N. J. / Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 270: 2033-2037

In Figure 3, the black bars (n = 162) represent female fur seals suckling their filial progeny. The grey bars (n = 21) represent the females suckling their foster pups. Finally, the white bar (n = 33672) serves as the control â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the background noise between two random seals in the population. Gemmell knew the relationship of the mother-filial pairs, but did not know what relationship the foster pups had with the caregiving foster females. By testing the null hypothesis, Gemmell found that the foster pups were in fact close relatives of the caregiver. His conclusion points to inclusive fitness as a way to ensure the gene survival of a species.

Discussion For most animals, living alone benefits the individual, who finds more access to resources, like food, and is less exposed to infectious diseases. However, many species prefer to aggregate in order to secure protection from predators, increase feeding ability, and enhance fitness and reproduction. While animals must share their collected food, for instance, they overcome this impediment by adapting to catch larger prey, as illustrated by the case of the social

(1) Alevizon, W. S. (1976) Mixed Schooling and Its Possible Significance in a Tropical Western Atlantic Parrotfish and Surgeonfish. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists 4: 796-798 (2) Byers, J. A. (2013) Animal Behavior. London: Oneworld Publications.

117-147. Print.

(3) Clode, D., et al. (2000) The influence of risk and vulnerability on predator mobbing by terns (Sterna spp.) and gulls (Larus spp.). Journal of Zoology, London 252: 53-59 (4) Gemmell, N. J. (2003) Kin selection may influence fostering behavior in Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazelle). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 270: 2033-2037 (5) Grieves, L. A., et al. (2014) Joint-nesting smooth-billed anis, Crotophaga ani, use a functionally referential alarm call system. Animal Behavior 89: 215-221 (6) Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7: 17-52 (7) Hamilton, W. D. (1971) Geometry for the Selfish Herd. Journal of Theoretical Biology 31: 295-311 (8) Kullmann, E. J. (1972) Evolution of Social Behavior in Spiders (Araneae; Eresidae and Theridiidae). American Zoologist 12: 419-426 (9) Nentwig, W. (1985) Social spiders catch larger prey: a study of Anelosimus eximius (Araneae: Theridiidae). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 17: 79-85 (10) Schaller, G. B. and Crawshaw, P. G. (1980) Movement Patterns of Jaguar. Biotropica 12: 161-168 (11) Tinbergen, N. (1965) Social Behavior in Animals. London: Chapman and Hall. 54-56. Print.

(12) Wolf, N. G. (1987) Schooling tendency and foraging benefit in the ocean surgeonfish. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 21: 59-63

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science and engineering

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Dopaminergic circuitry regulates post-mating amino acid intake in Drosophila melanogaster Wakako Horiuchi, Class of 2016 Neuroscience Abstract This project aims to better understand the neural circuitry behind the regulation of amino acid intake in Drosophila melanogaster by focusing on its molecular and cellular signaling pathways. In order to survive, insects, like mammals, must obtain certain proteins from their diets because they cannot synthesize all of the vital amino acids within their bodies. For example, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster needs to acquire certain proteins from its diet for female egg production. This paper hypothesizes that the dopaminergic neurons in Drosophila melanogaster are responsible for sensing the presence of needed proteins in food, and its neuronal circuitry and molecular mechanisms are explored.

Introduction The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is unable to synthesize all of the amino acids necessary for proper function in-vivo, and therefore must acquire these essential amino acids through its diet. After a period of starvation, in which there is no protein intake, flies will alter their diet to regulate protein levels, suggesting that flies are able to recognize protein-rich foods (1).

Protein intake is especially important to mated female flies because the process of creating eggs from amino acids imposes a greater demand for protein synthesis and thus requires an increased amino acid intake (2).

Without a sufficient protein intake, females can survive, but do not lay eggs (3). The importance of amino acid intake has been studied extensively, but the neural circuitry of the aforementioned feeding behavior is still largely unknown. This study aims to isolate the neurons responsible for the apparent preference of protein-rich foods in Drosophila melanogaster.

Methods Feeding behavior- Ten flies between the ages of one to four days were collected in molasses medium food vials and entrained to a twelve-hour light and dark cycle at 25°C for two days. The flies were dry-starved in empty vials for two hours. They were then flipped into food vials made of dyed, solution-infused tissue. The different vials contained solutions of 50mM sucrose, 50mM sucrose with 7.5% yeast, or a banana or molasses mixture.

Flies were allowed to feed for twenty minutes in darkness, and then frozen at -20°C to be scored. Scoring consisted of observing each fly’s abdomen and judging based on how far the dye has traveled in the fly’s body.

All flies found to have eaten the food were homoge-

26

nized in DD H2O and absorbance was measured to calculate the amount of food ingested.

Two-choice assay- Fifty flies were collected in vials with sucrose solution-infused tissue and entrained to a twelve-hour light and dark cycle at 25°C for two days.

Flies were tested under two temperature conditions: 25°C and 32°C. Flies that were tested in the 32°C conditions were subjected to wet-starvation for four hours, and then cold-anesthetized for ten minutes. Flies that were tested in 25°C were subjected to wet-starvation for longer periods, up to 8 hours, then cold-anesthetized. MicroWell MiniTrays were used to make food plates, and each well on a given food plate contained 25uL of a 1.5% agarose substrate and either blue or red tasteless food dye. The blue dye was assigned as the yeast-only food, while the red dye contained the sucrose-only food. After being allowed to feed for two hours in darkness at the given temperatures, flies were frozen in -20°C and scored by examining the color of their abdomen. The preference index for substance A was then calculated as:

Results

Figure 1. Mated females exhibit a greater intake of food, but specifically yeast-containing food.

As previous studies have suggested, the food intake of wild type mated females were greater than the virgin females or the mated males (Figure 1). As the concentration of yeast increased, the food intake of mated females increased exponentially while the mated males showed no significant changes in food intake.

However, it is interesting to note that the wild type virgin females showed a small increase in food intake as the yeast concentration increased. The flies displayed a significant change in food intake only with

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 yeast-containing food, but not banana, cornmeal, molasses, ethanol, glycerol, nor fatty acid-containing food.

science and engineering essential amino acids in the body (4) but also to directly sense the presence of amino acids in the food.

Slimfast (slif) is an amino acid transporter that activates the TOR (target of rapamycin) signaling pathway. When slif expression is knocked down specifically in dopaminergic neurons, the yeast intake is suppressed. To follow the signaling pathway, when TOR is down-regulated, the yeast-containing food intake decreases (Figure 4).

Figure 2. Silencing dopamine neurons suppress yeast intake in mated females.

When the Kir2.1 potassium channel is driven by tubGal80ts, we expect the food intake for the fly to decrease. However, the phenotype of increased food intake for yeast-containing food was suppressed only with the TH-Gal4 lines (Figure 2). When dopamine neurons were silenced in the two-choice assay, the silencing of dopamine neurons was shown to have no significant preference for yeast-containing food when expressing Kir tub-Gal80ts or TH-Gal4 alone did show a preference. We have yet to test the effect of UASKir2.1 tub-Gal80ts expressed in 386y and SLC neurons.

Figure 4. Down-regulating the TOR pathway decreases Drosophilaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s yeast-containing food intake

Figure 3. Food intake of DopR2 mutants decreases.

To target a specific dopamine receptor, our experiments found that the food intake of DopR2 mutants is decreased, consuming less yeast-containing food (Figure 3). DopR2 mutant flies also displayed a different food preference, where the control flies preferred the yeast-only food but DopR2 mutants did not discriminate between the sucrose-only or yeast-only food.

In order to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the yeast-preference and greater food intake, we hypothesize that dopaminergic neurons, specifically PPM2-WED, are able not only to sense the lack of

Figure 5. Normal expression of SPR promotes consumption of yeast-containing food

The increase in protein-rich food intake is specific to mated females as compared to mated males or virgin females (Figure 1). This is consistent with the hypothesis that mated females have a greater protein demand due to production of eggs. In an attempt to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms, SPR (sex peptide receptor) expression was altered.

Figure 5 shows the normal expression of SPR promoted the fly to eat more yeast-containing food, representing the mated female state. When SPR is down-reg-

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science and engineering ulated in TH and Câ&#x20AC;&#x2122;4 neurons, the food intake decreases significantly. When SP is expressed in dopaminergic neurons of virgin female flies, thus inducing a mated state, the virgin flies show an increase in yeast-containing food.

Discussion The relatively simple brain networks make Drosophila melanogaster an ideal model system to study behavior experiments. In our experiments, yeast is used as the protein source. 60% of yeast is protein, which includes both essential and nonessential amino acids. The sucrose solution represents a major source of carbohydrates in the fruit fly, while yeasty food represents the protein source, and banana solution represents another natural protein-lacking food source.

The female Drosophila undergo a significant dietary switch following mating, leading it to prefer yeast-enriched foods over food without yeast. The increase in yeast intake is modulated by dopamine neurons (Figure 2). Kir is a potassium channel that decreases the activity of the neuron by hyperpolarizing it. TH-Gal4 lines target neurons that express tyrosine hydroxylase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway for dopamine. As expected, our experiments with the TH-Gal4 lines showed a decrease in yeast-containing food intake, consistent with our hypothesis that dopamine neurons regulate the protein-rich food intake.

In Drosophila, there are four dopamine receptors. A mutant for one of the dopamine receptors is DopR2. Our feeding experiments (Figure 3) reflect that the food intake of DopR2 mutants is decreased. The two-choice assay was conducted to test if DopR2 mutant flies consumed less yeast-containing food simply because of a lowered appetite, but experimental results show that there is a yeast-specific regulation that decreased the feeding of the DopR2 flies. This is consistent with our hypothesis that dopaminergic neurons regulate the intake of yeast-containing food in mated females.

Next, we studied the neuronâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to detect the presence of amino acids in the food, causing a preference for it.

Slif is a transmembrane amino acid transporter protein that activates the TOR signaling pathway. TOR signaling causes a preference of yeast over only sucrose (5). The TOR pathway is able to sense when a fly is lacking in amino acids, thus promoting he fly to seek protein-rich food sources. By down-regulating the TOR pathway through RNAi specifically in dopamine neurons, we observed a decrease in their yeast-containing food intake (Figure 4). The RNAi knockdown expression level of Raptor, a TOR associated protein, was also shown to lead to the same phenotype.

SP is normally synthesized in the male and transferred into the female during copulation. The injection of PS into virgin flies promotes the fly to have a series of changes in behavior, including rejection of other males and egg production and deposition (6). Thus, the sex peptide is what causes the change from a virgin female to a mated female fly. The increase in food intake of the virgin females expression SP (Figure 5) suggest that SP acting through SPR on dopaminergic neurons modulate yeast intake.

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20 Conclusion This project attempts to demonstrate the neuronal circuitry and underlying molecular mechanisms behind the increased yeast-containing food intake of mated female flies. The PPM2-WED subset of dopaminergic neurons was isolated to modulate the yeast intake/preference. Amino acid transporters transport the essential amino acids into the cell, activating the TOR pathway and activating DopR2 in a downstream neuron to promote the consumption of protein-rich foods. This process is gated by mating, as modulated by SP and SPR.

Figure 6. Schematic of Gene Network

References (1) P Itskov, C Ribeiro, Frontiers of Neuroscience. 7, 12 (2013).

(2) N Toshima, T Tanimura, The Journal of Experimental Biology 2827 (2012).

(3) J Bouletreau-Merle, Ann. Journal of Animal Ecology. 481 (1971).

(4) M Bjordal, N Arquier, J Kniazeff, JP Pin, P Leopold, Cell 154, 510 (2014).

(5) C Ribeiro, BJ Dickson, Current Biology 1000 (2010).

(6) E Kubli, Bioessays 779 (1992).

hurj spring 2015: 2014: issue 20 18 spotlight

science and engineering

Production of Supercapacitors from Liquid-Phase Exfoliated Graphene Alec Farid,§ Yinsheng Guo,‡ Elizabeth Thrall,‡ Giselle Elbaz,‡ Andrew Crowther,‡ and Louis E. Brus‡ § Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD ‡ Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY

Abstract Reported here is an effective, low-cost method for the preparation of graphene using a new liquid-phase exfoliation procedure, and the construction of a graphene supercapacitor. The graphene in these studies was produced using high concentrations of sodium cholate followed by treatment with the organic solvent acetonitrile. Treatment with acetonitrile reduced the surfactant concentration from 77% to 15%. The method yielded large amounts of few-layer graphene with high capacitance and conductivity. The supercapacitors were made by drop casting the concentrated graphene solutions onto aluminum substrates, and impedance and charge rate were measured. The capacitance varied between 0.5 mF/g to 0.1k F/g. Notably, all materials and equipment used in this method are easy to obtain and relatively safe, supporting the potential scalability and commercial production of graphenebased supercapacitors.

Introduction Graphene is one of the allotropes of carbon, arranged in a two dimensional lattice of hexagons that resembles a honeycomb pattern. It is very similar to graphite, which consists of multiple stacked layers of graphene.

Graphene’s tensile strength is 130 GPa, which is about 3000 times stronger than structural steel, making it the strongest known material (1). This is attributed to the strength of the bonds between the carbon atoms (2). The hexagonal structure of graphene still allows elasticity while maintaining its structural integrity (3).

In addition, graphene has remarkably high in-plane thermal conductivity of 5000 W·m-1·K-1, which is more than 10 times that of copper. Furthermore, graphene is being considered in the fabrication of supercapacitors.

Supercapacitors, or double-layer capacitors (DLC), are known for having high power densities compared to batteries (4). Use of supercapacitors is appealing because under the correct conditions, they can charge very quickly while releasing stored charge slowly, acting like a quick charging battery. Supercapacitors are particularly appealing as replacements for batteries in electric cars or electronic devices such as phones. Instead of overnight charging for an electric car or phone, with supercapacitor energy storage, the devices could potentially be charged within minutes (5).

Independent studies have shown that graphite can be exfoliated in specific solvents, generating few layers of

relatively pristine graphene (6,7) This method relies on solvents with low surface tension to facilitate graphene exfoliation.4 However, the drawback to this process is that the solvents currently used are generally expensive and toxic. A liquid phase process that uses water as the primary solvent and results in a significant yield of exfoliated graphene without oxidation or chemical treatments is highly desirable. Previous research has indicated a relatively straightforward method for producing graphene using surfactant-assisted aqueous phase exfoliation with ultrasonication (8). By modifying this method, we were able to develop a simple, safe, inexpensive, and high-yielding procedure for the exfoliation of graphene. The extracted graphene was of a higher quality and suitable for incorporation into functional capacitors.

Methods and Materials Materials Deionized, filtered water was used for all experiments.

Graphite flakes (size 1-3mm), CAS Number 7782-42-5, were as needed. ≥99% pure, solid sodium cholate hydrate, CAS Number 206986-87-0, was used to make stock solutions in water that were then diluted. All materials were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich.

Measurement and equipment methods All Raman spectroscopy measurements were performed with a 514 nm argon ion laser focused to a spot of about 1 µm in diameter using a 40x (0.6 NA) objective, with 500 µW power. The grating that was used had 600 grooves/mm. Raman scans were performed in high and low frequency ranges each for 60-300 sec. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed using a GSC1 TGA in a nitrogen atmosphere at atmospheric pressure with sample sizes of greater than 2 mg and less than 20 mg, most being 10±2 mg for consistency. Measurements started with settling to 30°C for 2 min., then ramping to 150°C at 20°C/min. and settling for 30 min. This was followed by ramping to 1000°C at 10°C/min. Ultraviolet visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy was performed with a Hewlett Packard 8453 spectrophotometer at a wavelength range of 200-1100 nm Electrochemical measurements, including cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and chronopotentiometry (CP), were performed using a PARSTAT 2263 potentiometer with three electrode cell potentiometer with a working, ref-

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science and engineering erence, and auxiliary electrode. EIS was measured over a frequency range of 100 mHz to 100 kHz. CP was used to measure the capacitors at a current of 0.01 µA–10 mA for 15-120 s and was used to calculate capacitance.

Graphene solution exfoliation Sodium cholate hydrate was added to water at a concentration of 10 mg/mL or 50 mg/mL and stirred until completely dissolved. All surfactant concentrations were above the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of the sodium cholate, which ranges from 11-18 mm in water (9). Graphite flakes were then added to the solution at 50 mg/ml and sonicated in a bath sonicator for 2 or 24 hrs. Sonicated solutions were then centrifuged at 500, 2000, 5000, or 11000 rpm for 90 min. and the top 50% of the centrifuged solution was decanted for use, and the rest was discarded. Variations were made in the method stated to aid in graphene isolation and are described below. Most samples were centrifuged at 5000 rpm; the other speeds were used as tests for efficiency of graphene isolation or increased graphene concentration and are discussed below. This method was based on a previously described aqueous-phase exfoliation method using sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS),8 but was modified due to the inability to reproduce the published results.

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 Figure 1. (A) Graphene/SC solution. (B) Graphene/SC solution with acetonitrile in a 1:1 ratio after 20 minutes of settling.

(C) Graphene/SC solution with acetonitrile washed twice, settled for 24 hours and decanted. This solution has clumps of graphene suspended in it forming a slurry of graphene, acetonitrile and a small amount of surfactant. (D) On the top is an aluminum electrode with the defined area in which 0.1 mL of graphene solution will be drop casted onto. On the bottom are two of the above electrodes stuck together with a sticky silicon spacer. Parafilm is placed around the spacer to prevent electrical shorting of the surrounding aluminum.

Graphene Isolation The need to use high concentrations of sodium cholate hydrate required that a method be developed for isolating the graphene from the surfactant. Adding an organic solvent, acetonitrile, in volume ratios of 1:1 to 1:4 graphene/surfactant solution to organic solvent caused the graphene to precipitate out of solution (Figure 1 (B)). The solutions were allowed to sit undisturbed for 24 hours and then decanted, discarding the top 90% of the solutions. The sediment was washed twice with additional solvent followed by decanting to remove as much surfactant as possible. The solution that remained was a graphene/organic solvent slurry (Figure 1 (C)).

Capacitor Preparation Aluminum electrodes were prepared by wrapping aluminum foil around a glass microscope slide (Figure 1 (D)). Sticky silicon spacers with a diameter of 9 mm and width of 0.8 mm were used to make the area consistent between electrodes. These spacers were placed on the aluminum foil, and the graphene solutions were drop-casted, with consistent volume of 50 µL, into the area contained by the spacer. Electrolytes consisting of sulfuric acid, lithium chloride, potassium chloride and mixtures thereof, with a concentration of 0.5-1 M, were added with a volume of 25 µL before pressing the two electrodes together to form a two-walled capacitor.

Results & Discussion Prior to sonication, graphite in the graphite/surfactant solution settles quickly on the top or bottom of the water. However, after sonication, the particles in solution do not settle. Centrifugation helps drive unexfoliated graphite to the bottom of the centrifugation tube. At 500 rpm, the suspension has some reflective particles in it, indicating that graphite is still present in the solution; characterization by optical microscopy confirms that large particles are still present in the solution. At 2000 rpm, the solution is noticeably lighter while still remaining opaque. For the sodium cholate (SC) solution at 5000 rpm centrifugation, the solution is near opaque and no precipitate settles out of the solution. Graphene presence was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy (Figure 2).

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hurj spring 2015: issue 20

science and engineering Figure 3. This plot shows the calculated capacitance measurement of frequency taken with an EIS using sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. The black plot shows the low surfactant concentration capacitor has between one and four orders of magnitude larger capacitance than the graphene capacitor without the surfactant removed (gray plot).

Conclusion

Figure 2. Raman spectra of few-layer graphene obtained from drop-casted graphene/SC solution on Si/SiO2 prior to (gray) and after (black) treatment with acetonitrile. Capacitors created directly from this solution are highly contaminated with sodium cholate. TGA analysis (data not shown) reveals that the mixture is approximately 70-80% SC, rendering the films completely insulating. Addition of the organic solvent, acetonitrile, was attempted in order to break up the micelles and solubilize the graphene. Acetonitrile was successful in precipitating the graphene out of solution and reducing the surfactant content in solution from 77% to 15% mass. Optical characterization of the graphene showed that the flakes were in contact with one another rather than in suspension with the surfactant. Figure 2 shows that surfactant peaks at ~1450 and ~2900 cm-1 are significantly reduced after acetonitrile treatment (black) while the graphene G and 2D peaks remain relatively constant. The 2D peak width indicates many, small flakes of graphene stacked in a disordered arrangement. Raman spectra and TGA confirm lower surfactant concentration in addition to confirming no change in graphene quality.

EIS measurements of low surfactant graphene films show higher capacitance than that of films with higher amounts of surfactant.

A Nyquist plot (data not shown) of a low surfactant graphene film shows close to ideal electrical properties in many of the capacitors produced (10). The black trace seen in Figure 3 indicates that the graphene sheets are relatively conductive, with equivalent sheet resistances of 2-4 Ω. The capacitors, although not ideal, show relatively high capacitances, varying from 500 µF/g to 100 F/g, over the frequency range measured (11). However, the capacitors lose about two orders of magnitude of capacitance over the course of 24 hrs. This is attributed to damage to the capacitor resulting from exposure to sulfuric acid electrolyte.

A new procedure for creating graphene suspensions in water was demonstrated and confirmed to be viable and efficient at exfoliating graphene. This new method creates few-layer graphene, and characterization suggests that the graphene is relatively pristine. The addition of organic solvents to high concentration surfactant solutions allowed for the isolation of graphene that could be used without significant contamination from surfactant. With the slurry of purified graphene, double-layer capacitors were created and shown to have relatively high capacitances of up to 100 F/g, a significant improvement over their surfactant containing counterparts. All the solvents and solutes used in this method are not only easy to obtain, but are also inexpensive and comparatively safe. Additionally, this scalable method is easy to reproduce and only requires common laboratory equipment. The simplicity inherent to this method makes this procedure viable for larger scale commercial production of graphenebased capacitors.

Although over 80% of SC was removed with the addition of organic solvents, more washing or other organic solvents may be more efficient at isolating graphene from surfactant and would likely result in even higher purity graphene solutions, and subsequently increase the capacitance. With further improvements to the consistency and shelf life of the capacitors, graphene-based supercapacitors could be viable replacements for batteries as faster charging, higher energy density power storage devices.

References (1) C Lee, X Wei, JW Kysar, J Hone, Science 321, 385 (2008).

(2) IW Frank, DM Tanenbaum, AM Van der Zande, PL McEuen, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 25, 2558 (2007).

(3) X Liu, TH Metcalf, JT Robinson, BH Houston, F Scarpa, Nano Lett. 12, 1013 (2012).

(4) R Kötz, M Carlen, Electrochimia Acta, 45, 2483 (2000).

(5) C Liu, Z Yu, D Neff, A Zhamu, BZ Jang, Nano Letters, 10, 4863 (2010).

(6) P Blake, PD Brimicombe, RR Nair, TJ Booth, D Jiang, F Schedin, LA Ponomarenko, SV Morozov, HF Gleeson, EW Hill, AK Geim, KS Novoselov, Nano Lett. 8, 1704– 1708 (2008).

(7) Y Hernandez, et al. Nat. Nanotechnol. 3, 563–568 (2008).

(8) M Lotya, Y Hernandez, PJ King, RJ Smith, V Nicolosi, LS Karlsson, FM Blighe, S De, Z Wang, IT McGovern, GS Duesberg, JN Coleman J Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 3611 (2009).

(9) E Fuguet, C Ràfols, M Rosés, E Bosch, Analytica Chimica Acta, 548, 95 (2005).

(10 R Kötz, M Carlen, Electrochimica Acta, 45, 2483 (2000).

(11) F Deflorian, L Fedrizzi, S Rossi, PL Bonora, Electrochimica Acta, 44, 4243 (1999).

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Digital Pathology in the NHS:

Will machines replace the pathologist and a microscope?

Alfred Chin Class of 2018, Chemical & Bimolecular Engineering

hurj spring 2015: issue 20

As technology

rapidly advances, the practice of medicine evolves to further improve patient care. Digital pathology introduces technology that continues to reshape the pathology landscape, and this poses the question of whether pathologists will shift away from microscopy. In order to assess whether machines will replace the pathologist and a microscope, we will review several factors: microscopy in pathology; the roles, capabilities, and advantages of digital pathology over traditional pathology; and key considerations for digital pathology adoption.

Microscopy in Pathology The NHS defines pathology as “the study of disease, its causes and progression” and recognizes four main specialties: chemical pathology, haematology, histopathology, and medical microbiology1. While branches of pathology such as chemical pathology and haematology are less dependent on microscopy and employ other chemical laboratory techniques to analyze body fluids, other branches such as histopathology and surgical pathology are heavily dependent on microscopy2.

Histopathologists conventionally diagnose diseases by using light microscopes to examine glass slides containing thin sections of human tissue3. Samples are prepared by staining thin sections of tissue blocks with chemical or through immunological methods, and then placing them onto labelled glass slides3. Modern optical microscopes have virtually advanced to a degree beyond improvement.

Current developments in optical microscopy focus on expanding into new fields, simplifying the systems involved, and developing a single system for multiple applications4.

Surgical pathology, the study of tissues removed from living patients to diagnose diseases and determine treatment plans, includes both physical examination of tissue with the naked eye and microscopic examination of processed tissue5. Important decisions in the operating room are frequently dependent on intraoperative consultations with pathologists, and the consultations usually require rapid microscopic examination of fresh tissue6. A surgical pathologist’s examination of tissues removed during breast cancer surgery, for instance, assists in deciding whether to remove lymph nodes under the arm5.

Although the standard optical microscope is fundamental in pathology, technological advancement has introduced more sophisticated types of microscopy for pathologists.

In optical microscopy, new imaging methods based on rapid advancement in photonics have been developed, including laser confocal scanning microscopy4. Using the confocal concept of traditional optical microscopy with a laser as the light source, the laser confocal scanning microscope continuously scans multiple layers of living cells or tissue slices to acquire the complete 3D images of each structural layer of a single cell or local structure of a group of cells4. Another class of microscopy pathologists use is the electron microscope, which uses electron beams – with much shorter wavelengths than those of photons –

science and engineering as the light source. Compared to optical microscopes that have maximum magnification power of a few thousand times, modern electron microscopes can increase their maximum magnification power to more than 300 million times, allowing researchers to directly observe biological structures at the molecular or atomic level4.

The Roles and Capabilities of Digital Pathology The Digital Pathology Association (DPA) defines digital pathology as a “dynamic, image-based environment that enables the acquisition, management and interpretation of pathology information generated from a digitized glass slide” and recognizes its potential to reduce laboratory expenses and improve treatment decisions and patient care7. In current digital pathology, a glass slide is loaded into a scanner where a microscope moves back and forth over the slide while technology captures the image8.

While it continues to grow and evolve in response to clinical, regulatory, or economic demands, digital pathology has four core capabilities: creating, viewing, analyzing, and managing digital slides9. Therefore, successful digital pathology requires appropriate integration of cutting-edge hardware and functional software. Whole slide imaging (WSI), the widely used technology contributing to the exponential growth of digital pathology, exemplifies coordinated integration of hardware and software by employing various scanning techniques – such as tiling, line scanning, and dynamic focusing10 – to render an entire glass slide, visible at resolutions of less than 0.5 µm, that can be examined with interactive software on a computer screen11,12.

This efficiency is crucial to digital pathology’s ability to replace “the pathologist and a microscope” because pathologists no longer need to use microscopes to view glass slides, which are digitized for viewing on screens.

Although digitized glass slides are now a reality, which types of microscopy can digital pathology currently replace? Currently, two types of imaging in commercial scanners are prevalent in WSI: brightfield and fluorescenct13,14. Brightfield WSI is the most common and least complicated type of imaging in scanners13, and its function is similar to that of standard optical microscopy – to analyze stained histological sections at high magnifications15.

Fluorescence WSI, as the name suggests, functions on the same principle as standard fluorescence microscopes, but it is less common and more costly compared to brightfield WSI13. A notable example of successful implementation of digital pathology in fluorescence imaging is the pathological analysis of HER2-overexpressing breast cancers, which can be evidenced by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) or IHC16. Traditionally, pathologists manually examine slides for staining intensity and the number of colored cells, resulting in variable visual estimates8. Digital Pathology incorporates software that measures intensity in every pixel to quantify intensity measurements, allowing analyses to become more dependable8. In terms of acquisition, slide scanners use the tiling or line scanning approaches to obtain the images (tiles or strips) that, when fitted together into a single large image, form the whole slide image that is not possible with the limited field of view of microscopes13. The ability to provide pathologists

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science and engineering a comprehensive, clear view of an entire slide in one image, as opposed to constantly moving a microscope’s field of view, is a key feature of digital pathology.

Aside from digitizing glass slides, digital pathology provides an additional feature not present in microscopy: computerized image analysis. Increased computational power and improvements in image analysis algorithms have driven the development of powerful computer-assisted analytical approaches to biomedical data, making diagnoses more accurate17. Using mathematics similar to that used in traditional spectroscopy18, spectral imaging is a technique that “acquires an image along with an optical spectrum captured at every pixel”, and its superior performance over visual examination or RGB imaging contributes to the development of novel qualitative and quantitative tools for interpreting conventionally stained samples19.

Digital Pathology: Advantages Over Traditional Pathology There are many factors facilitating the growing success of digital pathology: Workflow efficiency- In traditional pathology, microscopy in a pathologist’s workflow is neither streamlined nor efficient. Conventional microscopy requires pathologists to constantly take their eyes off the lens and refocus their eyes back onto the lens afterwards. Compared to traditional pathology, digital pathology provides increased workflow efficiency. Since pathologists can now access repositories that consolidate patient information with digitized slides (Figure 1), view samples on a computer monitor, and control their work with a mouse21, there is no need for unnecessary and uncomfortable switching between microscopy and paperwork.

Slide management- Figure 1: Traditional pathology versus digital pathology (adapted from Reference 8)

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 for excessive glass slide handling. Labs can hire biomedical scientists to scan the slides and return them directly to storage21, which allows pathologists to devote more time towards analyzing samples. In addition, digital pathology systems can create digitized slides and upload them to a repository where electronic documents (patient history and various test results) can be linked to the specimen file, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows how digital pathology allows multiple reviewers to simultaneously view and discuss digitized slides and supporting documents by accessing digital pathology repositories, expediting pathology services and eliminating the costs and risks of transporting glass slides.

Slide analysis- Pathologists have been handling glass slides the same way for over a century8, examining slides for features such as the intensity of staining and the number of colored cells8.

However, visual estimates vary between pathologists, resulting in subjective analysis8. Moreover, pathologists do not look at every spot on every slide due to microscopes’ field of view, and they have to assess various attributes such as internal structure, color, texture, and intensity with only a small number of cells8.

Although further consultation improves the quality of slide analyses, transporting glass slides is not easy. “You put a glass slide in the mail, and it takes two or three days – even with the fastest methods – to get there,” says George K. Michalopoulos, chair of the pathology department at the University of Pittsburgh in an article about digital pathology’s ability to make diagnoses faster and more accurate8.

Digital pathology improves slide analysis in terms of accuracy and speed. Unlike the limited field of view in microscopy, the comprehensive, easy-to-view slide images rendered by WSI allow for more thorough inspection8. Furthermore, computerized image analysis equips pathologists with more tools to make accurate diagnoses. For instance, Gene Cartwright, head of Omnyx, imagined pathologists wanting to quantify many stains used on the same slide8. “If there were five stains and you want to judge their intensity by eye, forget it,” explains Cartwright in Scientific American8. “You can’t do it, but it’s pretty easy for a computer to analyze the intensity of different colours,” adds Cartwright. In terms of consultations, digital pathology repositories make digital slides available for consultation with pathologists around the world within seconds8.

Key Considerations for Digital Pathology Adoption Despite the numerous advantages outlined above, many technical and practical issues must be resolved before digital pathology can be fully embraced12.

Cost and required infrastructure- The cost of purchasing,

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Whether it is looking for slides, loading slides onto microscopes, or matching slides with paperwork22, traditional pathology wastes a considerable amount of time on handling glass slides. Time and motion studies supported by GE Healthcare and the University of Pittsburgh Medical Centre (UPMC) have shown that pathologists spend up to 15% of their professional time matching slides to paper requisitions and looking for glass slides12,22. The process of sending glass slides for further consultation – a crucial part of quality analysis due to each individual pathologist’s subjectivity – delays diagnoses, as shown in Figure 1. Furthermore, both the costs and time delays associated with shipping glass slides and the risk of valuable slides being lost or damaged during transport prevent under-resourced locations from being able to access pathology services12.

Unlike traditional pathology, digital pathology reduces the need

implementing and maintaining a WSI system can be prohibitive, depending on the scope of the digital pathology service under consideration, and especially for small pathology groups in non-academic institutions or in situations where a compelling business case cannot be made12. Apart from the cost of scanners (in excess of US$100,000-150,000 apiece), one must consider the cost associated with training of pathology staff and lab personnel, service contracts, technical support during the installation phase and ongoing use, digital slide storage and retrieval, and regulatory or licensure issues that may have to be addressed12.

Speed of acquisition- Due to the extremely high resolution of images rendered by slide scanners, slide scanning is currently very inefficient8. Although today’s scanners can be loaded with over 400 slides and can scan slides continuously, round-theclock operation of multiple scanners is required to completely digitize the slide volumes of a typical academic department12,24, and rescanning is required for a variable percentage of slides12.

At UPMC where a single scanner runs at two minutes per slide,

hurj spring 2015: issue 20 around 1.5 million glass slides are prepared annually, which means scanning slides for the medical center for a year would take about three million minutes8.

Data management- Development of an effective data management system that can handle huge amounts of data (terabytes to petabytes), provide a streamlined image-retrieval process, and ensure security with currently available medical information systems remains an area of concern12,25-27. Due to rapid technological advances in the area of digital processing and storage and the availability of effective compression algorithms, current difficulties related to the management of digital slide archives can be overcome12.

Regulatory approval- In order for digital pathology technology to be fully adopted by the pathology community, there needs to be standard benchmarks, operating procedures, and guidelines12. Guidelines on monitor resolution and image quality and standards to create interoperability between WSI platforms, file compression, and retention of digital slides used for diagnostic purposes are only beginning to appear12,28. In addition, medico-legal and licensure guidelines governing the use of WSI systems for providing diagnostic services across jurisdictional boundaries have not yet been established12.

Pathologists’ perceptions- Widespread adoption of WSI for primary diagnosis will not occur if pathologists continue to perceive that digital pathology is inferior to light microscopy12,29,30.

Fortunately, validation studies have been published to change this perception. Jukic et. al investigated intra-pathologist diagnostic discrepancy rates and diagnostic certainty between glass and digital slides, and they concluded that the use of WSI technology would not have adversely affected patient care or the diagnostic certainty of each pathologist12,31. Fallon et al. reported 96% concordance between WSI and original light-microscopy diagnoses of ovarian tumour frozen-section cases – including benign, malignant, and borderline tumours – at the time of surgery, and the discrepant cases were associated with well-known inter-observer variability issues and not WSI function12,32.

Conclusion Due to the overwhelming capabilities and advantages aforementioned associated with digital pathology adoption, digital pathology will replace “the pathologist and a microscope” – though not pathologists – in most cases in the near future. In fact, digital imaging is proven to be successful in delivering improved patient care; digital imaging in the form of filmless radiology has already been successfully implemented in most radiology institutions and practices29. However, advanced forms of microscopy such as electron microscopy in pathology do not seem affected by current technology because most slide scanners are either brightfield or fluorescence14.

Digital pathology is already being implemented into the NHS. NHS England published a report on its National Pathology Programme titled “Digital First: Clinical Transformation through Pathology Innovation” highlighting current digital pathology initiatives ranging from low complexity to high complexity34.

While digital pathology continues to shape pathology, its full adoption will not occur overnight. Pathologists feel familiar with microscopes. “No one will go cold turkey in replacing conventional scopes,” explains Cartwright8. In addition, multiple considerations must be addressed prior to the full adoption of digital pathology. Fortunately, rapid development of greater computing processing, continued publication of numerous validation studies, and rigorous

science and engineering policymaking can effectively address the aforementioned considerations.

Although microscopes have been iconic in pathology, pathologists’ shift to screens will certainly make patient care more accurate, efficient, and effective.

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