Power Produced Poverty

Power Produced Poverty ‘EVALUATING THE CONTRIBUTION OF URBAN REGENERATION TOWARDS REDUCING DEPRIVATION IN NINE ELMS’

Halima Haq (w1731058) | BA (Hons) Architecture | University of Westminster

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Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 3 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4 Historical Context and Adaptive Re-Use .......................................................................... 8 Alternative Development Methods: Community Architecture .................................... 12 Local circumstances: The Methodology ........................................................................ 17 Findings and Discussions ................................................................................................ 18 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 27 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 28 Appendix .......................................................................................................................... 30

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Abstract The subject of this dissertation is to evaluate the negative social, and economic effects, that urban regeneration has on communities that originally reside in the area being developed.

To unfold this question, I will present the global perspective of regeneration, focusing on economic and GDP growth. And in relation, I will use the regeneration of Nine Elms district – specifically the development occurring at Battersea Power Station – as a case study. The intentional selection of a project that is incomplete, provides me the opportunity to speculate about the future of the development. I would like to discuss what I have discovered from my research and propose a different scheme of development that could be employed instead of development led by economic investment.

Acknowledgements I'd like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to my tutor Gwyn Lloyd for assisting me with this project, his guidance has led me to carry out great research. And a thank you to the course leader, Ben Stringer, for directing me to study the development of Battersea Power Station.

Third, I'd like to thank Keith Garner for his assistance in understanding the historical context and evolution from a non-financial standpoint.

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Introduction A brief stroll around any town in central London will undoubtedly reveal a structure encased in scaffolding, some distant cranes, or just a vista obscured by faint big buildings. All of this is due to London's status as a global metropolis in an increasingly globalised world. Whilst the economy has shifted dramatically in recent decades as a result of 1980s postindustrialisation. The UK government fostered the establishment of a new economy, notably in tourism, retail, and finance, to replace the lost employment in the primary and secondary industries. This is one of the most significant variables in the rapidly changing urban environment that we are experiencing today. To attract international investment and tourists, improve urban decline, and prevent deprivation, the United Kingdom has sought to rebrand and renew its cities through the process of regeneration.

A definition for this is provided: “Urban regeneration is the attempt to reverse decline by both improving the physical structure, and, more importantly and elusively, the economy of those areas. In all regeneration programmes, public money is used as an attempt to pump prime private investment into an area.” (Weaver, 2001) Most regeneration initiatives overlook their social obligation to enrich, and safeguard society's most disadvantaged citizens in favour of strengthening the economy, and catering to private clients. Hence, it can be argued that regeneration schemes insufficiently utilise public funds to provide little back to the community. For instance, the United Kingdom is currently undergoing its greatest housing crisis in history, with a decrease in both availability and affordability. Since Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher took office, there has been an estimated “1.4 million fewer households in social housing than in 1980” according to the gov.uk. Ironically, this has been a direct result of privatisation. Efforts have been made to produce these homes; however, such projects are either dismissed as unaffordable or lacking funding or they quietly let the discussion disappear. Professor Zukin argues that “regeneration fails to address such inequalities but also plays a significant role in creating and reproducing them” 1.

Located in Nine Elms, The Battersea Power Station, a grade 2 listed structure spanning 160 metres (520 feet) by 170 metres (560 feet), has recently been at the vanguard of London's most significant urban redevelopment projects. The revelation in 2012 that the historic monument was being sold once again sparked renewed interest in the brick-cathedral-style Power Station. Over decades, the value had increased as more landed was added around the Power Station. Malaysian developers rushed to buy it. The reconstruction of the land began with plans to make the Power Station the centrepiece of the 42-acre complex, which

1

Sharon, Zukin. Naked City. New York. Oxford University Press. 2009.

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would feature new retailers, cafés, and restaurants. This would be another addition to the skyline of London. This is one of the largest projects as the likes of the London 2012 Olympics and London Docklands (see figure 1).

Figure 1: Battersea Power Station Masterplan

This project, on the other hand, has drawn a lot of criticism because it is primarily focused on private investment and the building of luxury riverside units for sale to foreign investors.

Wandsworth Council has been chastised for allowing developers to reduce affordable housing from 636 to 386 units, a 40% fall from initial plans. The mayor Sadiq Khan is disappointed by this decision too (see figure 2 & 3). A glance at the large masterplan raises concerns about the scope of facilities available for local people – the size and funding are

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minimal. Aside from the phase 4a medical facility and few affordable homes, the plan does not feature any educational facilities.

Figure 2: Twitter Screenshot Figure 3: Newspaper featuring Mayor Sadiq Khan unhappy with cuts to affordable housing

In this paper, I will be evaluating how effective this regeneration project will be for the area of Nine Elms. In my research, I aim to take influence from Jane Jacobs and provide better solutions for places that are experiencing dereliction, neglect, and urban decline. In her book, ‘The Death and Life of Great American Cities’, a critique on 1950s urban planning schemes, Jane Jacobs argues that “cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, only because, and only when they are created for everybody 2”. This view is the driving force of the essay and will allow me to explore how far this regeneration project is contributing to the improvement of Nine Elms. A discussion about the project will initiate in two parts (see figure 4), first through the Battersea Power Station, and then through the development of apartments around it. It is important to distinguish apart the historical development of this land from the new proposed regeneration project taking place.

2

Jane, Jacobs., 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House. Pp. 105.

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Figure 4: Diagram illustrating the two parts of the regeneration scheme

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Historical Context and Adaptive Re-Use The Power Station's history is critical to understanding the final proposed regeneration scheme. In this part, I will discuss the numerous strategies that failed and why they failed.

Nine Elms, located on the south bank of the Thames, is experiencing redevelopment as a result of the site of the renowned Power Station, which is now under construction. J. Theo Halliday and Giles Gilbert Scott designed the Battersea Power Station in 1940. The river's convenient location allowed for the delivery of coal for power generation, and cold water was obtained straight from its source.

The Power Station operated for over five decades until being decommissioned for the 1970s Clean Air Act (CAC), as well as Thatcher’s intention to denationalise electricity. It produced ‘a fifth of London's power at its peak, providing energy to some of the city's most renowned monuments, including the Houses of Parliament and Buckingham Palace’ 3. The Station’s death was inevitable; alongside a change in fuel choice, the generating equipment had also fallen into disuse (see figure 5). It was intended that the land it sits on be used for additional dwellings. Following many years of struggle, Keith Garner – architect and activist of Battersea Power Station Community Group (BSPCG) – campaigned and wrote to Historic England and managed to save the beautiful brick building in 1980, by getting it listed. This added architectural and historic value.

Figure 5: The Battersea Power Station before disuse

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The History, batterseapowerstation.co.uk, https://batterseapowerstation.co.uk/about/heritage-history?filter=1929

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The CEGB held a developer-led competition in 1983. The concern was that it was developerled. It was not conducted in accordance with RIBA guidelines. It was about developers making financial proposals in a very poorly handled competition, it had the save Wandsworth at its heart, but it didn’t stop Battersea becoming a recreational facility. As a result, John Broom became the first developer. With his huge success at Alton Towers in Staffordshire, a country home where a theme park was erected in the grounds, he tried to translate the same concept at Battersea. The idea was perilous, with an estimated cost of £35 million, and would require over 2 million visits every year to turn a profit (see figure 6).

Figure 6: The theme park proposal

After igniting this leisure redevelopment scheme, the other proposals that followed shortly after were centred around similar ideas (figure 7). Parkview International, a Hong Kong-based development firm, purchased the Power Station with the surrounding site, and its outstanding debt of £70 million from Bank of America in 1993 for £10 million. As well as leisure, they wanted the site to include retail and housing. However, these developers were notorious for demolishing old sites and erecting new high-storey private housing. With the Power Station, they tried to bend the grade-listing rules, and pull-out faults in the chimneys, yet they were unsuccessful as reports proved otherwise. The Battersea Power Station Community Group (BSPCG) activists were against this proposal claiming there was “no affordable housing anywhere 4” on the site and argued “if you surround it [Power Station] with buildings 15 storeys high, you don’t have a landmark anymore 5”.

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Jessica Cargill Thompson, Battersea Power Station, TimeOut.com, 2006, https://web.archive.org/web/20121016210632/http://www.timeout.com/london/features/2001/2.html 5 Jessica Cargill Thompson, Battersea Power Station, TimeOut.com, 2006, https://web.archive.org/web/20121016210632/http://www.timeout.com/london/features/2001/2.html

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Figure 7: The Power Station’s roof was removed for the theme park proposal

The REO proposal arrived shortly after Park View sold the property to Real Estate Opportunities in 2006. It was reported that the previous designs had been scrapped, and architect Rafael Viñoly was appointed as the new project manager for the Battersea Power Station Masterplan. He envisioned a 300-meter-tall tower as well as an 'Eco-Dome,' which would incorporate shops, apartments, and a recreational facility. Along with other criticisms, London's then-mayor Boris Johnson referred to it as an "inverted toilet-paper holder” (see figure 8). It was a somewhat fresh proposal, creating a biomass power station. The design would keep the roots of the past and reap the fruit of the future of electricity. Nevertheless, this proposal was also scrapped.

Figure 8: The Eco Dome Proposal

At the same time, across the United Kingdom, Power Stations were being transformed into gallery spaces, which is what happened with the successful Tate Modern. According to a local architect at Battersea, Keith Garner, whom I interviewed, Tate Modern Director Nicholas Serota initially came to Battersea Power Station to claim a large building for a gallery space, however “he decided that it was too big and in [the] poorest state”. Many developers

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neglected the building because it was too big to work with and often some fell into debt trying to repair it. The activists, including Garner, and BSPCG founder, Brian Barnes, the Battersea Power Station Community Group (BSPCG) fought long and hard for it to become a museum or gallery, but their voices went unheard.

Other proposals included an Urban Park by Farrell and Partners, who suggested demolishing all the chimneys as well as the central boiler hall 6. However, because of the building's listed status, they were unable to make any alterations to the design in this way. Although there wasn’t a formal proposal from them, some architects drew up plans, sketches, or very beautiful renders. However, this did not change its fate of becoming a leisure facility.

The current plan is split into four phases (see figure 1), the Power Station is becoming a big shopping mall and the surrounding land will feature Frank Gehry and Foster + Partner’s luxury penthouses, built for investment. The American Embassy (see figure 10) is also expected to move on this location, as are two new underground stations that will serve as an expansion of the Northern tube line (see figure 9). There was always a discussion about housing. First, through the demolition of the Power Station itself. Then, through the vacant land surrounding the empty station. Each time there was a twist to it, making it about luxury flats, apartments, fancy housing, some hotels, or offices. A conversation regarding housing and affordable living was always abandoned since it did not pique the interest of developers.

Creating a cultural centre was only suggested a few times, and the Power Station's concern of debt and ambiguity in the vision prevented it from becoming a museum or gallery. After all, the government funded the project with a combination of public and private funds.

Figure 10: American Embassy

Figure 9: New Northern line extension

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Battersea Power Station: the latest attempt to save the crumbling landmark, Telegraph, 2012, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/articles/Battersea-Power-Station-the-latestattempt-to-save-the-crumbling-landmark/

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Alternative Development Methods: Community Architecture According to the historical trend, the winning proposal was the one that could generate the greatest money. Through this urban renewal, the developer's primary goal is economic investment. This is not at the publics best interest; therefore, I would like to discuss alternate community development methods with the borough and beyond. The aim is to discuss a solution for deprivation. To explain how the surrounding land (see figure 2) may have been utilised, the historical backdrop for housing must be brought up.

The housing crisis has been, and continues to be, a result of poor governance as matters spirals out of control. With the introduction of the 'right to buy scheme' by the Thatcher government, social housing residents were allowed to purchase their residences at a significant discount, leaving the authority with very little money to build new properties. The quantity of social housing units available has since decreased dramatically. In addition, housing associations were granted permission to utilise private funds to construct new dwellings. Private investors pumped up housing prices. Yet, by 1993, despite rising mortgage and rent prices, salaries were unchanged from 20 years earlier. This dramatic shift was proving to be a challenge for working class people, which forced some families to migrate to up North. By 1996, the establishment of the "buy-to-let initiative" made it simpler for individuals to invest in real estate by providing specialty mortgages that factor in rental revenue 7. All these factors have contributed to unaffordability and lack of homes for those in need.

Many worldwide cities, Hong Kong, San Francisco, and London, to the name the few, are both victims and perpetrators of the housing crisis. Numerous studies into the issue of the housing crisis flag the construction of skyscrapers and luxury flats as a key contribution to unaffordability because of private investment turning homes into commodities. Thus far unsurprisingly, the governments of these cities allow their economic desires to dominate them, allowing this constant money-making scheme to continue. This concept unfolding at Battersea begs the question, “how could anyone possibly object to regenerating land and property as a pre-requisite to securing London’s economic future?” (Rob Imrie, 2014, p. 14).

This raises the concerns of placemaking, cultural heritage, sustainability, and community architecture, all of which revolve around a social landscape that developers ignore in order to achieve a given aesthetic, and economic value.

Neighbourhoods cannot exist simultaneously merely with tall buildings. Families, be they married, unmarried, with or without children, must have adequate housing, safe streets without traffic, local shops, parks or greenspaces, school, and healthcare facilities, at a close radius (Jacobs, 1993). Modernism, the architectural style that emerged during Thatcher’s 7

L.M. McMullan, H.O. Osborne, G.B. Blight and P.D. Duncan, ‘UK housing crisis: how did owning a home become unaffordable?’, The Guardian [website], 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/business/ng-interactive/2021/mar/31/uk-

housing-crisis-how-did-owning-a-home-become-unaffordable

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control, is heavily flawed, and the effects are devastating till this day. The discovery of new technological design processes and materials such as concrete allowed for the creation of tall office buildings, flats, and social housing blocks. However, there were serious social problems; many families living in a single tall building resulted in conflict, isolation, mental health issues, and the lack of autonomy. The architecture wasn’t flexible or sustainable.

What the government thought was a ‘slum surgery’, by demolishing dwellings and placing the families into brutal towers, became the leading cause of societal ills. Recent political leaders, particularly David Cameron, have not been shy about their aversion towards these sink-estates and impoverished areas of London. They are reverting to the ways of Thatcher, urging an appeal to “knocking them [estates] down and starting again” (Estate regeneration: article by David Cameron, 2016). The issue in the past and present is simply the same, the government refuses to improve existing conditions but uses public money for private amenities.

Architects cannot improve their towns and cities without including everyone in the design process. Why are we allowing tall vacant towers plague the urban fabric, when architecture has the ability to heal, make its residents happy, and healthier? Regeneration schemes need a revision in which public money is pumped into, not only creating, but also, improving existing neighbourhoods to become sustainable, eco-friendly, and healthy. Good design with public involvement. Charles Knevitt coined the term community architecture in 1975.

Theoretically speaking, community architecture is a hypernym for ‘community planning, development, design, and aid’ (Knevitt, 1987). Architects and designers of the Battersea Power Station, proudly declare themselves ‘place makers’, and echo their vision of creating a ‘place’ numerously in ‘The Battersea Power Station Placebook’ document, however their glossy words lack substance, and remove the people from the equation (Vijay, 2018, p. 614).

In reality, what is described as a place in which “people will be able to…come and sit in a restaurant or buy their cheese or fresh bread” (Skilton, 2014, p. 29) is a glimpse of gentrification waiting to happen. The ‘Placebook’ describes placemaking as a “challenge” 8, however, if we draw inspiration from community architects, placemaking can become a fun, inclusive, and a beautiful process.

WALTERS WAY: THE ANARCHIST HOUSING ESTATE Situated not too far from Nine Elms, is The Walter's Way. The complex of self-built residences in south London, were built in the 1970s amidst the housing crisis. Lewisham council advocated for this community architecture project led by architect Walter Segal – a progressive approach for new build developments (see figure 11). It involved giving 14 families on the housing waiting list an opportunity to build their own homes on a derelict land. Within 11 short months they created beautiful timber homes with simple carpentry 8

The Placebook: Battersea Power Station. [e-book] London: Battersea Power Station. 2014. Available at: <https://www.jtp.co.uk/cms/pdfs/The-Placebook_Battersea-Power-Station.pdf>

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skills, under the guidance of Segal. The homes were built in a sustainable manner using locally accessible materials, were low-rise, and were created to the occupants' satisfaction.

This eliminates over half of the difficulties associated with the social housing frameworks that were imposed on individuals.

Figure 11: Lewisham self-build group

First, the issue of maintenance and repair is resolved because, during the construction process, individuals gain an understanding of the structures they are building and will inhabit, making it easy to chart any issues and avoid creating them in the first place, given the effort involved in the construction process. This is less expensive for local governments to administer. Second, when families build their houses together on this little plot of land, they may lend a hand to help each other, diverse members of the community of all ages and races get involved, and these members will then live side by side (see figure 12). This is what place making entails. It brings delight to the community and promotes an overall well-being.

Residents will feel safe in their neighbourhood and even develop new friendships through the construction process.

Figure 12: Community architecture at Lewisham

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Self-build homes relieve families of the strain of having to make do with what they've been given. In contrast to the limits in typical social housing blocks, which often constrained families of 5 and more into 2–3-bedroom flats, there is freedom to construct areas for their unique needs. Communities may meet their own demands, resulting in dwellings that are likely to survive for a long period.

HOLMES ROAD STUDIOS: HOME FOR THE HOMELESS The Holmes Road Studios, built by none other than Peter Barber, is another outstanding community-based initiative. It consists of 59 double-height studio apartments arranged around a communal courtyard (see figure 13). The homes are built for homeless individuals, and the programme provides them with rehabilitation, as well as the opportunity to learn skills that will allow them to live self-sufficiently in the future. The low-rise architecture allows for plenty of natural light, and the opposite-facing residences provide a sense of neighbourhood. The architecture is beautiful and aims to heal the loneliness and vulnerability that these citizens once experienced. The project was prized the RIBA London Award 2021 for beautiful small scale sustainable architecture.

Figure 13: Holmes Road Studios

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URBAN SPLASH HOUSING 'Live well by design,' Urban Splash's new manifesto, is their vision of altering housing in the UK to create a neighbourhood, encourage natural wellbeing, and integrate it around a sustainable design (see figure 14). The manifesto's 'Live well by accident' chapter outlines how its architecture fosters 'healthier routines' with minimal effort. A design that supports natural lighting in the building to facilitate a normal sleep cycle is an example of this, as is the replacement of a street full of cars with a central green courtyard that promotes wildlife, gardening facilities, and children reclaiming the streets to play. Furthermore, users have the option to design their homes according to their own requirements and then have the house assembled on site. Offsite construction of these buildings reduces carbon emissions and excess waste.

Figure 14: Urban Splash Housing

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Local Circumstances: The Methodology The fundamental goal of regeneration programmes is to remove deprivation in the neighbourhood. The Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) is a measure of how deprived a region is based on the combination of seven factors of deprivation. Income, employment, education, health, crime, living environment, and barriers to housing and services are among them 9 (see figure 15).

Figure 15: The Index of Multiple Deprivation

To analyse the primary development region, I used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies, comparing the data to neighbouring areas such as housing estates near the Power Station. The IMD data is gathered from 'DataWand,' a credible source that includes hundreds of indicators from several publications and sources, including Data.Police.uk, the Office for National Statistics, Public Health England, and gov.uk. Second, I conducted an Environmental Quality Survey (EQS), which provides me with a numerical score to assess the environment and quality of life.

The qualitative approach I have carried out includes photos taken around the area, which will support the Environmental Quality Survey data, as well as an interview with architect Keith Garner who has been involved in campaigning for the community of Battersea from the onset of the closure of Battersea Power Station, the transcript will be attached to the

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‘Deprivation’, Data Wand, https://www.datawand.info/deprivation/#/view-report/2c23bea6d7df46a3a9f47c5d3fc7dc5a/___iaFirstFeature

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appendix. This approach will provide a deeper understanding of the physical, historical, and human context.

Findings and Discussion INDEX OF MULTIPLE DEPRIVATION: Between 2015 and 2019, the Wandsworth borough was classified as being among the least deprived third of London's local authorities, according to the Index of Multiple Deprivation 10 (see figures 16 & 17). Wandsworth is one of England's least impoverished boroughs in four of the seven deprivation fields: income, employment, education, skills and training, and health deprivation and disability. It has a relatively high rating for education, skills, and training, and its rank for income score have both risen since 2015 11. Given its reputation for being the 'least deprived,' data reveal that Wandsworth's most destitute indicators were the ‘Living Environment and Income Deprivation Affecting Older People’ (IDAOPI) measures, both locally and nationally. Wandsworth, like many other London boroughs, is among England's most deprived local authorities in the categories of ‘Housing & Services’ and ‘Crime’ 12. There is a clear divide in facilities offered to the population by age, based on IDAOPI. The inaccessibility of housing and services further supports the claim that erecting luxury skyscrapers and unaffordable high-rise apartments is futile if it isn’t being provided to the people in need.

10 11 12

‘INDICES OF DEPRIVATION 2019’, Data Wand, https://www.datawand.info/indices-of-deprivation-2019/#:~:text=Wandsworth%20ranks%20amongst%20the%20least,score%20for%20Income%20have%20improved ‘INDICES OF DEPRIVATION 2019’, Data Wand, https://www.datawand.info/indices-of-deprivation-2019/#:~:text=Wandsworth%20ranks%20amongst%20the%20least,score%20for%20Income%20have%20improved ‘INDICES OF DEPRIVATION 2019’, Data Wand, https://www.datawand.info/indices-of-deprivation-2019/#:~:text=Wandsworth%20ranks%20amongst%20the%20least,score%20for%20Income%20have%20improved

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Figure 16: Wandsworth Index of Multiple Deprivation National

Figure 17: Wandsworth Index of Multiple Deprivation Regional

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ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY SURVEY

Figure 19: EQS for housing estates

Figure 18: EQS for development area

The findings of the did not show a significant difference between the housing estate area and the regeneration region. It's worth noting that, while referring to a few 'sink-estates,' political leader David Cameron labelled social housing in a negative light. This was not the situation in the housing estates surrounding Battersea; they were clean, had nearby stores, little traffic, and no traces of graffiti or vandalism. The regenerated area received excellent marks because it is a new development, and the results were expected; yet, in contrast, I was amazed at how well maintained the older housing estate buildings were.

Photographic Study

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I wanted to observe the local conditions for myself, so I decided to go on a local walk. I first started looking around Vauxhall and discovered a stall that provided free hot food and drinks to homeless people. This organisation was not appointed by the government, but rather through their own funds. Walking beneath Vauxhall's well-known railway arches, it was easy to spot a large number of homeless people.

Figure 21: Take One, Leave One Stand

Figure 20: Free food and clothes for homeless people

My next journey was to investigate the housing estates near Battersea, a 10-minute bus ride from Vauxhall led me to the main high street from where I made way to the Carey Gardens in Lambeth. The shopfronts seemed as though they were almost a decade old, the streets were clean, but the area did not seem to have had any development.

Figure 23: Charity collection

Figure 22: London County Council sign

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I was expecting to find a rundown estate riddled with graffiti, vandalism, and litter. However, to my surprise I found a beautiful well-maintained estate. This was not the image David Cameron had painted in the press, a few years ago.

Figure 24: Carey Gardens Housing Estate

Figure 26: Mural by Brian Barnes member of BSPCG

Figure 25: Carey Gardens

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Figure 29: Charity Collection point 2

Figure 30: Local shops

Figure 27: Patmore Estate

Figure 28: Caravan

Figure 31: The Power Station visible from street

Figure 32: Patmore Estate Exercise Space

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Figure 35: Charity collection point 3

Figure 33: Affordable Housing Sign

Figure 34: New development begins

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Observing the new construction, it's a shame that views of the PowerStation, which is supposedly meant to be a key landmark on London's skyline, are obscured by the new luxury apartments. The architecture would have been better if it had been low rise, or if the height around the power station had been limited to the height of the power station's roof.

Figure 36: View of BPS from train now obscured

Figure 38: The Power Station

Figure 41: The Power Station view from boat

Figure 37: New development

Figure 39: Frank Gehry Towers

Figure 40: The new towers covering the original structure

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Previously, the Index of Multiple Deprivation and its various components were covered.

However, I will now briefly discuss the six ‘development indicators’ (see figure), which include gross domestic product, human development index, gross national income, literacy rate, life expectancy, and quality of life. From my findings, it is evident that London is focused on one sort of development, namely GDP growth. The entire value of products produced, and services supplied in a country throughout a year is referred to as the gross domestic product (GDP). GDP also includes economic performance, government spending, and business investments. Globalisation, as mentioned in the introduction, plays a part in this, and the UK government has opted to make the housing market a determinant for prime investment.

Interestingly, the country can develop through the factors such as literacy rate, life expectancy, and quality of life – if the government placed an emphasis on funding healthcare and educational facilities and providing adequate homes to people. However, in London this isn’t possible as there is largely a monetary concern.

Figure 42: Indicators of development

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Conclusion Despite arguments that gentrification is not occurring in Battersea — according to its traditional definition – there is a visible establishment of a class division. The emergence of families from wealthier households in the neighbourhood will cause local rents and housing prices to rise, contributing to population displacement. The reason for this may perhaps be a result of the development being partially complete, and lack of accessible public data collection since 2019. The ‘trickle-down effect’ may not operate in this case since the wealthy are being placed on a derelict stretch of land that previously had no dwellings or shops.

There is doubt whether the wealthy would want to purchase at local establishments.

Therefore, I predict that the Battersea region would become a gated community, with residents primarily concerned with themselves.

One of my aims was to examine whether the regeneration of Battersea Power Station will reduce deprivation in Nine Elms, and unexpectedly, there is a pattern. The IMD comparison between 2015 and 2019 revealed a significant improvement, moving Wandsworth from the most deprived to the least impoverished borough. This is excellent, but it is clear that regeneration programmes are displacing people, and powerful individuals are exacerbating poverty. Deprivation is spreading from the city to the outskirts of London. Living in London has turned into a game of survival of the richest. Housing barriers and crime are among the categories that have been highlighted in the Index of Multiple Deprivation. The housing shortage is intolerable. Rising rent rates, along with higher living standards, will have a negative impact. The vast majority of Londoners lack security, such as housing or personal investments. Homelessness is on the rise as individuals are forced to live on the streets due to unaffordable rents. Crime is inevitable if the government is not concerned in rehabilitating society's members. The figures are changing in a positive way, but they do not match the local circumstances.

The government must rethink its approach to economic growth and global development.

Their financial interest is in destroying London. The social and urban fabric is deteriorating.

Foster and Gehry's opulent contemporary structures are the embodiment of capitalism. It's time to break free from poor design and start thinking in terms of sustainability. Not the sustainable design that is reduced to materiality, but rather sustainable architecture in terms of community wellbeing and the appreciation of neighbourhoods.

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Journal Articles: The Architects’ Journal, 2010. Nine Elms: Regeneration in Central London. [online] Available at: <https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/archive/nine-elms-regeneration-in-central-london> [Accessed 4 November 2021].

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Vijay, A., 2018. Dissipating the Political: Battersea Power Station and the Temporal Aesthetics of Development. Open Cultural Studies, 2(1), pp.611-625.

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Newspaper Articles: Wainwright, O., The Guardian. 2021. Penthouses and poor doors: how Europe's 'biggest regeneration project' fell flat. [online] Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/feb/02/penthouses-poor-doors-nineelms-battersea-london-luxury-housing-development> [Accessed 7 October 2021].

Websites: Battersea Power Station. 2021. Battersea Power Station. [online] Available at: <https://batterseapowerstation.co.uk/> [Accessed 4 November 2021].

BBC News. 2010. Mayor approves £5.5bn Battersea Power Station revamp. [online] Available at: <https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12063517> [Accessed 14 November 2021].

Data.london.gov.uk. 2022. Housing in London – The evidence base for the Mayor’s Housing Strategy – London Datastore. [online] Available at: <https://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/housing-london> [Accessed 02 January 2022].

Datawand.info. 2019. DataWand – Indices of Deprivation 2019. [online] Available at: <https://www.datawand.info/indices-of-deprivation2019/#:~:text=Wandsworth%20ranks%20amongst%20the%20least,score%20for%20Income %20have%20improved> [Accessed 18 December 2021].

GOV.UK. 2016. Estate regeneration: article by David Cameron. [online] Available at: <https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/estate-regeneration-article-by-david-cameron> [Accessed 9 November 2021].

McMullan, L., Osborne, H., Blight, G. and Duncan, P., 2022. UK housing crisis: how did owning a home become unaffordable?. [online] the Guardian. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/business/ng-interactive/2021/mar/31/uk-housing-crisis-howdid-owning-a-home-become-unaffordable> [Accessed 2 January 2022].

Other Documents: 2013. Design and access statement Volume IIe: Appendix M of the Environmental statement. [ebook] London: TFL. Available at: <https://content.tfl.gov.uk/nle-twa-environmentalstatement-vol-iie-appendix-m-design-and-access-part-1-a17-6a.pdf> [Accessed 1 November 2021].

2014. Design Review: Battersea Power Station. [PDF] Available at: <https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/sites/default/files/asset/document/Battersea_0.pdf> [Accessed 14 November 2021].

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2014. The Placebook: Battersea Power Station. [e-book] London: Battersea Power Station.

Available at: <https://www.jtp.co.uk/cms/pdfs/The-Placebook_Battersea-Power-Station.pdf> [Accessed 9 November 2021].

2018. Live well by design. [ebook] Available at: <https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/uswebsite-content/Downloads/live-well-bydesign/House_Print_Brochure_LWBD_Manifesto_PPT_V4_web.pdf> [Accessed 17 January 2022].

Appendix

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