The Senator by Rosenfeld Rosenfeld

In this Issue 3 The White Picket Fence and the Pink Flamingo 4 Economics: Success and Failure in a Decade of Revival

Last Month’s Caption Contest Winners

4 Keep Your Eye on the Sky 6 Tech Boom 10 Thurgood Marshall: Man of the Decade 14 The Rise and Fall of Senator Joseph McCarthy 16 The Tube 17 Plessy Gone, What Next? 18 The Ultimate Fad: God 20 How Long Will it be Popular? 21 Damn Those Reds, Damn Them 21 The Tidal Wave of Rock ‘n’ Roll 22 Rock ‘n’ Roll: The Parents’ Worst Nightmare 24 The Youth 25 New Colors, New Styles, New Faces 26 Glossary

“Maybe if we splash and smile enough, the Communists will go away!”Susy Boyle, Pleasanton CA “Let’s Have some fun in the sun!” - Mary Rogers, Baton Rouge LA

29 Bibliography 30 Crossword Puzzle

“Hey look! Everything’s falling up!” - Bob Happy, Austin TX

31 Word Search

On the cover: Thurgood Marshall, by Kei Masuda Editor: Hannah Rosenfeld Writers: Max Nuyens, Fiona Kirby, David Adler, Nick Henze, Hannah Rosenfeld, Kei Masuda

This Month’s Caption Contest

The White Picket Fence and the Plastic Flamingo by Nick Henze The migration of families from the cities to the suburbs has given children the best environment to grow up in. The family friendly suburban neighborhoods are much more peaceful environments than the large cities. Homeowners in the suburbs can enjoy the surrounding clean air, the space, and the greenery. Parents have enrolled their daughters in dance classes, ice skating classes, and organizations such as Brownies and Girl Scouts. They have signed their sons up for organizations such as Little League and Cub Scouts. In the suburbs, families can finally have a place to call home. As I gaze down the streets of my town, Lewitton, New York, I can hardly believe that the land on which these lovely small houses with the A framed roofs, shutters, and surrounding white picket fences rest was once only a potato farm. They take pride in their property. The suburbs have tight knit communities and strong school systems. Suburbanites have worked hard to take care of their homes and yards. With more appliances available on the consumer market, homeowners have developed a do-it-yourself attitude for taking care of their

property and belongings. It is joy to see young neighborhood boys cutting the grass and washing the car every week. The money spent on lawn and furniture decorations has skyrocketed this decade. A few of my neighbors have those plastic pink flamingos on their front lawn. My wife Betty is hesitant to let me buy one because she thinks they are too flashy and exotic. But I remind her of how popular they are becoming, and how boring our yard would look without one if they continued to spread through Lewittown. Every day of the work week, the men in my neighborhood took the early morning train to New York City. While we were at the office, our wives cleaned the house and took care of the children, forming a perfect family balance. When it comes to money-making, men are best fit for the job. But I do know what I would do without my wife. Naturally, my species is helpless when it comes to cooking, cleaning, and raising those pesky children. I am simply not responsible enough for such jobs. On weekends, families enjoyed more time together. When it was warm out, our neighbors would pull out the barbeque, and we would all enjoy a hamburger lunch in the backyard. In the evenings, the adults would host cocktail parties. Invitations were signs of social acceptance. The consumption of alcohol in this decade has significantly increased, as adults can afford to spend money on such luxuries.

ECONOMICS:

by Nick Henze

by Max Nuyens

his decade has been a time of economic growth throughout the nation. With soldiers returning from the war and people craving the amenities they were denied during wartime, the American rate of consumption has sky-rocketed. With this economic growth people have more money to spend and certain economic patterns have become apparent. One of the most obvious patterns is the mass migration to the suburbs. Most white families are moving away from the cities, as Negroes and other minorities have been moving into previously white communities. Many white families, alarmed with this trend, are moving to the suburbs to continue giving their children a culturally homogenous upbringing. Also, the soldiers back from the war were looking for the security and normalcy that the suburbs provide, and the new availability of Federal Housing Administration (FHA) loans gave people the funds necessary to move to the suburbs. Finally, new transportation innovations have given families the option of life in the suburbs coupled with the well-paying jobs of the cities. The mass migration of white people from he cities had any consequences. As the rich white people left the cities and moved to the suburbs some cities have begun to fall into disrepair, caused by the loss of income tax revenue from the white wealthy city residents. This influx of the wealthy to the suburbs prompted even more people to go to the suburbs. Also, as people moved to the suburbs businesses followed them and the cities lost more taxes and revenues making them worse.

KEEP YOUR EYE ON THE SKY In 1947, a pilot saw nine “saucer-like things” when he flew by Yakima, Washington. Since then, there have been hundreds of sightings across the country of strange air craft in the sky. Chances are these mysterious flying saucers belonged to those Soviet communists, who were developing their space technology in a scheme of world dominance. Sure enough, on October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth – Sputnik 1. We knew they were up to something. Fortunately, the U.S. Air Force spent about 60,000 dollars annually to investigate the sightings of the saucers. Thoughtful and brave Americans prepared themselves for a possible Soviet nuclear attack. The uranium prospector’s kit, which included a ninety –eight and a half dollar Geiger counter, sample ore, blank claim notices, and a snakebite kit, allowed the adventurous to explore the Colorado plateau and the wilds of Canada for uranium. Other Americans, determined to stay by their homes, constructed underground bomb shelters or purchased them. The three thousand dollar Mark I Kiddie Korkoon contained all the materials that a family of five might need while living underground for three to five days, and had a greater potential of protecting Americans from nuclear attack than the duck and cover method did. Fortunately, America has not yet been struck by a Soviet hydrogen bomb, but it is important to stay on the look out. Keep your eye on the sky. If you see any unidentifiable flying object, report it to the sheriff, and try to draw as accurate a picture of the seen you witnessed as possible. We must take this seriously.

SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN A DECADE OF REVIVAL Along with the white exodus from thecity came an increase in crime to the city, as the police were paid less and the people who lived there had more of an impetus to commit crimes. This has helped the suburbs become more popular because as more people left the cities the crime rate increased even more. Cities suffered in all areas from the movement to the suburbs.

powered by this conformity and the new availability of amenities. People have all the extra money they earned during the war, so they have no trouble buying all the most current products. “The Joneses were a powerful motivating force, and the economy was growing for most of this decade, however there were times when keeping up with

The suburban movement also impacted the items people bought and the services people used. Cars became very important; they were the main mode of commuting for people in the suburbs, and also cars gradually became status symbols. The railroad became a cheap, as well as popular, alternate way to commute. Also, with larger yards and houses, decorations for lawns and gardens were sold in larger quantities With this mass movement to suburbia has come an increase in conformity as more and more people feel societal pressure to be the same. This conformity has been a great economic stimulus as people attempt to keep up with “the Joneses”. When one family in a neighborhood gets the newest model of vacuum cleaner, washing machine or any other household device, all the rest want it as well. Business has been booming

“the Joneses” could not keep the economy afloat. One such example was the “goldplated recession” of 1953 and 1954. This recession was caused by faulty government intervention; the government expected more inflation similar to that in 1951 and so implemented a restrictive fiscal policy to stop it. However, while the inflation never occurred, policy implemented actually caused a recession. This recession was the worst of the decade and lasted just short of a

year, from second quarter 1953 to first quarter 1954. Another time the consumer purchases could not keep the economy afloat was in 1957, when there was another recession. The recession of 1957 was not a typical recession; although prices did fall from the month before and worker wages dropped from the month before, the recession was unlike others in that the prices and GDP increased. In most recessions prices and the GDP fall, but because this recession was caused by an increase in prices of natural resources due to third world problems, prices rose because all products cost more to produce, making manufacturing and retail prices increase. This increased the cost of living while decreasing wages, making life hard for many families, especially those who were already having small problems with money. The steel, auto and freight industries have dropped slightly that year, but no where near the recession of 19531954, and it has gotten better in 1958. Despite a few setbacks the economy has grown these past ten years and America has prospered. The GDP has grown and the United States of America is the most economically powerful nation in the world. This decade has been good to us and hopefully another great decade will follow.

Tech

by Max Nuyens

The 1950s have been a period of great technological advances, especially in the field of domestic appliances. However the greatest inventions of the world were in other fields, specifically aeronautics and military. In the middle of this decade the military developed an even more destructive bomb than the terrible atomic bomb used to end the Second World War. A researcher who asked to remain anonymous told me this

new invention was based of the Telman-Ulman Principle. This principle uses fission and fusion to create a larger more efficient explosion. Basically there is one starter explosion which causes fusion in the element that explodes after the starter explosion to increase the amount of the element that explodes. This is a great help in the war against the Russians. Hopefully unlike its ancestor the atomic bomb this terrible invention will never have

to be used to destroy lives. With the invention of this â&#x20AC;&#x153;hydrogen bombâ&#x20AC;? comes a host of new problems. The Soviets have realized that the United States are more technologically advanced and have began a race for military technological superiority. Now we must constantly spend public tax funds on military research to keep our technological superiority that is one of our major military advantages in the conflict with the Union of

Boom

Socialist Soviet Republics. With each new advancement the dangers become greater and the results more catastrophic Now with the hydrogen bomb, the world has come even closer to the brink of destruction. If even half of the hydrogen bombs we now possess were to be launched then all humanity could very well be wiped out. Without caution this new invention could be the end of mankind. Due to the terrible effects of this newest

bomb, the government must exercise caution. This limits the ease of brinkmanship, while at the same time increasing the effectiveness. So now our leaders are facing a difficult choice of whether to use this tactic to protect American interests. With the increased effectiveness of American weapons the President and Congress should be ever more careful to not bring us into a situation where the “nuclear

option” is used, because when it is used, there will be disastrous consequences, politically and for the average American. If the hydrogen bomb is ever used, the Soviets or, whoever else we use it against, will retaliate by using their nuclear capabilities, endangering the lives of every American. In the small chance that our enemies don’t retaliate, the United States would be shunned by the other nations due to our apparent disregard

of human life. This would have a disastrous effect on our trade and economy, possibly even destroying it. The life of every citizen would be ruined. Although this weapon is a great advancement in military technologic, it comes with its share of problems and worries that the government must always be aware of. The other important invention was Sputnik, the Russian satellite launched in 1957. Despite the fact that this was a Russian invention it signals great American advancements in the future.

they are farther ahead of us in technology, which cannot do. To retain the United States position as global leader, it must retain the image that It is the best. The Russians cannot be allowed to appear to be better than us in any way, or people might join them because they feel that they are the side that will win.

The technology required to launch Sputnik, has military uses as well worrying some of this nations leaders. If the Russians can launch a satellite into space, then they can launch a nuclear bomb at us as well. This means that we must constantly fear for our lives, because now the Russians are capable of hitting us with nuclear weapons from longer distances. Sputnik also implies that

However Sputnik also proves that it is possible to launch an object into orbit or beyond. This signals the beginning of another age, where men might live and fly in the great black emptiness of space. Over planets might be explored, maybe even colonized. Nobody knows what surprises space has in store for humanity, but find them we must. This is a heartening proof to those who seek the stars. Since

we now know it is possible, and the Russians have succeeded, we must attempt to beat what they have done, or we are surrendering to communism. Now the nation must research ways to launch a rocket into space, and must fund this research too. There is no choice, Americans must study space travel, and find a way to beat the Russians to the next large goal, putting a man into space, or people will begin to lose confidence that the Americans will win this â&#x20AC;&#x153;warâ&#x20AC;?. The united States must not allow the Soviets to exploit there image as currently being more technologically advanced.

THURGOOD MARSHALL: MAN OF THE DECADE

by Hannah Rosenfeld

We at The Senator often find ourselves inadvertently playing the “what if” game. “What if,” we ask ourselves, “France had not entered the revolutionary war?” Maybe we would still be a colony, and slavery would have been abolished, w i t h o u t bloodshed, when Britain passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. “What if John Wilkes Booth had been stopped at the entrance to the Ford Theater?” Perhaps Lincoln would have survived to oversee successful reconstruction efforts that would have made today’s civil rights movement unnecessary. “What if Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka Kansas had been Thurgood Marshall’s first major case?” In this we are fairly certain: Rosa Parks may have

moved to the back of the bus, and the little nock nine would simply be nine studious kids in an all black school on the wrong side of town.

A biography on him will not surprise you, though you may not be pleased. It will not shock you to hear him spoken of as the most influential man of the decade, though you may not agree. But we at The Senator believe that whether you love or hate him, Marshall’s recent works are wildly out of context to most readers. After all, 14 years before Brown v. Board he became the legal director of the NAACP. One is not given so lofty a position in anticipation of great deeds but as a result of them. We wish to, in a word, explain. Explain why Marshall and not Eisenhower is the man of the decade. Specifically, we will put in context the most significant case of the last ten years. It is important to understand what came before, not just what came after, because that is the section of history often overlooked. You know what happened before 1954, and you know what happened after. You are living under Marshall law, but it took more than one day in court to get him there.

“What if Brown v. The

Board of Education of Topeka Kansas had been

Thurgood Marshall’s first major case?” If you’re local school plays host to a bus of black students every morning, if your children share their classrooms with them, if they are beginning to move into you neighborhood, you know Brown v. Board of Education. If you embrace these students you know Brown v. Board of Education. If you despise these students you know Brown v. Board of Education. And if you know the case, you know Thurgood Marshall.

A Two Pronged Attack The educational battle began at the tip of the learning iceberg: College. Four years before high schools and elementary were integrated, colleges came under fire for the same segregation policy. On June 5, 1950 the Supreme Court ruled on both Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma S t a t e Regents, overturning the separate but equal doctrine in upper level education. G e o r g e McLaurin had a Masters degree in education and nobody could deny that he was qualified to pursue a Doctor of Education degree, not even the University of Oklahoma. Though they initially denied him

attendance because of a state law that forbid the schooling of blacks and whites together, he managed to win a suit against the school. Denying him higher education, he argued, denied his fourteenth amendment right to equal protection. Though he won the case, the regional court did not

overturn the segregation law. Oklahoma was not willing to give up so easily. Once he was in the school, they gave him separate facilities-

isolated rooms, desks and even cafeteria tables. College is not just about learning, but about making connections, be it from one subject to the other or from one future teacher to his fellow student. On these grounds he applied to the US District Court to force the University of Oklahoma to remove the barriers b e t w e e n himself and the white student body. When the District Court denied the case, McLaurin, the NAACP and Thurgood M a r s h a l successfully appealed the case to the US Supreme Court. In the unanimous ruling, the justices, led by Chief J u s t i c e Fred Vinson, required the University to fully integrate McLaurin into the system. Around the Same time Heman Marion Sweatt

THURGOOD MARSHALL CONTINUED applied to the School of Law of the University of Texas. They too denied him based on a state law forbidding blacks and whites to be educated together. The Texas Trial Court, where Sweatt brought his case skirted the issue by stalling for months. By the time they ruled, an all black law school in Huston, Texas was up and running so they sent him there. Again, Sweatt appealed based on the equal protection clause and both the tangible and intangible effects of separate education- the funding and connections that the black school lacked. The NAACP appealed the case all the way up to the Supreme Court where Marshall presented the case. He convinced them to

rule in favor of Sweatt, that both types of discriminationconcrete and immeasurablein the Texas education system violated the protection clause. Marshall, by winning these cases turned over the established doctrine of separate but equal set in Plessy v. Ferguson in terms of upper level education. Having established this powerful new precedent, it was only a matter of time before it would trickle down into lesser schools. In fact, though Brown v. Board is unquestionably a landmark case, and the most important of the decade because it completed the desegregation of schools, it was these two case that made it possible. We know the Brown case

because it affects our every day life. Every child goes to some sort of grammar school and high school, but so few go to college that a case changing the way your state university runs might feel distant. We must not ignore issues simply because, it is difficult to see how they affect us, because even when the issue seems distant, chances are that in reality there are numerous direct connections to our lives. Progress, after all is not a leap but a ladder. The bottom rung must necessarily come before the top. For integrated education, Thurgood Marshall has cobbled together so much of the ladder, from Sweatt v. Painter to Brown v. Board, that in this decade he has pushed up furthest towards the top.

THE RISE AND FALL OF SENATOR JOSEPH MCCARTHY

by Kei Masuda

enator Joseph McCarthy was a lightning bolt that flashed across the American psyche. His arrival in the political spectrum illuminated the darkest and most sinister corners of the American soul. His lightning bolt-like career erupted inside Washington, burnt whatever it touched, vanished, and returned to nothingness. Though he entered the United States Senate in 1947, his rise to prominence began in 1950 before ending only 4 years later. McCarthy’s brilliance came from the fact that he shrewdly discovered that by tapping into the prevalent American fear of liberalism, socialism, and communism, he could accelerate his rise within the ranks of the Senate and exponentially increase his political power. He exploited this power by skillfully wielding his ultimate weapon-paranoia. His career dramatically ended in 1954 when he was censored to by his colleagues in the Senate. He died three years later, at the age of 48. McCarthy was born in Wisconsin, the fifth of nine children, in a strictly religious Roman Catholic family. His childhood was a poor and unhappy affair, and McCarthy himself almost never referenced to it. He excelled in school however, and quickly skipped a few grades. McCarthy’s political career began in

when he was elected to Circuit Judge at the age of 31. It was in this election that McCarthy’s ability to twist the truth became apparent. In order to emphasize the vitality and energy of his youth, McCarthy exaggerated his opponent’s age from 66 to 73 years old, and he himself pretended to be 29. He won the election, and his lies were quickly forgotten. As a judge, McCarthy had the distinction of running one of the most efficient courthouses in Wisconsin history. However, even the means by which he was able to clear the back log of trials waiting for a hearing is questionable. McCarthy is reputed to have presided over some of the fastest trials in history. He once famously presided over a divorce case that lasted only two minutes. At the end of it, the female plaintiff asked in surprise, “Am I divorced?” McCarthy simply stated, “Yes”. Unsurprisingly, a some observers criticized McCarthy’s apparent lack of regard for precedent and traditions. But, following what would become a pattern in his life, the general public ignored his misdeeds. In the middle of his career as a circuit judge, World War II began. McCarthy could have avoided the draft because of his position as a judge, but instead he decided to enlist in the army. Joseph McCarthy served as a Marine from June 1942 to December 1944, and he performed admirably, but without distinction

as an intelligence officern his future political career however, he decided to exaggerate his military story. He claimed to have been known as “TailGunner Joe” and to have received numerous combat wounds. He did in fact receive a Purple Heart for injury, but he received that injury by falling down a flight of steps on his ship. He had occasionally trained with a tail-gunner, but McCarthy never fought as one. In 1944, when he ran for the Senate, McCarthy claimed to have flown 17 missions. In 1951, he claimed to have flown 30 missions. In 1952, he asked for and received the Distinguished Flying Cross. At the end of the war, McCarthy returned to his seat as a circuit judge, but his sights were already set on bigger and larger things. A year later, he ran for and defeated Robert La Follete, Jr. to be Wisconsin Senator. As a Senator, McCarthy made few waves and made little commotion at first. However, on February 9th 1950, McCarthy

delivered a speech that would change Even though this was originally a the course of the nation. Known as his fairly mundane and pointless job, wheelikng speech, McCarthy stated McCarthy, being McCarthy, changed the rules of the game in a matter that “While I cannot take the suited him. He hired Roy M. Cohn time to name all of the men in the as his Chief Counsel and G. David State Department who have been Schine as Chief Consultant to Cohn. named as members of the Communist From his position of power in the Party and members of a spy ring, I Subcommittee, McCarthy proceeded have here in my hand a list of two- to investigate the Voice of America hundred and five that were known to the Secretatry of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping the policy of the State Department” This speech began an enormous controversy and beginning of what we would now call McCarthyism. A few weeks after the Wheeling speech generated an enormous amount of controversy with the State Department (a lot of controversy, but no facts), McCarthy began to sense blood in the water. Even though anyone who actually listened to his speeches realized that he was talking nonsense, he quickly realized that the general public, fed information only through newspaper headlines, were soaking his accusations up. Adding kindle to the fear was the recent memory of the conviction of Alger Hiss as a communist spy within the State Department. Soon enough, McCarthy began receiving money from wealthy men and women who were feeling anxiety about the direction the government seemed to be headed. McCarthy’s job required little money however, because his publicity came free, and his “research” took little to no effort at all. He famously received support from other Catholic families including the Kennedys. However, President Eisenhower disapproved of McCarthy’s methods, and he actively worked to reduce McCarthy’s power in the Senate. McCarthy manipulated his way into the position of the Internal Security Subcommittee.

almost shutting it down. He then sent Cohn to inquire into the workings of the United States international library program and succeed in getting several “controversial and Communist” books banned. His rampant accusations and his seeming infallibility at this point in his career was McCarthy’s high-water mark. His ability to spread paranoia without

McCarthy Cont.

anyone standing up to him helped the red scare sweep through America in a wildly public and harmful manner. The beginning of McCarthy’s downfall came when he decided to attack the US army. He accused and humiliated General Zwicker, a famed and well respected General during World War II, and though McCarthy succeed in this matter, he also managed to offend newspapers, veterans, and the President. Soon after this incident, the army accused McCarthy of trying to force the army to give G. David Schine special privileges. The Army-McCarthy hearings, as they became known, were shown on public television and showed the public McCarthy’s true face for the first time. The 36 day hearing destroyed McCarthy’s reputation by exposing him as arrogant, bullying, and dishonest. The public, used to identifying the “good guy and the bad guy” in movies, quickly were able to label McCarthy as the enemy. The new technology of the television also managed to help create the downfall of Senator McCarthy in another manner. Edward R. Murrow, a popular broadcaster from the program See it Now, aired two episodes criticizing McCarthy’s techniques and methods. When McCarthy responded by calling Murrow a communist, the public saw threw the Senator’s lies, and the McCarthy lost even more popularity. In June of 1954, Republican Senator Ralph E. Flanders asked the Senate to censure McCarthy for his “breaches of etiquette, or of rules or even of laws”. After much deliberation, the Senate censured McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22. Even though the vote had no tangible effect, McCarthy’s political career was dead. He was ignored and avoided, and he turned to drinking. He died on May 2, 1957 because of an inflammation of the liver. McCarthy’s rise and fall in -get away with his outrageous lies in the high offices of Washington, come once in a life time. McCarthy and McCarthyism are clear children of the of 1950s.

The Tube

by Nick Henzy In 1955, Charles Van Doren, an English teacher from Columbia University, won the television game show called Twenty-One. He successfully answered every question thrown at him correctly, proving that hard work brought knowledge. Mothers wanted their children to look up to him, not the irresponsible Elvis Presley. At this time, shows like Twenty One were becoming very popular, as more families began purchasing television sets. By the end of the decade though, television quiz shows declined, as people realized that contestants were often supplied with answers ahead of time. During the first half of the decade, television sets increased from being in 3.1 million homes to 32 million homes. Intellectuals, the equivalent of a modern

day David Oser, criticized T.V.’s mindlessness, and preachers said that much of the material shown was immoral. By 1959, the average U.S. family spent six hours a day watching the tube. Some radio hosts made the switch to television, like Edward R. Murrow, who became famous on CBS. Some viewers began to stay up longer to watch the new late night talk shows on NBC. I must admit, I am one of those fathers who threatened to ground his son for watching television too late at night, only to turn on the tube an hour later when everyone else in the house was asleep. I just could not stay away from that game show, “Who Stole My Line?” I was prepared to be more tired in the morning. This type of entertainment was worth sacrificing sleep for.

HEARTBREAK HOTEL ELVIS PRESLEY January 27, 1956

Inspired by the story of a suicidal man, Heartbreak Hotel does wonders in re-creating the feel of sadness in the most interesting way. “The king” needs no introduction as the foremost rock and roll musician of this day & age. But what Presley does in his single is beyond all of our expectations. The dark mystique of the song does wonders to grant this song instant acclaimed success and playability. Our only concern is if Elvis can continue his wave of prowess and flamboyance. One person interviewed said, “it had a sort of depressing quality to it, but since it was Elvis, the sadness was dissolved in his charisma”. The single’s transformation from poem to song is aptly executed by Elvis. Its true blues without making you feel down. While you are searching for Soviet satellites, look out for Elvis in the night sky, for he is among the stars alongside his single.

PLESSY GONE, WHAT NEXT?

by Nick Henzy

fter World War II, African Americans began to demand more equality in society. During the war, production factories in need of more employees began to hire blacks. President Truman drew attention to the Civil Rights issue with his new program. Although it was rejected by Congress, supporters of civil rights took the issue to the Supreme Court. Under Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson (1946-53), the court accepted the “separate but equal” ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson, but fought to make sure separate facilities were actually equal. In 1952, lawyers from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) began to argue before the Supreme Court against the state laws that enforced the segregation of children in the public school system. In the Supreme Court Case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka on May 17, 1954, the influential Negro lawyer Thurgood Marshall argued in front of Chief Justice Earl Warren’s Court for the end of school segregation. The Court, in a unanimous decision, reversed Plessy v. Ferguson and agreed that the Fourteenth Amendment implied that there should be no racial discrimination in public schools. Following this decision, blacks began to demand desegregation in other

factors of their lives besides just education. New Yorkers were supportive of this, but I heard from my relatives in Georgia that some of their white neighbors began protesting outside a restaurant that finally started serving Negroes. In 1955, Rosa Parks, a black woman, refused to give up her seat to a white man on the front

of a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and consequently, was arrested. This action marked the first significant portrayal of nonviolent protest to segregation. Rosa Parks’ arrest was the last straw for blacks in Montgomery. Four days later, on December 5, civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. started the Montgomery bus boycott, in which blacks fighting for desegregation refused to support the city by rid-

ing the buses, and instead found other ways of travel such as carpools. Martin Luther King advocated for blacks peacefully integrating with the whites in society, and called for only nonviolent measures to achieve this purpose. On November 13, 1956, bus segregation became illegal in Alabama. But segregation in the south continued. In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus attempted to keep nine black students from attending the Central High School in Little Rock, even after the Brown v. Board of Education case three years earlier. President Eisenhower sent federal troops to the school on September 24 to make sure they could enter the school. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 had the Department of justice seek injunctions on behalf of black voters’ rights. The Warren Court applied the Brown decision to other aspects of society, ending segregation in interstate commerce, public buildings, airports, interstate bus terminals, and other public recreational facilities. The Court, calling for the moral importance of equality between whites and blacks, started to change American values. This year blacks who are still denied service at southern lunch counters have begun practicing nonviolence with sit-in demonstrations, or refusing to leave until served. Such demonstration gathered support from northerners and moderate southerners for the fight against segregation.

he religious revival movement of the 1950’s is a product of our powerful stance against the communists. Since the ending of the Second World War, the United States has taken the role of world leader or at least world opponent to the Soviet Union. Here we stand as the most powerful of countries, claiming the robes of a new world leader (disregarding the Soviets), we have the ability to manipulate countries to fulfill our will. B u t as we turn to model t h e ideal leader of the b eg inning of a Cold War, religion has seemed to be our most potent and ideal weapon as a response and a reassurance. The Communist fright built up by Senator Joseph McCarthy and later politicians pressured civilians to turn to a conformism based on the ideals of religion. The fight against atheist Communists made religion, be it Judaism, Protestantism or Catholicism, a widely used tool in establishing a defensive façade. And by virtue of politics, leaders such as Eisenhower, Stevenson, McCarthy and FBI Boss, J. Edgar Hoover, all upheld and

perpetuated the religious movement by praising its advantages. However, Eisenhower remained respectively neutral stating “I am the most intensely religious man I know, that does not mean I adhere to any sect.” Declaring the 4th of July as a day of penance and prayer, Ike would still fish before playing golf and bridge. Democratic candidate Stevenson also remained neutral when he said “some of

religious indoctrination and conformity. But unlike other religious m o v e ments, not only was the fervor spread throughout all society, it also was

us worship in churches, well resome in synagogues, some ceived by on golf courses,” mocking intellectuEisenhower. Regardless als. Scholof political mindset, the ars like public took their leader’s Reinhold words to heart and beNiebuhr lieved the words Eisenand Paul hower spoke throughout Tillich led most of this decade. an intellec“Recognition of the Sutual revopreme Being, says Eisenlution in hower, “is the first, the mixing remost basic, expression of ligion with Americanism.” This bee du c at i on ing quite true for those and indocyears, all classes and races t r i n at i o n . were attune to this upheaval of For all the various reasons, reli-

gion was logically the centerpiece of American culture at this time. The statistics only prove the incredible growth into religious zeal. In 1940, less than half of those surveyed said they belonged to religious institutions. But by the late 1950’s, 63% considered themselves affiliated with some type of religious group. In 1942, of those surveyed only 17.5% said the church was “doing more good” than business leaders or politicians. In 1957, 46% determined that the church was more beneficial to the community. Be-

the one in Venice, Florida that has offered to carry the communion grape juice to the cars. Or Reverend Mr. Owens who takes up pagan magic tricks as a regular part of his sermon. He entrances his audience when he labels sin on a box and makes it disappear. Along with new practices, we see a larger religious integration into government. In 1954 the term “under God” was added to the Pledge of Allegiance and “In God we trust” added on to our dollar bills. The Reader’s Digest Company has adapted their own ver-

problem, however, is obviously not a personal problem, Peale suggests ignoring them. By doing what he tells us, Peale adds, we can work harder and be happier than those anti-God communists. In this sense, Peale’s good-news sermons for his “cult of reassurance” allow his listeners to feel security through religion. Graham, on the other hand, takes a more evangelist,sensational role as the “Cadillac of preachers”. His crusades inspired and stressed conversion and reaffirming faith to God.

THE ULTIMATE FAD: GOD BY DAVID ADLER

tween only 1949 and1953, the church attendee population rose 140%. However, the traditional quality of sermons has changed to appeal to masses. We are at a time where entertainment is foremost the reason why we live and enjoy life. Because of this incessant drive for entertainment, some churches have been bending tradition to keep their audience attending and paying attention. The focus turns becomes on spreading entertainment and making “religion fun” instead of spreading religious ideas. Such is evident in the creation of drive-in churches, like

sion of the Bible, and sales have skyrocketed since the late 1940’s. Religious organizations have obtained a handful of free advertising to put “bring the whole family to church” on as many billboards they can. Reverends Norman Peale and Billy Graham are seen as the most significant leaders of the religious movement. Peale, relying on a combination of physcology and up-beat sermons, made those “10 steps to happiness” type books, describing all of your life’s problems as a personal problem that you can fix by adjusting to a given situation. When the

Though both reverends had slightly different regimes, both were conservative and experienced great success and momentum in fueling the religious explosion, be it through television or radio. But to become mainstream and support conformity, a certain degree of the Church’s ability to reform is lost within a sea of superficiality. The church focuses on making Whether or not the Church’s strong influence in these years is more beneficial than otherwise can only be left up to majority in the United States. Either way, religion undeniably took a more cultural form than it’s predecessors.

HOW LONG WILL IT BE POPULAR?

by Nick Henzy The economic prosperity, the enlargement of the consumer market, and the growing influence of television and popular culture brought on popular 1950s fads. In 1952, the Natural Vision Corporation came up with the idea of 3-D polaroid glasses for the movies. The audience came to these 3-D movies, called deepies, searching for thrilling action. The characters seemed to jump out of the screen, giving the audience a good scare. The 1952 3-D movie Baura Devil broke box office records, making 95,000 dollars in the first week. The plot was not captivating though. Viewers loved the optical illusions from the glasses, but man-eating lions harass railroad bu i l d e r s in Africa? Really? Dreary p l o t s like this caused the fad to fade out by the end of 1952. In that same year, chlorophyll hit the consumer

market. The substance found in plants became an ingredient in ninety products such as tablets, deodorants, toothpaste, gum, and cough drops. Chlorophyll, with a l35 million dollar market, was said to fight body odors and germs. Just two years later, on December 15, 1954, young boys were inspired by the appearance of Fess Parker as hunter Davy Crockett on Walt Disney’s show Disneyland. A 100 million dollar market developed for coonskin caps and other Davy Crockett accessories. But by 1955, these items began to pile up in stores, as the boys began to lose interest. In 1958, the company called Wham-O caught the eye of children its new product known as the Hula Hoop. These round plastic rings were sold for one dollar and ninety-eight cents. In the first six months, thirty million hula hoops were sold. Hula Hoop contests were popular at parties and social events. At Brookside Swim Club in New Jersey, a ten year-old boy won a Hula Hoop derby with a record of three thousand spins. While children enjoyed toys such as the Hula hoop, college students entertained themselves in other new ways. In the latter years of the ‘50s, students on college campuses began to partake in nonsense such as cramming games. Students would try to see how many people they could jam into phone booths and cars. Twenty two California students packed into a phone booth, and forty Long Beach students rode in a VW bug.

VERTIGO

Hitchcock

Last year Hitchcock came out with another movie, “Vertigo.” The story follows John “Scottie” Ferguson (James Stewart) an ex-policeman forced into retirement by the traumatic death of his partner and his resulting acrophobia. As a favor to his old friend Gavin (Tom Helmore) Scottie agrees to tail his friend’s beautiful young wife, Madeleine (Kim Novak) who Gavin believes is contemplating suicide. Much to the dismay of his unhappily platonic friend, Midge (Barbara Bel Geddes, in a dynamic performance) Scottie begins to fall in love with Madeleine, who appears to be in the process of becoming possessed by Carlotta Valdez, a nineteenth century woman with a tragic life. As the plot twists and turns, suspense is built through a fantastic score and camera shots to a harrowing climax that will make you rethink Junipero Serra’s contribution to California. It wasn’t a box office success, and is rumored to have irreparably damaged Hitchcock and Stewart’s relationship, but “Vertigo” is a well-shot and effectively acted film that will delight audiences who revel in suspense and intensity.

DAMN THOSE REDS, DAMN THEM

from the editorial staff, by Kei Masuda

There is a communist in your neighborhood. You may have never met them or seen them, or they may be your best friends who you have a barbecue with every other weekend. Thee U.S.S.R has been attempting to infiltrate our democratic country for almost as long as any of us have been alive. And believe me, they are getting good at what they do. These communist spies pose as innocent American families. They could have two kids named James and Marilyn just like you do. The father of James and Marilyn, who you see working at the local grocery store selling fresh apples everyday, could be secretly sending vital information to the local Soviet headquarters. All of these families seem normal now, but when the order from the Kremlin comes to attack the heart of our country, they will come and murder you and all of your friends and family in your sleep. Even now, these communist spies are corrupting your children with their subversive liberal thought. You must always be watchful of what your children learn! Children are the future of this country, and because of they, these communist agents target them specifically. Their innocence makes them especially vulnerable to the vile socialist propaganda machine. We must protect our children at any cost! If you suspect a teacher to be spreading foul communist rumors at the local school, report them! If the local barber seems to get too close to your child, report him! If your neighbors start telling your kids that giving all of your hard earned money to the lazy poor is good, report them! We cannot be too protective of our children, because they are America’s golden legacy. If you do not believe the evil power of communism yet, you need not look further than across the Pacific to see how powerful and treacheros the Soviets truly are. China, a vibrant ally of the United

States of America during World War II, was full of happy monks and hardworking peasants. Now, it has fallen to the powerful forces of international communism which is sweeping across the Asian continent. The group of rag-tag communist rebels is led by a so called Mao-Tse Tung, who has set himself up as the dictator of China. China, once a happy place, is now full of millions upon millions of worker drones mindlessly following orders to build, fight, and die for the motherland. The have become nothing more than a colony of ants swarming across the fertile land of Asia. North Korea also was infected by the plague of communism. After receiving weapons and support from the Kremlin, North Korea made a dastardly attack on its neighbor, the peaceful American-supported South Korea. It is only because of the prowess of our brave men and women of the armed force in the field that South Korea did not fall either. The US army valiantly protected South Korea, losing many lives fighting against the Chinese horde. But remember, they fought to protect YOU! They fought so that you could keep living in your nice home and raise a strong American family. They did not fight and die so that you could let down your guard and be lax in your vigilance against communist threats. “Constant vigilance!” our men in uniform would tell you. So do as they say. You must make sure your neighbors are not communist activists. Pay attention to what they do, and watch what they eat. Listen to what their children say, but be careful. The children can be just as dangerously persuasive as the adults. If you hear anything out of line. Immediately report it to the local police officer. It is our duty to protect America in this manner. We must all be watchful of communist threats for families, our countries, and for God. God bless America, and may god bless you all in your personal hunt for those damn reds.

THE TIDAL WAVE OF ROCK ‘N’ ROLL

by Nick Henzy

In the early 1950s, the typical record store customer was a young adult in his early twenties. Male artists such as Eddie Fisher, Perry Como, and Harry Belafonte pleased listeners with their smooth jazz and ballads. Kay Starr, Peggy Lee, Lena Horne, and Julie London were a few of the female sleek jazz stylists who played at nightclubs. The most wild, youthful music at the time was probably the simple, happy pop tunes of Rosemary Clooney. The younger generation felt that this music was “bland” and grown up. They could not appreciate these genuinely talented artists. In 1951, Ohio disc jock-

ey Alan Freed called the rhythm, blues, and country music he aired on the radio “rock ‘n’ roll,” a term which he took from an old blues lyric. Soon after the development of the electric guitar, the amplifier, the microphone, and the 45 rpm record, new artists began to mix country western music with black rhythm and blues to form this style of rock ‘n’ roll. The “teenage tidal wave of rock n’ roll” made the age of music buyers significantly drop. Most sensible adults could agree that rock n’ roll’s singers had untrained voices, its rhythm was monotonous, and its movements were scandalous. Performers such as Elvis Presley

attracted large audiences, especially teenage girls. Those boys with their ducktail haircuts, wrestling with their guitars on stage were a disgrace to our national music. How could they neglect the beautiful jazzy tunes of Nat King Cole and Dave Brubeck? How could they utter such words and move in such ways without feeling guilty of tainting the children’s minds? This new, rebellious style of music reflected the teenage attitude of the 1950s. It seems that American artists have strayed from the country’s traditional roots of music in order to produce chaotic noise for the younger generation to enjoy.

Rock ‘n’ Roll: The Parents’ Worst Nightmare by Fiona Kirby

As we look back on the decade, we are able to see cultural patterns more clearly. Labeled rock and roll, a new music style has emerged, garnering a large youthful following as well as parents anger. It would be helpful to know more about the style in order to understand the taste of the younger generation, even if it turns out to be the passing fad that many predict. Rock and roll can be described as a musical genre which uses powerful, unrestrained voices, strong drumbeats in a simple rhythm, and unbridled instrumental solos. The genre also encourages an attitude that values rebellion and excitement in the moment. Rock and roll can trace its roots most directly to three sources: blues, rhythm and blues (R&B), and country. While the blues passed on their simple structure, the emphasis R&B places on backbeats and the vocal style used are influen-

tial in rock as well. Both blues and R&Bare considered black music, but country is more based in Irish or English fiddle music /† and puts more stress on a song’s story. Jackie Brenston’s Rocket 88,”irst distributed in March of 1951, can arguably be considered the first rock and roll song. Unlike typical songs of previous years, which tended to revolve around love, the girls mentioned in Rocket 88,Ó seem inconsequential in comparison with the car itself, which is described in loving detail. This different approach to lyrics exemplifies the disregard for past convention that is common in rock and roll. The song also contains several guitar solos and uses the guitar in a recognizable rock and roll style while employing the cheerful undertones of the majority of songs in the genre. However, it was never circulated enough to gather a very wide audience. In 1955 a twentynine year old Missourian, Chuck Berry, recorded Maybellene, in which a man asks the titular girl why can’t she be true. The song’s lighthearted feeling and vibrant instrumentals contributed to its quick rise to the top ten. Berry’s innovative ways with the guitar, wordplay in lyrics, and ability as a performer shot him to fame. Also in

1955, a man with a bouffant hairdo and flamboyant style released Tutti Frutti which quickly became a hit. While Little Richard was perhaps less technically capable than Chuck Berry, his wildly contagious energy, which manifested itself in gleefully animated stage performances, gave him a dramatic flair that few could ignore. Fats Domino, a

man who was all round edges, meanwhile, used a softer and more liquid style which leaned more in the direction of pop, giving a new facet to rock and roll. Country musicians also became more involved with the rock and roll sound. With his mournful eyes and lanky frame, musician Johnny Cash brought a both a melancholy and darkly humorous attitude to the genre. While he started with the story songs and twangy guitar more commonly associated with country music, his emphasis on backbeats and rebellious energy influenced him to produce music that was still country but with a more rock and roll slant. Another musician who has bridged the gap between country and rock and roll, Jerry Lee Lewis, used wild stage antics and unrelenting sound, at one time lighting a piano on fire with lighter fluid when not given the last spot at a concert, in order to achieve the proper dynamism. Both musicians cultivated images of danger contribute to the image of defiance that rock and roll projects today. Many white parents object to rock and roll for its rebellious content and black performers. Sexually explicit lyrics can be heard in many songs. Titles such as Roll

With Me, Henry and lyrics like you make me roll my eyes, and make me grit my teeth have prompted parents to shield children from the music. Meanwhile, there is a continuing desire to keep race boundaries alive in music. Most songs by Black performers have been redone almost immediately after release by white musicians. These rerecordings invariably lack the artistry and power of the originals. While musician Hank Williams, an Alabaman with a classically American style, was one of the first white performers to effectively mix black and white styles, his death in 1953 prevented further success. However, the desire for a white musician to market black music to white audiences continued, prompting Sam Philips of Sun Records to state, If only I could find a white man with the negro sound and the negro feel, I could make a million dollars. Elvis Presley was

first recorded in 1954. With his sensuous good looks and arrogant lip curl, Elvis’s passion in songs and ability to gyrate made Phillips take notice. Presley’s first two songs That’s All Right (Mama) and Blue Moon Kentucky were released to general, although not widespread, approval. In 1956, Heartbreak Hotel was released. The single rocketed to the top ten after twelve weeks, propelling its performer to stardom. It is through Elvis Presley that rock and roll has become so popular today. While there were others before him, white Presley’s ability to synthesize country and R&B styles and his dynamic personality popularized the strong drumbeats, wilder vocals, and general feeling of love, was a main propoabandon of rock and roll nent of rock and roll, pushthroughout the country. ing the genre’s songs to the masses. It was through the H o w e v e r , radio that most teenagers rock and roll found the music, perpetuwould not ating its style for the fuhave gained ture. as large a folRecently, Freed lowing had it has been surrounded by not been for scandal. It appears that he the radio. and other prominent disc Disc jockey jockeys have been so supAlan Freed, portive of rock and roll w h e t h e r music on the radio waves from avarice because performers or reor genuine cording companies were

paying them for air time. While disc jockey Cousin Brucie Morrow said that ‘booze and broads- whatever you want was a common idea behind a song’s popularization, this type of behavior is disgraceful in a public forum where, for Americans, free enterprise should be the norm. We will see how rock and roll survives the scandal. The fad is unlikely to continue now that disc jockeys have nothing to gain through rock and roll.

The Youth by Nick Henzy

n this decade, the worst thing a teenager could be was a square. Squares were not “cool” and were not part of the inner circle. They were opposites. They did not behave like everyone else. Teens who were worthy of approval were “cool,” “hip,” “smooth,” or “with it.” Squares were not called this. Instead, they were told to “blast off ” or “drop dead.” According to Herbert Mitgang from the New York Times

What used to be known as “in” became “way, way out.” Everyone tried hard to behave like the rest of their peers so that they could have such approval. In less prosperous neighborhoods, teenage boys often joined gangs, or groups of tough rebels who walked the streets looking for trouble. Gang members carried switchblades and had a reckless courage in which they called heart. When a member died, they

were Irish gangs, Italian gangs, and black gangs. Boys in a gang usually ranged from ages ten to nineteen. The older members held certain titles offices, and responsibilities. The members communicated with each other in street slang. They met everyday in certain spots, all year long. Some guarded their turf until as a late as one a.m. in the summer and eleven p.m. in the winter. Every night at nine p.m., the gangs prepared to fight, moving toward

Magazine, “a square is someone who smokes without taking the band off his cigar” and “wears a pocket handkerchief with his initials showing.” Teens, along with scientists, musicians, and hot rodders, developed their own disorientation of the English language. Words often took complete turns.

honored him, passing by his house with a salute, but they showed few emotions and continued on with their business. Gangs had names and the members called each other by certain nicknames. They were organized by race and had deep enemy roots with other gangs because of this. In New York City, there

enemy turf. Some members would drive by the enemy turf in cars, firing shots, while brave ones walked up with their switchblades, ready to get in a rumble. The shouts, cries, and screams that filled the air were followed by the sound of police sirens. Immediately after hearing this, gang members fled the scene.

New Colors, New Styles, New Faces by Nick Henzy

Teenagers of the decade idolized movie stars, musicians, and models of the popular culture. Every teenage boy wanted to be like actor James Dean. Every teenage girl envied a red-headed model named Suzy Parker. She looked right in any women’s clothing at any time. She advertised for popular women’s fashion items, appearing on over sixty magazine covers. How could she not catch your eye with that bright red lipstick? I remember when she appeared on the cover of Life magazine on September 8, 1932. Her beautiful red dress went perfectly with that lipstick. The popular women’s clothing at this time included stick on pins with rhinestones, tube dresses, sack dresses, short shorts, crinoline, and pop-it beads. The hairstyles were even more innovative though. The new, short poodle cuts became popular for women, but only some could get away with it. I almost had a heart attack the day my wife told me she wanted to get one after seeing actress Denise Darcell with on in a magazine. I talked her out of it. She made me stop looking at ads with Suzy Parker in exchange. For men and boys, the slicked back ducktail and the apache Mohawk became popular. They were the signs of rebels. In February of 1957, a Massachusetts school banned all students with ducktail haircuts. But the wildest fashion of the ‘50s was the emergence of the color pink in men’s clothing. Yes, pink poodle skirts were popular for girls and young women, but this was not as surprising. A color that used to only appear in women’s undergarments became prevalent in men’s shirts, ties, hat bands, Bermuda shorts, and rogue pants. This flashy color symbolized the rebellious attitude of the younger generation, and society’s shift to new fashion items and fads that were unique to the era but not always practical.

DEAD RINGERS

James Dean

Glossary COLD WAR The ideological proxy war in between the communist USSR and the capitalistic and democratic US from approximately 1947-1991 (The collapse of the Soviet Union). This included not only indirect combat but also the buildup of nuclear weapons, communist revolutions in the Soviet sphere of influence and in South America along with the space race.

KOREAN WAR The limited war between the US, UN and South Koreans versus the communist forces of North Korea, China and the USSR between 1950-1953. This was seen as the first conflict of the Cold War. It resulted in cease-fire but no official post-war agreements.

MCCARTHYISM/ JOSEPH MCCARTHY A senator from Wisconsin claiming there were communist spies that infiltrated the American government. His movement or fervor of McCarthyism scared many to conform in order to remain seemingly loyal to the United States.

AFFLUENT SOCIETY A term coined by economist John Galbraith that describes the United State’s 1950’s societal relative prosperity and in effect, consumerism.

I N T E R N AT I O N A L HIGHWAY COMMERCE ACT OF 1956 Eisenhower’s act that would appropriate $25 billion dollars to the construction of 41,000 miles of highway. This would help fuel to movement to suburbia and aid infrastructure although the original intent was to promote national defense.

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER President of the United States from 1953-1961, First Supreme NATO commander 1951-1952 and First Supreme Allied Commander of Europe. He led the United States through a decade of prosperity and maintained pressure against the Soviet Union, as he was the first president who was already entered in the Cold War.

JOHN F. DULLES

Secretary of State under Eisenhower who would employ an aggressive stance against the USSR through alliances and threats. He also advocated policies of “liberation” in Eastern Europe in returning countries back to democracy to make sure a type of containment was in place, however, Eisenhower was wary of violence or entanglement and denied Dulles his wishes.

M A S S I V E Harry S. Truman SERVICE ECONOMY R E T A L I A T I O N / President of the United States from After World War II, the U.S. experienced 1945-1953. During his second term in the highest peacetime deficit in history BRINKMANSHIP the beginning of the 1950s, Truman from lower tax rates for high-income

The policy advocated by Dulles regarding the United States’ ability to draw to the brink of war without actually going to war. Massive Retaliation would be the product if the US went to war.

followed the policy of containment, recognizing the end of US nuclear monopoly but in response creating the Hydrogen bomb project.

SPUTNIK

TRUMAN’S LOYALTY PROGRAM

The first man-made satellite to orbit the Earth in October 1957. Because of its launch, the US began to compete vigorously in space programs thereby starting the Space Race.

HUAC The House Un-American Activities Committee that ran from 1945 to its abolition in 1975 that would investigate people suspected of subversion as spies for the USSR as a product of McCarthyism. Through the HUAC many people and celebrities were blacklisted and ostracized.

NIXON, ALGER HISS The case of Alger Hiss, where HUAC convicted the Hiss of two counts of perjuries as a communist spy. This cause brought the spotlight to Richard Nixon and allowed him to become a senator through popularity.

GI BILL OF RIGHTS Truman’s omnibus bill that gave education and one year unemployment compensation to returning veterans of World War II. Although the bill was created in 1944, its success carried in the 1950’s in building a more prosperous society.

ROSENBERGS Julius and Ethel Rosenberg who were trailed and convicted of espionage and later executed in 1953 as communist spies who intercepted notes about the building of the atomic bombs.

DOMINO THEORY the idea coined by Eisenhower that suggested that if one nation were to fall to communism, then the nations around it would also fall like dominoes. He and future politicians would use this theory to justify American involvement in Asia.

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration created in 1958 to contract United States technology in space. Created by Eisenhower in response to the Soviet Sputnik and an increasing demand to invest in space technology.

The Loyalty Oaths system, although was created in 1947, was used to identify and guilt trip communist infiltrations and spies during both Truman’s and Eisenhower’s presidency. Again the use of the loyalty oaths was in response to McCarthyism.

BILLY GRAHAM Sensation Christian Evangelist who incited massive support for Christian indoctrination and reaffirmation of faith during the 1950s. His religious support would carry on, although not as intensely, past the 1950s. His sermons were widely shown on television and heard on the radio.

NORMAN PEALE/CULT OF REASSURANCE Protestant preacher who combined psychology with religion in ascertaining a better lifestyle. His sermons were the epitome of a casual 1950’s sermon as they were upbeat, shown on television or radio and attracted a large audience. His ideas formed the cult of reassurance in providing a security through religion for his viewers. His book “The Power of Positive Thinking” went to become a large success. He coined the quotation, “when life gives you lemons, make lemonade”.

tax payers.

CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957 The first civil rights legislation enacted by Congress since the Reconstruction period. It was passed to ensure that voting rights of African-Americans were not violated. It established both the Commission on Civil Rights and the office of Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Although it easily passed the House and the Senate, opposition made the bill ineffective. It gave way to later civil rights legislation that helped end segregation.

GANGS In less prosperous areas, usually the cities, boys from ages ten to nineteen organized into street groups known as gangs, which were usually determined by race. Gangs would meet every day and guard their section of the neighborhood that they called their “turf.” Enemy gangs would often get into fights known as rumbles. Gang members carried guns and switchblades for protection.

BEATNIKS A group of artists and writers who rejected traditional artistic forms. Some of the famous writers of the beat generation were Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti. The members rejected regular work and preferred communal living. They were influenced by psychedelic and eastern beliefs such as Zen Buddhism.

J. EDGAR HOOVER

TELEVISION

First Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (the FBI) from 1935-1972. In the context of the 1950s, the FBI became increasingly wary about the influence of civil rights leaders through the COINTELPRO, short for Counter Intelligence Program. Eisenhower made Hoover use the FBI mainly to keep an eye out for certain people’s political and social activities.

The sale of television sets during the decade skyrocketed as families could now afford them more easily. Intellectuals criticized its mindlessness and its ability to keep viewers glued to it for hours at a time. Networks broadcasted game shows, comedy shows, news shows, and live dramas.

AFL-CIO 1955 The American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) were two separate groups before they merged in 1955. The AFL was a combination of craft unions representing labor interests in wages, hours, and safety. They believed in “pure and simple unionism.” The CIO was formed in 1935 for unskilled labor in reaction to the AFL. They merged to become stronger and more effective. George Meany became the first leader of the AFL-CIO.

CHIEF JUSTICE FRED M. VINSON Served in the Supreme Court from 1946 to 1953. His court accepted the “separate but equal” ruling of the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson, but fought to make sure that the separate black and white facilities were actually equal. NAACP lawyers argued before the court against the state laws that enforced the segregation of children in the public school system.

Glossary Continued and Bibliography CHIEF JUSTICE EARL ROCK ‘N’ ROLL BROWN V. BOARD OF SUBURBIA The form of music that developed WARREN EDUCATION TOPEKA, The white flight from the cities to the suburbs. Government supported Reversed the Plessy v. Ferguson case in from jazz, country western music, and KANSAS 1954 insurance for homeowners and buildthe 1954 case Brown v. Board of Educa- African American rhythm and blues. tion of Topeka, ending the segregation of children in public schools. His court also sought to mend the holes McCarthyism made in the fabric of civil freedom. Critics believed the Warren court’s activism was bringing the judiciary into legislative and executive matters.

THURGOOD MARSHALL A black lawyer and a member of the NAACP. He began arguing before the Supreme Court against the segregation of children in the public school system in 1952. He was the lawyer for the 1954 case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, successfully convincing the court to rule “separate but equal” unconstitutional in terms of public school education. He later became the first African American to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court.

The invention of the electric guitar, the amplifier, the microphone, and the 45 rpm record helped bring on this new wild style of music. The age of record buyers dropped. The older generation felt that rock ‘n’ roll performers had little talent and that their movements on stage were scandalous and inappropriate for the children. Artists such as Elvis Presley became popular icons in the teenage world.

CONSUMERISM Americans mostly saved money had to be careful of what they purchased during the war. Afterwards, the U.S. enjoyed an economically prosperous time and could purchase more luxury items. This became known as disposable income. The sale of cars, television sets, household appliances, and lawn and porch decorations significantly increased.

A Supreme Court Case on May 17, 1954. The influential African American lawyer Thurgood Marshall argued in front of Chief Justice Earl Warren’s Court for the end of school segregation. The Court, in a unanimous decision, reversed the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling and agreed that the Fourteenth Amendment implied that there should be no racial discrimination in public schools.

CULT OF DOMESTICITY Part of the conformity of the 1950s. Women were believed to stay in the home to cook, clean, and take care of the children while the men worked. This type of propaganda was seen in magazines and on the television. There was supposedly “scientific evidence” that women were meant to stay in the home.

DUCK AND COVER NON-CONFORMITY SUEZ CANAL CRISIS Beatniks, actors, actresses, rock ‘n’ roll The U.S. government began making 1956 artists that rebelled against the con- advertisements that encouraged AmeriThe Canal was an international waterway through the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt. The Soviets established relations with Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser and began sending Egypt arms. The Soviets proposed to subsidize the construction of a great dam on the Nile River. President Eisenhower offered financing to the project to curtail the Soviets, but in July 1956, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles withdrew the offer. Nasser retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal. Britain, France, and Israel invaded to gain back control of the Canal, but Eisenhower forced them to withdraw.

servative conformity of the rest of American society. Some well known celebrities were Elvis Presley, James Dean, Marilyn Monroe, and Jack Kerouac. They became popular among the younger generation.

cans to “duck and cover” in case of a nuclear attack. At this time, the U.S. feared the nuclear power of the Soviets, who had begun developing a hydrogen bomb and missiles.

MARTIN LUTHER KING JR.

Americans who feared a Soviet nuclear attack began constructing underground bomb shelters as places of refuge to survive in during and after a blast. Some companies built their own and sold them to the public. They consisted of all the necessary materials a family might need to live underground for three to five days.

A black Civil Rights leader and the head of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. He organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955 to end bus segregation in Alabama. He believed in nonviolent methods to peacefully integrate with the white people in society.

BOMB SHELTERS

KEEPING UP WITH CONFORMITY NAACP THE JONESES The sense of strong patriotism and The National Association for the

The attitude in which many suburban families developed. People living in the suburbs began to eye the new car, lawnmower, or barbeque that their neighbor bought, and wanted to match that purchase with a new product of their own. This attitude contributed to consumerism as suburbanites wanted to buy the newest items on the market.

Advancement of Colored People. Members such as Thurgood Marshall called for nonviolent methods of protest to segregation just like Martin Luther King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference did. The NAACP disapproved of more radical groups such as the SNCC and the Black Panthers.

the need to be normal and blend in. During the Red Scare, Americans were highly suspicious of non-churchgoers, widows, and people with communistic beliefs. Conformity was also seen in the white flight to the suburbs. Many of the homes looked almost identical to each other, and women were expected to belong in the home while men worked.

ers encouraged families to move to the suburban neighborhoods. People enjoyed the clean air, space, and greenery of the suburbs. Children had better opportunities for education, sports, and extracurricular activities. The suburbs were generally tight-knit communities and neighbors became well acquainted with each other. Suburbanites took pride in their house and property, and wanted to make sure that it did not fall below the level of their neighbors.

MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT On December 5, civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. started the Montgomery bus boycott, in which blacks fighting for desegregation refused to support the city by riding the buses, and instead found other ways of travel such as carpools. The boycott was a demonstration of peaceful, nonviolent protest. On November 13, 1956, bus segregation became illegal in Alabama.

ROSA PARKS A black woman who, on December 1, 1955, refused to give up her seat to a white man on the front of a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and consequently, was arrested. This action marked the first significant portrayal of nonviolent protest to segregation. Four days after her arrest, frustrated black civil rights activists began the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS 1957 In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus attempted to keep nine black students from attending the Central High School in Little Rock, even after the Brown v. Board of Education case three years earlier. President Eisenhower sent federal troops to the school on September 24 to make sure they could enter the school. These students became known as the “Little Rock Nine.” Governor Faubus’ attempt to keep them out of the school represented the continuing segregation of blacks and whites in the southern despite passed legislation.

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